72 CHAPTER 2 쐽 PARALLEL LINES

2.1 The Parallel Postulate and Special Angles

KEY CONCEPTS Perpendicular Lines Parallel Postulate Corresponding Angles
Perpendicular Planes Transversal Alternate Interior Angles
Parallel Lines Interior Angles Alternate Exterior Angles
Parallel Planes Exterior Angles

PERPENDICULAR LINES
By definition, two lines (or segments or rays) are perpendicular if they meet to form
congruent adjacent angles. Using this definition, we proved the theorem stating that
“perpendicular lines meet to form right angles.” We can also say that two rays or line
segments are perpendicular if they are parts of perpendicular lines. We now consider a
P method for constructing a line perpendicular to a given line.

Construction 6 To construct the line that is perpendicular to a given line

(a) from a point not on the given line.

P GIVEN: In Figure 2.1(a), line 艎 and point P not on 艎

Í !
CONSTRUCT: PQ ⬜ /
CONSTRUCTION: Figure 2.1(b): With P as the center, open the compass
to a length great enough to intersect 艎 in two points A and B.
A B Figure 2.1(c): With A and B as centers, mark off arcs of equal radii
(using the same compass opening) to intersect at a point Q, as shown.
(b) Í !
Draw PQ to complete the desired line.

P
In this construction, ∠ PRA and ∠PRB are right angles. Greater accuracy is achieved
if the arcs drawn from A and B intersect on the opposite side of line 艎 from point P.
Construction 6 suggests a uniqueness relationship that can be proved.
A R B
THEOREM 2.1.1
Q From a point not on a given line, there is exactly one line perpendicular to the given line.

(c) The term perpendicular includes line-ray, line-plane, and plane-plane relation-
Figure 2.1 ships. The drawings in Figure 2.2 on page 73 indicate two perpendicular lines,
! a line per-
pendicular to a plane, and two perpendicular planes. In Figure 2.1(c), RP ⬜ /.

PARALLEL LINES
Just as the word perpendicular can relate lines and planes, the word parallel can also
be used to describe relationships among lines and planes. However, parallel lines must
lie in the same plane, as the following definition emphasizes.
 2.1 쐽 The Parallel Postulate and Special Angles 73

P
m P

(a) m (b) P (c) R P

Figure 2.2

Discover
In the sketch below, lines 艎 and m DEFINITION
lie in the same plane with line t
Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that do not intersect.
and are perpendicular to line t.
How are the lines 艎 and m related
to each other?
m More generally, two lines in a plane, a line and a plane, or two planes are parallel
if they do not intersect (see Figure 2.3). Figure 2.3 illustrates possible applications of
the word parallel. In Figure 2.4, two parallel planes M and N are both intersected by a
t third plane G. How must the lines of intersection, a and b, be related?

r
r V

ANSWER
T
not intersect. s T
These lines are said to be parallel. They will

(a) r s (b) r T (c) T V

Geometry in the r傽s r傽T T傽V
Real World
Figure 2.3
© Angelo Gilardelli/Shutterstock

a b
G
The rungs of a ladder are parallel
line segments.

M N

Exs. 1–3 Figure 2.4

74 CHAPTER 2 쐽 PARALLEL LINES

EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
The type of geometry found in this textbook is known as Euclidean geometry. In this
geometry, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface in which the line segment joining
any two points of the plane lies entirely within the plane. Whereas the postulate that fol-
lows characterizes Euclidean geometry, the Perspective on Application section near the
end of this chapter discusses alternative geometries. Postulate 10, the Euclidean Paral-
lel Postulate, is easy to accept because of the way we perceive a plane.

POSTULATE 10: (PARALLEL POSTULATE)

Through a point not on a line, exactly one line is parallel to the given line.

