UNIT-1

Introduction to various Instruments:

Instrumentation is the subject that deals with instruments. Instrument is that which we use
for measuring a quantity: ammeter for measuring current, voltmeter for measuring voltage
List of some Electronic Instruments:
Micro milli ohm meter, High voltage tester AC, High voltage tester DC, Conductivity meter,
DC Regulated power supply, Panel meter digital, Volt/amp meter portable, Decade resistance box,
Decade capacitance box, Decade inductance box, Multimeter, Capacitance meter, LCR meter, Sound level
meter

DPM Module: Digital panel meter

Anemometer: (Anemo in greec => wind in english) wind measurement is called anemometer.
Function generator (different functions like sinusoidal, triangular, square wave etc.)
PH Meter (A pH meter is an electronic instrument used to measure the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid (though
special probes)
Clamp meter: Clamp meters are used in some meters to measure electrical power and energy.
Comprehensive meters designed to measure many parameters of electrical energy (powe factor, distortion,
instantaneous power as a function of time, phase relationships etc.).
Tachometer (To measure the rpm),

How to design an instrument is studied in instrumentation. First a standard quantity is taken

and the variation of this standard taken quantity with the output of the measuring quantity is
noted. With this as reference a scale is made so that any variation in measuring quantity
directly gives the reading of it.

Now a days electronics is playing major role in every field as the output is shown on digital
form in some cases,so combination of electronics and instrumentation is studied as a branch
in engineering.
APPLICATIONS: 
Instrumentation has got more application in instrument manufacturing industries. In the field
of control systems of an industry we find the application of instrumentation.

There are several scopes for the candidate who are pursuing 'instrument and technology' in
the field of Process Industry, Petro Chemical Industry, Large Scale Manufacturing Industries,
IT Companies, R&D Organizations and Educational Institutions etc.
 Unit-1

Types of Performance Characteristics

Performance characteristics of instruments can be classified into the following two types.
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
Now, let us discuss about these two types of characteristics one by one.
Static Characteristics
The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that do not vary with respect to time
are called static characteristics. Sometimes, these quantities or parameters may vary slowly with respect to
time. Following are the list of static characteristics.
Instrument and their measurements.

Quantity to measure :Instrument Quantity to measure :Instrument

Current Ammeter Power Wattmeter
Frequency Frequency meter Inductance Inductance-meter
Voltage Voltmeter Energy Kilowatt-meter
Resistance Ohm meter Electricity Quantity Amper-hour meter
Capacitance Capacitance-meter Phase difference Phase meter or
power factor-meter
Instrument: A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the quantity under measurement.

Measurement: The process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with
the accepted standards of the system units being used.
Accuracy: The algebraic difference between the indicated value of an instrument and the true value
Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.
Precision: If an instrument indicates the same value repeatedly when it is used to measure the same quantity
under same circumstances for any number of times, then we can say that the instrument has high precision.
Expected value: The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations indicate one should expect to
measure.
Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output of the instrument to a change of input or measured variable.

Error in measurement:
Static error:
Static error = measured value – true value
The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy, which is generally
expressed in terms of the error called static error.
Mathematically it can be expressed as, e = At - Am
Where e = Error, Am= Measured value of the quantity, At = True value of the quantity
In this expression, the error denoted as e is also called absolute error.
Gaussian Errors:
Gaussian Error (Gauss Error) function
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Figure: 1-1
Plot of the error function
In mathematics, the error function (also called the Gauss error function) is a special function (non-
elementary) of sigmoid shape that occurs in probability, statistics, and partial differential equations
describing diffusion. It is defined as:[1][2]
x x
1 -t2 2
eff(x) =
√π ∫
e dt = =
√ π ∫ e-t2dt
−x 0
In statistics, for nonnegative values of x, the error function has the following interpretation: for a random
variable Y that is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance 0.5, erf(x) describes the probability of Y
falling in the range [−x, x].
There are several closely related functions, such as the complementary error function, the imaginary error function,
and others.
Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities or parameters that vary very
quickly with respect to time are called dynamic characteristics. Following are the list of dynamic
characteristics.
Speed of Response, Dynamic Error, Fidelity and Lag
Now, let us discuss about these dynamic characteristics one by one.
Speed of Response
The speed at which the instrument responds whenever there is any change in the quantity to be measured is
called speed of response. It indicates how fast the instrument is.
Lag
The amount of delay present in the response of an instrument whenever there is a change in the quantity to
be measured is called measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.
Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that varies with respect to time and the indicated
value of an instrument, Ai is known as dynamic error, ed = At−Ai.
Measuring Instruments:

