DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF

A HYBRID (SOLAR-WIND) POWER SYSTEM

BY

OLASUNKANMI ILESANMI

A REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA.

2017
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE I

TABLE OF CONTENTS II

LIST OF TABLES III

LIST OF FIGURES IX

LIST OF PLATES X

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS XI

LIST OF SYMBOLS XII

ABSTRACT XIII

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Project 1

1.2 Objective of Project 3

1.3 Scope of Project 4

1.4 Significance of Project 4

1.5 Justification of Project 6

2.0 Introduction 7

2.1 Hybrid Power System 7

II
 2.2 Solar Panels 8

2.2.1 Types of Solar Panel 10

2.3 Wind turbines 16

2.3.1 Types of wind turbine 17

2.3.2 Output power of wind turbines 20

2.4 Review of Past Works and Studies of Hybrid Power Systems 20

2.5 Review of Wind Energy Characteristics and Potential in Nigeria 24

2.6 Review of Solar Energy Characteristics and Potential in Nigeria 28

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 31

3.1 Project Overview 31

3.2 Description of the Components 34

3.2.1 Solar panel for the project 34

3.2.2 Wind turbine for the project 38

3.2.3 Charge controller 44

3.2.4 Battery 48
3.2.5 Inverter 48

3.3 Mounting of the Hybrid System 51

III
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction 54

4.1 Wind turbine Testing 54

4.2 Analysis and Discussion of Wind Turbine Test Results 58

4.3 Solar Panel Testing 62

4.4 Discussion of Solar Panel Test Results 62

4.5 Total Power Output of the Hybrid System 64

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Introduction 65

5.1 Conclusion 65

5.2 Recommendations 66

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

IV
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Solar Panel Specifications 36

4.1 Data Collected from Wind Turbine during the Morning Session 55

4.2 Data Collected from Wind Turbine during the Afternoon Session 56

4.3 Data Collected from Wind Turbine during the Evening Session 57

4.4 Data Collected from Solar Panel during Morning, Afternoon and Evening 63
Session

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Stages of Development of a PV System 9

2.2 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Panel 11

2.3 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Panel 13

2.4 Thin-Film Solar Panel 15

2.5 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine 18

2.6 Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine 19

3.1 Block Diagram of the Project 32

3.2 Setup of the Hybrid System 33

3.3 Components of Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine 40

3.4 Circuit Diagram for Charge Controller 45

4.1 Graph of Wind Speed Vs Time of the Day 59

4.2 Graph of Voltage Output Vs Wind Speed 60

4.3 Graph of Turbine Power Output Vs Wind Speed 61

IX
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page

3.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Panel used for the Project 35

3.2 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine used for the Project 39

3.3 DC Motor for the Wind Turbine 42

3.4 Charge Controller used for the Project 49

3.5 Battery used for the Project 50

3.6 Inverter used for the Project 52

3.7 The Complete Hybrid Power System 53

X
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PV - Photovoltaic

DC - Direct Current

AC - Alternating Current

XI
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

V- Voltage

A- Ampere

W- Watts

kW - kilowatts

Ah - Ampere-hour

kWh – kilowatt-hour

XII
 ABSTRACT

Nowadays, one of mankind’s greatest desire was to have reliable and sustainable electricity.
Over the years, conventional, non-renewable energy resources (e.g. coal, nuclear) had been
harnessed to generate electricity. However, this resources were depleting with constant usage.
This had initiated a switch in attention to renewable energy sources like wind, solar, tidal
energy etc. The objective of this project, therefore, was to design and implement a portable
hybrid power system that combines two of these renewable energy sources, that is, wind and
solar energy, to generate reliable and sustainable electricity.

To achieve this, a wind turbine was constructed to convert wind energy to electric
energy, while a solar panel converts solar energy to electric energy. A hybrid charge controller
was also included to “multiplex” the inputs from the turbine and solar panel and deliver an
output voltage sufficient the 12 V battery. The DC output of the battery was also converted to
the usable AC form by an inverter. This made it possible for the system output to be used to
power domestic appliances.

The results showed that the wind speed in Ile-ife was relatively low, ranging from 0.5
m/s to 3.7 m/s during the period testing. In fact, it was lower than what is required by the turbine
to produce the 12 V DC output to power the system. On a brighter note however, the results
obtained from testing the solar panel showed that the solar panel was more than capable of
producing of generating at least 12 V for many hours especially during the day.

The study concluded that, although, the 12 V DC input required by the system to
function would not be available at all times in a day, the use of a 12 V battery as an auxiliary
power source increased the length of time for which the system was available. Thus, it could
be concluded that objective of the project was achieved.

XIII
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

One of the greatest needs in mankind’s day to day life is electricity. There are basically two

ways of generating electricity. These two ways are explained in this chapter along with

examples. The chapter also highlights the objective of the project at hand, the scope,

significance and justification of the project.

1.1 Background of Project

Generation of electric power is no doubt a sine qua non for any country gearing towards

industrialization and higher echelons of technological advancement. Constant supply and

availability of electricity is unarguably an important need that must be filled to make day to

day living more comfortable and enjoyable. Thus, provision of constant electricity is a goal to

which several countries of the world press forward.

According to Ingole and Rakhonde (2015), there are two ways of electricity generation;

either by conventional/non-renewable energy resources or non-conventional/renewable energy

resources. Nowadays, electricity is generated from conventional energy resources. These

energy resources include geothermal, tidal, wind, solar etc. On the other hand, non-

conventional resources include wind, solar, tidal energy etc. These non-conventional energy

resources usually pollution-free and economical. They are also naturally replenished, thus,

unlike the conventional energy resources, they are inexhaustible.

1
 As stated above, Wind is one of the various non-conventional energy resources that can

be put to use to generate electricity. It is used in many advanced or developed countries of the

world to generate electric power. This power from the wind is generated using airflow through

wind to mechanically power generators for electricity. These generators then convert the

mechanical energy induced to electrical energy. Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil

fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions

during operation and uses little land (Fthenakis & Kim, 2009).

Wind power has been used for a long time in the generation of electric power. The first

windmill used for the production of electricity was built in Scotland in July, 1887 by Professor

James Blyth of Anderson’s College, Glasgow (Price, 2005). However, with the development

of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from

centrally generated power. Today, wind power generators operate in every size range between

tiny stations for battery charging at isolated residences, up to near-gigawatt sized wind farms

(group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electricity) that provide

electricity to national electrical networks.

Furthermore, according to Jacobsen (2016), as of 2015, Denmark generates 40 percent

of its electricity from wind and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind

power to supply their electricity grids (Sawsin et al., 2011). In addition, the World Wind

Energy Association, in its 2014 half-year report stated that, yearly wind energy production is

growing rapidly and had reached around 4 percent of worldwide electricity usage. All these

facts show that generation of electricity from wind energy has become more influential since

its inception.

Another form of non-conventional energy resource harnessed for generation of electric

power is the Solar energy. Generation of electric power from solar energy can be achieved by

2
the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly

using concentrated solar power (CSP). The International Energy Agency projected that in 2014

that under its “high renewable” scenario, by 2050, solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar

power would contribute about 16 and 11 percent, respectively, of the worldwide electricity

consumption, and solar would be the world’s largest source of electricity. The photovoltaic

systems use solar panels either on rooftops or in ground mounted solar farms, to convert

sunlight directly to electric power. Photovoltaics convert sunlight into electricity using the

photovoltaic effect. The photovoltaic effect is the creation of voltage or electrical current in a

material upon exposure to light and it is a physical and chemical phenomenon. Solar energy is

present on the earth continuously and in abundance. It is also affordable in cost and has low

maintenance cost (Ingole & Rakhonde, 2015).

It is very common to use these two aforementioned sources to generate electricity

independently i.e. solar power acting alone or wind power alone. Sometimes, though, it is

desired that two of these renewable energy resources are combined together to generate

electricity. When this is done, the type of system that results is called a Hybrid Power System.

