Lesson 1.

1: True or False
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Science is both a way of gaining knowledge and a body of knowledge.

_____ 2. There is no place for imagination and creativity in science.

_____ 3. All science is based on evidence and logical thinking.

_____ 4. Any idea can be investigated through scientific inquiry.

_____ 5. Scientific investigations always follow the same sequence of steps.

_____ 6. A good experiment must have one factor that can be manipulated.

_____ 7. Data in the form of numbers is called qualitative data.

_____ 8. Taking many measurements and averaging the results may correct random
errors in data.

_____ 9. If data from an experiment do not support a hypothesis, then the experiment is
a failure.

_____ 10. A scientific theory is just an educated guess about why something occurs.

Lesson 1.1: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

The Importance of Community in Science

Although each scientist may perform experiments in her lab alone or with a few helpers,
she will write up her results and present her work to the community of scientists in her
field. Initially, she may present her data and conclusions at a scientific conference,
where she can talk with other scientists and get feedback on her work. Using what she
learns, she may go on to write a professional paper about her research and submit it to
a scientific journal. Before the paper is accepted for publication, several scientists who
are experts in the same field will review it. This is called peer review. These other
scientists may suggest changes to the paper, and they will recommend whether or not
the paper should be published. Once a paper is published, other scientists can learn
about the work and may incorporate the results into their own research. Some scientists
may try to replicate the experiment to see whether they get the same results. In this
way, the knowledge base of science builds toward a greater understanding of nature.

The scientific community influences the quality and type of research that is done by
scientists. For example, other scientists help determine which research projects receive
funding. Most scientific research is expensive, so a scientist must write a research
proposal to a funding agency, such as the National Science Foundation, requesting
money to pay for equipment, supplies, and salaries. Scientific proposals are reviewed
by other scientists in the field. In many fields, the funding rate is low and the money
goes only to the most worthy research projects.

The scientific community monitors scientific integrity. During their scientific training,
students learn how to conduct good scientific experiments. They learn not to fake, hide,
or selectively report data. They also learn how to fairly evaluate data and the work of
other scientists. Considering how much scientific research is done, there are very few
incidents of scientific dishonesty. However, when such an incident occurs, it generally
receives a lot of media attention. This may cause the public to mistrust scientists and
scientific research in ways that are unfounded. Scientists who do not have scientific
integrity are strongly condemned by the scientific community.

Questions

1. What is peer review, and why is it important?

2. How does the scientific community influence the quality and type of scientific
research that is done?

3. How does the scientific community promote scientific integrity?

Lesson 1.1: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Which of the following is a valid science lab safety guideline?

a. Do not eat or drink anything while in the lab.

b. Wear a drawstring hoodie to protect yourself from chemicals.

c. Wait to clean up any spills until you complete the lab procedure.

d. Change the lab procedure if necessary to improve the experiment.

2. Which of the following is relevant to scientific inquiry?

a. moral judgments
 b. personal opinions

c. assumptions about nature

d. none of the above

3. Which of the following ideas are basic to science?

a. Rules of nature may be different elsewhere in the universe.

b. Once accepted, scientific ideas are not subject to change.

c. Natural events and processes have natural causes.

d. all of the above

4. To be useful, a scientific hypothesis must

a. be true.

b. be testable.

c. be very specific.

d. apply in all situations.

5. Scientists may collect data by

a. doing experiments.

b. making observations.

c. taking measurements.

d. all of the above

6. In a good scientific experiment, the dependent variable depends on the

a. experimental controls.

b. independent variable.

c. experimental error.

d. none of the above

7. Assume that a scientist is measuring mass in an experiment. The balance she is

using is not set at zero, so it always measures mass a little too high. What type of
error does this cause in her data?

a. random error
 b. observer error

c. systematic error

d. two of the above

Lesson 1.1: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. testable, plausible explanation for a scientific question

_____ 2. series of steps scientists use to investigate questions

_____ 3. factor that must remain the same in an experiment so it does not affect the
outcome

_____ 4. factor in an experiment that the researcher changes

_____ 5. scientific explanation that is supported by many observations

_____ 6. factor measured as the outcome of an experiment

_____ 7. useful representation of a real system that is simpler than reality

Terms

a. hypothesis

b. theory

c. control

d. dependent variable

e. independent variable

f. model

g. scientific method

Lesson 1.1: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. The scientific method typically begins with a(n) __________.

2. Before developing a hypothesis, a scientist typically undertakes __________.

3. A physical representation of a real object, such as a globe of the world, is a(n)

__________ model.

4. If a hypothesis is tested and supported repeatedly, it may become a(n)

__________.

5. A general idea about how something works is a(n) __________ model.

6. The scientific method typically ends with a(n) __________.

7. A set of equations that represents a real-world process is a(n) __________

model.

Lesson 1.1: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Explain why models are used in science, and compare and contrast three different
types of scientific models.

Lesson 1.2: True or False

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Earth science deals with Earth’s lands, oceans, and atmosphere.

_____ 2. Most Earth scientists specialize in studying one aspect of the planet.

_____ 3. Seismologists forecast major storms to save lives and property.

_____ 4. Oceanography can be accurately defined as the hydrology of the oceans.

_____ 5. Meteorologists collect data using technologies such as radar and satellites.
_____ 6. All the branches of Earth science are connected.

_____ 7. A lunar geologist might study minerals and rocks under the oceans.

_____ 8. Climatologists are interested in long-term changes in the atmosphere.

_____ 9. Environmental science is the study of how the environment affects people.

_____ 10. Astronomy is defined as the study of the geology of other planets.

Lesson 1.2: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Introduction to Earth Science

Earth science consists of many branches of knowledge concerning planet Earth. It deals
with any and all aspects of Earth: its lands, interior, atmosphere, and oceans. Earth is a
very large and complex set of systems. Therefore, most Earth scientists focus on just
one aspect of the planet.

The main branches of Earth science are geology, meteorology, climatology,

oceanography, and environmental science. Each branch has a different focus. For
example, geology focuses on Earth’s solid materials and structures and the processes
that create them. Geology, in turn, is divided into several branches, including
mineralogy, planetary geology, marine geology, and seismology. Mineralogy, for
example, is the study of the composition and structure of minerals. Seismology is the
study of earthquakes and their causes. Because all of Earth’s systems are
interconnected, researchers in different branches of Earth science generally must work
together to answer complex questions.

Questions

1. What is Earth science? Why does Earth science have many branches?

2. Identify the main branches of Earth science.

3. What is the focus of the branch of Earth science known as geology? How is
geology divided into branches?

4. Why must scientists in different branches of Earth science generally work

together to answer complex questions?

Lesson 1.2: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. The main branches of Earth science include

a. geology.

b. climatology.

c. meteorology.

d. all of the above

2. Which of the following questions would most likely be addressed by a geologist?

a. How do hurricanes form?

b. What causes ocean currents?

c. What is the composition of rocks?

d. How do human actions affect the climate?

3. A planetary geologist might study the

a. minerals found inside Earth.

b. composition of Earth’s surface.

c. minerals and rocks on Mars.

d. all of the above

4. A marine geologist might study

a. organisms that live in the ocean.

b. movements of ocean water.

c. rocks on the ocean floor.

d. none of the above

5. If a student wants to learn more about tornadoes, she should take a class in

a. seismology.

b. climatology.

c. meteorology.
 d. environmental science.