DC voltmeters: By adding a series resistance or a multiplier, the D’Arsonval movement can be converted
into a dc voltmeter. The series resistance Rs or the multiplier limits the current through the meter, so as not to
exceed the full scale deflection current I FSD (Fig.1.2).The value of the multiplier resistance required to extend
the voltage range is calculated as follows:

Im = deflection current of the movement, Rm= internal resistance of the movement

. Multipliers Im

Rs Current meter with resistancae Rm

V

Figure: 1.2 For DC voltmeter

D’Arsonval Meter Movement used in DC Volt meters:

By controlling resistance Rs in series with the enter, D’Arsonval meter can be used for voltage
measurements. The purpose of Rs is to limit the current through the meter and extend the range to measure
voltage. The circuit is as shown in fig.1.3
Rs Im

V Rm Figure:1.3 Circuit for voltage

measurements

Sensitivity S is defined as 1/Ifs, where Ifs= Full scale deflection current

1
1
Sensitivity = = Volt = Ohms/Volts
Ampere ( )
ohm
Rs = ( S x range –Rm) = Sensitivity x Range = Meter resistance

Example: Calculate the value of multiplier resistance on the 50 V range of a DC voltmeter that uses a
500 mA meter movement with an internal resistancae of 1 KΩ in the figure.
Rs Im

Ifs =500 mA

Rm = 1KΩ

S= 1/Ifs = 1/500mA = 2kΩ/v, Rs= S x Range - Rm = 2KΩ/V x50 V – 1KΩ = 99 kΩ

Electronic Votmeter (For DC):
Electronic voltmeters, in general, consist of the following:

1) A potential divider network to reduce the input in case it is high, to make itl suitable, to give as input
to the amplifier.
2) An amplifier circuit to enhance the signal so that the sensitivity and resolution of measurement
improve.
3) A rectifier and filter circuit in case the meter for deflection is a DC meter.
Usually the electronic circuits generate a current proportional to the quantity being measured. Many
digital instruments have auxiliary provisions to make permanent records of measurement results
using printers or magnetic tape recorders. mP based instruments with PC compatibility are the new
type of instruments developed so far. The general block schematic kof an electronic DC voltmeter is
shown in fig. 1.4
Input

Potential DC Meter
Divider amplifier
Figure: 1.4 Block
Divider diagram of an electronic DC voltmeter
The potential divider network is nothing but a series of resistors to alternate the value of input in case it is
large. If the signal magnitude is small and needs no attenuation, it is passed directly. The signal is amplified
by the DC amplifier and then given to the meter. The meter is calibrated in terms of the parameter to be
measured. The DC amplifier used can be 1. Direct coupled amplifier 2. Chopper type DC amplifier

ELECTRONIC AC VOLTMETR:
Electronic AC volt meters are similar to electronic DC voltmeters except that the signal is rectified before
being amplified. The Block schematic is shown in fig.1.6
Potential Rectifier DC Meter
Divider Amplifier
Divider
Figure: 1.6 Block diagram for an electronic AC voltmeter