Hybrid power systems, as the name implies, combine two or more modes electricity generation

together usually using renewable technologies such as solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind

turbines. Hybrid power systems therefore, provide increased system efficiency and greater

balance in supply of energy.

1.2 Objective of Project

The objectives of this project include the following,

 To design and implement a solar-wind hybrid power system.

 To use the complete system domestically to provide sustainable electricity irrespective

of changes in weather conditions.

3
  To ensure that the system is available for use throughout the day.

1.3 Scope of Project

As mentioned earlier, the project involves the design of a hybrid power system made up of

wind and solar power. This implies that the project will initially be divided into two parts; the

design and implementation of a functional wind turbine to harness the wind energy while the

second part involves the design and implantation of a solar power system.

A charge controller is also included in the hybrid systems. This circuit receives the two

direct current (DC) outputs of solar and wind systems and outputs a DC voltage that is just

suitable to charge the battery and this controller is also controls the charging process of the

battery by supplying just the right amount of voltage needed to prevent over-charging.

Furthermore, an inverter is also included in the system convert the DC voltage of the

battery to alternating current (AC). Thus, AC loads e.g. incandescent light bulbs or ceiling fans

can be powered through the output of the inverter. However, DC loads can be directly

connected to the output terminal of the battery.

1.4 Significance of Project

Every device we use in our day-to-day life such as mobile phone electronic appliances,

computers, washing machines etc. require electric power supply to function continuously.

Advancement in technology has also increased the usage of electrical and electronic appliances.

Thus, undoubtedly, there is a growing need for energy in the world. Nowadays, electrical

energy is generated from conventional sources which have been discussed earlier.

However, in Nigeria these sources have failed to yield desirable results. In fact,

according to Sambo (2006), despite the abundance of energy resources in Nigeria, the country

is still short in supply of electrical power. He added that, only about 40 percent of the nation’s

4
over 140 million has access to grid electricity. Even electricity supply to consumers that are

connected to the grid is erratic.

How then can this problem of poor, unsustainable and unreliable electricity supply be

solved? New sources of energy are needed and according to Ingole et al. (2015), the new

sources should be reliable, pollution-free and economical. They also added that non-

conventional energy sources should be a good alternative energy sources for the conventional

energy sources. Therefore, there is a need to harness renewable energy potential (such as wind

and solar) for reliable power supply in this country. There is also growing concern about global

warming and continuous apprehensions about nuclear power around the world (Agbetuyi et

al., 2012).

However, renewable energy resources acting as stand-alone or as an independent unit

will only produce the required energy when that particular resource is available. For example,

wind energy will only be obtainable when wind is blowing while solar energy will only

available when sun is shining. Hence, there is a potential problem of low availability

(probability of performing required function at a particular time) if only one of these renewable

energy resources are harnessed at a time. For example, if a solar panel were to be used alone

for the generation of electric power, such a system will not perform its required function on a

rainy/stormy day and at night as well. In fact, such a stand-alone system will do very little or

nothing in the bid to satisfy the desire for sustainable, reliable electricity in Nigeria.

Therefore, to maximize the available resources and provide stable and consistent

electricity supply, hybrid systems that combine two renewable energy resources have been

designed. The project at hand is to combine energy from wind and solar energy together to

generate electricity. One source will serve as the complement of the other and thus ensure that

there is always energy to be harnessed and converted to electrical power. The system is also

5
equipped with a battery to store the power obtained from the wind and solar energy. This means

that, if both wind and solar energy happen to be unavailable at the same time, we can still have

electricity. Hence, the project at hand has the potential to solve the problem of unreliable,

unsustainable and erratic power supply in Nigeria.

1.5 Justification of Project

Conventional energy resources have been harnessed to good effect to generate electricity and

they are still in use today. However, the main drawback of these sources is that they produce

waste like ash in coal power plant, nuclear waste in nuclear power plants and taking care of

these wastes is very costly and it also damages nature (Ingole & Rakhonde, 2015). Furthermore,

these conventional resources are non-renewable, hence, there is danger of complete depletion

and consequential unavailability on the long run.

On the other hand, though, non-conventional resources are, plentiful, renewable and

naturally replenished. Hence, they are inexhaustible will always be available for use.

Furthermore, they are clean and produce no greenhouse gas emissions, thus, they do not

contribute to environmental pollution. The cost of maintenance is also very minimal.

The project at hand is to harness two renewable/non-conventional energy resources,

hence, it is relatively cheap/economical, pollution-free and requires very little maintenance.

Finally, the peak operating times of the two energy resources that will be harnessed occur at

different time of the day and year, therefore, they can successfully act as complements of each

other.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

In the preceding chapter, it was made clear that the aim of this project is to design and

implement a hybrid solar-wind power system. Numerous scholars have participated in either a

study or project involving this type of system and a review of their studies/works are briefly

highlighted this chapter. The chapter also presents a description of the important subsystems

in the hybrid system.

2.1 Hybrid Power System

Hybrid power systems are systems that combine two or more renewable sources of energy

together to provide increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in energy supply. A

very common example of a hybrid power system is that involving the combination of solar and

wind energy.

In this system, a photovoltaic array is coupled with a wind turbine. This creates more

output from the wind turbine in the cold season, whereas during the hot season, the solar panel

produces its peak output. Generally, hybrid energy systems often yield greater economic and

environmental returns than wind, solar or geothermal stand-alone systems by themselves.

Before reviewing the past works and studies involving hybrid power systems as a

whole, it is vital to describe the key subsystems in the hybrid system at hand, the solar panel
7
and wind turbine.

8
2.2 Solar Panels

A solar panel simply refers to a panel designed to absorb the rays from the sun as a source of

energy for generating electricity or heating. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged

assembly of typically of 6×10 photovoltaic solar cells.

The solar cell is the basic building block of a PV power system. However, it is rarely

used individually because it is not able to supply an electronic device with enough voltage and

power. Thus, many photovoltaic cells are connected in parallel or series in order to achieve as

higher voltage and power output as possible. Figure 2.1 shows how unit solar cells are

developed into larger PV systems. Cells connected in series increases the voltage output while

cells connected in parallel increase the current (Geetha Udayakanthi, 2015).

Each PV cell is made up of semi-conductor material, such as silicon, which is currently

the most commonly used element in the semiconductor industry. Basically, when the light

strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This

absorbed energy knocks semiconductor electrons loose from the atoms in the semiconductor

material, allowing them to flow freely.

PV cells have one or more electric fields that act to force electrons that are freed by

light absorption to flow in a certain direction. The flow of these electrons brings about electric

current and by placing metal contacts at the top and bottom of the PV cell, the electric current

can be drawn for external use. This current together with the cell’s voltage which is a result of

the built-in electric field, define the power that the solar cell can produce. Therefore, PV

modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through the

photovoltaic effect as explained above. Some special forms of PV modules include

concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells. This facilitates

the use of cells with high cost per unit area in a cost-effective way.

9
Figure 2.1 Stages of Development of a PV System

10
2.2.1 Types of Solar Panel

Almost all the world’s photovoltaics today are based on some variation of silicon. The silicon

used in photovoltaics takes many forms. The main difference between these forms is the purity

of the silicon. The more perfectly aligned the silicon molecules are, the better the solar cell will

be at converting solar energy to electricity. Like semiconductors, solar photovoltaics need

purified silicon to get the best effici

ency and the price behind PV solar manufacturing is often determined by the crystalline silicon

purification process (Pickerel, 2015)

There are three basic types of solar panels. These are,

 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar panels

 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar panels

 Thin-film Solar panels

 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar panels

According to Maehlum (2015), these solar cells that make up thus types of solar panels

are easily recognizable by an external even colouring and uniform look which indicates

high-purity silicon as shown in figure 2.2. The solar cells are made out of silicon ingots

which are cylindrical in shape. Furthermore, to optimize performance and lower costs

of a single monocrystalline solar cell, four sides of the cylindrical ingots to make silicon

wafers, which gives monocrystalline panels their characteristic look.