P Consider Figure 2.5, in which line m and point P (with P not on m) both lie in plane R.
It seems reasonable that exactly one line can be drawn through P parallel to line m.
m The method of construction for the unique line through P parallel to m is provided in
R Section 2.3.
A transversal is a line that intersects two (or more) other lines at distinct points;
Figure 2.5
all of the lines lie in the same plane. In Figure 2.6, t is a transversal for lines r and s.
Angles that are formed between r and s are interior angles; those outside r and s are
t exterior angles. Relative to Figure 2.6, we have

1 2 r Interior angles: ∠3, ∠4, ∠5, ∠6

3 4
Exterior angles: ∠1, ∠2, ∠7, ∠8
s
5 6 Consider the angles in Figure 2.6 that are formed when lines are cut by a transver-
7 8 sal. Two angles that lie in the same relative positions (such as above and left) are called
corresponding angles for these lines. In Figure 2.6, ∠ 1 and ∠5 are corresponding
angles; each angle is above the line and to the left of the transversal that together form
Figure 2.6 the angle. As shown in Figure 2.6, we have

Corresponding angles: ∠1 and ∠5 above left

(must be in pairs) ∠3 and ∠7 below left
∠2 and ∠6 above right
∠4 and ∠8 below right

Two interior angles that have different vertices and lie on opposite sides of the
transversal are alternate interior angles. Two exterior angles that have different ver-
tices and lie on opposite sides of the transversal are alternate exterior angles. Both
types of alternate angles must occur in pairs; in Figure 2.6, we have:

Alternate interior angles: ∠3 and ∠6

∠4 and ∠5
Alternate exterior angles: ∠1 and ∠8
Exs. 4–6 ∠2 and ∠7

PARALLEL LINES AND CONGRUENT ANGLES

In Figure 2.7, parallel lines 艎 and m are cut by transversal v. If a protractor were used
to measure ∠1 and ∠5, these corresponding angles would be found to have equal
measures; that is, they are congruent. Similarly, any other pair of corresponding angles
will be congruent as long as / 7 m.
 POSTULATE 11
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are
congruent.

EXAMPLE 1
v
In Figure 2.7, / 7 m and m∠ 1 = 117°. Find:
1 2 a) m∠2 c) m∠4
3 4 b) m∠5 d) m∠8

Solution
m 5 6 a) m∠2 = 63° supplementary to ∠ 1
7 8 b) m∠5 = 117° corresponding to ∠1
c) m∠4 = 117° vertical to ∠1
d) m∠8 = 117° corresponding to ∠4 [found in part (c)] 쮿
Figure 2.7

Several theorems follow from Postulate 11; for some of these theorems, formal proofs
are provided. Study the proofs and be able to state all the theorems. You can cite the
theorems that have been proven as reasons in subsequent proofs.

THEOREM 2.1.2
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior angles are
congruent.
Technology
Exploration
GIVEN: a 7 b in Figure 2.8
Use computer software if Transversal k
available.Í ! Í !
1. Draw AB 7 CD. Í ! PROVE: ∠3 ⬵ ∠6
2. Draw transversal EF .
3. By numbering the angles as in k
Figure 2.8, find the measures
of all eight angles. 2
1 4
4. Show that pairs of 3
corresponding angles are a
6
congruent. 5 8
7
b

Figure 2.8

PROOF
Statements Reasons
1. a 7 b; transversal k 1. Given
2. ∠ 2 ⬵ ∠6 2. If two 储 lines are cut by a transversal,
corresponding ∠ s are ⬵
3. ∠ 3 ⬵ ∠ 2 3. If two lines intersect, vertical ∠ s
formed are ⬵
4. ∠ 3 ⬵ ∠ 6 4. Transitive (of ⬵)
76 CHAPTER 2 쐽 PARALLEL LINES

Although we did not establish that alternate interior angles 4 and 5 are congruent, it
is easy to prove that these are congruent because they are supplements to ∠3 and ∠6.
A theorem that is similar to Theorem 2.1.2 follows, but the proof is left as Exercise 28.

THEOREM 2.1.3
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate exterior angles are
congruent.

PARALLEL LINES AND SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLES

When two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, it can be shown that the two interior
angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary. A similar claim can be
made for the pair of exterior angles on the same side of the transversal.

STRATEGY FOR PROOF 왘 Using Substitution in a Proof Statement

General Rule: In an equation, an expression can replace its equal.
Illustration: See statements 3, 6, and 7 in the proof of Theorem 2.1.4. Note that m ∠ 1
(found in statement 3) is substituted for m∠ 2 in statement 6 to obtain statement 7.

THEOREM 2.1.4
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the interior angles on the same side of
the transversal are supplementary.