6. If an oil company wanted to hire a scientist to locate oil reserves in rocks under
Earth’s surface, the company would most likely hire a(n)

a. paleontologist.

b. hydrologist.

c. geologist.

d. ecologist.

7. Mineralogy is a branch of

a. oceanography.

b. astronomy.

c. seismology.

d. geology.

Lesson 1.2: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. study of fossils

_____ 2. study of Earth’s solid materials and structures and the processes that create
them

_____ 3. study of Earth’s atmosphere

_____ 4. study of earthquakes and their causes

_____ 5. study of weather and weather patterns

_____ 6. broad science that deals with all aspects of planet Earth

_____ 7. study of the effects of people on the environment

Terms
a. geology

b. meteorology

c. climatology

d. paleontology

e. environmental science

f. Earth science

g. seismology

Lesson 1.2: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. Scientists who study the composition and structure of minerals are called
__________.

2. __________ are scientists you study the geology of other planets.

3. The study of water and its movements, distribution, and quality is __________.

4. The study of everything in the ocean environment is __________.

5. A(n) __________ studies ocean currents, waves, and tides.

6. A(n) __________ studies rocks and geologic processes of ocean basins.

7. A(n) __________ studies life in the oceans.

Lesson 1.2: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

What is a question that might be investigated by an environmental scientist? Identify

another branch of Earth science that might be called upon to help answer the question.
Explain your choice.

Lesson 2.1: True or False

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Constructive forces can change a high mountain to a flat plateau.

_____ 2. A volcanic eruption can be a constructive or destructive force.

_____ 3. The ocean floor is a flat, featureless surface.

_____ 4. Mountains rise when continents collide.

_____ 5. A stream flowing down a mountainside is a constructive force.

_____ 6. Continental margins consist of oceanic crust.

_____ 7. Many ocean trenches are located around the edge of the Pacific Ocean.

_____ 8. Changes in Earth’s surface always occur very slowly.

_____ 9. Old seafloor is destroyed at oceanic trenches.

_____ 10. The continental crust has been subject to destructive forces longer than the
oceanic crust has.

Lesson 2.1: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Building up and Wearing Down Earth’s Continental Landforms

Earth’s continents are large land areas extending from high mountaintops to sea level.
The oldest continental rocks are billions of years old, so the continents have had a lot of
time for constructive and destructive forces to change them. Constructive forces cause
physical features on Earth’s surface, known as landforms, to build up. Destructive
forces cause physical features to wear down.

Landforms often build up when Earth’s crust deforms. This occurs when slabs of crust
compress, pull apart, or slide past other slabs of crust. Crust deformation can result in
the formation of hills, valleys, and other landforms. Mountains rise when continents
collide and push up the crust. Volcanic mountains form when a slab of oceanic crust
plunges beneath another slab of crust. This allows melted rock called magma to flow
onto the surface, where it hardens to form solid rock. Over time, the hardened rock
builds up to form a mountain. Landforms are also created when sediments are
deposited. For example, a triangular deposit called a delta forms where a river or
stream deposits sediments as it flows into a body of still water.

Volcanic eruptions are constructive forces when they cause mountains to form.
However, explosive volcanic eruptions can be destructive forces if they blow apart
mountains, leaving craters. Landforms are also worn down by the destructive forces of
weathering and erosion. Water, wind, ice, and gravity are important agents of erosion.
For example, water in streams and rivers flowing down mountainsides wears away
rocks and creates valleys. Landslides are also destructive forces that wear away steep
slopes.

Questions

1. What are continents and landforms?

2. Compare and contrast constructive and destructive forces.

3. How can volcanoes and rivers be both constructive and destructive forces?

Lesson 2.1: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. How old are the oldest continental rocks?

a. about half a million years old

b. a few million years old

c. 100 million years old

d. billions of years old

2. Crustal deformation occurs when Earth’s crust

a. pulls apart.

b. pushes together.

c. slides past other crust.

d. all of the above

3. Crustal deformation may result in the formation of

a. hills.
 b. valleys.

c. mountains.

d. all of the above

4. Deltas form when

a. oceanic crust plunges beneath continental crust.

b. sediments are deposited.

c. continents collide.

d. volcanoes erupt.

5. The East African rift valley is forming where crust is

a. compressed.

b. pulled apart.

c. pushed together.

d. deposited by water.

6. The ocean basins are all younger than

a. 180 million years old.

b. 100 million years old.

c. 80 million years old.

d. 18 million years old.

7. New seafloor forms when

a. sediments are deposited.

b. volcanic activity occurs.

c. crust is uplifted.

d. none of the above

Lesson 2.1: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. mountain range that runs through much of the ocean basin

_____ 2. any force that wears down landforms

_____ 3. deep valley on the ocean floor

_____ 4. any force that causes landforms to grow

_____ 5. continental crust that extends downward to the seafloor

_____ 6. large land area that lies above sea level

_____ 7. physical feature of Earth’s surface

Terms

a. constructive force

b. landform

c. continent

d. destructive force

e. mid-ocean ridge

f. ocean trench

g. continental margin

Lesson 2.1: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. Earth’s surface features result from constructive and __________ forces.

2. Weathering and erosion are examples of __________ forces.

3. If the eruption of a volcano creates a new mountain, it is an example of a(n)

___________ force.
 4. If the eruption of a volcano blows up a mountain and leaves a crater, it is an
example of a(n) __________ force.

5. Water, wind, ice, and gravity are important agents of __________, which is a
destructive force.

6. A landslide is a(n) __________ force because it wears down a steep slope.

Lesson 2.1: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

According to a well-known quote, “the only thing that does not change is change itself.”
How does this apply to planet Earth?

Lesson 2.2: True or False

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. The direction called “northeast” is 90 degrees from north.

_____ 2. Earth’s magnetic north pole is also called “true north.”

_____ 3. Any location on Earth’s surface can be located by its latitude and longitude.

_____ 4. The equator falls halfway between the north and south poles.

_____ 5. The international dateline is located at 120 degrees east longitude.

_____ 6. Another word that has the same meaning as relief is terrain.

_____ 7. To find a stationary object on Earth’s surface, you must know its direction.

_____ 8. Elevation on Earth is always measured relative to sea level.

_____ 9. A compass needle always points toward 90 degrees north latitude.

_____ 10. The line called the prime meridian is perpendicular to the equator.

Lesson 2.2: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Describing Location

Any location on Earth’s surface—or on a map of Earth’s surface—can be described by

latitude and longitude. Latitude and longitude are expressed in degrees. Each degree is
divided into 60 minutes, and each minute is divided into 60 seconds.

Latitude is a measure of the distance north or south of the equator. The equator is the
imaginary line that circles Earth halfway between the north and south poles. All lines of
latitude circle the planet parallel to the equator. The latitude of the equator is 0 degrees.
The latitude of the north pole is 90 degrees north, and the latitude of the south pole is
90 degrees south.

Longitude is a measure of the distance east or west of the prime meridian. The prime
meridian is an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the equator. It circles the planet
and passes through the north and south poles. It also passes through Greenwich,
England. All lines of longitude circle the planet perpendicular to the equator and pass
through both poles. The longitude of the prime meridian is 0 degrees. On the opposite
side of Earth, the longitude of the international dateline is 180 degrees.

Another aspect of location is elevation. Elevation is the height of a place above or below
sea level. It is always measured relative to sea level, which is the average height of the
ocean’s surface. It is also the midpoint between high and low tides. Sea level is the
same everywhere on Earth. The elevation of surface features, or landforms, is called
topography. Relief, or terrain, is the topography of all the major features of a region.

