What is Work Performance

1.
A kind of evaluation report indicating how well an employee is executing the expected
related workactivities. Learn more in: Exploring Emotional Intelligence at Work: A Review of Current
Evidence
2.
It is an accomplishment of the assigned tasks for achieving organization’s goal. Learn more in:
Performance Appraisal System Effectiveness: A Conceptual Review
3.
It is an accomplishment of the assigned tasks for achieving organization’s goal. Learn more in:
Performance Appraisal

Job design
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Job design (also referred to as work design or task design) is a core function of human resource
management and it is related to the specification of contents, methods and relationship of jobs in
order to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the social and personal
requirements of the job holder or the employee.[1] Its principles are geared towards how the nature of
a person's job affects their attitudes and behavior at work, particularly relating to characteristics such
as skill variety and autonomy.[2] The aim of a job design is to improve job satisfaction, to
improve through-put, to improve quality and to reduce employee problems (e.g., grievances,
absenteeism).

Contents

 1Job characteristic theory

o 1.1Core job dimensions
o 1.2Critical psychological states
 2Techniques of job design
o 2.1Job rotation
o 2.2Job enlargement
o 2.3Job enrichment
o 2.4Scientific management
o 2.5Human Relations School
o 2.6Socio-technical systems
o 2.7Work reform
o 2.8Motivational work design
 3Economic theory
 4See also
 5References

Job characteristic theory[edit]

See also: Job characteristic theory
The job characteristic theory proposed by Hackman & Oldham (1976) [3] stated that work should be
designed to have five core job characteristics, which engender three critical psychological states in
individuals—experiencing meaning, feeling responsible for outcomes, and understanding the results
of their efforts. In turn, these psychological states were proposed to enhance employees’ intrinsic
motivation, job satisfaction, quality of work and performance, while reducing turnover. [4]
Core job dimensions[edit]

1. Skill variety — This refers to the range of skills and activities necessary to complete the job.
The more a person is required to use a wide variety of skills, the more satisfying the job is
likely to be.
2. Task identity — This dimension measures the degree to which the job requires completion of
a whole and identifiable piece of work. Employees who are involved in an activity from start
to finish are usually more satisfied.
3. Task significance — This looks at the impact and influence of a job. Jobs are more satisfying
if people believe that they make a difference, and are adding real value to colleagues, the
organization, or the larger community.
4. Autonomy — This describes the amount of individual choice and discretion involved in a job.
More autonomy leads to more satisfaction. For instance, a job is likely to be more satisfying
if people are involved in making decisions, instead of simply being told what to do.
5. Feedback — This dimension measures the amount of information an employee receives
about his or her performance, and the extent to which he or she can see the impact of the
work. The more people are told about their performance, the more interested they will be in
doing a good job. So, sharing production figures, customer satisfaction scores etc. can
increase the feedback levels.
Critical psychological states[edit]
The five core job dimensions listed above result in three different psychological states.

 Experienced meaningfulness of the work: The extent to which people believe that their job is
meaningful, and that their work is valued and appreciated (comes from core dimensions 1-3).
 Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of work: The extent to which people feel
accountable for the results of their work, and for the outcomes they have produced (comes from
core dimension 4).
 Knowledge of the actual results of the work activity: The extent to which people know how
well they are doing (comes from core dimension 5).

Techniques of job design[edit]

Job rotation[edit]
See also: Job rotation

Job rotation is a job design method which is able to enhance motivation, develop workers' outlook,
increase productivity, improve the organization's performance on various levels by its multi-skilled
workers, and provides new opportunities to improve the attitude, thought, capabilities and skills of
workers.[5] Job rotation is also process by which employees laterally mobilize and serve their tasks in
different organizational levels; when an individual experiences different posts and responsibilities in
an organization, ability increases to evaluate his capabilities in the organization. [6]
Job enlargement[edit]
See also: Job enlargement
Hulin and Blood (1968)[7] define Job enlargement as the process of allowing individual workers to
determine their own pace (within limits), to serve as their own inspectors by giving them
responsibility for quality control, to repair their own mistakes, to be responsible for their own machine
set-up and repair, and to attain choice of method. Frederick Herzberg[8]referred to the addition of
interrelated tasks as 'horizontal job loading'.
Job enrichment[edit]
See also: Job enrichment

Job enrichment increases the employees’ autonomy over the planning and execution of their own
work. Job enrichment has the same motivational advantages of job enlargement, however it has the
added benefit of granting workers autonomy. Frederick Herzberg[9] viewed job enrichment as 'vertical
job loading' because it also includes tasks formerly performed by someone at a higher level where
planning and control are involved.
Scientific management[edit]
See also: Scientific management

