EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

PEACE TREATIES SIGNED WITH DEFEATED POWERS

Country Treaty
Germany Treaty of Versailles
Austria Treaty of St Germain
Hungary Treaty of Trianon
Bulgaria Treaty of Neuilly
Turkey Treaty of Sevres
Treaty of Lausanne

Germany agreed to peace based on Woodrow Wilson’s fourteen points.

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points

- An end to secret diplomacy i.e. no secret treaties.
- Freedom of navigation on the seas.
- Free trade between countries.
- Disarmaments (reducing armaments to the level of defence only).
- Colonies to have a say in their own future.
- Germany troops to leave Russia.
- Independence for Belgium.
- Return of Alsace and Lorraine to France.
- Italy to receive her proper frontiers/boarders.
- Independence for the people of Austria-Hungary.
- Restoration of Serbia, Romania and Montenegro. Serbia to have access to the sea.
- Independence for the people in the Turkish Empire.
- Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea.
- League of Nations to be set up to guarantee the independence of all states both great
and small.

Paris Peace Settlement/ Conference 1919

- Attended by Woodrow Wilson (USA), Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Clemenceau
(France), Vittorio Orlando (Italy), Jan Smuts (South Africa) and Venizelos (Greece).
- Russia was not represented at the conference because she had become a communist
state.
- The defeated powers Germany, Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria and Turkey were not
invited to the conference.
- The conference was dominated by the ‘Big Three’ namely Georges Clemenceau,
Lloyd George and Woodrow Wilson.

1
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Problems faced by Statesmen in Peace-making
- Competing views of the statesman.
- Pressure from people at home (e.g. British expected to make Germany pay, to hang the
Kaiser and Squeeze the Germans until pips squash. The French wanted revenge).
- The venue was not suitable for fair peace.
- The attitude of American people. The Americans did not want USA to be involved in
European affairs.
- Chaotic situation in Europe.
- Fear of communism by statesmen.
- Spanish flu pandemic.
- Newly created states and problems associated with them.
- Reintegrating soldiers returning home.
- Mass starvation in Europe.

Views of Lloyd George

- To end the Germany threat to the British navy and Empire.
- Germany to lose its navy and colonies which threatened the British Empire.
- To make Germany non aggressive.
- To make peace with justice (Germany to be justly punished but not harshly).
- Create an opportunity for Germany to become a real democracy.
- To secure some measure of compromise between Wilson and Clemenceau.
- To prevent Germany becoming economically weak.
- To prevent Germany from becoming so poor such that she turns to communism.
- Create a balance of power so that no one European power or country can threaten
others.
- To keep in mind British interests and views. His promise to the British public was that
he would “hang the Kaiser and make Germany pay.”
- To avoid humiliating Germany so that she would have no reason to seek revenge.
- To facilitate quick recovery of Germany so that trade with Britain can be restored.

Georges Clemenceau’s Views

- His political nickname was the ‘Tiger’.
- His attitude of mind is shown by his cynical comment on Wilson’s fourteen points,
“The Good Lord himself had only 10.”
- He chaired the conference.
- Mainly concerned with the security of France. All other matters were of secondary
concern.
- To punish Germany for the humiliation caused on France in the Franco-Prussian war.

2
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
- To have revenge on Germany for France’s suffering.
- To make Germany pay for the damages i.e. compensate the damages she was
“alleged” to have caused.
- Opponent of everything German and a fanatical upholder of the idea of French glory
and power.
- To ensure Germany would never be able to attack France again.
- To weaken Germany militarily and economically.
- To annex the Rhineland.
- Wanted Germany to lose Upper Silesia, Danzig and East Prussia.

Views of Woodrow Wilson

- An idealist who believed that it was an opportunity to make a better world
- Author of the 14 points which formed the base of the conference
- To have a fair settlement
- Wanted to see justice done at Versailles
- Opposed to a policy of revenge against Germany demanded by Britain and France
- Viewed revenge as seeds for a future war
- Not interested in vengeance or more territory
- Wanted peace without victory
- Wanted the USA to guarantee the peace settlement and support the League of
Nations
- Wanted Germany to be a buffer/ barrier against Bolshevism/Communism.
- Punish Germany for her aggression but avoid forcing her to pay very heavy damages.
- Self determination to minorities.
- To create a world safe for democracy

Combined views of the Big Three

- To bring political order in Europe.
- To promote everlasting peace and stability throughout the world.
- To prevent the occurrence of another war of this nature.
- To punish the guilty.
- To draft treaties with Central Powers ending the war.
- To redraw the map of Central and Eastern Europe in accordance with the new
political situation.