Questions

1. What is latitude? Describe the line of latitude that is 45 degrees north.

2. What is longitude? Describe the line of longitude that is 90 degrees east.

3. Define elevation, and explain how it is measured.

Lesson 2.2: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Which method of determining location is used to find the location of an

earthquake?
 a. elevation

b. triangulation

c. street address

d. latitude and longitude

2. How far is Earth’s magnetic north pole from its geographic north pole?

a. 11.5 degrees

b. 22.5 degrees

c. 45.0 degrees

d. 90.0 degrees

3. Each degree of latitude or longitude is divided into

a. 10 minutes.

b. 30 minutes.

c. 60 minutes.

d. 90 minutes.

4. The line that is 0 degrees latitude is known as the

a. international dateline.

b. prime meridian.

c. equator.

d. none of the above

5. Which of the following locations could be in the United States?

a. 120° east, 40° south

b. 120° east, 40° north

c. 120° west, 40° north

d. 120° west, 40° south

6. Which statement about sea level is true?

a. It varies throughout the day.

 b. It differs from place to place.

c. It is the elevation of the ocean floor.

d. It is halfway between high and low tides.

7. Which of the following is the best definition of topography?

a. elevation of landforms

b. distance from the equator

c. point of triangulation

d. direction on a map

Lesson 2.2: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. distance north or south of the equator

_____ 2. distance east or west of the prime meridian

_____ 3. height above or below sea level

_____ 4. position on Earth’s surface

_____ 5. figure on a map that shows direction

_____ 6. device with a magnetic needle that is used to find direction

_____ 7. which way an object is moving

Terms

a. elevation

b. longitude

c. compass

d. direction
e. location

f. compass rose

g. latitude

Lesson 2.2: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. __________ means finding a location based on its distance from three other
locations.

2. A compass needle points to Earth’s __________ north pole.

3. Earth’s __________ north pole is the point where Earth’s axis intersects the
surface in the Northern Hemisphere.

4. The line representing 0 degrees longitude is called the __________.

5. Lines of __________ are parallel to the equator.

6. The average height of the ocean’s surface is referred to as __________.

7. __________ refers to the elevations of all the landforms in a region.

Lesson 2.2: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Compare and contrast Earth’s geographic and magnetic poles.

Lesson 2.3: True or False

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Locations on a globe are determined using rectangular coordinates.

_____ 2. A flat map is most accurate over a large area.

_____ 3. All compass directions are curved lines on a Mercator projection.

_____ 4. A conic projection best depicts the area where the cone touches the globe.

_____ 5. Gnomonic projections are often used to map the poles.

_____ 6. Mercator projections are no longer used.

_____ 7. Robinson projections are still commonly used.

_____ 8. Winkel Tripel projections are used by the National Geographic Society.

_____ 9. Locations on a map are determined using polar coordinates.

_____ 10. The oldest type of projection is a Mercator projection.

Lesson 2.3: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Map Projections

Earth’s surface is curved, whereas maps are flat. To represent a curved surface on a
flat map requires the use of some type of projection. There are several commonly used
types of projections.

The oldest type of projection is a Mercator projection. Mercator projections are still
commonly used today. A Mercator projection is made by wrapping a flat piece of paper
around a globe at the equator to make a cylinder. The paper touches the globe at the
equator, but the distance between the globe and paper increases toward the poles. The
features of Earth’s surface are projected outward onto the cylinder. When the cylinder is
unrolled, the result is a flat Mercator projection. A Mercator projection is most accurate
near the equator. Here, the shapes and sizes of features are correct. However, the
features get stretched out near the poles. For example, on a Mercator projection
Greenland is stretched out to look almost as big the United States.

Other types of projections include conic, gnomonic, Robinson, and Winkel Tripel
projections.

 A conic projection uses a cone rather than a cylinder to project Earth’s curved
surface onto a flat map. It best depicts the area where the cone touches the
globe. This area depends on the choice of the map maker.
  A gnomonic projection projects Earth surface onto a flat map from a single point.
The projection is most accurate for features near that point. The poles are often
mapped this way.

 A Robinson projection creates an elliptical rather than rectangular map. Lines of

latitude are represented by straight lines, whereas lines of longitude are
represented by curved lines. This projection has less distortion near the poles
than a Mercator project.

 A Winkel Tripel projection uses mathematical formulas to create a flat map of

Earth’s curved surface. This type of projection is distorted at the edges. The
National Geographic Society uses Winkel Tripel projections.
Questions

1. What are projections? Why are projections used to make maps of Earth’s
surface?

2. Describe how a Mercator projection is made. What is a disadvantage of Mercator

projections?

3. List and briefly describe two other types of map projections.

Lesson 2.3: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Using a globe to represent Earth’s surface avoids distortions of the

a. sizes of continents.

b. shapes of land masses.

c. distances between places.

d. all of the above

2. To find the shortest distance between two points on a globe, you find the length
of the

a. arc that connects them.

b. meridian closest to them.

c. straight line between them.

 d. none of the above

3. A radar map may be used to show

a. topography.

b. weather.

c. climate.

d. two of the above

4. A Mercator projection is most accurate at

a. the poles.

b. the equator.

c. 45 degrees north.

d. 45 degrees south.

5. A gnomonic projection is always centered on

a. the equator.

b. a single point.

c. the north pole.

d. the south pole.

6. Which statement about a Robinson projection is true?

a. Scales along different lines of latitude are the same.

b. Distances along each line of latitude are true to scale.

c. Distortion is greatest within 45 degrees of the equator.

d. There is more distortion near the poles than on a Mercator projection.

7. Which statement is true about all projections?

a. They are the most accurate way to represent Earth’s surface.

b. They project Earth’s curved surface onto a cylinder or cone.

c. They distort sizes and shapes of features at the edges.

d. They are most accurate near the equator.

Lesson 2.3: Matching
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. map that uses colors to show elevations of large areas

_____ 2. map that is created by projecting Earth’s surface on a cylinder

_____ 3. map that shows terrain and vegetation

_____ 4. map that is created by projecting Earth’s surface on a cone

_____ 5. map that shows elevations using contour lines

_____ 6. map that has an elliptical shape because only latitude lines are projected while
meridians are curved

_____ 7. map that is created by projecting Earth’s surface from a single point

Terms

a. Mercator projection

b. satellite-view map

c. conic projection

d. relief map

e. gnomonic projection

f. topographic map

g. Robinson projection

Lesson 2.3: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

 1. A(n) __________ is the most accurate way to represent Earth’s curved surface.

2. Any two-dimensional representation of Earth’s surface is a(n) __________.

3. Any map that projects Earth’s curved surface onto flat paper is a(n) __________.

4. A map that shows average temperatures and rainfall is a(n) __________ map.

5. A map that shows air masses, fronts, and storms is a(n) __________ map.

6. A map that shows the types and locations of rocks in an area is a(n) __________
map.

7. A(n) __________ projection uses mathematical formulas to represent Earth’s

curved surface in two dimensions.

Lesson 2.3: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Explain the pros and cons of using a globe to represent Earth’s surface.

Lesson 3.1: True or False

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom.

_____ 2. An electron cloud is a region where electrons are likely to be.

_____ 3. All subatomic particles are about the same size.

_____ 4. The mass of an atom is the combined masses of its protons and neutrons.

_____ 5. Isotopes of a given element differ in their numbers of electrons.

_____ 6. Carbon-13 is an ion of the element carbon.

_____ 7. Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak bonds.

_____ 8. The oxygen side of a water molecule has a slightly positive charge.
_____ 9. In covalent bonds, atoms always share electrons equally.