11
 Figure 2.2 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Panel

Source: http://www.ledwatcher.com/solar-panel-basics-and-types-of-solar-panels-used-in-

flood-lights/

12
The advantages of this type of solar panels includes the following;

i. They have the highest efficiency rates since they are made out of the highest-

grade silicon. The efficiency rates of monocrystalline solar panels are typically

15-20%.

ii. Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since they yield the

highest power output, they require the least amount of space compared to any

other type of solar panel.

iii. Monocrystalline solar panels live the longest. Most manufacturers put a 25-year

warranty on their monocrystalline solar panels.

iv. Monocrystalline silicon solar panels tend to perform better than similarly rated

polycrystalline solar panels at low-light conditions (Maehlum, 2015).

The disadvantages of monocrystalline silicon solar panels include,

i. Monocrystalline solar panels are the most expensive

ii. If the solar panel is partially covered with shade, dirt or snow, the entire circuit

can break down.

 Polycrystalline silicon solar panels

The solar cells that make up this type of solar panels are made by first, melting raw

silicon and pouring it into a square mold which is cooled and cut into perfectly square

wafers as shown in figure 2.3. A good way to separate mono- and polycrystalline solar

panels is that polycrystalline solar cells look perfectly rectangular with no round edges.

This point can be confirmed by comparing the solar panel in figure 2.2 with that in

figure 2.3.

13
 Figure 2.3 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Panel

Source: http://m.en.ofweek.com/Product/215W-Polycrystalline-SIlicon-Solar-Panel-TSP215-

prod-65942-920700.html

14
One advantage of polycrystalline solar panels over monocrystalline solar panels lies in their

relative ease of production. The process used to make polycrystalline silicon is simpler and

costs less. The amount of waste silicon is less compared to monocrystalline.

However, polycrystalline solar panels also have their own disadvantages. These

include;

i. They are not as efficient as the monocrystalline solar panels. They have efficiency of

about 13-16%. This is because of the lower silicon purity compared to that of

monocrystalline solar panels.

ii. They have lower space-efficiency. This implies that larger space will have to be covered

to have the same electrical power as would be obtainable from a solar panel made of

monocrystalline silicon.

iii. Monocrystalline and thin-film solar panels tend to be more aesthetically pleasing since

they have a more uniform look compared to the speckled blue colour of the

polycrystalline silicon (Maehlum, 2015).

 Thin-film solar panels

The solar cells that make up this type of solar panels are manufactured by depositing

one or several thin layers of photovoltaic material unto a substrate. Figure 2.4 shows a

typical thin-film solar panel. These types of solar panels have reached efficiencies

between 7-13%. There are different types of thin-film solar cells and they are

categorized by which photovoltaic material is deposited on the substrate. The various

types include;

 Amorphous silicon (a-Si)

 Cadmium telluride (CdTe)

15
 Figure 2.4 Thin-film Solar Panel

Source: http://www.energyinformative.org/best-solar-panel-monocrystalline-

polycrystalline-thin-film/

16
  Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS)

 Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC)

The advantages of thin-film include the following;

i. Mass-production is simple. This makes it potentially easier to manufacture than

crystalline-based solar cells.

ii. They have a homogenous appearance that makes them look more appealing.

iii. They can be made flexible, which opens up new applications.

iv. High temperature and shading have less impact on the performance of the solar

panel.

Like other solar panels already considered, thin-film solar panels also have

disadvantages if their own. These are;

i. They are generally not useful in most residential situations. Although they are

cheap, they require a lot of space.

ii. Low space-efficiency also means that the cost of the supporting equipment will

also increase.

iii. Thin-film solar panels tend to degrade faster than the mono- and polycrystalline

solar panels. They thus have shorter warranty

2.3 Wind Turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind’s kinetic energy into electrical. The wind

turbine works by converting the kinetic energy of the wind to rotational kinetic energy in the

turbine and then electrical energy that can be supplied through the grid. The energy available

for conversion mainly depends on the wind speed and swept area of the turbine blades. The

wind turns the blades, which in turn, spins a shaft which is connected to a DC generator. This

17
generator thus, converts the mechanical energy produced by the spinning effect of the shaft, to

electrical energy.

Arrays of wind turbines are known as wind farms and these are becoming an

increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by many countries

as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels.

2.3.1 Types of Wind Turbine

Wind turbines can rotate about either about a horizontal or vertical axis, giving rise to the main

types of wind turbines available i.e. the horizontal axis and the vertical axis wind turbine. The

horizontal axis wind turbine is older and more common and generally more powerful than the

vertical axis turbines.

 Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have a main rotor shaft and electrical

generator at the top of a tower and must be pointed into the wind. A simple wind vane

is used to point small turbines in the direction of the wind while large wind turbines

generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. A typical HAWT is shown in

figure 2.5. Most HAWT have a gear box which turns the slow rotation of the blades

into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.

 Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically.

A typical VAWT is shown in figure 2.6. A major advantage of this arrangement over

that of HAWT is that, the turbine does not need to be pointed in the direction of the

wind to be effective, which is an advantage where the wind direction is highly variable.

Furthermore, the generator and the gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a

direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, thus improving the

accessibility for maintenance purposes.

18
 Figure 2.5 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine

Source: http://www.gogreengrid.com/2016/08/09/electricity-from-the-wind-how-wind-

turbines-work/

19
 Figure 2.6 Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine
Source: http://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2017/01/types-of-wind-turbine.html?m=1

20
 2.3.2 Output Power of Wind Turbines

The Output power of a wind turbine can be calculated using the following formula;

1
P = Aρv3
2

Where A = area swept by the turbine blades; 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2

r = radius of the circular path created by the rotational motion of the blade

Thus, r = length of each blade, ρ = Density of air = 1.225 kg/m3.

However, according to Betz (1966), no turbine can capture more than 16/27 (59.3%) of

the kinetic energy in wind. The factor 16/27 (0.593) is known as Betz’s coefficient.

Practical utility scale wind turbines achieve at peak 75% to 80% of the Betz limit. The real

world limit is well below the Betz limit with values of 0.35 – 0.45 common even in the

best designed wind turbines.

Thus, expected power output of the wind turbine considering the Betz coefficient is

calculated using the following formula;

1
𝑃 = 𝐴𝜌𝑣 3𝐶𝑝
2

Where Cp = Betz Power coefficient.

2.4 Review of Past Works and Studies Involving Hybrid Power Systems

A review of existing literature revealed that several scholars and engineers in several places of

the world have put in immense effort into the design of reliable hybrid power system. Almost

all of the publications reviewed have various purposes such as design for off-grid applications,

analysis, modelling, optimization, socio-economic study etc.

21
 Chedid (1997) worked on the provision of a computer-aided design tool that can help

designers to determine the optimal design of a hybrid wind-solar power system for either

autonomous or grid-linked applications. The analysis he proposed employed linear

programming to minimize the average production cost of electricity while meeting the load

requirement in a reliable manner. A controller that monitored the operation of the

autonomous/grid-linked system was also designed and used to determine the energy available

for each of the system components. This controller also gave details regarding the cost, unmet

and spilled charges, and battery charge and discharge losses.

Fesli et al. (2002) worked on the realization of a hybrid renewable energy system for a

domestic application, which ran under a microcontroller to utilize the solar and wind power.

the batteries in the system were charged by means of a small alternator or solar power through

a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) module. Real time control of the inputs and outputs

was carried out by 3 current sensors and 3 voltage sensors in the system.

Tina et al. (2006) presented a probabilistic approach based on the convolutional

technique to access the long-term performance of a hybrid solar-wind power system (HSWPS)

for both stand-alone and grid-linked applications. In order to estimate the energy performance

of HSWPS, the reliability analysis was performed by the use of the energy index of reliability

(EIR) directly related to energy expected not supplied. Analytical expressions were developed

to obtain the power generated.