3
 EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Criticism of the Big Three
- Ignored the ideas of others.
- The Italian delegation under Orlando was ignored. Orlando wanted the port of Fiume for
Italy but it was given to Yugoslavia.
- Japan’s view of equal treatment for all the races was ignored.
- The call by the Pan-African Movement to address the colonial problems of Africans was
ignored.
- German colonies in Africa were given to victorious powers as mandates.
- Dictated terms to the defeated powers.
- Disarmament was directed to the defeated powers alone.
- Self-determination had many problems.

Problems of self determination

- Minority elements and foreign groups remained in the newly formed countries.
- Language was used to determine a separate race or nation but the problem was that many
subjects used the language of their conquerors.
- In the Balkans, races were too mixed up to be divided without large scale movements of
population.
- German speaking population of Austria wanted union with Germany. The Versailles Treaty
forbade union between Germany and Austria (Anschluss).
- Real countries cannot be created by drawing lines between racial groups.
NB A country needs industries, railways, ports, agricultural land and frontiers that are
protected by seas, rivers or maintains. Czechoslovakia for instance, its industry was
strengthened by Sudetenland which was inhabited by 3 million Germans.

4
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

Versailles and Wilson’s 14 points

14 Points Outcome
1. No secret treaties - adopted at the conference.
-However allied leaders met in secret.
2. Freedom of navigation on seas Britain objected and it was dropped.
3. Disarmaments -only defeated powers were disarmed.
-victorious powers did not disarm.
4. Free trade between countries -trade barriers increased.
-new nations created by the treaties put
up huge tariff barriers to protect their
industries.
5. Colonies to have a say in their own -colonies were governed purely in the
future interests of the colonial power.
-Britain and France increased their
colonial holdings.
6. Germany troops to leave Russia -Germany troops left Russia.
- But Allied Powers sent troops to attack
the Bolsheviks.
- This denied Russia the freedom to
choose her government.
7. Independence for Belgium -Accepted and Belgian independence
was restored
8. Return for Alsace-Lorraine to -adopted
France
9. Italy to receive her proper frontiers -boundary of Italy was not settled
10. independence for the people of - adopted.
Austria-Hungary - Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and
Czechoslovakia were created out of
Hapsburg Empire
11. Restoration of Serbia, Romania and -adopted
Montenegro. Serbia to have access to
the sea
12. independence for the people of -adopted
Turkish Empire
13. Poland to become an independent -Post war Poland contained millions of
state with access to the sea Germans
14. Formation of the League of Nations -adopted.
-but the League of Nations never worked
as Wilson had hoped and wished.

N.B Wilson’s policy of self-determination was realised in a number of newly created states.
These states included Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Finland,
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

5
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

Terms of Versailles Settlement

Non-territorial terms
(a) Reparation Clause
 Germany was to pay reparation to the allied powers in cash and kind (coal, ships, cattle,
chemicals and dye stuffs)
 She was asked to pay the sum of 6.6 million pounds for restoration of devastated regions
and damaged civilian property
 Build ships for the Allies for 5 years
 To pay annual tribute of coal to France, Belgium and Italy for 10 years
 to pay the cost of war pensions in Allied countries

(b)War Guilty Clause

 Clause 231 gave Germany and her allies the entire blame for causing the war

(c) Disarmament clause

 Germany to reduce her armed forces to 100 000 men
 German General Staff was disbanded and not to be reformed
 no tanks for Germany
 Production of heavy artillery was forbidden
 No air force (Luftwaffe was banned).
 Compulsory conscription was banned, soldiers to be volunteers
 Soldiers to serve for 12 years
 No submarine for Germany
 Navy to be reduced to 6 battle ships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers and 12 torpedo boats. The
rest of her naval weapons were to be handed over to the Allied powers
 Navy was reduced to 15 000 men
 Naval base at Heligoland was demolished
 Rhineland was demilitarised

(d) French flags captured in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 were to be returned to
France.

(e) Establishment of a new liberal constitution.

Territorial Terms

 Alsace and Lorraine was returned to France

6
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
 The Saar was put under international control (League of Nations Commission) for 15
years and after that a plebiscite would determine its fate
 France was to administer the Saar basin on behalf of the League of Nations until 1935
 Germany lost her colonies in Africa (Namibia, Tanzania, Togo, Rwanda, Burundi,
Cameroon and German New Guinea). They became mandates of the League.
 Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy were surrendered to Belgium
 North Schleswig went to Denmark
 Newly created Poland was given Posen, Upper Silesia and West Prussia
 Rhineland was demilitarised and internationalised.
 Memel went to Lithuania.
 The Polish Corridor divided East Prussia from the rest of Germany
 Danzig was declared a free city under the League of Nations
 German rivers like the Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder and the Memel were placed under
international control
 Anschluss (Germany union with Austria) was forbidden
 Germany gave up territories taken from Russia (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and
Finland). These were given independence.