_____ 10. The non-metallic ion in an ionic bond is negatively charged.

Lesson 3.1: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Elements, Atoms, and Isotopes

A chemical element is a substance that cannot be made into simpler substances by

ordinary chemical means. Examples of elements include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
and iron. The smallest unit of a chemical element is an atom. An atom has all the
properties of the element.

Atoms, in turn, consist of smaller particles, called subatomic particles. At the center of
an atom is a nucleus (plural, nuclei). The nucleus consists of subatomic particles called
protons and neutrons. Protons have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons are about the
same size as protons but have no electrical charge. In other words, they are electrically
neutral. Electrons are tiny subatomic particles that have a negative electrical charge.
They are not found in the nucleus. They orbit the nucleus at various energy levels in a
region known as the electron cloud.

Because electrons are minuscule compared with protons and neutrons, they contribute
virtually nothing to the mass of an atom. Instead, the mass of an atom depends almost
completely on the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. In fact, atomic mass is
calculated as the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines what element the atom is.
That’s because each element has a unique number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms.
However, atoms of a given element can differ in their numbers of neutrons. Atoms of an
element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. For example, atoms of
carbon always have 6 protons, but they may have 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. This means that
there are three isotopes of carbon: carbon-12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons), carbon-13 (6
protons + 7 neutrons), and carbon-14 (6 protons + 8 neutrons).

Questions

1. Relate atoms to elements.

2. Describe the structure of atoms.

3. What are isotopes? Give an example.

Lesson 3.1: Multiple Choice
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Particles that make up atoms include

a. protons.

b. neutrons.

c. electrons.

d. all of the above

2. Which statement about neutrons is false?

a. Neutrons have no electrical charge.

b. Neutrons are about the same size as protons.

c. Neutrons are located in the nucleus of an atom.

d. The number of neutrons is the same in all atoms of an element.

3. An ion always has

a. a positive or negative electrical charge.

b. the same number of electrons as protons.

c. the same number of electrons as neutrons.

d. none of the above

4. A carbon atom with 8 neutrons is the isotope called

a. carbon-11.

b. carbon-12.

c. carbon-13.

d. carbon-14.

5. In ionic bonds, atoms of a metal

a. give up electrons.

b. receive electrons.
 c. accept electrons.

d. share electrons.

6. Hydrogen bonds are

a. intermolecular.

b. covalent.

c. ionic.

d. polar.

7. Molecules of water are

a. covalent.

b. polar.

c. ionic.

d. two of the above

Lesson 3.1: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. center of an atom

_____ 2. chemical bond in which electrons are transferred between atoms

_____ 3. atom of an element with a different number of neutrons

_____ 4. chemical bond in which electrons are shared between atoms

_____ 5. particle that results when an atoms gains or loses electron(s)

_____ 6. bond between oppositely charged ends of two different molecules

_____ 7. smallest particle of a compound that still has the properties of that compound

Terms

a. covalent bond
b. hydrogen bond

c. ion

d. ionic bond

e. isotope

f. molecule

g. nucleus

Lesson 3.1: Fill in the Blank( matter matters)

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. A substance that cannot be broken down to simpler substances by ordinary

chemical means is called a(n) ___________.

2. The smallest particle of an element that has the properties of that element is
known as a(n) __________.

3. A(n) __________ is a subatomic particle with a positive electrical charge.

4. A(n) __________ is a subatomic particle with a negative electrical charge.

5. A molecule that has slightly negative and positive ends is known as a(n)
__________ molecule.

6. The number of protons plus neutrons in an atom is its ___________.

7. The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule is the __________.

Lesson 3.1: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Compare and contrast ionic and covalent bonds.

Lesson 3.2: True or False
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. The mineral silver contains silver and carbon atoms.

_____ 2. A mineral has a specific chemical composition.

_____ 3. Minerals are identified on the basis of their physical properties.

_____ 4. Silicate minerals make up over 90 percent of Earth’s crust.

_____ 5. Most minerals belong to the native elements group.

_____ 6. Carbonates consist only of carbon and oxygen.

_____ 7. Table salt is an example of a halide mineral.

_____ 8. Phosphate minerals are similar in structure to silicate minerals.

_____ 9. Gypsum is a common sulfide mineral.

_____ 10. Pyrite, or “fool’s gold,” is a common sulfate mineral.

Lesson 3.2: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

What Is a Mineral?

To be classified as a mineral, a substance must be a crystalline solid. It also must be

inorganic and form through natural processes. In addition, it must have a definite
chemical composition. Each of these properties is described next.

A crystalline solid is a substance that forms crystals. A crystal is a solid structure in

which atoms or ions are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern. A given mineral
always forms crystals with the same pattern of atoms or ions.

An inorganic substance is a substance that is not made by living things. (Organic

substances, such as carbohydrates and proteins, are made by living things.) Both
diamond and coal consist mainly of carbon. Diamond is a mineral, but coal is not. Coal
looks like a mineral, but it is organic. It is a rock made of once-living things.
Minerals are made by natural processes that occur on or under Earth’s surface. For
example, diamond is created deep in Earth’s crust when carbon is put under extreme
pressure. Artificial “diamonds” can be made in a lab, by placing carbon under high
pressure. However, artificial “diamonds” are not really minerals.

Some minerals, including gold and diamond, are made of single elements. But most
minerals are chemical compounds that are made of two or more elements. Different
minerals may contain many of the same elements. Elements commonly found in
minerals include oxygen, silicon, and calcium. However, each mineral has a specific
chemical composition. For example, halite is made of equal numbers of sodium and
chloride ions. Quartz is always made of one silicon atom for every two oxygen atoms.

Questions

1. What is a mineral?

2. Describe a crystalline solid.

3. Contrast organic and inorganic substances.

4. Diamond and coal both consist of carbon. Why is diamond a mineral whereas
coal is not?

Lesson 3.2: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. All minerals

a. form crystals.

b. are inorganic.

c. form naturally.

d. all of the above

2. Minerals are divided into eight major groups based on their

a. physical properties.

b. chemical composition.

c. crystalline structure.

d. color and luster.

3. The basic building block of all silicate minerals is called a silica

a. tetrahedron.

b. pyramid.

c. sphere.

d. salt.

4. Which of the following minerals is a native element?

a. gold

b. fluorite

c. magnetite

d. muscovite

5. Which of the following minerals is an oxide?

a. turquoise

b. hematite

c. azurite

d. halite

6. The most common carbonate mineral is

a. coal.

b. silver.

c. calcite.

d. diamond.

7. Which statement about phosphate minerals is false?

a. They are built of tetrahedra.

b. There are very few of them.

c. They contain phosphorus.

d. Most of them are rare.

Lesson 3.2: Matching ( minerals and minerals group)
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. minerals containing just one element

_____ 2. solid in which the atoms are arranged in a regular repeating pattern

_____ 3. way that light reflects off a mineral’s surface

_____ 4. mineral’s tendency to break along flat planes

_____ 5. color of a mineral’s powder

_____ 6. minerals that form salts

_____ 7. largest mineral group

Terms

a. streak

b. silicates

c. crystal

d. halides

e. native elements

f. cleavage

g. luster

Lesson 3.2: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

 1. A unique substance with a definite chemical composition that is made up of two
or more elements is a chemical __________.