However, designing a DC amplifier is more difficult and expensive, because the input signal right from 0
Hz is to be amplified. The input AC signal is first amplified and then rectification and filtering are done and
a DC meter is used for deflection. Therefore, sometimes an AC amplifier is found to e more convenient. The
block schematic of an AC voltmeter is shown in fig. 1.7
Potential DC Rectifier Meter
Divider Amplifier
Figure:1.7
Divider Block diagram for an electronic AC voltmeter (another version)

AC voltmeters are subdivided intolthree categories:

i) Average reading voltmeter

ii) Peak responding voltmeter
iii) True RMS responding voltmeter

The difference between average and peak responding voltmeters is only in filter circuits.
 AC CURRENT MEASUREMENT:
The current to be measured is passed through a series resistor of suitable value in the current scale.
The voltage drop across the resistor can be measured by the voltmeter and the meter deflection is
calibrated in terms of the current. In some cases, an AC current probe is also employed. The probe clips
the wire under test, without disturbing the circuit. The curve through which current is passing and which
is to be measured forms the one turn primary of a transformer with a finite core and a many turn
secondary within the current probe body. The signal induced in the secondary winding is amplified, and
the output voltage of the amplifier is applied to a suitable AC voltage for measurement. The amplifier is
designed so that 1 mA in the wire being measured produces 2mV at the amplifier output. The current is
read on the voltmeter, which is calibrated in mA or amps.

ALTERNATING CURRENT INSTRUMENTS (AC METERS)

Various AC instruments are as given in Table
Different types of AC instruments

Types of Meter Use

Movement DC AC
Electrodynamometer Yes Yes
Iron vane √ √
Electrostatic √ √
Thermocouple √ √
D’Arsonval √ with rectifiers

D’Arsonval Meter Movement for AC Circuit

If we apply 10V DC to the D’Arsonval meter Ifs ≈ 10V/10 KΩ ≈ 1mA

Rs=10kΩ D’Arsonval meter

Ifs = 1mA, Rm=100Ω Ep

0 π2π
( a) (b)
Fig. 1.8 (a) D’Arsonval meter & b) Eav=0.636Ep for FWR
Therefore sensitivity S= 1/Ifs = 1/1mA =1kW/V

If youlk apply 10v AC current, 10V being rms values for the above circuit, AC is half-wave rectified(HWR)
by the diode (for AC, the value given is rms)
Peak value of the 10Vrms sine wave Ep = 10Vrms x 1.414 =14.14 V = √ 2 Erms
The DC meter movement will respond to the average value of the FWR signal:

∴ Eav = Ep x 0.636 =14.14 x 0.636 =8.99 V

For a HWR circuit, the average value is half of this value.

Eav for HWR signal = 0.318 Ep = 0.318 x 14.14= 8.99/2 = 4.5V

If the meter reads 10V for DC, and if we apply 10Vrms to the HWR circuit, the meter reads 4.5v.
Therefore the sensitivity of the meter is only 45% of the sensitivity of the DC meter (HWR circuit).
To determine the multiplier resistance Rs= Edc/Idc –Rm =0.45 Erms/Idc -Rm, Sac = 0.45 Sdc , S=Sensitivity
OHMMETER

The basic D’Arsonval meter can be used to measure resistance. There are two types of ohmmeter:
1. Series type 2. Shunt type

Series Type Ohmmeter

This meter consists of a D’Arsonval movement connected inseries with a resistance and a battery to a pair of
terminals where the unknown resistance Rx is connected. The current passing through the meter depends on
the value of Rx.Therefore the deflection of the pointer is proportional to Rx. The circuit diagram is shown in
figure 1.9
R1 = current limiting resistor, R2 = zero adjust resistor, E = internal battery
R1 A

Rm R2 Rx

Figure: 1.9 Series type ohmmeter

Rm = internal resistance, Rx = unknown resistor
The disadvantage with the series type ohmmeter is that it does not compensate for the decrease in battery
voltage due to aging. As the source voltage decrease, the deflection or full scale current decreases.