Territories lost by Germany

Territories Benefiting Countries

In Europe
Alsace, Lorraine France
Saar Coal Basin International control
Eupen, Malmedy, Moresnet Belgium
North Schleswig Denmark
Posen, Upper Silesia, West Prussia, Poland
Polish corridor
Memel Lithuania
Danzig Free city
Rhineland Internationalised
In Africa
German south west Africa (Namibia) South Africa
German East Africa Britain
(Tanganyika/Tanzania)
Burundi, Rwanda Belgium
Cameroon, Togo France
German New Guinea Australia

7
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

Fairness of Versailles Treaty

- Germany militarism needed to be checked, hence disarmament.
- Although she was deprived of her armaments, she remained with much capacity to
produce and replace them in future.
- France and Belgium needed compensation for destruction.
- Demilitarisation of the Rhineland was meant to give France security
- Germany followed an aggressive foreign policy.
- Germany gave a blank cheque to Austria-Hungary. This unlimited support made
caused Austria to act carelessly.
- Germany had prepared the Schlieffen plan way back before 1914. Therefore she had a
war mongering attitude prior to 1914.
- Germany imposed harsher terms on Russia under Brest Litovsky. Had she won the
Great War, she would have imposed harsher terms on Allied powers.
- The alliance system was initiated by Germany.
- Germany’s World Policy clashed with other powers.
- Germany was the aggressor i.e. invaded Belgium and declared war on France and
Russia.
- Germany challenged Britain’s naval supremacy.

Unfairness of Versailles Treaty

- Germany was not invited to the deliberations. The treaty was therefore a diktat.
- Reparations were unrealistic, too high for Germany’s ability to pay.
- Germany’s territory was destroyed during the war. Who was going to restore her
ruined territories?
- War guilt clause put greater responsibility on Germany alone.
- The treaty was crafted to secure British and French interests.
- The Germans in Austria wanted union with Germany.
- Disarmament left Germany with an army incapable of maintaining internal
problems.
- The allied powers did not disarm.
- Demobilisation created unemployment and political instability.
- Germany colonies were taken and benefited the allied powers.

8
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

Responsibility of Other Countries for the Outbreak of the War

Countries Blame
Germany - Prepared Schlieffen plan
- Gave unlimited support to Austria-
Hungary
- Initiated alliance system
- World Policy threatened other states
- Challenged Britain’s naval supremacy
- She declared war on Russia, Belgium
and France
Austria-Hungary - Annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina
which angered Serbia and Russia
- Eager to destroy Serbia once and for
all
- She tried to gain Italian support in
1913 to attack Serbia
- She frustrated Serbian ambitions in
1912 at London Conference by
insisting on the formation of a new
state of Albania which blocked
Serbian access to the sea
- Sent an almost impossible ultimatum
to Serbia
- Played the role of an aggressor by
declaring war on Serbia
Serbia - Acted as a champion of Slav
nationalism
- Sponsored anti-Austrian propaganda
- Sponsored terrorist activities in
Bosnia
- Followed a policy of provoking
Austria
Russia - Acted as a big brother to Serbia
- Backed Serbia which made her
become too big for her shoes
Britain - Felt threatened by Germany
- Jealous of Germany
- Needed to maintain naval superiority
- Her splendid isolation was mistaken
for cowardice
France - Hated Germany for the defeat in
Franco-Prussian war
- Wanted to regain Alsace and Lorraine
- Sought revenge against Germany

9
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

Treaty of St Germain

- Signed between Austria and Allied powers in August 1919.

- She took the blame for causing the war.
- Austria was required to pay reparations.
- Lost her population to her neighbours.
- Her population was reduced from about 30 million to 6.5 million people.
- Her area was reduced from about 115 000 square miles to 32 000 square miles.
- Her army was reduced to 30 000.
- Her NAVY was reduced.
- Conscription was banned.
- Unification with Germany and Hungary was forbidden.
- Monarchy was banned and Austria became a Republic.
- She lost Trieste, Istria and South Tyrol to Italy.
- Bohemia, Moravia, Part of Silesia and lower part of Austria went to the new state of
Czechoslovakia.
- Bukovina was surrendered to Romania.
- Galacia was given to Poland.
- Bosnia and Herzegovina went to Yugoslavia.

