Environmental Systems and Societies – 23rd April 2020

To what extent can habitat conserve biodiversity?

- Biodiversity consists of species diversity, habitat diversity and genetic diversity

Discuss how ESS influences our attitude to conserving other species.

To what extent has the major mass extinction events in the past affected biodiversity at present?

Outline how human activities are reducing global biodiversity.

Explain the connection between different environmental value systems (EVS) of individuals to the
differing arguments provided to the conservation of biodiversity.

question 2 – list four arguments for the preservation of biodiversity.

Why should Biodiversity be Preserved? Explanation

Biodiversity assists in maintaining the If ecosystems are destroyed, either due to
ecosystem (stable condition) natural reasons or human activity, a variety of
species are adversely affected. For example,
poaching as a form of human activity has
become increasingly popular at present, and
hence effects the whole food chain as well.
A stable ecosystem provides social, and A healthy ecosystem may attract tourists, and
economic benefits to the economy other researchers into monitoring, and
understanding the ecosystem of a particular
place. For example, a certain ecosystem could
be associated positively, and could hence bring
investments from outside (FDI), i.e. investment
in the creation of a national park.
Human Requirement Different individuals based on their
interpretation and belief of the environmental
value system (EVS) may possibly argue that the
preservation of biodiversity is a must. For
example, ecocentrism emphasizes on ecology
and nature to be of great importance to
humans. In addition, both anthropocentric and
technocentric worldviews can be assumed to
be in favour of biodiversity, even though they
do not put several environmental issues central
to humanity.
‘Essential’ for Human Survival At present and in the past, plants and animals
could be considered to play an essential role in
the survival of human beings – either whether
they have been used as an experiment subject,
or whenever they have provided us food. In
some parts of the world, animals are used as a
form of transportation, and in the majority of
others, they are used as resources.
question 3 – discuss the four relative advantages and disadvantages of species-based conservation
strategies in comparison to the use of reserves.

Strategy Explanation
Restore Degraded Areas Areas that have been damaged, either due to natural or human
activity if restored help conserve species, as their habitat is
conserved. In addition to this, areas that may be prone to
external risks, for example fires, can be reduced in order to
maintain biodiversity.
Captive Breeding Captive breeding refers to a process where plants and animals
are maintained in a “safe” or “controlled” environment. The
main purpose of captive breeding is to ensure that the specie is
able to avoid extinction, as a larger population is created. To
add on, when conditions favour animals at risk, captive
breeding aims to reintroduce them into their natural habitat in
order to give them a better chance of survival.

Advantages of Captive Breeding

 genetic material remains – if not for captive breeding,
some species may become fully extinct, and hence all
their genetic material would be removed.
 more species diversity – the more species there are,
the larger the diversity of different species.
 control of conditions – zoos, for example, are able to
ensure that several important factors are being met
when caring for a particular type of species, e.g. their
diet, veterinary care etc.

Disadvantages of Captive Breeding

 high possibility of unsuccessful reintroduction – there is
a high possibility that species raised in a controlled
environment will be successfully reintroduced into
their natural habitat. This is because their traits take
time to develop once out in the wild as previously, they
were in a controlled environment.
 high cost of maintenance – most institutions, or
personal members of the society do not have the funds
to take care of all the species that face extinction.
 change in natural behaviour – irrespective of the
attempts from institutions to stimulate a feeling of a
“natural habitat” to the animals, being captive changes
their behaviour as they do not receive a natural
environment. For example, they may be less active, or
their sleeping patterns may differ.
CITES CITES, which stands for the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, is a common
international agreement between governments aiming to
preserve (save / protect) species that were facing a large risk of
extinction due to international trade. Governments are not
forced to take part, but a majority of countries have signed the
agreement, for example, the United States, Canada, Chile etc.
  Appendix I states that species which face large risks of
extinction are not allowed to be traded, only and
unless if to be used for scientific development.
 Appendix II states that species that face some minor
risk of extinction may be traded, but only with the
authorization of a specific certificate.
 Appendix III states that species requested by a country
requires the consent of the opposing party in order to
regulate the legal trade of the species.
Flagship Species Flagship species refer to a particular type of specie selected in
order to raise awareness of the ecosystem, and increase the
overall level of biodiversity present. These species act as the
main symbol for either a campaign or environmental cause.

Advantages of Flagship Species

 increases awareness – the society as a whole becomes
more aware in terms of the species that are facing
extinction, and become more aware of the importance
of several species, and the biodiversity as a whole.
 improves overall level of biodiversity
 secures funds for the preservation of these species – as
these flagship species usually attract loads of donations
to support them, they also increase the overall level of
biodiversity, as mentioned earlier.

Disadvantages of Flagship Species

 too reliable on human support – if humans do not
support campaigns, these species face a high chance of
facing extinction.
 human conflict – people may argue that preserving
another species holds more importance than
preserving a certain species.

question 4 – the term “biodiversity” has replaced the term “nature” in much of the conservation
issues. Does this represent a paradigm shift?