Wang and Liu (2007) proposed a web-based, real-time, monitoring and control system

of a hybrid wind-PV-battery renewable energy system. The proposed hybrid system constituted

a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system that employs campus network of

the Cheng Kung University integrated with a programmable logic controller (PLC) and digital

power meters. They concluded from their results that the proposed monitoring and control

22
system can be effectively employed to various forms of renewable energy located in remote

areas.

Ahmed et al. (2007) worked on power fluctuations suppression of stand-alone hybrid

generation systems. The hybrid energy system they worked on combined variable speed wind

turbine, solar photovoltaic and fuel cell generation systems to supply continuous power to

residential power applications. The wind and photovoltaic systems were used as the main

energy sources while the fuel cell is used as secondary or back-up energy source. Three DC-

to-DC converters are used to control the power flow to the load. Their results showed that even

when the sun and the wind were not available, the system was still very reliable and available

and it can supply high-quality power to the load.

Diaf et al. (2008) carried out a study to estimate the appropriate dimensions of a stand-

alone hybrid PV/wind system that will guarantee the energy autonomy of a typical remote

consumer in Corsica Island, with the lowest cost of energy (LCE). They also compared the

performance and optimal sizing of two system configurations. From the results of their

simulations, they concluded that the hybrid system is the best option for all the sites considered

in the study because it yielded a lower LCE and higher system performance than PV or wind

systems alone.

Margeta and Glasnovic (2010), analysed a solar-hydro hybrid system that can provide

continuous electric power. Zhou et al. (2010), reviewed the current state of the simulation,

optimization and control technologies for the stand-alone hybrid solar-wind energy systems

with battery storage. From their study, they concluded that continued research and development

is still required for improving the system’s performance, establishing techniques for accurately

predicting their output and reliably integrating them with other renewable or conventional

power generation sources. Furthermore, they also proposed that in the future, artificial

23
intelligence should be included as part of the energy management system in order to assist

operators to further reduce the cost of the system.

Bekele and Tedesse (2012) suggested a PV-Hydro-wind hybrid system capable of

supplying uninterrupted electricity for a village in Ethiopia. A software named HOMER was

used to optimize six small hydro-power potential together with wind-PV systems.

Furthermore, Daud and Ismail (2012) designed and analysed a PV-wind-diesel hybrid

system for a family house in Palestine considering efficiency and reliability along with the

dumped electric power. Mishra et al. (2012), worked on the development of an indigenous

hybrid Solar-Wind power system that harnesses the renewable energies in the sun and wind to

generate electricity. In their design, the electric DC energies produced from the photovoltaic

and wind turbine systems were transported to a DC disconnect energy Mix controller. This

controller was bi-directionally connected to a DC-AC float charging-inverter system that

provides charging current to a heavy duty storage bank of battery and at the same time produced

inverted AC power to AC loads.

Prabhakar and Ragavan (2013) discussed power management strategies related to

battery assisted PV-wind-hydro hybrid systems. In their work, a control technique was

developed that estimates the load through the energy-balance model, dc-link voltage control

and drop control.

Akikur et al. (2013) carried out a study on stand-alone solar and hybrid systems, where

the solar-wind hybrid, solar-hydro hybrid and solar-wind-diesel-hydro/biogas hybrid have been

discussed and viability and significance of solar energy (both in standalone and hybrid form)

in global electrification have been shown.

24
 Meshram et al. (2013), proposed a hypothetical grid-connected solar-hydro hybrid

system. They proposed that grid-connected solar system to supply the power when solar energy

is abundant in summer, and hydro system is cut-off during operation. Similarly, during the

rainy season when water is abundant, the grid-connected hydro system is brought back in

operation and the solar system is cut-off.

Ismail et al. (2013), in their work, performed a feasibility study and a techno-economic

analysis of a PV system with batteries and micro turbine acting as a backup supply for the

system. Component sizing and optimization has been performed by iterative method to

minimize the Cost of Energy (COE) production.

Menshsari et al. (2013), discussed the optimization of hydro-wind-solar-fuel cell hybrid

using the ant colony algorithm. Saha et al. (2013), proposed a hypothetical hybrid system that

employs wind -solar-biogas-micro-hydro hybrid as major energy sources and also use a diesel

generator as emergency backup source.

Kumar and Garg (2013) modelled a solar-wind hybrid system using the SIMULINK

software. The simulation included all realistic components of the system and the power

delivered by the combined system component is compared with each other. Fadaeenejad et al.

(2014), has studied PV-wind-battery hybrid and PV-wind-diesel-battery hybrids with the aim

of rural electrification in Malaysia.

2.5 Review of Wind Energy Characteristics and Potential in Nigeria

Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for

electricity. Wind is the movement of air from an area of high pressure to an area of low

pressure. In fact, wind exists because the sun unevenly heats the surface of the earth. As hot air

rises, cooler air moves in to fill the void. As long as the sun shines, the wind will blow. Wind

25
power, as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,

clean, produces no greenhouse gases during operation, consumes no water and uses little land

(Fthenakis & Kim, 2009).

Today, wind power is not used in Nigeria for electricity production. However, the desire

to seek for a lasting solution to the energy situation in Nigeria prompted the government as

well as independent researchers to access the nation’s potential for wind energy (Ajayi O. ,

2009). The characterization of Nigeria’s wind profile started way back in mid-nineties when

Fagbenle et al. (1980) studied the wind potential of Nigeria and found out that a modal class

of about 3.0m/s characterised the 1951-1960 surface wind data at 10m height from twelve

meteorological stations. It also showed that mean wind speeds in the North were twice as high

as those of the south, while the high-altitude Jos station in Plateau State had the highest mean

wind speed of about 3.6 m/s.

Ojosu and Salawu (1990) analysed annual average wind data from 22 meteorological

stations for the period of 1951-1975. They concluded that the High altitude Sokoto station was

the windiest, with a monthly average wind speed of 5.12 m/s in June and an annual mean of

3.92 m/s. the report also showed that the middle belts and the southern parts had wind speed

values of at most 2.0 m/s.

Other studies include that of Adekoya and Adewale (1992), who analysed wind speed

data of 30 stations in Nigeria and determined the annual wind speeds and power flux densities

to vary from 1.5 m/s to 4.1 m/s and 5.7 to 22.5 W/m2, respectively. Fagbenle and Karayiannis

(1994) did an analysis of 10-years’ wind data from 1979 to 1988. It considered the surface and

the upper winds as well as the maximum gusts.

26
 Also, Ngala et al. (2007) did a statistical analysis of the wind energy potential in

Maiduguri (Borno State). It employed the Weibull distribution with 10 years (1995-2004) of

wind data.

Asiegbu and Iwuoha (2007) studied the wind in Umidike, South-Eastern Nigeria and

access its economic viability at a hub height of 65 meters above the ground with annual mean

wind speed of 5.36m/s using ten years (1994-2003) wind speed data. Fadare (2008) carried out

a statistical analysis of wind energy potential in Ibadan, using the Weibull distribution function

and ten years (1995-2004) daily wind speed data. The outcome was that the city experiences

average wind speed of 2.947 m/s and solar power density of 15.484W/m2.

Ogbonnaya et al. (2009) on the other hand worked on the prospects of wind energy in

Nigeria using four years of wind data from seven cities (Enugu, Jos, Ikeja, Abuja, Warri,

Sokoto and Calabar). The annual wind speed at 10 m above the ground varied from 2.3 to 3.4

m/s for sites along the coastal areas and 3.0-3.9 m/s for high land areas and semi-arid regions.

It was also reported that Sokoto is capable of a power potential as high as 97 MWh/yr. each of

these initiatives, in the limits of their uncertainties, identified that great prospects exist for wind

energy utilization for power generation. Moreover, wind speeds are generally weak in the south

except for the coastal regions and offshore. Offshore areas from Lagos through Ondo, Delta,

Rivers, and Bayelsa to Akwa Ibom States were reported to have potential for harvesting strong

wind energy throughout the year.