2. How heavy a substance is relative to the same volume of water is its

__________.

3. __________ is the pattern in which a mineral characteristically breaks.

4. Hardness and color are __________ properties of minerals.

5. Feldspar and quartz belong to the ___________ group of minerals.

6. All minerals in the __________ group have molecules that contain one carbon
atom bonded to three oxygen atoms.

7. Oxides are minerals that contain one or two metal elements combined with
__________.

Lesson 3.2: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Identify and describe two mineral groups. How do the two groups differ?

Lesson 3.3: True or False( mineral identification)

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Minerals can be identified only by their chemical properties.

_____ 2. Every mineral has its own unique color.

_____ 3. All quartz is clear like glass.

_____ 4. The streak of a given mineral does not vary.

_____ 5. Some minerals do not have the property of streak.

_____ 6. Sparkly luster is a type of metallic luster.

_____ 7. The density of a mineral is calculated by multiplying its mass times its volume.
_____ 8. On the Mohs hardness scale, diamond has a value of 1.

_____ 9. A mineral breaks where its chemical bonds are weakest.

_____ 10. If a mineral smells like rotten eggs, it is the mineral calcite.

Lesson 3.3: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Color, Streak, and Luster

Diamonds are popular gemstones because of the way they reflect light. Their luster
makes them appear very sparkly. Turquoise is prized for its color. It is a striking
greenish blue. The color of minerals and how they reflect light are two physical
properties that may help to identify minerals.

Although the color of a mineral is easy to observe, color alone is rarely very useful for
identifying minerals. One reason is that different samples of the same mineral may vary
in color. For example, different samples of quartz may be colorless (clear) or purple.
Purple quartz contains tiny amounts of iron that give it its color. Many minerals are
colored by chemical impurities in this way. Another reason that color alone may not be
very useful is that different minerals may be the same color. For example, both gold and
pyrite (“fool’s gold”) are yellowish gold in color, but the two are different minerals.

A more useful property for identifying many minerals is streak. Streak is the color of a
mineral’s powder. To check a mineral’s streak, scrape a piece of the mineral across an
unglazed porcelain plate. Streak is a more reliable property than color for mineral
identification because a given mineral’s streak does not vary. Even minerals that are the
same color differ in the color of their streak. For example, gold has a golden yellow
streak, whereas pyrite has a blackish streak. Streak cannot be used to identify all
minerals because not all minerals leave a streak of powder when scraped across
unglazed porcelain. Quartz is an example of a mineral that does not have streak.

Luster describes how light reflects off a mineral’s surface. Mineralogists have special
terms to describe luster. First, they divide all minerals into those with metallic luster and
those with non-metallic luster. Minerals with metallic luster are opaque and shiny. Pyrite
is an example. All other minerals have non-metallic luster. There are six different types
of non-metallic luster, including adamantine luster, which appears sparkly. Diamond has
adamantine luster. Other types of non-metallic luster are earthy luster, which appears
dull and clay-like; pearly luster, which appears pearl-like; resinous luster, which appears
resin-like, as in tree resin; silky luster, which appears soft looking with long fibers; and
vitreous luster, which appears glassy.
Questions

1. Why is color alone rarely very useful for identifying minerals?

2. What is streak, and how can you check a mineral’s streak? Why is streak more
useful than color for identifying minerals?

3. What is luster? Outline how minerals are classified on the basis of luster.

Lesson 3.3: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Physical properties of minerals include

a. chemical makeup.

b. bonding.

c. fracture.

d. all of the above

2. Which of the following properties may vary for different samples of a given
mineral?

a. color

b. luster

c. streak

d. hardness

3. Which mineral has a resinous luster?

a. diamond

b. quartz

c. sulfur

d. none of the above

4. Minerals with higher specific gravity have greater

a. volume.

b. fracture.
 c. density.

d. mass.

5. No other mineral can scratch the mineral

a. talc.

b. quartz.

c. diamond.

d. corundum.

6. If a mineral has cleavage it breaks

a. into pieces with jagged edges.

b. along smooth curved surfaces.

c. along smooth flat surfaces.

d. into splinters like wood.

7. If a mineral bubbles when exposed to a weak acid, it has the property of

a. radioactivity.

b. magnetism.

c. reactivity.

d. acidity.

Lesson 3.3: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. sparkly non-metallic luster

_____ 2. softest mineral

_____ 3. amount of mass per unit volume

_____ 4. hardest mineral

_____ 5. glowing under ultraviolet light

_____ 6. break in a mineral that is not along a cleavage plane

_____ 7. glassy non-metallic luster

Terms

a. density

b. fluorescence

c. talc

d. fracture

e. vitreous

f. adamantine

g. diamond

Lesson 3.3: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. The physical property that is usually least useful for mineral identification is
__________.

2. Scientists who study minerals are known as __________.

3. You can see the __________ of a mineral by scraping the mineral across an
unglazed porcelain plate.

4. Minerals that are opaque and shiny have a(n) __________ luster.

5. Earthy, pearly, and silky are types of __________ luster.

6. __________ is a measure of whether a mineral will scratch, or be scratched by,

other minerals.

7. The __________ hardness scale is a reference for mineral hardness.

8.
Lesson 3.3: Critical Writing
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Explain how the property of hardness can be used to help identify minerals. What role
does the Mohs hardness scale play?

Lesson 3.4: True or False (mineral formation)

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Magma cools more quickly than lava.

_____ 2. When melted rock cools quickly, large mineral crystals form.

_____ 3. Dissolved minerals are left behind when water evaporates.

_____ 4. Veins form when minerals are deposited in cracks in rocks by flowing water.

_____ 5. Halite easily precipitates out of water.

_____ 6. There are only three ways that minerals can form.

_____ 7. Minerals can form only from liquids.

_____ 8. Granite is a rock that forms when magma cools quickly.

Lesson 3.4: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Formation of Minerals from Solutions

Water on Earth, such as water in the oceans, contains dissolved chemical elements
mixed into a solution. Various processes can cause these dissolved elements to
combine and form solid minerals.
One way minerals can form from solutions is by evaporation. When water evaporates,
elements dissolved in the water are left behind as mineral crystals. Another way
minerals can form from solutions is by precipitation. Water can hold only a certain
amount of dissolved elements. When this limit is exceeded, particles come together to
form mineral solids, which sink to the bottom of the water. Both halite and calcite easily
precipitate out of water in this way.

A third way minerals can form from solutions is by deposition in rock underground.
Magma heats nearby underground water, and the hot water dissolves elements from
rock. Then, as the water flows through open spaces in rock, it cools. The cool water
cannot hold as many dissolved elements as the hot water, so it deposits some of the
elements as mineral crystals. When minerals are deposited in cracks in rock, they form
long, narrow deposits called veins. When minerals are deposited in open spaces in
rock, they form large mineral crystals called geodes.

Questions

1. List three ways minerals can form from solutions.

2. Compare and contrast mineral formation by evaporation and precipitation.

3. Explain how minerals are deposited in underground rock. Why do some deposits
form veins whereas others form geodes?

Lesson 3.4: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Minerals can form by

a. oxidation.

b. crystallization.

c. deposition.

d. all of the above

2. Mineral crystals do not grow very large when they form

a. from lava.

b. from magma.

c. slowly.

d. two of the above

3. Minerals in granite include

a. quartz.

b. geode.

c. silicon.

d. two of the above

4. Ocean water is a

a. mixture.

b. solution.

c. mineral.

d. two of the above

5. Assume that you dissolve some table salt in pure water and pour a small amount
of the salt water onto a plate. If you let the water evaporate, what will be left on
the plate?

a. nothing

b. halite

c. calcite

d. tufa

6. Heated underground water deposits minerals in rock when it

a. cools.

b. expands.

c. evaporates.

d. dries up.