Under scientific management people would be directed by reason and the problems of industrial

unrest would be appropriately (i.e., scientifically) addressed. This philosophy is oriented toward the
maximum gains possible to employees. Managers would guarantee that their subordinates would
have access to the maximum of economic gains by means of rationalized processes. Organizations
were portrayed as rationalized sites, designed and managed according to a rule of rationality
imported from the world of technique.[10]
Human Relations School[edit]
See also: Human relations movement

The Human Relations School takes the view that businesses are social systems in which
psychological and emotional factors have a significant influence on productivity. The common
elements in human relations theory are the beliefs that

 Performance can be improved by good human relations

 Managers should consult employees in matters that affect staff
 Leaders should be democratic rather than authoritarian
 Employees are motivated by social and psychological rewards and are not just "economic
animals"
 The work group plays an important part in influencing performance [11]
Socio-technical systems[edit]
See also: Sociotechnical systems

Socio-technical systems aims on jointly optimizing the operation of the social and technical system;
the good or service would then be efficiently produced and psychological needs of the workers
fulfilled. Embedded in Socio-technical Systems are motivational assumptions, such as intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards.[12]
Work reform[edit]
Work reform states about the workplace relation and the changes made which are more suitable to
management and employee to encourage increased workforce participation.
Motivational work design[edit]
The psychological literature on employee motivation contains considerable evidence that job design
can influence satisfaction, motivation and job performance. It influences them primarily because it
affects the relationship between the employee's expectancy that increased performance will lead to
rewards and the preference of different rewards for the individual. [13]
Hackman and Oldman developed the theory that a workplace can be redesigned to greater improve
their core job characteristics. Their overall concept consists of:

 Making larger work units by combining smaller, more specialized tasks.

 Mandating worker(s) to be responsible via having direct contact with clients.
 Having employee evaluations done frequently in order to provide feedback for learning.
 Allowing workers to be responsible for their job by giving them authority and control. [14]
A similar theory was also mentioned earlier by Frederick Herzberg. Herzberg theory consist of a Two
Factor Theory:

1. Hygiene Factors
2. Motivational Factors

Economic theory[edit]
In economics, job design has been studied in the field of contract theory. In
particular, Holmström and Milgrom (1991) have developed the multi-task moral hazard model.
[15]
 Some of the tasks are easier to measure than other tasks, so one can study which tasks should
be bundled together.[16] While the original model was focused on the incentives versus insurance
trade-off when agents are risk-averse, subsequent work has also studied the case of risk-neutral
agents who are protected by limited liability. In this framework, researchers have studied whether
tasks that are in direct conflict with each other (for instance, selling products that are imperfect
substitutes) should be delegated to the same agent or to different agents. [17] The optimal task
assignment depends on whether the tasks are to be performed simultaneously or sequentially. [18]

Definition of work/job design

Work/job design is used to assess how tasks or the entire job is organised within the work environment, and
then ensure these are well-matched to the attributes of the employee. While both terms, job design and
work(place) design are used interchangeably, job design has a focus on those administrative changes that are
required to improve working conditions, with work design having a more pragmatic approach and addressing
those adjustments that may be required to workstations, tools, and body positions to allow the worker to
function more effectively [1]. A properly designed job guarantees that the worker is able to accomplish what is
required in a safe and healthy fashion, and thereby reduce physical and psychological strain. Further, it helps
with the organisation of work, e.g. in identifying issues such as: work overload, repetitiveness, and limited
control over work; and thereby improve on occupational safety and health (OSH) within organisations. A well-
designed job could result in more engaged, healthy and productive employees, and these outcomes would
benefit both employees and organisations.