A review of studies on recently measured wind speed bands suggests that the nation

actually has better wind speeds than previously reported. For instance, Fadare (2010) showed

that the monthly wind speed measurements covering 1983 to 2003 ranging between 0.9 and

13.1 m/s characterize the notion’s wind speed profile against those of earlier measurements.

27
 Furthermore, Ajayi (2009) showed that peak wind speed generally occurs between

April and August for most sites in the analysis. Further analysis of these wind resources also

revealed that the North, Central and South east of the nation possesses enormous potential for

harvesting wind energy with possible wind speed reaching as high as 8.70 m/s.

Ajayi (2010) reported that wind in inland areas was strongest in the hilly regions of the

North, while the mountainous region terrains of the middle belt and northern fringes

demonstrated high potential for great wind energy harvest. However, he also observed that due

to varying topography of the country, large differences may occur within the same locality.

The values for wind speeds range from a low 1.4 to 3.0 m/s in the southern areas and 4.0-5.12

m/s in the extreme North, at 10 m height.

Nnaji et al. (2010) conducted a study that showed that total actual exploitable wind

energy reserve at 10 m height, may vary from 8 MWh/yr in Yola to 51 MWh/yr in the mountain

areas of Jos, Plateau and it is as high as 97 MWh/yr in Sokoto as these values increases at 30

m height. It was thus concluded that Nigeria fall into the poor/moderate wind regime.

Also, while Ojosu and Salawu (1990) reported a wind speed range between 2.16 and

4.84 m/s, and also 2.22 and 3.52 for Potiskuzm and Maiduguri, respectively, Fagbenle et al.

(2011) reported 3.90 and 5.85 m/s, and 4.35 and 6.33 m/s for the two places respectively. Such

observed differences may be due to increased wind speeds as a result of extensive deforestation

across the country (Miller & Cotter, 2013). Furthermore, according to Ajayi (2013), the

increase in deforestation can be due to developmental changes that have taken place across the

years and also possibly due to biomass burning. Another reason may be due to the effect of

climate change on wind speed variability.

28
2.6 Review of Solar Energy Characteristics and Potential in Nigeria

The sun is the most readily and widely available renewable energy source capable of meeting

the energy needs of the whole world (Adebayo, 2014). In fact, according to Tyagi et al. (2013),

solar energy can be seen as the anchor behind various forms of renewable energy. It anchors

hydro power where the hydrological cycle is being controlled by the sun as well as Wind power

where the movement of air is due to the heating effect of the sun on the atmosphere. They also

added that, in general, heat, kinetic, chemical and electrical energy can be provided via solar

energy conversion.

Oghogho et al. (2014) thus concluded that solar energy can be perceived as an ideal

energy source, because it is free and virtually limitless. One of the greatest assets that Nigeria

has that can facilitate solar energy generation in Nigeria is her geographical location, that is,

the equatorial region which is full of large quantity of solar radiation. Solar radiation is fairly

well distributed in Nigeria with average solar radiation of about19.8 MJm-2day-1 and average

sunshine hours of 6 hours a day, ranging between about 3.5 hours at the coastal areas and 9.0

hours at the far Northern boundary (Adebayo, 2014). Nigeria receives 4.851×1012 kWh of

energy per day from the sun. the solar radiation intensities range from 3.5-7.0 kWh per square

meter per day (Oseni, 2012).

Based on the Nigerian land area of 924 km2 and an average of 5.535 kWh/m2, the

country has an average of 1831.06 kWh of incident solar energy annually. The annual

insolation of the solar energy is value about 27 times the national conventional energy

resources in energy units and also over 117,000 times the amount of electric power that was

generated in 1998 (Chendo, 2002).

According to Nnaji and Unachukwue (2010), Nigeria (lying in the tropics) receives

abundant sunshine, where about 1500PJ (about 258 million of oil equivalent) could be available

29
annually form solar energy, if solar appliances with 5 percent conversion efficiency were used

over only one percent of the total land area of the country for the six months of the year.

Furthermore, Oseni (2012) gave detailed analysis of energy trends in Nigeria between

the year 2007 and 2008. He extensively presented ways of improving household access to

electricity and energy consumption pattern in Nigeria with a focus on using renewable energy

alternatives. He reported that Nigeria receives an average solar radiation at the levels of about

19.8 MJm-2 per day and average sunshine hours per day estimated at 6hday-1. He then

concluded that, with an average solar radiation level of about 5.5 kWh per day and the recent

improvements in PV panel efficiencies, it is possible to generate 190550 GWh of solar

electricity per year with solar panels covering only 1 percent of the entire land mass of Nigeria.

These facts and figures regarding Nigeria’s geographical location clearly indicates that

the potential to generate significant amount of electrical energy from solar energy is very high

for Nigeria. However, very little has been done in this direction as the government is yet to

take pragmatic steps toward developing and implementing policies and plans that will serve as

a base line on which solar energy utilization can thrive (Oghogho et al., 2014).

In this study, the wind speed characteristic of the site where the hybrid power system

will be situated, was first examined using a digital anemometer. The solar characteristics of

then area was also accessed. These were carried out to determine whether the area experiences

enough wind speed and solar radiation that will ensure the smooth operation of the system.

Subsequently, the hybrid power system was then designed and implemented by a combination

of a solar panel and wind turbine. A hybrid charge controller was also included to serve as a

multiplexer of the outputs from the wind turbine and solar panel. A battery is also included to

serve as auxiliary power source when the wind and solar energy are simultaneously

30
unavailable. Finally, an inverter is also included to convert the DC voltage output of the battery

into AV voltage that is usable domestically.

31
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

As stated earlier, the entire project at hand is divided into two major segments parts i.e. the

wind and solar energy subsystems. The wind energy subsystem consists of the wind turbine

while the solar energy subsystem is made up of the solar panel. The chapter starts-off with an

overview of the entire project. Then, it gives a description of the two major subsystems that

make up the hybrid power system. It also includes a description of the other subsystems such

as the charge controller, inverter and the battery that all combine to form the wind-solar hybrid

power system.

3.1 Project Overview

Figure 3.1 shows the block diagram that highlights subsystem blocks in the project. These

include, the solar panel, wind turbine, charge controller, battery, inverter as well as the loads,

either DC or AC loads. As shown in the diagram, the outputs from the wind turbine and solar

panel are multiplexed and fed in as input to the charge controller.

Furthermore, the charge controller’s output is the input to the battery which is

connected directly to the inverter. AC loads are powered by means of the output from the

inverter while DC loads are powered by connecting them directly to the battery. In addition to

the block diagram, Figure 3.2 has been included show the actual setup and application of the

hybrid system at hand. It shows how each of the subsystems in the block diagram will be inter-

connected at the end of the project.

32
 DC LOADS

WIND
TURBINE

CHARGE BATTERY
CONTROLLER

v SOLAR PANEL
INVERTER

AC LOADS

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of the Project

33
Figure 3.2 Setup of the Hybrid System

34
3.2 Description of the Components

From the block diagram, the hybrid power generation system includes the following;

i. Solar Panel

ii. Wind Turbine

iii. Charge Controller

iv. Battery

v. Inverter

Each of these blocks are described in the following subsections

3.2.1 Solar panel for the project

The solar panel used for the execution of this project is shown in Plate 3.1. It can also

be seen that the solar panel is a monocrystalline solar panel that is made up of 36 solar

cells. Its name plate specifications are presented in Table 3.1.

However, the decision to purchase this particular solar panel was not made abruptly.

The decision was made after considering some factors. These are:

 Type of Solar panel

As explained in section 2.2.1, there are three major types of solar panels and all have

advantages and disadvantages. Thus, the first step that was taken in selecting the type

of solar panel to use for the project at hand was to weigh the pros and cons of each of

these solar panel types. A decision was made to use a monocrystalline silicon solar

panel for the project at hand.