7. Which statement about geodes is false?

a. They form in cracks in rocks.

b. They have large crystals.

c. They are rocks that form underground.

d. They are deposited by water.

Lesson 3.4: Matching
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. melted rock on Earth’s surface

_____ 2. solid mixture of minerals

_____ 3. mineral deposit in a crack in rock

_____ 4. melted rock inside Earth

_____ 5. mineral deposit in an open space in rock

Terms

a. magma

b. lava

c. rock

d. vein

e. geode

Lesson 3.4: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. The more quickly melted rock cools, the __________ the mineral crystals are.

2. Tufa towers in Mono Lake form by the process of __________.

3. Veins and geodes in rock form by the process of __________.

4. Granite forms underground so its mineral crystals are __________.

5. Minerals form when rocks become so hot that atoms or ions can move around
and join into different ___________.
Lesson 3.4: Critical Writing
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Compare and contrast the formation of minerals from magma and lava.

Lesson 3.5: True or False ( minerals and mineral use)

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. It costs less to obtain new minerals than to recycle used minerals.

_____ 2. There are only two ways to mine mineral ores.

_____ 3. Surface mining uses blasting to remove overlying rock.

_____ 4. Gold is the only mineral mined in California.

_____ 5. Mining can have harmful effects on the environment.

_____ 6. U.S. laws require the reclamation of land that has been mined.

_____ 7. All land ever mined in the U.S. has been reclaimed.

_____ 8. Sheetrock is made of the mineral gypsum.

_____ 9. The main ingredient of window glass is the mineral halite.

_____ 10. The metal copper is used for electric wires.

Lesson 3.5: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Finding and Mining Minerals

Geologic processes create and concentrate minerals that are valuable natural
resources. Geologists study geological formations and then test the physical and
chemical properties of soil and rocks to locate possible ore deposits. They also
determine the size of the deposits and the concentration of mineral ores. These factors
are important in deciding whether a mineral deposit is worth mining. A deposit will be
mined only if it would be profitable to do so. A concentration of minerals is called an ore
deposit only if it is profitable to mine.

Ore deposits that are close to the surface are mined by surface mining. In surface
mining, any overlying rock is blasted away. The rock that contains the valuable minerals
is placed in a truck and taken to a refinery. Specific methods of surface mining include
open-pit mining, strip mining, mountain-top removal, and placer mining. In open-pit
mining, minerals are extracted by digging a big hole in the ground. Strip mining is like
open-pit mining except the material is removed in long strips. In mountain-top removal,
a mountain top is completely removed to get to the level of the ore. Placer mining is the
removal of ore that has been deposited in the gravel of a stream bed.

Ore deposits that are deep underground are mined by underground mining. Miners blast
and tunnel into rock to gain access to the ore. The tunnels may be very deep under the
ground. Underground mining is expensive and dangerous. Hazards in underground
mines include toxic gases, lack of fresh air, total darkness, and the potential for
accidents such as explosions and mine collapses.

Questions

1. What is an ore deposit? What factors determine whether a mineral deposit is

profitable to mine?

2. Explain how ore deposits close to the surface are mined. Identify several specific
methods.

3. Describe how ore deposits deep under the surface are mined. Why is this type of
mining especially dangerous?

Lesson 3.5: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Scientists who locate ore deposits are

a. geologists.

b. environmental scientists.

c. soil scientists.
 d. paleontologists.

2. A mineral deposit will be mined only if it

a. is profitable to mine.

b. is located on the surface.

c. contains many different minerals.

d. is a renewable source of ores.

3. Methods of surface mining include

a. dredging.

b. mountain-top removal.

c. strip mining.

d. all of the above

4. Which statement about placer minerals is false?

a. They are found in stream gravels.

b. They end up in water because of weathering.

c. They were responsible for the 1848 California gold rush.

d. They are no longer being deposited in California.

5. Compared with surface mining, underground mining is

a. less expensive.

b. more dangerous.

c. always a better way to extract ore.

d. all of the above

6. Adding acid to rocks to remove ore is called

a. flotation.

b. leaching.

c. smelting.

d. crushing.
 7. To extract metal from ore, the ore is

a. mixed with water.

b. mixed with chemicals.

c. heated to a high temperature.

d. cooled to a sub-zero temperature.

Lesson 3.5: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. extracting minerals close to the surface by digging a large hole

_____ 2. restoring mined land to a natural state

_____ 3. concentration of minerals that is profitable enough to mine

_____ 4. extracting minerals from stream gravels

_____ 5. rock that contains minerals with useful elements

_____ 6. extracting minerals close to the surface by removing the surface in strips

_____ 7. mineral that is cut and polished for jewelry

Terms

a. gemstone

b. ore

c. ore deposit

d. placer mining

e. reclamation

f. strip mining
g. open-pit mining

Lesson 3.5: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. The metal __________ is obtained from a mineral ore called bauxite.

2. Any method of extracting ores that are close to Earth’s surface is called
__________ mining.

3. After ores are mined, they are processed at a(n) __________.

4. Extracting ores that are deep under Earth’s surface is called __________ mining.

5. The process of __________ heats ores to separate the minerals into layers.

6. The gemstone __________ is so hard that it is used to cut glass and metals.

7. The mineral __________ is mined for rock salt.

Lesson 3.5: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Explain how mining can adversely affect the environment and how land that has been
mined is reclaimed.

Lesson 4.1: True or False ( types of rocks)

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. Mineral grains in rocks are always visible to the unaided eye.

_____ 2. Each type of rock consists of a distinctive mineral or set of minerals.

_____ 3. Igneous rocks that cool slowly have smaller grains than those that cool
quickly.

_____ 4. Sediments are never larger than grains of sand.

_____ 5. Some sedimentary rocks form from chemical precipitates.

_____ 6. Metamorphic rocks form only under Earth’s surface.

_____ 7. Sandstone forms when quartzite is exposed to heat and pressure.

_____ 8. The concept of the rock cycle is attributed to geologist James Hutton.

_____ 9. The rock cycle always begins with igneous rock and ends with metamorphic
rock.

_____ 10. Metamorphism can change the texture but not the mineral composition of
rock.

Lesson 4.1: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

What Are Rocks?

Rocks are naturally formed, non-living Earth materials. Rocks are made of collections of
mineral grains that are held together in a hard, solid mass. The mineral grains in rocks
may be so tiny that you can see them only with a microscope, or they may be as big as
your finger.

Rocks are identified primarily by the minerals they contain and by their texture. Each
type of rock has distinctive minerals. A rock may be made of grains of all one mineral
type. Much more commonly, a rock is made of a mixture of different minerals. Texture is
a description of the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains. Two rocks may
have the same chemical composition and contain mostly the same minerals, but they
may have different textures. Their different textures indicate different histories. For
example, a rock that formed from molten rock will have small grains and a fine texture if
it cooled quickly on Earth’s surface. A rock with the same composition that cooled
slowly under Earth’s surface will have larger grains and a coarser texture.