In Figure 2.9, TV 7 WY with transversal RS

Í ! Í ! Í !
GIVEN:

PROVE: ∠1 and ∠3 are supplementary

T W
R U 2
1 3 X S
V Y

Figure 2.9

PROOF
Statements Reasons

1. TV 7 WY; transversal RS
Í ! Í ! Í !
1. Given
2. ∠ 1 ⬵ ∠ 2 2. If two 7 lines are cut by a transversal,
alternate interior ∠ s are ⬵
3. m∠ 1 = m∠ 2 3. If two ∠ s are ⬵, their measures are ⫽
4. ∠ WXY is a straight ∠ , so 4. If an ∠ is a straight ∠ , its measure is 180°
m∠ WXY = 180°
5. m∠ 2 + m∠ 3 = m∠ WXY 5. Angle-Addition Postulate
6. m∠ 2 + m∠ 3 = 180° 6. Substitution
7. m∠1 + m∠ 3 = 180° 7. Substitution
8. ∠ 1 and ∠ 3 are supplementary 8. If the sum of measures of two ∠ s is
180°, the ∠ s are supplementary

The proof of the following theorem is left as an exercise.

 2.1 쐽 The Parallel Postulate and Special Angles 77

THEOREM 2.1.5
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the exterior angles on the same side of
the transversal are supplementary.

The remaining examples in this section illustrate methods from algebra and deal
Exs. 7–11 with the angles formed when two parallel lines are cut by a transversal.

EXAMPLE 2

GIVEN: TV 7 WY with transversal RS

Í ! Í ! Í !
T W
m ∠RUV = (x + 4)(x - 3) R U 2
m ∠WXS = x2 - 3 1 3 X S
FIND: x V Y

Solution ∠RUV and ∠WXS are alternate exterior angles, so they are congruent.
Then m ∠RUV = m∠WXS. Therefore,
(x + 4)(x - 3) = x2 - 3
x2 + x - 12 = x2 - 3
x - 12 = -3
x = 9
NOTE: Both angles measure 78° when x = 9. 쮿

In Figure 2.10, lines r and s are known to be parallel; thus, ∠ 1 ⬵ ∠5, since these
are corresponding angles.
For / and m of Figure 2.10 to be parallel as well, name two angles that would have
to be congruent. If we think of line s as a transversal, ∠5 would have be congruent
to ∠9, since these are corresponding angles for / and m cut by transversal s.
For Example 3, recall that two equations are necessary to solve a problem in two
Exs. 12, 13 variables.

EXAMPLE 3

GIVEN: In Figure 2.10, r 7 s and transversal 艎

m
m∠3 = 4x + y
m ∠5 = 6x + 5y
r
1 2 m ∠6 = 5x - 2y
3 4
FIND: x and y
Solution ∠3 and ∠6 are congruent alternate interior angles; also, ∠3 and ∠ 5 are
5 6 9 supplementary angles according to Theorem 2.1.4. These facts lead to the
s
7 8 following system of equations:
4x + y = 5x - 2y
(4x + y) + (6x + 5y) = 180
Figure 2.10
These equations can be simplified to
x - 3y = 0
10x + 6y = 180
78 CHAPTER 2 쐽 PARALLEL LINES

After we divide each term of the second equation by 2, the system becomes
x - 3y = 0
5x + 3y = 90

Addition leads to the equation 6x = 90, so x = 15. Substituting 15 for x into the
equation x - 3y = 0, we have

15 - 3y = 0
- 3y = - 15
y = 5

Our solution, x = 15 and y = 5, yields the following angle measures:

m∠3 = 65°
m∠5 = 115°
m∠6 = 65°
NOTE: For an alternative solution, the equation x - 3y = 0 could be multiplied
by 2 to obtain 2x - 6y = 0. Then the equations 2x - 6y = 0 and 10x + 6y = 180
could be added. 쮿

Note that the angle measures determined in Example 3 are consistent with
Figure 2.10 and the required relationships for the angles named. For instance,
m∠3 + m∠5 = 180°, and we see that interior angles on the same side of the trans-
versal are indeed supplementary.