35
Plate 3.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar panel used for the Project

36
Table 3.1 Solar Panel Specifications

Characteristic Rating

Maximum power (Pm) 130 W

Power Allowance Range 3%

Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 22.08 V

Maximum Voltage(Vmax) 18.1 V

Short Circuit Current (Isc) 7.68 A

Maximum Current (Imp) 7.19 A

Maximum System Voltage 1000 V DC

Standard Test Conditions AM 1.5, 1000 W/m2 atTC= 25°C

37
 Being a project carried out by students, it is desirable that the project cost be minimized

as much as possible. This singular point could have eliminated monocrystalline solar

panels from the options. However, there were other considerations made. For example,

it is desired that the complete project be used for many years. Thus, a solar panel that

will last long was required and no other type of solar panel lasts as long as

monocrystalline solar panels. Furthermore, since solar panels generally do not have

high efficiency, it makes sense to go for the type of panels that offer the highest possible

efficiency. Again, monocrystalline solar panels offer the highest efficiency rates among

the types of solar panels available.

Moreover, since it is not a large-scale project, the sizes of the subsystems have

to be kept as small as possible. This point was also considered and a conclusion was

reached that a solar panel that offers high output and consumes relatively less space

was needed. Yet again, monocrystalline ticks this box because, as presented in the

earlier sections, they have a very high space-efficiency.

From the points stated above, it can be seen that, despite being relatively

expensive, the choice of a monocrystalline solar panel for the project is quite logical.

 Rating of Solar panel

The subsystems (e.g. the charge controller, inverter and the battery) involved in the

project are rated 12 V. This means that solar panel to be used for the project must be

able to supply this voltage or more. Thus, decision was made to use a solar panel that

has a rated nominal voltage of 12 V.

Solar panels that have rated nominal voltage of 12 V are capable of providing a

voltage output of approximately 18 V when in use. This is even greater than the 14 V

38
 that is required to charge the battery. Thus, the 12 V solar panel selected for the project

will serve its intended purpose without problems.

 Optimal angle of inclination of the solar panel

The Project at hand is to be implemented in Ile-ife, which is located on latitude 7°28’N

and longitude 4°34’E in Osun State, Nigeria. From carefully conducted research, it was

discovered that, if the latitude of a place is below 25°, the optimum fixed angle of

inclination of the solar panel is the product of the latitude and 0.87.

Therefore, for the project, the optimum tilt angle was calculated as follows;

Angle = 7.47° × 0.87 = 6.5°

Consequently, the supporting structure of the solar was designed provide the

required inclination/tilt and ensure that the solar panel generates the maximum power

it can generate at different instants.

3.2.2 Wind turbine for the project

Most modern wind turbines are horizontal-axis turbines and the wind turbine to be used for this

project is also a horizontal axis wind turbine as shown in Plate 3.2.

The components of the wind turbine include the following;

 Blades, which convert the wind energy to rotational shaft energy

 A drive train, including a gearbox and a DC generator

 A tower that supports the blades and the drive train

Figure 3.3 shows how these components are arranged on the wind turbine.

39
Plate 3.2 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine used for the Project

40
Figure 3.3 Components of Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine
Source: http://www.pitt.edu/~btb25/turbine.jpg

41
Just as was done for the solar panel, some considerations were made regarding how best to

design the wind turbine. These include;

 Type of Wind Turbine

Since the wind speed in Ile-ife is usually low, it is important to construct a wind turbine

whose power output is quite high. The type of wind turbine that produces that sort of

high output power is the horizontal-axis wind turbine. Consequently, the wind turbine

used for this project is a horizontal-axis wind turbine.

 Electric Motor Selection

The selection of the motor is the most important part of any wind turbine system. There

are many industrial motors in the market that can be used as a wind generator. However,

when selecting a motor to use for the wind turbine, it is important to choose a motor

that is capable of producing the required battery voltage at low RPM. This factor is

especially important in the project at hand sine it is going to be implemented in Ile–ife,

where the wind speed is relatively low.

Considering this above stated points led to the conclusion that a permanent

magnet motor was required. This is because, permanent magnet motors are widely

available, inexpensive and require low RPM to start producing electricity. This led to

the choice of a 30 V DC motor made by Ametek Lamb Electric Division which is rated

30 V at 325 rpm. The motor is shown in Plate 3.3. Although, it is impossible to attain

the rated speed of 325 rpm and consequently produce 30 V due to low wind speed in

the area, it is still possible to produce considerable amount of voltage. This is possible

because a permanent magnet motor is used as generator in the wind turbine. Thus,

electricity can be generated even at low speed.

42
.

Plate 3.3 DC Motor for the Wind Turbine

43
 Length of the turbine blades

From the formula for calculating the power output of a wind turbine, it is obvious that

the dimensions of the turbine blades have a great effect on the power output of the

turbine. The length of each blade represents the radius of the circular path formed by

the rotational motion of the blades. The longer the blades, the wider the area swept by

the blades and the higher the output power of the wind turbine. In view of this, the

blades were made about 1.5 m long so that the area swept by the blade will be

approximately 7 m2.

 Number of blades

It has been shown by wind turbine designers that, using three blades instead of two

blades increases the efficiency of the wind turbine by 3 percent. Four blades can also

be used instead of three but the increase in efficiency will only be about 0.5 percent

which relatively negligible. In view of this, the wind turbine used in this project was

designed to have three blades.

 Blade Material

As stated earlier, Ile-ife is a city where the wind speeds are relatively low and this fact

was put into consideration in the selection of the material from which the turbine blades

were made. It was concluded that a light material was needed as there will be great

difficulty in rotting the blades if they are heavy. Thus, a decision was made to use a

light, wooden material for the blades. After the design of the blades, they were sun-

dried in order to reduce or eliminate the moisture content of the wood. After this

process, the blades were weighed on a scale and they all weighed approximately 1.1 kg,

which is light enough for the project.

44
Putting all these considerations together, the wind turbine shown in plate 3.3 was designed for

the project. It has a circular disc at the centre to which all the blades are attached. The wind

turbine is also equipped with a wind vane that indicates the direction of the wind flow at every

instance. To perform this function properly, the head of the wind vane has to be positioned

perpendicularly to the wind flow.

3.2.3 Charge controller

The charge controller or the charge regulator limits the rate at which electric current is added

or drawn from the battery. It prevents overcharging and protect against overvoltage, which can

reduce battery performance or lifespan and may also pose safety risks.

The circuit diagram of the charge controller used for the project is given in Figure 3.4.

It can be observed from figure 3.4 that the charge controller consists of two identical circuits,

one for the solar panel output located on the top left and the other for the wind turbine output,

located at the bottom right. Thus, the mode of operation of the two circuits are the same. Taking

the circuit for the solar panel output for instance, the mode of operation of the circuit is

described as follows;

The MOSFET Q1 in the solar circuit operates as diode. Therefore, it allows current to

flow from the solar panel in the forward direction only, to the battery. This MOSFET is

important because it prevents the battery from self-discharging because current cannot flow

from the battery towards the power source. The MOSFET Q2 is a n-channel MOSFET whose

gate terminal is connected to the output of the collector junction of the PNP transistor Q3. The

n-channel MOSFET Q2 requires a negative gate voltage to turn it on and make it conduct

current.

45
Figure 3.4 Circuit Diagram of Charge Controller

46
The transistor Q3 is connected such that, when the emitter junction is forward biased and the

collector junction is reversed biased, a negative voltage is applied at the gate terminal and the

MOSFET Q2 becomes conducting. When this happens, the circuit is complete and there is an

output voltage to charge the battery.

The circuit is also designed such that it monitors the charging process of the battery.

The output of the battery is regulated to 12V by 7812 voltage regulator labelled U3 in the circuit

diagram. This 12V output is fed in to the relay RL1. Another 7812 voltage regulator labelled

U4 inputs a constant 12V is fed into the two operational amplifiers in the circuit.

The 7805 voltage regulator labelled U2 reduces the 12 V output of the 7812 regulator

to 5 V, which is supplied to the negative terminal of the two operational amplifiers U 1.A and

U 1.B. The op amps form a comparator circuit. The circuit is designed such that, when the

battery is fully charged and at 14.4 V, the relay is voltage energizing the relay R1 is cut-off and

the battery stops charging. Again, when the battery voltage decreases to about 12.7 V, the op

amp U 1.A energizes the relay again and the circuit is completed and the battery starts charging

again. This process is repeated several times in order to monitor the charging of the battery.