There is a pronounced difference between the definitions of biodiversity, and nature. On one hand,
nature consists of all material in the physical world, while biodiversity refers to the variety of nature
that is alive, i.e. plants and animals in a particular habitat, or location. In relation as to whether
“biodiversity” has replaced “nature” in much of the conservation issues today, this possibly does
represent a paradigm shift. Today, due to an increasing population, several NGO’s and government-
supported organizations exist to take responsible care of the various species that exist around
different parts of the world – a large proportion of the human population has identified that
biodiversity is an integral part to the ecosystem and environment, especially when they are facing
problems with climate change, and global warming. In addition, the conservation of biodiversity
ultimately ensures that the ecosystem remains healthy, and that there are more natural resources
available for all, for humans, plants, and animals. The term “nature” refers to the natural
environment, and hence without the conservation of biodiversity, the purpose of the natural
environment existing loses half its motive. The paradigm shift could be thought to result from
advancements in technology, as today due to improvements in technological equipment, varying
experiments are able to be conducted to enhance human growth, and knowledge.

question 5 – describe the process that may lead to the formation of new species.

Species can be defined as a group of living organisms that can produce fertile offspring, and can
interbreed with each other. The process where new species are formed is known as speciation –
species reproductively isolate into smaller groups and separate. In order for speciation to occur,
members of two distinct populations have to be formed from one specific population group in order
to not allow the two members of distinct populations to interbreed.

Type of Speciation Description

Allopatric Speciation  allo = other / patric = homeland
 involves geographical divergence of populations
 two or more organisms of previous species exist following
a time period of geographical separation
Sympatric Speciation  sym = same / patric = homeland
 speciation taking place in one location
 organisms from the same ancestral species reproductively
isolate themselves, and separate in smaller groups

Process of Speciation

1) isolation is the first step in the formation of new species – species are now part of two
different gene pools (interruption of gene flow)
2) each gene pool is exposed to varying conditions due to barriers; for example, some gene
pools could have been exposed to weather, while another to competition
3) natural selection, and survival of the fittest – organisms that were unable to adapt
themselves to the environment died, leaving the fittest organisms in the environment
4) the differences amongst gene pools were to a great extent that new species were formed
due to isolated species unable to interbreed

question 6 – human impacts have increased the rate at which some mass extinctions have
occurred on a global scale. In which regions are the highest extinction rates seen, and why?

 According to the IUCN, the highest number of species that are at risk of facing extinction are
present in Ecuador (2 301), followed by the United States and Malaysia (1 226).
 Animals present in Ecuador are endangered for several unique reasons, generally due to
human activity specifically. For example, human activity which includes infrastructure
activity, along with the development of land projects are one of the few reasons causing a
large proportion of the species to be at risk of facing extinction.
 In Ecuador, several animals are hunted, and are sold due to economic issues. Due to high
unemployment rates in the nation, a majority of individuals rely on hunting as a source of
income. (killings of animals / pet trades).
 Ecuador has suffered deforestation, causing a loss in habitat diversity, and species diversity
amongst animals. This means that as their natural habitat is destroyed due to deforestation,
the only organisms that will survive are those who will adapt to new changes (survival of the
fittest). In addition, there is less food for all species, causing an imbalance in the food chain
due to the predator - prey relationship not being in an equilibrium state.
  However, over the course of the last 15 years, Ecuador have consistently focused on
identifying the species that face a possible risk of extinction. As of today, they are working
towards formulating a new plan in order to mitigate the extinction of species.

question 7 – why does conservation attempts need to involve the local community in order to create
sustainable and meaningful change?

As of today, human activity is playing a large role in the reduction of biodiversity seen across
different parts of the world – be it the poaching of tigers, or the selling of elephant tusks. Today, the
number of species that are labelled as “endangered” are increasingly exponentially, even when
conservation attempts are in process. As a result, conservation attempts of the environment, and
biodiversity need the involvement of the local community in order to create sustainable and
meaningful change – this is because as mentioned earlier, human activity contributes the most to
the changes in environment and ecosystem. As human population is increasing at a rapid pace, there
is a larger proportion of individuals that rely on natural resources for their personal survival, which
ultimately damages the habitat in which several animals and plants live in. If local communities are
involved, a larger proportion of individuals are involved, hence creating meaningful change.

question 8 – why are NGOs important in global conservation agreements, assessing the global status
of specie numbers and influencing governments?

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is simply an organization that was not formed by the
government, but rather by other individuals for a non-profit operation. There are several reasons as
to why NGOs are extremely important –

1) Depth of Communication – NGOs have the ability to influence a large number of people,
especially due to the reason that they do not operate for profit.
2) Promotion of Initiatives – NGOs promote local initiatives – both local and domestically.
3) Represent a Communities Voice – NGOs usually are small organizations, that are based in
smaller towns and villages. In order to raise their points, for example to the government,
they commonly campaign, and openly wish to advocate their reasoning.