Territory Lost Benefiting Country

1. Trieste Italy
2. Istria
3. South Tyrol
4. Bohemia Czechoslovakia
5. Moravia
6. Part of Silesia
7. Lower Part of Austria
8. Bukovina Romania
9. Galacia Poland
10. Bosnia Yugoslavia
11. Herzegovina
12. Slovenia
13. Dalmatia

Treaty of Neuilly
- Signed between Bulgaria and the Allied powers in November 1919
- She took the blame for causing the war
- She was to pay reparations
- Her army was reduced to 20 000
10
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
- Lost Western Thrace to Greece
- Dobruja taken by Romania after the second Balkan war was retained by Romania

Treaty of Trianon
- Hungary signed this treaty in June 1920.
- Hungary became independent of Austria.
- She took the blame for causing the war.
- She was to pay reparations.
- Army was limited to 35 000.
- No conscription.
- Her population was reduced from 22 million to 8 million.
- Slovakia and part of Ruthenia were lost to Czechoslovakia.
- Croatia, Slovenia and part of Banat went to Yugoslavia.
- Transylvania and the remaining part of Banat of Temesvar went to Romania.
- Burgenland went to Austria.

Treaty of Sevres
- Signed with Turkey in August 1920
- Turkey renounced claims to all territory occupied by non-Turkish people for example
the Arab world.
- Syria and Lebanon became French mandates.
- Palestine, Jordan and Iraq became British mandates.
- Armenia became independent.
- Eastern Thrace and part of Aegean Islands went to Greece.
- Adalia and Rhodes went to Italy
- Greece was to administer Smyrna for five years, after which a plebiscite would be
held.
- Saudi Arabia became independent.
- Bessarabia was given to Romania.
- Turkey retained Constantinople and a small strip of territory in Europe north of the
sea of Marmora.
- The Dardanelles Straits became an international zone governed by a 6 power
commission under the League of Nations.
- The straits were opened to international shipping.
- However, the Treaty of Sevres was revised following a revolution in Turkey under
Mustata Kemel. Turkey recovered her territories given to Greece.

Treaty of Lausanne, 1923

- Negotiated at Lausanne in Switzerland.
- It replaced the Treaty of Sevres.
- The treaty recognised Turkey’s gains in the revolution.
- Eastern Thrace, Aegean Islands and Anatolia were recovered from Greece.

11
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
- The straits went back to Turkey but they were demilitarised.
- Gallipoli was given back to Turkey.
- River Maritsa became the frontier between Greece and Turkey.
- Capitulations (a system whereby foreigners lived in Turkey without paying taxes or
obeying the law) were abolished.
- Arrangements were made to send home all Greeks living in Turkey and all Turks
living in Greece.

Countries’ reactions to the peace settlement

France

She was satisfied because:

- Germany was disarmed and the Rhineland was demilitarised.

- Alsace- Lorraine was restored.
- Received former Germany colonies as mandates.
- She was going to receive compensation from Germany.
- France was to enjoy Saar wealth for 15 years.
- However, France wanted to keep the Saar permanently but this was rejected by
Britain and U.S.A.
- The French also wanted a new state created between France and Germany on German
soil in order to guarantee France’s future security. This was rejected by Britain and
France.

Italy

- She was not satisfied because the Allied powers did not fulfil what they promised her
under the Treaty of London.
- Italy joined the war in 1915 following the Treaty of London with Britain, France and
Russia.
- She was promised Trentino, Southern Tyrol, Istria, Trieste, Adalia and Dalmatia
Islands.
- Dalmatia was given to Yugoslavia.
- At the conference she demanded what was promised to her.
- Wilson objected because he disliked the fact that these promises had been made in a
secret agreement which was a breach of his fourteen points.
- Italy felt cheated.
- Wilson thought that Yugoslavia had a better claim to some of the lands.
- Italy was frustrated as a result.
- Consequently, Wilson became unpopular in Italy. His portraits were torn down by
angry mobs or decorated with German helmets.
- However, Italy got Trieste, Istria, and South Tyrol.

12
EUROPEAN HISTORY 2167 / 2: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

U.S.A.

- Wilson was happy because his 14 points became the basis of the Versailles settlement.
- The League of Nations’ clause was included in all the peace treaties.
- However, the American Congress did not ratify the Treaty/covenant of the league.
- This was because the USA did not want to be too involved in European affairs.

Britain

- Satisfied with the fact that Germany was punished for her aggression.
- She was happy that Germany threat to her navy was removed.
- Benefited by getting some of Germany’s colonies.
- However, the British were worried that a weakened Germany would affect Britain’s
trade with her.

Japan

- She got control over Germany colonies in Asia and the Pacific.
- This increased her influence in these areas.
- However, she was not happy with the refusal of Allies to include a declaration of
racial equality in the covenant of the League of Nations.

China

- She felt humiliated because Allies refused the Chinese’ claims.

- China wanted the peace settlement to end foreign concessions in China.
- She also wanted the Allies to stop Japan’s claims in China, and she hoped to have
control of all Chinese territories which were formally controlled by Germany
- Chinese representatives withdrew from the Peace Conference and refused to sign
treaties.

13