This is how the charge controller works.

Mathematically, the operation of the comparator circuit is explained as follows;

Resistor R11 and R12 form a voltage divider, where the instantaneous battery voltage

is the input voltage and the output of the voltage divider is connected to the positive input of

op amp U 1.B. This output voltage is the voltage across resistor R11.

When the battery is fully charged and has a voltage of 14.4 V, the output voltage of the voltage

divider is calculated as follows;

𝑅11
𝑉 = 𝑉 (3.1)
𝑜 𝑅11+𝑅12 𝐼

47
where, R11 = 15 kΩ, R12 = 27 kΩ, VI = 14.4 V.

Substituting the resistor values and the input voltage, Vo = 5.14 V. This implies that the

positive input voltage of U 1.B is 5.14 V while the negative input voltage of U 1.B is 5 V

(output of 7805 IC regulator). Op amp U 1.B is designed such that, it turns on when the positive

input voltage is greater or equal to the negative input voltage. When U 1.B is on, its output

causes U 1.A to turn off and by extension the relay RL1. This cuts off supply to the Q3 and Q5

causing the battery to stop charging.

When the battery voltage drops to 12.7 V, Vo becomes 4.54 V, which is less than the

negative input voltage of U 1.B, this causes U 1.B to turn off and U 1.A to turn on. U 1.A then

produces the 12 V output needed to energize the relay RL1. This in turn energizes the

transistors Q3 and Q5 and the battery starts charging again. This explains how the charge

controller prevents the battery from overcharging and consequently prolongs the life of the

battery.

While it is unlikely to get a very high voltage output from the wind turbine due to the

relatively low wind speed in Ile-ife, the sun radiation in the city is high enough to cause the

solar panel to produce an output voltage higher than that which is require to charge the battery.

Thus, the charge controller regulates the output voltage and current from the two sources before

giving a suitable output of about 14.4 V to the battery.

Failure to include this charge controller means that the battery will overcharge and as

earlier stated, it will eventually damage the battery. The charge controller may also prevent

completely draining (deep discharging) a battery or perform controlled discharges, depending

on the battery technology, to protect the battery life (David, 2007). The charge controller that

will be used for the project is shown in Plate 3.4. It has three LCD displays; two positioned

opposite each other and the third, just below the first two. The first two display the input voltage

48
from the wind turbine and solar panel respectively. The third displays the voltage and current

in the battery while it is charging.

3.2.4 Battery

As explained in chapter one, there is a need to store the power output from the wind turbine

and solar panel. The battery stores the DC output of these sources and it also supply power to

DC loads if required to do so.

The battery that will be used is a rated 12 V. The Amps hour (Ah) value of the battery

determines the quantity of charges that the battery can store. The Ah values of 12 V batteries

could range from small values like 6.5 Ah to values as high as 200 Ah. However, due to cost

and size of the project at hand, a battery of 75 Ah which is shown in plate 3.5 is used.

3.2.5 Inverter

Most of the appliance that we use nowadays run on AC power. Thus, any project involving

power generation has to be capable of producing AC output. The project at hand is no exception

to this. The power obtainable from the solar panel and wind turbine is DC power. To convert

this DC power to AC, an inverter is needed. The input voltage, output voltage and frequency

and overall power handling depend on the design of the circuitry. The inverter does not produce

any power; the power is provided by the DC source. A typical power inverter circuit a

relatively stable DC power source capable of supplying enough current for the power demands

of the system.

49
Plate 3.4 Charge Controller used for the Project

50
Plate 3.5 Battery used for the Project

51
The output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as the standard power line

frequency which is 50 Hz in Nigeria. The output voltage of the inverter is often regulated to be

the same as the grid line voltage, typically 120 or 240 V AC.

The inverter used in the project, as shown in the diagram of the actual set up of the

project in Plate 3.6, it is connected directly to the battery. Thus, the battery can be used to

power AC loads like light bulbs, fans etc. with the help of the inverter. The inverter changes

low voltage direct current power produced by the PV and/or wind turbine or stored in the

battery to standard alternating current power at 50 Hz suitable for household use. Due to the

cost and complexity of construction of a pure sine wave inverter, a modified sine wave is

employed.

3.3 Mounting of the Hybrid System

In order to get relatively high wind velocities, it is important that the wind turbine be positioned

at an elevated level. In view of this, the decision was made to mount the turbine on top of the

white house building of Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU), Ile-ife, Osun state. This

provided an elevation of 14m for the wind turbine which is enough to get relatively good wind

speeds.

Plate 3.7 shows the assembled hybrid solar-wind power system consisting of the solar

panel (on the right) and the wind turbine (on the left). Both subsystems have been mounted

upon the white house building of Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) to ensure that the wind

turbine is exposed to enough wind as possible and to ensure that there is no obstruction between

the solar rays and the solar panel. Thus, the location of this project is an ideal one.

52
Plate 3.6 Inverter used for the Project

53
Plate 3.7 The Complete Hybrid Power System

54
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

After selecting the best position to mount the system, the system was tested and results were

gotten for wind turbine and the solar panel. The results are presented in this chapter and

subsequently discussed. Graphs have also been included to put the relationships between

relevant variables in perspective.

4.1 Wind turbine Testing

This section provides the result obtained when the wind turbine was tested. To get the wind

speed at any given time, an anemometer was used. Also, to get the voltage output corresponding

to a particular wind speed, a digital multi-meter was used to measure the voltage generate by

the wind turbine for each wind speed. Subsequently, the power output of the wind turbine was

calculated for each of the wind speed measurements recorded. These results were taken at five-

minute intervals for thirty minutes. To enhance better analysis, the measurements were taken

in the morning, afternoon and evening.

The results of this measurements are presented in table 4.1. The value of the power

output of the wind turbine for any given wind speed was calculated using the formula in

equation 4.1,

1
𝑃 = 𝐴𝜌𝑣 3𝐶𝑝 (4.1)
2

where 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 = 7.07 m2, 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 in Osun State = 1.1902 kg/m3, v = wind speed in

m/s, 𝐶𝑝 = Betz power coefficient which is assumed to be 0.4 for this wind turbine.

55
Table 4.1 Data Collected from Wind Turbine During the Morning Session

Time Wind Speed (m/s) Output Voltage (V) Power (W)

07:30 am 2.3 3.30 20.48

07:35 am 1.8 2.75 9.81

07:40 am 2.5 3.56 26.30

07:45 am 2.6 3.62 29.58

07:50 am 1.9 2.92 11.54

07:55 am 2.3 3.32 20.48

08:00 am 2.0 3.09 13.46

08:05 am 2.6 3.65 29.58

08:10 am 2.4 3.44 23.27

08:15 am 2.1 3.15 15.59

56
Table 4.2 Data Collected from Wind Turbine During Afternoon Session

Time Wind Speed (m/s) Output Voltage (V) Power (W)

01:00 pm 2.1 3.15 15.59

01:05 pm 1.5 2.49 5.68

01:10 pm 1.3 2.22 3.70

01:15 pm 1.8 2.73 9.81

01:20 pm 1.1 2.05 2.24

01:25 pm 1.7 2.64 8.27

01:30 pm 0.8 1.53 0.86

01:35 pm 0.5 1.09 0.21

01:40 pm 1.1 2.03 2.24

01:45 pm 1.4 2.31 4.62

57
Table 4.3 Data Collected from Wind Turbine During Evening Session

Time Wind Speed (m/s) Output Voltage (V) Power (W)

06:00 pm 3.3 4.23 60.48

06:05 pm 3.1 4.11 50.14

06:10 pm 3.7 4.61 85.25

06:15 pm 3.0 3.97 45.44

06:20 pm 2.8 3.73 36.94

06:25 pm 3.4 4.30 66.15

06:30 pm 3.1 4.11 50.14

06:35 pm 2.9 3.89 41.05

06:40 pm 3.5 4.36 72.16

06:45 pm 2.5 3.58 26.30

58
4.2 Analysis and Discussion of Wind Turbine Test Results

From the results recorded in the tables, graphs were plotted to show the variation of wind with

time of the day as well as variation of the voltage and power output of the wind turbine with

speed. Figure 4.1 shows the graph of wind speed versus time, figure 4.2 shows the plot of

voltage output of the wind turbine versus wind speed and Figure 4.3 shows how the calculated

power output of the wind turbine varies with wind speed.