 As NGOs have the ability to influence members of the society, they play an important role in
informing all members of the society the importance of global conservation.
 NGOs can influence global conservation agreements, especially if they have a large number
of people associated with the organization.
 In some cases, the government may not take the required measures in connection to the
conservation of a certain species – as a result, it becomes the societies responsibility to
influence the government to take notice of the issue.

question 9 – evaluate the success of a named protected area.

The Nagarhole National Park, which is also commonly referred to as the Rajiv Gandhi National Park,
is a wildlife reserve located in Karnataka, India. It is listed as a world heritage site by UNESCO,
meaning that it possesses “cultural, historical, scientific or other form of significance”. There are
several animals present inside the National Park, including the Bengal Tiger, the Indian Leopard, and
many more. The main trees that are found here include the Silver Oak, the Sandalwood and the
Rosewood. This National Park has successfully ensured that the main predators, such as the Bengal
Tiger and the Indian Leopard are protected.

question 10 – what are ecotones and why are they important?

An ecotone is a transitional, or boundary area between multiple biomes, or biological communities.

Examples of ecotones are marshlands, i.e. a transitional area between a river and a riverbank. It is
important to note that ecotones could either exist naturally, or could be man-made.

The Importance of Ecotones

1) They are considered to be a location where more genetic diversity is witnessed

2) They often experience a large number of different animals entering the area
3) They act as protection zones against bordering areas

question 11 – evaluate the impact of human activity on the biodiversity of tropical biomes.

Tropical biomes face risks of environmental degradation mainly due to human activity. The role of
humans in tropical biomes are immense in relation to economic purposes – primary sector workers
are generally based within tropical biomes engaging in activities like mineral extraction, oil
extraction, commercial agriculture etc. However, there is also a large number of unemployed
workers who utilize these tropical biomes adversely as a source of income – these individuals are
known to engage in the poaching and hunting of animals, or perhaps engage in violent activity across
the borders of these tropical biomes. Apart from the low-income members of the society, the high-
income members of the society also engage in the destruction of biodiversity in the form of
construction activities, or in the form of hydroelectric projects. As the human population is
constantly increasing, their requirements as a household increase, hence utilizing more and more of
the natural resources available to them. The natural resources, which primarily consist of food and
energy, become depleted along with the biodiversity of the specific area.

 Economic Interests – a desperate requirement of the low-income members of the society to

make money, hence the destruction of the natural environment, ultimately reducing
biodiversity levels. (also related to the businesses of high-income individuals)
 Agriculture + Mining Industries – both these industries rely heavily on tropical biomes in
order to function; for example, mining companies require large amounts of land for the
extraction of a particular mineral, hence damaging the biodiversity by erasing some area of
habitat for a particular species.
 Deforestation – several habitats have been wiped off due to human activity. This is a result
due to agricultural and mining activities – the economic interest of those associating
themselves within these industries degrade the environment to an extent where species
face high risks of death.
 Overexploitation of Natural Resources – human activity has reduced the number of trees in
requirement for paper for example, but other natural resources such as food are commonly
overexploited. This mainly has to do with an increasing population. Human development
across these tropical biomes have caused a decrease in the amount of forest land available
for species to interact in. Once a particular resource becomes fully used, humans search for
other available area, and start their operations there due to economic reasons, hence
reducing biodiversity levels at a significant rate.
question 12 – discuss the conflict between exploitation, sustainable development and conservation
in tropical biomes.

Exploitation  exploitation of natural resources increases, especially

in low-economically developed countries (LEDCs).
 in LEDCs, there is often high unemployment, which
results in a large proportion of the society depending
on natural resources to survive.
 mining, and agricultural activities exploit tropical
biomes – this is based on the economic interests of
both low-income, and high-income individuals.
 most tropical biomes consist high amounts of
biodiversity and are mainly present in LEDCs – hence,
due to a fragile economic structure, there is a conflict
between individuals (in favour of overexploitation for
personal reasons), the society (in favour of sustainable
development), and the government (in favour for the
conservation of tropical biomes).
Sustainable Development  sustainable development is unable to occur, especially
in LEDCs due to human activity which includes –
poaching, pollution, and habitat destruction.
 for example, in the past 500 years, approximately 1000
species have become extinct.
 due to a larger population today, the current rate of
tropical biome destruction is increasing –
- more humans = more resources required
 natural causes, which include – volcanic eruptions,
droughts, typhoons, meteors etc.

Conservation  conservation initiatives either from the government or

from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) may be
useless, especially in LEDCs due to a struggling
economical structure. In more-economically developed
countries (MEDCs), based on human willingness, the
effectiveness of conservation initiatives is determined.
 for example, several nations are in attempt to care for
their natural resources, but when are faced with
economic issues, they are forced to provide all their
citizens with basic natural resources.
 conservation approaches require the support of local
communities in order for it to be successful.