Shunt Type Ohmmeter

The circuit diagram of a shunt type ohmmeter is shown in figure 1.10
R1 A
Im

E Rm Rx Figure: 1.10 Shunt type ohmmeter

S B

The battery is in series with an adjustable resistance R1 and the D’Arsonval movement. The unknown
resistance is connected across terminals A and B in parallel with the meter. An on off switch is to be
provided to disconnect the battery from the circuit when not being used. If Rx= 0, the meter current is zero. If
Rx= ∝, the current finds a path only through the meter. The meter can be made to read full scale by adjusting
R. Thus, the meter deflection is proportional to the value of the unknown resistance Rx.
The meter is more suitable for measuring low values of resistances, upto100 kΩ. T his instrument is used in
laboratories.
Multimeter: Combining the three measurements of I, V and R, a single instrument can be constructed
known as volt ohm milliammeter or multimeter. D’Arsonval movement can be used for all the three
measurements. Hence, a single deflection mechanism can be built to measure all the three parameters. The
circuit diagrams of this type of instrument are shown in figure 1.11

The movement has a full scale current of 50 μAmps.

Internal resistance = 2000Ω; sensitivity =20 k Ω/v.
Flux density produced = 1000-4000 gauss.

15MΩ 4MΩ 800MΩ 150MΩ 48MΩ

M

50v 10v 50μ A

25v 2000Ω
1000v 25v

5000V DC 8MΩ +ve -ve

Figure 1.11 a) DC voltmeter section of a multi meter

50micro A 2000 Ω
M
3000MΩ 2MΩ 0.475MΩ 0.025MΩ
22.5MΩ

100mA
10mA 500mA 10A -10A
+ve
-ve

Figure 1.11b) DC ammeter section of the simpson model 260

Meter Protection
The DC meters are usually protected by connecting a diode across the meter (fig. a ). If a silicon diode is
used, the voltage drop across the meter is maintained. At 0.6 v or just below the cut-in voltage Vy of the
diode, when the input exceeds the maximum value, the diode starts conducting as its cut-in voltage value is
reached due to the excess input. Therefore, the current is diverted through the diode, protecting the meter. If
only one diode is used it is called single diode protection. If two diodes are used for both half cycles or either
direction of input, it is called double diode protection (fig b)
M
M
D1
D1

D2
Fig 1.12 a Single diode protection Fig 1.12 b Double diode protection
Extension of Range
The range of measuring instruments can be extended suitably by connecting a resistance in series or shunt as
the case may be. If the range of an ammeter is to be extended, a shunt resistance of a value lower than the
meter resistance is connected in parallel with the meter as shown in fig1.13. The value of resistance to be
connected depends onl the current to be measured.
Let I = total current to be measured, Is= current through the shunt
I Im R I
M

Is Rs Figure 1.13 Extension of range of an ammeter

Im = maximum current that can be permitted through the meter

R = Resistance of the meter, Rs = shunt resistance, I = Im + Is, Im = I - Is, Is = I - Im
Is Rs = Im R, Therefore Rs = Im R/Is = Im R/(I-Im), Rs = R/(I/Im – 1)
The ratio of the total current to the instrument current I/Im is called the multiplying power of the shunt. This
is usually expressed as N.
Therefore Rs = R/(N-1) or N = 1 + R/Rs

True RMS Responding Voltmeter

To measure the values of complex AC inputs, true rms responding voltmeters are to be used. The heating
power of a given input signal is proportional to the square of the rms values of the voltage. Sensing this
power, this meter produces a deflection using a thermocouple. Thermocouple outputs are non linear, in
general. This difficulty is overcome by placing two thermocouples in the heating environment. The scheatic
of this meter is shown in fig.1.14