From figure 4.1, it is observed that throughout the test period, the wind speed never

exceeded 4.0 m/s. The highest wind speed recorded was 3.7 m/s which confirms the fact that

was stated earlier regarding Ile-ife being an area where wind speed is relatively low.

Furthermore, the graph shows that wind speed was at its highest in the evening between 6:00

pm and 6:45 pm while, it was lowest in the afternoon between 1:15 and 1:40 pm. The values

for wind speed recorded during the morning session were somewhere in between those for the

afternoon and evening.

Figure 4.2 shows how that the relationship between the output voltage of the turbine

and the instantaneous wind speed is fairly linear. The graph also indicates that the highest

voltage output recorded for the wind turbine was about 4.6 V. However, the hybrid system

being designed requires an input voltage of 12 V or even more. This implies that the wind

turbine will not be able to supply the required for the system to function. This is a direct

consequence of the relatively low speed of wind in Ile-ife. It further implies that, the main

source of power to the system will be the solar panel.

From figure 4.3, it can be observed how the power output of the turbine varies with the

instantaneous wind speed. From the formula for calculating output power of a turbine, it can

be deduced that the output power is proportional to the cube of the instantaneous wind speed

and that can be observed from the non-linear of the graph.

59
Figure 4.1 Graph of Wind Speed (m/s) Vs Time of the Day

60
Figure 4.2. Graph of Voltage Output Vs Wind Speed

61
Figure 4.3. Graph of Turbine Power Output Vs Wind Speed

62
 Furthermore, the graph also indicates the highest power output of the turbine throughout

the testing period was approximately 86 W which corresponds to the highest point in the power

curve plotted in figure 4.3.

4.3 Solar Panel Testing

Just as was done was done for the wind turbine, the solar panel was tested are three different

times during the day in order to determine how the output varies with changing weather

conditions. The results of the measurements are presented in Table 4.4.

The results recorded for the voltage and current are open-circuit voltage and short-

circuit current respectively. They were measured using a digital multi-meter placed across the

two leads of the solar panel. The output power was calculated by multiplying the voltage by

the current.

4.4 Discussion of Solar Panel Test Results

From the results recorded in table 4.4, it can be concluded that the solar panel is capable of

giving a voltage output that is greater than 12 V. This implies that the solar panel will be able

to power the system in the morning and afternoon conveniently. However, in the evening, when

the sun starts to set, the voltage output of the solar panel drops below 12 V and it becomes

unable to power the system.

From the results gotten from testing the wind turbine, it was concluded that the wind

turbine will never be able to provide the voltage needed to power the system at any time of the

day. Consequently, at evening time, when the output of the solar panel is not adequate to power

the system, the overall input of the system will not be enough to power the system.

63
Table 4.4 Data Collected from Solar Panel During Morning, Afternoon and
Evening Session

Period Open-circuit voltage Short-circuit Power(W)

(VOC) current (A)

Morning 19.91 6.95 138.37

Afternoon 21.68 7.53 163.25

Evening 11.50 3.57 41.06

64
 During this time, the 12 V battery serves as the only power source to the system and

ensures that the loads connected to the system receive enough power for a considerable period

of time in the evening. Moreover, considering that the project is to be used to power an office

where there is little or no activity at night, the problem of insufficient input from the wind

turbine and solar panel at evening time will not have much consequence.

4.5 Total Power Output of the Hybrid System

The total power generated by this system is given as the addition of the power generated by the

solar PV panel and the power generated by the wind turbine.

Mathematically, it can be represented as;

𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑊 + 𝑃𝑆 (4.2)

where,

PT = Total Power Generated

PW = Power Generated by the wind turbine

PS= Power Generated by the solar panel

For the results collected from testing the solar panel and the wind turbine, it can be seen that

the highest power outputs of the wind turbine and solar panel are 85.25 W and 163.25 W

respectively. This implies that the highest power output of the entire system can be calculated

as follows;

PT = 85.25 + 163.25 = 248.5 W

65
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

After recording, analysing and interpreting the results recorded, certain conclusions were

drawn from these. This chapter presents the conclusions drawn from the results as well as some

recommendations regarding similar projects in the future

5.1 Conclusion

The objective of this project was to design a portable power system that combines both a wind

turbine and a solar panel in one single unit. The main idea of combing the two systems together

was to try to achieve a constant electric power production, which would be available most of

the time.

The results of the tests carried out on the wind turbine showed that the wind speed was

highest in the evening while it was lowest after sunset in the afternoon. However, despite being

at its highest in the evening, the wind speed was still not high enough to make the wind turbine

generate up to or even more than 12 V. In fact, given the low wind speed characteristic of Ile-

ife, the wind turbine never produced the 12 V output needed to power the components that

make up the system. The highest voltage the wind turbine generated throughout the test period

was 4.6 V at wind speed of 3.7 m/s corresponding to output power of 85.25 W.

The results of the tests carried on the solar panel showed that it produced the required

voltage and power output in the morning and afternoon. This implies that the hybrid system

66
was available for use in the morning and afternoon periods despite the fact that the input from

the wind was insufficient during those periods.

However, in the evening, the solar radiation dropped to very low levels such that the

solar panel was not able to generate up to 12 V required to run the system. During this period,

the battery acted as the auxiliary power source ensuring that the system was still available

during this evening period for a considerable time.

Furthermore, considering that the hybrid system is to be used power an office where

there is very little or no activity during evenings, it can be concluded that the designed system

will serve its intended purpose satisfactorily even though there will be insufficient input at

some point during the day.

In summary, it can be concluded that the objectives set out at the beginning of the project was

achieved. Thus, the project was a success.

5.2 Recommendations

In view of future work on a project like this, the following recommendations could be useful;

 Efforts should be made by the project students to design a system that steps-up the

output of the wind turbine to about 12 V to increase the overall availability of the

system.

 The department should put forth efforts to assist students’ project financially to ease

the financial burden of projects on students.

 The department should make some of the materials needed for the successful

execution of the project available to students.

67
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 APPENDIX

Bill of Quantity(BOQ) for the Project

Subsystem Components Quantity Cost in Naira

(#)

Wind Turbine DC Motor 1 21,000

Turbine Blades 3 12,500

Supporting Stand + Wind Vane 1 8,000

Charge MOSFET (IRFP150N) 4 720

Controller
PNP Transistor (2N5401) 2 40

NPN Transistor (2N3904) 1 20

IC (LM324) 1 80

IC Voltage Regulator (7812) 2 60

IC Voltage Regulator (7805) 1 30

Diode (1N4007) 2 5

Relay (12 V) 1 120

Electrolytic Capacitor (4700 μF) 2 360

Electrolytic Capacitor (100 μF) 3 30

73
 Ceramic Capacitor (104) 3 30

LED (Green) 1 5

Digital Ammeter (100 A DC) 1 3,200

Digital Voltmeter (100 V DC) 1 3,000

Resistor (10 kΩ) 5 10

Resistor (1 kΩ) 3 6

Resistor (2.2 kΩ) 1 2

Resistor (470 kΩ) 1 2

Resistor (47 kΩ) 1 2

Resistor (27 kΩ) 1 2

Resistor (15 kΩ) 1 2

Ferro Board 1 100

Casing 1 250

Solar Panel (130 W Monocrystalline Silicon) 1 40,500

12 V Car Battery 1 22,000

Inverter 1 88,700

TOTAL COST 200,776

74
75