Questions

1. What are rocks, and what are they made of?

2. How are rocks identified?

3. Define rock texture. What determines the texture of rock? Give examples.

Lesson 4.1: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. All rocks

a. are naturally forming.

b. form beneath Earth’s surface.

c. consist of sediments.

d. all of the above

2. Rocks are identified primarily by

a. the minerals they contain.

b. their texture.

c. their color.

d. two of the above

3. The classification of rocks into three major categories is based on

a. how the rocks form.

b. which chemicals the rocks contain.

c. how old the rocks are.

d. two of the above

4. Igneous rocks form by

a. cementation.

b. compaction.

c. crystallization.

d. precipitation.

5. Which of the following rocks is a sedimentary rock?

a. diorite

b. andesite

c. quartzite
 d. sandstone

6. Processes that take place in the rock cycle include

a. erosion.

b. melting.

c. tectonic burial.

d. all of the above

7. Metamorphic rock can form from

a. igneous rock.

b. sedimentary rock.

c. other metamorphic rock.

d. all of the above

Lesson 4.1: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. broken piece of rock

_____ 2. exposed rock formation

_____ 3. solid material left behind when a liquid evaporates

_____ 4. rock that forms when molten rock solidifies

_____ 5. transport of sediments from one place to another

_____ 6. rock that forms from sediments

_____ 7. rock that forms when existing rock is changed by heat or pressure

Terms

a. erosion
b. igneous rock

c. metamorphic rock

d. sedimentary rock

e. outcrop

f. precipitate

g. sediment

Lesson 4.1: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. __________ is a description of the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral

grains in a rock.

2. The process in which mineral crystals form as molten rock cools is called
__________.

3. The process in which a rock changes due to heat or pressure inside Earth is
__________.

4. The continuous series of processes by which rocks change from one type to
another is called the __________.

5. __________ is the deposition of transported sediments.

6. The wearing away of rocks at Earth’s surface is known as __________.

7. After molten rock flows onto Earth’s surface, it is called __________.

Lesson 4.1: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Compare and contrast the three main categories of rocks.

Lesson 4.2: True or False (igneous rocks)
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. About 70 different types of igneous rocks are known.

_____ 2. The most prevalent element in magma is oxygen.

_____ 3. Most rocks on Earth are igneous rocks.

_____ 4. Adding water to rock raises the rock’s melting point.

_____ 5. All minerals melt at about the same temperature.

_____ 6. Minerals crystallize out of magma when it melts.

_____ 7. A pluton is an extrusive igneous rock that cooled on the crust.

_____ 8. Most igneous rocks lie below sedimentary rock or ocean water.

_____ 9. Pumice is an example of volcanic rock.

_____ 10. Obsidian is called natural glass.

Lesson 4.2: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Magma

The rock beneath Earth’s surface is sometimes heated to high enough temperatures
that it melts and forms magma. Different magmas have different compositions. They
contain whatever elements were in the rock that melted. Magmas also contain gases.
The main elements found in magma are the same as the elements that are found in
crust. Oxygen and silicon are the most prevalent.

Whether a given rock melts and forms magma depends on several factors.
Temperature is one factor. The temperature has to reach hundreds of degrees Celsius
before any minerals melt. Minerals melt at different temperatures, so the mineral
composition of rock is an important factor influencing whether it melts. Of common
minerals, quartz melts at the lowest temperature (about 650 °C), whereas olivine melts
at the highest temperature (about 1400 °C). Therefore, as the temperature of rock rises,
the first mineral to melt is quartz (if present) and the last mineral to melt is olivine (if
present). Partial melting occurs when the temperature rises high enough to melt only
some of the minerals in rock. Temperature increases with depth below Earth’s surface,
so melting is more likely to occur at greater depths.

Pressure on rock also increases at greater depths. However, increased pressure raises
the melting point of rock, so melting is less likely to occur at higher pressures. The
addition of water to rock, on the other hand, lowers the melting point of rock, so melting
is more likely to occur with added water.

Questions

1. How does magma form?

2. Describe the composition of magma.

3. Identify factors that influence the melting of rock. Explain the influence of each
factor.

Lesson 4.2: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. All igneous rocks form when

a. volcanoes erupt.

b. minerals precipitate.

c. molten rock hardens.

d. lava crystallizes.

2. Which statement about magma is false?

a. It contains gases.

b. It is melted rock.

c. It may form on Earth’s surface.

d. It consists of elements in Earth’s crust.

3. Whether a given rock inside Earth melts depends on

a. its temperature.
 b. the pressure exerted on it.

c. its mineral composition.

d. all of the above

4. Fractional crystallization is the

a. breaking of crystals in magma.

b. opposite of partial melting.

c. formation of fractured rock.

d. two of the above

5. Which of the following minerals forms crystals at the lowest temperature?

a. quartz

b. feldspar

c. pyroxine

d. olivine

6. Why does basalt have no visible crystals?

a. It forms when lava cools quickly.

b. It forms beneath the ocean floor.

c. It consists of low-density minerals.

d. It consists of ultramafic minerals.

7. Which class of igneous rock contains the mineral quartz?

a. felsic

b. intermediate

c. mafic

d. ultramafic

Lesson 4.2: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. most common intrusive igneous rock

_____ 2. any igneous rock that forms on Earth’s surface

_____ 3. type of igneous rock that is light in color and low in density

_____ 4. igneous rock that cools so rapidly it lacks crystals

_____ 5. any igneous rock that forms beneath Earth’s surface

_____ 6. type of igneous rock that is dark in color and high in density

_____ 7. most common extrusive igneous rock

Terms

a. intrusive rock

b. felsic rock

c. granite

d. mafic rock

e. extrusive rock

f. basalt

g. obsidian

Lesson 4.2: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. Bowen’s reaction series shows the __________ at which minerals melt or

crystallize.

2. __________ melting occurs when the temperature of rock is too low to melt all of
the minerals.

3. The mineral that crystallizes at the highest temperature is __________.

 4. Volcanic rock is another name for __________ igneous rock.

5. Igneous rock made only of the mineral olivine is classified as __________ in

composition.

6. The stone in “stone-washed” is the igneous rock named __________.

7. Granite is an igneous rock with a(n) __________ composition.

Lesson 4.2: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains consist mainly of granite. Based on what you
know about granite, explain why the mountains could not have formed by volcanic
activity. How did the mountains form?

Lesson 4.3: True or False (sedimentary rocks)

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. The sediments in sedimentary rock may be precipitates.

_____ 2. Weathering breaks up or dissolves rock.

_____ 3. The more energy a stream has, the larger the sediments it can carry.

_____ 4. Sediments settle out of water in vertical layers.

_____ 5. Shale is a type of bioclastic sedimentary rock.

_____ 6. Sedimentary rocks are softer than igneous or metamorphic rocks.

_____ 7. Sedimentary rocks are too fragile to be used for construction.

_____ 8. Rock salt forms from a chemical precipitate.

_____ 9. Clastic rocks are sedimentary rocks that form only from sand-sized sediments.

_____ 10. Lithification is the second step of cementation.

Lesson 4.3: Critical Reading
Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Sedimentary Rock Formation

Accumulated sediments harden into sedimentary rock by lithification. Two important

steps are needed for sediments to lithify: compaction and cementation.

1. Compaction occurs when sediments are squeezed together by the weight of all
the sediments on top of them.

2. Cementation occurs when spaces between sediments fill in with mineral crystals.
The minerals crystallize out of water that seeps through the sediments.
Sedimentary rocks can form from sediments with a wide range of sizes. The type of
sedimentary rock that forms depends on the size of the sediments.