Measuring thermocouple

AC input voltage AC DC
amplr amplr
Indicating meter

Feedback current
Balancing thermocouple

Figure: 1.14 Block diagram of ja true rms reading voltmeter. The measuring and balancing thermocouples
are
located in the same thermal environment
The unknown AC input voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element of the measuring
thermocouple. The thermocouple in the input side is the measuring thermocouple. The thermocouple in the
feedback path is the balancing thermocouple. They are similar thermocouples and form a complementary
pair. Therefore, the non-linearity due to the measuring thermocouple is cancelled by the similar non-linearity
of the balancing thermocouple. The heater coil gets heated due to the AC input given. The measuring
thermocouple produces a voltage, which upsets the balance of the bridge. The imbalance voltage is amplified
by the DC amplifier and feedback to the heating element of the balancing thermocouple. Bridge balance is
restored when the feedback current delivers sufficient heat to the balancing thermocouple, so that the voltage
output of both thermocouples are the same. The DC current in the heating element of the feedback
thermocouple is equal to the AC current in the input thermocouple. Therefore, this DC current is directly
proportional to the effective or rms value of the input voltage. This is indicated on the meter movement in
the output circuit of the DC amplifier. Thus, the true rms value of the AC input can be measured irrespective
of the shape of the input.

Crest factor = peak value of input/RMS value

Laboratory type meters can measure inputs with a crest factor of 10/1.
Voltage range: 100 μV to 300 V.
Frequency range: 10Hz to 10MHz.

Specifications of Instruments:

Technical Specifications Range/Remark

Voltage source and measure capability ±200𝑉

Voltage Range 500mV to 200V

Voltage Source resolution 100𝜇𝑉

Voltage measure resolution ±200𝑛𝑉
Current source and measure capability ±100𝑚𝐴
Current ranges 1pA to 100mA

CV measurement
Frequency range Upto 5MHz
DC drive level -30V to +30V
Low frequency CV required Yes
Frequency range 10mHz to 10Hz
Voltage range Upto 200V

Oscilloscope:

Technical Specifications Range/Remark

Bandwidth 1GHz
Input impedance 1 MΩ ±1%, 50 Ω ±1%
Measurement Algorithm Measurements should be computed on acquired data but not
on display data
Hardware input sensitivity 1 mV/div to 10 V/div(1 MΩ)
1 mV/div to 1 V/div(50 Ω,75)
DC Gain Accuracy ±1.5%
Time Base Range 1 ns/div to 1000 s/div
Time base accuracy ±10 ppm
 Solved problems:
1) A wattmeter reads 25.34 watts. The absolute error in the measurements is -0.11 watts.
Determine the true value of power.
Measured value = 25.34 watts, Absolute error =-0.11 watts
True value = Measured value – Absolute value = 25.34 + 0.11 = 25.45 watts
2) Measured value of a capacitor is 205.3 micro farads and its True value is 201.4 micro farads Find the
relative error.
e = Yn – Xn = 205.3 – 201.4 = 3.9 micro farads, Relative error =(Yn –Xn)/ Yn =3.9/201.4 = 0.0194
% relative error = 1.94 %
3) The Inductance of an inductor is specified as 20 h ± 5% by a manufacturer. Determine the limits of
Inductance.
20 h ± 5% = 20 h ± 5/100 x 20 = 20 h ± 1 => 19 to 21h
4)The desired value of the current through a resistor is 10 amps. However, the measurement gives a
value of 9.5 amps. Calculate i) absolute error, ii) %error, iii) relative accuracy, and iv) % accuracy.
i) Absolute error e = Yn–Xn = 10-9.5 =0.5 amps
ii) % error = (Yn – Xn)/ Yn x 100% = 0.5/10 x 100 = 5%
iii) Relative accuracy (A) = 1 - |(Yn –Xn)/ (Yn)| = 1-0.05 = 0.95
iv) % Accuracy (a) = 100 x A = 100 x 0.95 = 95% or a =1000%-%error =100%–5%=95%
5) A 0-25 amps ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1% of full scale reading. The current
measured by the instrument is 10 Amps. Dtermine the limiting error in percentage.
Limiting error = 1/100x25 = 0.25
The magnitude of current measured is 10 Amps
The relative error =0.25/10 =0.025
Range of current = 10(1±0.025) =10 ± 0.25 amps
Limiting error 0.25/10X100 = 2.5%
6) A 0-250 V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 2% of full scale reading. The voltage
measured by the meter is 150 volts. Determine the limiting error in percentage.
Limiting error = 2/100x250 = 5V,
%limiting error (for the magnitude of 150v) = 5/150x100 =3.33%
7) A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with divisions and gives full scale reading of 5A. The
instrument can read upto 1/4th of lthe scale division with a fair degree of certainty. Determine
the resolution.
Full scale = 5A, No of divisions = 50, 1 scale division = 5/50 = 0.1 Amps
Resolution =0.1/4 = 0.025 amps = 25 mA
8) If the two quantities A = 430 ± 5 & B = 225 ± 3 are added & substracted. Find their results
A = 430 ± 5 (1.163%), B = 225 ± 3 (1.333%)
C = A+ B =655 ± 8 => 1.22%, D = A- B =205 ± 8 => 3.392%