The relevance of work/job design to the organisation

It is an accepted belief that all work activities will have physical and mental demands on workers; if this is kept
to within acceptable levels, then performance is maintained as well as the health and well-being of the worker;
but if the demands exceed the workers’ capacity, then errors, accidents, injuries, and a reduction in physical
and mental health could occur [2]. The application of job design principles should help in identifying suitable
facilities, furniture, machines and tools that are designed and allocated to be compatible with workers’
attributes, inclusive of size, strength, aerobic capacity, information-processing capacity, and expectations [3].
When this match of the worker to the environment relates to the psychosocial aspect of work, then it is known
as person-environment fit, i.e. that the demands of the organisation correspond to the abilities of the
employee [4]. [5].
Work/job design, as a process, could address factors within the work environment e.g. control, work
overload/underload, ergonomic aspects associated with musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), shift work,
repetitiveness, excessive working hours, job stress/strain, and a limited understanding of the job process. As
such, one of its aims is to improve productivity and the psychosocial climate [6]. Another aim could include
improving on employees’ health by allowing them more control on the job and thereby reducing the work-
related stress which may result in serious health problems such as for example myocardial infarction [7].
Due to the changing nature of the work environment, i.e. moving to a stronger service economy, the increasing
number of women in the workforce and the large number of older workers who remain employed for longer
periods than ever before; the requirement for good work design and/or good job design is crucial to retain
productive, safe and healthy employees. As well, jobs are increasingly less focused on the physical aspects of
work, but concentrate more on using mental processes. There is a perception also that as work becomes more
complex that this blurs the line between mental and physical activities [8]. The influences on the context and
complexity of jobs and work include globalisation, lean production, automation, the change from monotonous
tasks to complex tasks, and the upgrading of work related to the increased educational level of the workers.
These factors are not stagnant and as societies change and the meaning of ‘work’ continues to evolve, the
dynamics of how jobs and work is carried out will evolve as well.

Benefits of suitable work/job design

The way in which a job is designed has great impact on the attitude, beliefs and feelings of the employee [9].
These include organisational commitment [10]., work motivation [11]., performance [12]., job satisfaction [13]., mental
health [14]., reduced turnover [15]. [16]., and sickness absence [17]. Poor design impacts also on training and training
costs as a poor design could increase the time to learn the system, and requires more skilled trainers and more
highly skilled employees. [18].

The benefits that could be attained when work/job design is assessed are highlighted in a study that showed
that while the adjustment of rest breaks among workers in a meat-processing plant did not reduce productivity,
one of the usual outcomes of work/job design, it did increase well-being. [19]. This study illustrated that a
relatively inexpensive adjustment to the work environment realised positive outcomes to both employees and
the organisation.

The process of work/job design

Work and job design should occur within organisations when a new job is created or when the work and jobs
no longer fit the worker or exceed the capacity of an individual employee. This is shown when the workers
display ill health, such as musculoskeletal strain or psychosocial strain [20]., and is usually the time when
interventions are needed to address the adverse effects of work. However, effective organisations should have
monitoring procedures in place to assess continuously workers’ safety, health and performance levels; and
thereby reduce ill health. The periodic assessment of the job or tasks is preferable as it should be able to
identify if changes or adjustments are needed to the way in which employees carry out their duties. See Table
1.
There are various elements of and in the work environment that should be considered when organising or
carrying out work/job design, as they may influence employees’ effectiveness. Some of these are: cold
environments (to reduce cold stress) [21]. [22]. the physical capabilities of the worker, such as ‘reach’ if needing to
move the upper body in completing duties [23]., matching the worker to the job to ensure that the control that is
allowed is what is required or needed by the worker or that the demands of job meets the worker’s abilities to
carry out those demands [24]. Other elements that should be considered, as they are seen as risk factors are:
forceful exertions, awkward positions, localised mechanical contact stresses, vibration, temperature extremes,
repetitive exertions and sustained or prolonged static exertions or postures [25].
Table 1: Stages in a job design

Source: CCOHS, 2002 [26].

The end result of any work or job design intervention is to achieve jobs with the following qualities:

 Task variety. An attempt must be made to provide an optimal variety of tasks within each job. Too
much variety can be inefficient for training and frustrating for the employee. Too little can lead to boredom
and fatigue. The optimal level is one that allows the employee to rest from a high level of attention or effort
while working on another task or, conversely, to stretch after periods of routine activity.
 Skill variety. Research suggests that employees derive satisfaction from using a number of skill
levels.
 Feedback. There should be some means for informing employees quickly when they have achieved
their targets. Fast feedback aids the learning process. Ideally, employees should have some responsibility
for setting their own standards of quantity and quality.
 Task identity. Sets of tasks should be separated from other sets of tasks by some clear boundary.
Whenever possible, a group or individual employee should have responsibility for a set of tasks that is
clearly defined, visible, and meaningful. In this way, work is seen as important by the group or individual
undertaking it, and others understand and respect its significance.
 Task autonomy. Employees should be able to exercise some control over their work. Areas of
discretion and decision making should be available to them [27].
The different aspects of job design could be incorporated into a model so that the design to output stages is
clearly visible, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows the job characteristics that should be included into any
design, as well as those factors that impact on these factors, such as responsibility, and the outcomes that
should be expected e.g. well-being, at the end of a well-designed process.