 If sediments are large and rounded, they form rock called conglomerate.

 If sediments are large and angular, they form rock called breccia.

 Smaller, sand-sized sediments form sandstone.

 Still smaller, silt-sized sediments form siltstone.

 The smallest, clay-sized sediments form shale.

When sediments settle out of calm water, they form horizontal layers. One layer is
deposited first; then another layer is deposited on top of the first layer. More and more
layers are deposited on the layers below them. Therefore, any layer of sedimentary rock
is always younger than the layer below it, as long as the layers have not been disturbed.

Biochemical sedimentary rocks form at the bottom of an ocean or salt lake. Living
creatures remove ions—such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium—from the salt
water to make shells and other tissues. When the organisms die, they sink to the ocean
floor. Their shells become biochemical sediments, which may then become compacted
and cemented into sedimentary rocks.

Questions

1. What is lithification? What steps occur during lithification?

2. Relate sediment size to type of sedimentary rock.

 3. Explain why any layer of sedimentary rock is younger than the layer below it, as
long as the layers have not been disturbed.

4. What are biochemical sedimentary rocks? Where and how do they form?

Lesson 4.3: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. Which statement about sandstone is false?

a. It is very porous.

b. It is chemical sedimentary rock.

c. It forms from sand-sized sediments.

d. It is easily penetrated by rainwater.

2. In which sequence do the processes of weathering, deposition, and erosion

occur to provide the basis of sedimentary rock?

a. weathering, erosion, deposition

b. erosion, weathering, deposition

c. deposition, erosion, weathering

d. erosion, deposition, weathering

3. When flowing water slows down it

a. drops sediments.

b. has less energy.

c. causes more erosion.

d. two of the above

4. Each layer of sedimentary rock

a. is older than the layer below it.

b. is younger than the layer above it.

c. was deposited after the layer below it.

d. was deposited after the layer above it.

 5. Biochemical sedimentary rock

a. forms deep beneath Earth’s surface.

b. forms at the bottom of salt water.

c. consists only of chemical precipitates.

d. two of the above

6. Which of the following is a biochemical sedimentary rock?

a. sandstone

b. shale

c. limestone

d. siltstone

7. Uses of sedimentary rock include

a. building stone structures.

b. making concrete.

c. making asphalt

d. all of the above

Lesson 4.3: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. sedimentary rock that forms from chemical precipitates

_____ 2. process by which sediments harden into rock

_____ 3. sedimentary rock containing only inorganic sediments

_____ 4. breaking of rock into smaller pieces

_____ 5. crystallization that fills in the spaces between loose sediments

_____ 6. dissolving of minerals in rock

_____ 7. sedimentary rock containing organic sediments

Terms

a. physical weathering

b. clastic rock

c. chemical weathering

d. bioclastic rock

e. cementation

f. lithification

g. chemical rock

Lesson 4.3: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. The White House in Washington, D.C., is made of the sedimentary rock

__________.

2. The transport of sediments by water, wind, ice, or gravity is called __________.

3. The two steps of lithification are compaction and __________.

4. Sedimentary rock that consists of large angular sediments is named

__________.

5. Sedimentary rock that forms from clay is called __________.

6. Sedimentary rock that consists of large rounded sediments is named

__________.

7. The squeezing together of sediments by the weight of overlying sediments is

called __________.

Lesson 4.3: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________
Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Compare and contrast the sedimentary rocks sandstone and limestone.

Lesson 4.4: True or False (metamorphic rocks)

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Write true if the statement is true or false if the statement is false.

_____ 1. When rocks undergo metamorphism, they always change chemically.

_____ 2. Extreme pressure during metamorphism always causes rocks to develop

layers.

_____ 3. Metamorphism can occur without extreme pressure being applied to rocks.

_____ 4. The metamorphism of shale can result in the metamorphic rock schist.

_____ 5. The metamorphic rock hornfels forms by regional metamorphism.

_____ 6. The parent rock of the metamorphic rock quartzite is limestone.

_____ 7. The metamorphic rock named schist may be used for landscaping.

_____ 8. Some toothpastes contain the metamorphic rock marble.

_____ 9. The metamorphic rock slate may be used as a building material.

_____ 10. The metamorphic rock quartzite is very soft and crumbly.

Lesson 4.4: Critical Reading

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Read this passage based on the text and answer the questions that follow.

Metamorphism

Any type of rock—igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic—can become a metamorphic

rock. All that is needed is enough heat and/or pressure to alter the parent rock’s
physical or chemical makeup without melting the rock entirely. Rocks change during
metamorphism because their minerals must be stable under the new temperature and
pressure conditions. The need for stability may cause the structure of minerals to
rearrange so new minerals form. Ions may move between minerals to create minerals
with different chemical compositions.

Extreme pressure exerted from one direction only may cause foliation. During this
process, layers form in rocks as they are squeezed by extreme pressure. Examples of
foliated metamorphic rocks include slate and schist, both of which form from the
sedimentary rock shale. Metamorphic rocks may also be non-foliated. Quartzite and
marble are nonfoliated metamorphic rocks.

Questions

1. What causes rocks to undergo metamorphism?

2. Why do rocks change during metamorphism?

3. What is foliation? When does it occur?

Lesson 4.4: Multiple Choice

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Circle the letter of the correct choice.

1. What happens during metamorphism?

a. Rocks change physically or chemically.

b. Rocks form from magma.

c. Rocks melt completely.

d. any of the above

2. Foliation normally occurs when

a. rock temperature rises to the melting point.

b. pressure is exerted in just one direction on rock.

c. layers of rock are peeled away by extreme heat.

d. layers in rock disappear due to extreme pressure.

3. Regional metamorphism may be caused by

a. extreme pressure from overlying rock.

b. burial of rock deep below Earth’s surface.

c. compression by geologic processes.

 d. all of the above

4. Contact metamorphism occurs

a. over a wide area.

b. because of extreme heat.

c. when rock changes to magma.

d. because of weathering and erosion.

5. All of the following are non-foliated metamorphic rocks except

a. schist.

b. marble.

c. quartzite.

d. metaconglomerate.

6. When shale undergoes metamorphism, it may change to

a. phyllite.

b. marble.

c. quartzite.

d. none of the above

Lesson 4.4: Matching

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Match each definition with the correct term.

Definitions

_____ 1. changes in enormous quantities of rock over a wide area

_____ 2. example of foliated metamorphic rock

_____ 3. formation of layers in rock due to pressure form one direction

_____ 4. example of non-foliated metamorphic rock

_____ 5. changes in rock due to heating by nearby magma

Terms

a. gneiss

b. foliation

c. hornfels

d. regional metamorphism

e. contact metamorphism

Lesson 4.4: Fill in the Blank

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Fill in the blank with the appropriate term.

1. __________ occurs when rock changes from one type to another due to extreme
heat or pressure.

2. Slate forms when __________ undergoes metamorphism.

3. When sandstone undergoes metamorphism, it becomes __________.

4. Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms from __________.

5. Rocks change during metamorphism because the __________ must be stable

under the higher temperature and pressure.

6. The rock from which a metamorphic rock forms is called the __________ rock.

Lesson 4.4: Critical Writing

Name___________________ Class______________ Date________

Thoroughly answer the question below. Use appropriate academic vocabulary and clear
and complete sentences.

Compare and contrast regional and contact metamorphism.