Multiple bit questions

 1. The purpose of instruments is to
a) Allow measurements to be made b) transmit the information c) change signalsd) any of the above
2. The measurement refers to which of the following
a) Primary signal b) measured variable c) output d) all of the above
3. In present day measurement systems
a)Direct methods are commonly used b) One of the direct methods is limited but indirect methods are
commonly used c) Both direct and indirect methods are commonly used d) All of the above.
4. Errors which may be variable both in magnitude and nature (+ve or -ve) are classified as
a) hysteresis errors b) random errors c) systematic errors d) interaction errors.
5.A PMMC meter has an internal resistance 200Ω and the current required for its full scale deflection is
100µA. The meter is capable of measuring, on its own, a maximum voltage of
a) 5 mV b) 10 mV c) 5 µV d) 10 µV

6.Electronic voltmeters which use rectifiers employ negative feedback. This is done
a) to increase the overall gain b) to improve stability
c) To overcome nonlinearity of diodes d) none of the above.
7.A null type of instrument as compared to a deflection type instrument has
a) a higher accuracy b) a lower sensitivity c) a faster response d) all of the above
8.Purely mechanical instruments cannot be used for dynamic measurements because they have
a) high inertia b) large time constant c) higher response time d) all of the above
9.A modifying input to a measurement system can be defined as an input.
a) which changes the input-output relationship for desired inputs only.
b) which changes the input-output relationship for desired as well as interfering inputs.
c) which changes the input-output relationship for interfering inputs only.
d) None of the above.
10.A voltmeter with a broad bandwidth has
a) low noise level and high sensitivity b) high noise level and high sensitivity
c) high noise level and low sensitivity d) low noise level and low sensitivity
Questions:
1. Explain the following with examples.
i) Difference between accuracy and precision? Give examples.
ii) Difference between sensitivity and resolution?
2. Define the following with reference to Electronic systems
i) Resolution ii) Sensitivity iii) Calibration
3. Explain the various types of errors that occur in instrumentation measurements and
ways of minimizing them with example.
4. Two capacitors have the following ratings C1=1 f ± 5%, C2 = 0.5 f ± 5%. Determine the
magnitude of resultant capacitance and limiting error in percentage in farads. If the capacitors are
connected in series.
5. What are the various AC voltmeters?
6. What is series ohmmeter? Explain about it.
7. What is shunt type ohmmeter? Explain about it.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Wattmeter is used to measure __________
2. Error is defined as _______ minus ______
3. Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of _______ to _______
4. The types of ohmmeters are ______ & ______
5. Measurement of I, V & R is known as _______
Answers: 1. Power 2. Measured value, True value 3. Change in output, change in input
4. Series type, shunt type 5. Multimeter