Figure 1: An integrative model of job design

Source: Grant, A. M., Fried, Y., & Juillerat, T., ‘Work matters: job design in classic and contemporary
perspectives’, In Zedeck, S. (Ed.), APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, 1. Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association, 2010, pp. 417-453, p. 427. Reprinted with permission. [28].
Cost of work/job design
The cost effectiveness of work/job design interventions is seldom calculated, and when this is combined with
the low reporting of unsuccessful interventions, [29]. makes it difficult to thoroughly assess those designs that
are most useful in promoting to other organisations. If organisations are to realise the importance and cost
benefits of doing work/job design in a consistent manner, then they need to see the effectiveness of doing
these types of interventions. This is obtained by proper record keeping of what has happened, when it has
happened and the favourable or unfavourable outcomes.

However, the costs of the consequences of poor design and the poor synchronisation between the worker and
the work could be calculated. For example, MSDs may occur because of poor design. Even though MSDs may
be non-work related [30].; as they affect the muscles, joints, tendons and other parts of the musculoskeletal
system [31]., they impact the workability of employees. MSDs account for a higher proportion of sickness
absence from work than any other health condition, which amounts to roughly half of all work-related
disorders in EU member states. In economic terms, it is estimated that up to two per cent of gross domestic
product (GDP) is accounted for by the direct costs of MSDs each year. In the Netherlands, for example,
repetitive strain injury (RSI) at work costs €2.1billion each year [32]. Too many MSDs caused by work are
preventable by better work organisation, job design and through ergonomic interventions [33]. In the United
Kingdom (UK), MSDs are the most common cause of occupational ill health in Great Britain, currently affecting
one million people a year and costing society £5.7 billion [34].

Ways to ensure good work/job design

A good work or job design would, for example, involve employees, provide good feedback on performance, as
well as balance static and dynamic work. It is important to assess the cognitive aspects of the job as well as the
physical aspects, as correcting only the physical hazards in the job will not realise sustainable results of
improving employee performance [35]. Other factors to consider are person factors, such as age, as age is a
contributory reason to how tasks are done, but this may be mitigated by training and experience [36]. [37]. and to
controlling overload [38]. Gender is another factor that should be incorporated into work/job design, especially
considering the increasing number of women in the workforce. Work/job design should take into account also
the physical capabilities of the individual worker, [39]., rather than using data based on the ‘average’
employee [40]. [41]. This includes gender, as women and men in general, have different physical capacity. As
such, the stereotypical job description may not be appropriate for all employees and this could be addressed
through observation and carrying out simple tests or carefully calibrated measurements of strength, physical
fitness and aptitude to ‘adjust’ the job to the worker [42]. Further, it is possible to enhance the worker’s capacities
through physical conditioning programmes and preliminary job training [43].
With respect to the age factor, one study of older Finnish fire fighters and policemen showed that they had
reduced physical work capacity, which may contribute to overstrain and increase risk for injuries in occupational
peak load situations. It was proposed that the fire fighters and policemen engage in regular and effective
physical training to maintain a sufficiently high level of physical work capacity [44]. Overall, it is recommended
that jobs are redesigned to counteract the effects of ageing [45]. The lower physical workloads that many
workers now experience may reduce health due to the lower physical activity involved and it is proposed that
work is designed to take this factor into account [46].
Another simple way to improve on work/job design is to ensure that the personal protective equipment (PPE)
that is available for employees does fit. Generally, PPE is designed for the average-sized white male worker,
which may be disadvantageous and hazardous to men, who may not fall within the average-size range, as it
would be to women and to ethnic groups that also may not reflect the average-size of an employee. These
latter groups may find that they are unable to obtain proper fitting PPE that is readily available [47]. [48].
Other ways to improve on the design of work is to directly observe the employee on the job, rather than
assessing through interviews or structured questionnaires. This is especially important for jobs in the service
sector with workers who are required to use specific equipment, but who do not fit into the ‘norm’ with respect
to size. One study in the retail sector observing female employees using laser scanners was able to observe
the issues that led to e.g. fatigue (posture, reach, awkward tasks, length of shift, pressure to work quickly) and
MSDs (uncomfortable postures, seating e.g. the relationship between the seat and counter heights) [49]. This
direct observation allowed the operational problems to be seen as they occurred, especially in the context of
the ‘smaller’ worker having to use ‘average’ size equipment.
Jobs can be assessed by specially designed measures such as the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) and
Multimethod Job Design Questionnaire (MJDQ) that target various elements of the job, inclusive of tasks, skills,
motivation and autonomy[50] [51]. [52] [53], Recent measures include the Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ), which
aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the job/work design process, inclusive of task characteristics,
task variety, information processing, problem solving and skill variety [54].
This process of enriching/enchaining jobs is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Some suggestions for enriching jobs