Exercises 2.1
For Exercises 1 to 4, / 7 m with transversal v. c) transitive property? (consider coplanar lines m, n,
and q)
1. If m ∠ 1 = 108°, find:
6. In a plane, / ⬜ m and t ⬜ m. By appearance, how are /
a) m ∠5 b) m ∠7 and t related?
2. If m∠ 3 = 71°, find: 7. Suppose that r 7 s. Each t
a) m∠ 5 b) m∠ 6 interior angle on the right side
1 2 r
3. If m∠ 2 = 68.3°, find: of the transversal t has been
3 4
a) m ∠ 3 b) m ∠ 6 bisected. Using intuition,
what appears to be true of ∠9 9
4. If m∠ 4 = 110.8°, find: s
formed by the bisectors? 5 6
a) m∠ 5 b) m ∠ 8 7 8
8. Make a sketch to represent
v two planes that are
a) parallel.
1 2 b) perpendicular.
3 4
9. Suppose that r is parallel to s t

and m ∠ 2 = 87°. Find:

1 2 r
m 5 6 a) m∠ 3 c) m∠ 1
3 4
7 8 b) m∠ 6 d) m ∠ 7
10. In Euclidean geometry, how
s
Use drawings, as needed, to answer each question. many lines can be drawn 5 6
7 8
through a point P not on a
5. Does the relation “is parallel to” have a line / that are
a) reflexive property? (consider a line m) a) parallel to line /?
b) symmetric property? (consider lines m and n in a b) perpendicular to line /?
plane)
 2.1 쐽 The Parallel Postulate and Special Angles 79

11. Lines r and s are cut by t

PROOF
transversal t. Which angle
a) corresponds to ∠ 1?
r
1 2 Statements Reasons
/7m
3 4
b) is the alternate interior ∠
1. 1. ?
for ∠ 4?
2. ∠ 1 ⬵ ∠2 2. ?
c) is the alternate exterior ∠ 5 6 s

for ∠ 1? 7 8 3. ∠ 2 ⬵ ∠3 3. ?
d) is the other interior angle 4. ? 4. Given
on the same side of 5. ? 5. Transitive of ⬵
transversal t as ∠ 3?
12. AD 7 BC, AB 7 DC, and A B t

m∠ A = 92°. Find:
a) m ∠B 1

b) m ∠C
c) m ∠D D C 2
13. / 7 m, with transversal t, and
m
3
! t
OQ bisects ∠ MON.
n
If m ∠ 1 = 112°, find the 1 2
4

following: M 4
3
a) m ∠2
Exercises 19, 20
b) m ∠4 m 5
Q

c) m ∠5
/ 7 m and m 7 n
O 7 N
d) m ∠MOQ 6 20. Given:
∠1 ⬵ ∠4
14. Given: / 7 m
Prove:
Transversal t Exercises 13, 14
m∠ 1 = 4x + 2 PROOF
m∠ 6 = 4x - 2 Statements Reasons
Find: x and m∠ 5
15. Given: m 7 n 1. / 7 m 1. ?
Transversal k 2. ∠ 1 ⬵ ∠2 2. ?
m∠ 3 = x2 - 3x 3. ∠2 ⬵ ∠3 3. ?
m∠ 6 = (x + 4)(x - 5) 4. ? 4. Given
Find: x and m∠ 4 5. ∠ 3 ⬵ ∠4 5. ?
16. Given: m 7 n 6. ? 6. ?
Transversal k 1
3
2 5
m∠ 1 = 5x + y m
4
6 7 k
8
CE 7 DF
m∠ 2 = 3x + y n Í ! Í !
21. Given: A
m∠ 8 = 3x + 5y Í ! X
Exercises 15–17 Transversal AB 1
Find: x, y, and m∠ 8 ! C 2
17. Given: m 7 n
CX! bisects ∠ ACE 5 6 E
DE bisects ∠ CDF
Transversal k
Prove: ∠1 ⬵ ∠3 3
m∠ 3 = 6x + y D 4 7
m∠ 5 = 8x + 2y F
m∠ 6 = 4x + 7y
B
Find: x, y, and m∠ 7
18. In the three-dimensional
Exercises 21, 22
figure, CA ⬜ AB Í and
G D

CE 7 DF Í !
! Í ! Í ! Í !
BE ⬜ AB. Are CA and BE C A 22. Given:
parallel to each other? Transversal
! AB
(Compare with Exercise 6.) DE bisects ∠ CDF r s

19. Given: / 7 m and ∠3 ⬵ ∠4 Prove: ∠3 ⬵ ∠6

r7s
t 1
Prove: ∠ 1 ⬵ ∠ 4 E
23. Given: 2

(See figure in second column.) Transversal t

F B
∠ 1 is a right ∠
Prove: ∠ 2 is a right ∠ Exercises 23, 26