Core Job Dimensions

Principles of Job Design
Incorporated

• Skill variety
1
Combine jobs, enabling workers to perform the entire job
.
• Task identity

• Skill variety

2 Establish client relationships, allowing providers of a service to meet • Autonomy

. the recipients • Feedback

3 Loads job vertically, allowing greater responsibility and control • Autonomy

. overwork

4 Open feedback channels, giving workers knowledge of the results of • Feedback

. their work

Source: Greenberg & Baron, 1995, p. 151[55].

A holistic approach
There is recent research that suggests that a holistic approach to work/job design is a more feasible option in
ensuring that individuals’ experience and needs are incorporated into the process. See Table 3. This means
including biology, economics, sociology, and anthropology, in addition to the psychological element that
assesses the ‘person’ rather than tying to implement previous defined attributes to the job, and the person,
such as growth need strength (GNS).[56]. GNS refers to ‘the strength of the respondent’s desire to obtain
“growth” satisfaction from his or her work’ [57].[36], which is reflected in obtaining autonomy, independence, a
sense of accomplishment and self-actualisation [58].[38]. The usefulness of this perspective is shown in the
assessment of Danish cleaners who were provided with new equipment and forms of work organisation to
improve on efficiency, but which were seen to have negative health impacts on the cleaners’ bodies. Further
investigation showed that the new equipment did not reduce the impact on the muscle load levels or the load
on their hearts. The researchers recommended taking a more comprehensive strategy to work redesign [39].
The progression to a more comprehensive approach is even more important as it may seem that the process of
work/job design may not have progressed as much as it could. Research from close to forty years showed that
the use of one or two factors when redesigning jobs did not lead to positive impacts on workers’ motivation, job
involvement, growth need satisfaction or improved their close relationships [59].[7].

Table 3: Factors to include in a holistic approach

Goals: Job design models need to take greater account of goals that motivate and direct job
incumbents, and how they alter according to life circumstance. This could benefit from a self-
1
regulatory frame that would enable the prediction of the different adaptive strategies (shift goals, alter
.
perceptions, change behaviours, self-appraisal) that individuals may deploy when taking on a role, or
over the duration of extended incumbency.

Individual differences: A deeper appreciation is needed for the role of stable individual differences in
2 people’s adoption and performance of work roles. This would be especially appropriate in assessing
. the degree to which job incumbents actively seek to ‘craft’ or more radically alter their jobs, and how
they appraise the risks of doing so.

Sex: Various predictions could be tested around the preferences and choices men and women
3
characteristically make around some of the main parameters of work roles, including modes of
.
enactment, responses to incentives, pursuit of status, and other outcomes.

Status: As a primary goal of most employees (subject to gender and individual differences variation),
4 this probably deserves more separate attention than it has received, since it is critical not just to the
. familiar parameters of job design, such as discretion, but also to a range of valued outcomes. The
likelihood of status seeking impairing other aspect of person-job fit in particular could be investigated.

Group context: How jobs are embedded in networks of interaction and association is also a key
5 consideration for understanding how people respond to pressures, incentives and rules. Cooperation
. and completive behaviours are readily induced by management frameworks. The role of supervisors
as active elements in the co-evolution of job incumbent’s response to work is also implicated.

Wider contact: The co-evolutionary argument is that the work environment operates as cultures, and
6 sometimes committed, within which different strategies for optimising person-job fit may be enacted.
. The evolutional approach requires the integration of levels of analysis and can help the field to
integrate the plethora of current mid-range theorising around topics in job design.

Source: Nicholson, 2010, p. 429 [60].

It is important to realise that the process of job/work design should be seen as one that is long-term and is
continuous, if effective and sustainable effects are to be achieved. Although short-term assessments are useful
and would realise change, job/work redesign that is done over longer periods would allow evaluations at
different stages of the process to gauge progress in the outcomes, [61] and thereby determine if these are
achieving the required results or would need to be adjusted.
Conclusions
Job/work design has evolved and continues to evolve to meet the demands of a dynamic work environment. An
holistic approach [62] [63] [64] that is in line to obtain an output of organisational excellence sees a movement away
from job design to an integrated improvement strategy [65], that is one that is incorporated into the work
principles of the organisation and not seen as a ‘one-off’ intervention.