PETROLEUM: CHEMISTRY, REFINING, FUELS AND PETROCHEMICALS - Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and

Petrochemicals - Basics - James G. Speight

PETROLEUM: CHEMISTRY, REFINING, FUELS AND

PETROCHEMICALS- BASICS

James G. Speight
2476 Overland Road, Laramie, WY 82070-4808, USA

Keywords: Definitions, heavy oil, bitumen, composition, natural gas, naphtha, middle
distillates, residuum, density, specific gravity, viscosity, surface tension, interfacial
tension, metals content, volatility, carbon residue, aniline point, specific heat, latent
heat, heat content, thermal conductivity, heat of combustion, critical properties,
electrical properties, refractive index, optical activity, spectroscopic properties.

Contents

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1. Definitions and Terminology
1.1. Native Materials

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1.1.1. Petroleum
1.1.2. Heavy Oil
1.1.3. Bitumen
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1.1.4. Wax
1.1.5. Asphaltite
1.1.6. Asphaltoid
1.1.7. Bituminous Rock and Bituminous Sand
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1.1.8. Natural Gas

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1.2. Manufactured Materials

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1.2.1. Wax
1.2.2. Residuum (Residua)
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1.2.3. Asphalt
1.2.4. Tar and Pitch
1.2.5. Coke
1.2.6. Synthetic Crude Oil
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1.3. Derived Materials

1.3.1. Asphaltenes, Carbenes, and Carboids
1.3.2. Resins and Oils
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2. Composition
2.1. Elemental Composition
2.2. Chemical Composition
2.2.1. Hydrocarbon Components
2.2.2. Non-hydrocarbon Components
2.3. Composition by Distillation
2.3.1. Gases and Naphtha
2.3.2. Middle Distillates and Gas Oils
2.3.3. Residua (1050oF+)
2.4. Fractional Composition
2.4.1. Solvent Treatment
2.4.2. Fractionation using Solvents
2.4.3. Fractionation using Adsorbents
2.4.4. Fractionation using Chemical Methods

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3. Properties
3.1 Physical Properties
3.1.1 Elemental Analysis
3.1.2. Density and Specific Gravity
3.1.3. Viscosity
3.1.4. Surface and Interfacial Tension
3.1.5. Metals Content
3.2. Thermal Properties
3.2.1. Volatility
3.2.2. Liquefaction and Solidification
3.2.3. Carbon Residue
3.2.4. Aniline Point
3.2.5. Specific Heat
3.2.6. Latent Heat
3.2.7. Heat Content (Enthalpy)

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3.2.8. Thermal Conductivity

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3.2.9. Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationships
3.2.10. Heat of Combustion
3.2.11. Critical Properties
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3.3. Electrical Properties
3.3.1. Conductivity
3.3.2. Dielectric Constant
3.3.3. Dielectric Strength
3.4. Optical Properties
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3.4.1. Refractive Index

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3.5. Spectroscopic Properties

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3.6. Molecular Weight

Glossary
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Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
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Summary

Petroleum and the equivalent term crude oil, cover a wide assortment of materials
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consisting of mixtures of hydrocarbons and other compounds containing variable

amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen, which may vary widely in volatility, specific
gravity, and viscosity. Metal-containing constituents, notably those compounds that
contain vanadium and nickel, usually occur in the more viscous crude oils in amounts
up to several thousand parts per million and can have serious consequences during
processing of these feedstocks. Because petroleum is a mixture of widely varying
constituents and proportions, its physical properties also vary widely and the color from
colorless to black and there is the consistent use of archaic names. Thus, confusion
about the petroleum nomenclature still exists.

It is the purpose of this section to provide some semblance of order into the disordered
state that exists in petroleum terminology. Definitions are presented for petroleum and
related materials using the following categories: (1) materials of natural origin, (2)
manufactured materials, and (3) materials that are integral fractions derived from the

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PETROLEUM: CHEMISTRY, REFINING, FUELS AND PETROCHEMICALS - Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and
Petrochemicals - Basics - James G. Speight

natural or manufactured products. In addition definitions of petroleum constituents,

petroleum products, heavy oil, tar sand bitumen and other naturally occurring
carbonaceous species are also given.

Information about the composition and standard test methods for determining the
properties of petroleum, as well as methods for determining both, are also included.

1. Definitions and Terminology

Petroleum is a naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons, generally in a liquid state,

which may also include compounds of sulfur nitrogen oxygen metals and other elements
(ASTM, 2007). The hydrocarbon content may be as high as 97% w/w, for example in
the lighter paraffinic crude oil or as low as 50% w/w in heavy crude oil. Petroleum is
not a uniform material. In fact, the chemical and physical (fractional) composition of
petroleum can vary not only with the location and age of the oil field but also with the

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depth of the individual well. Indeed, two adjacent wells may produce petroleum with

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markedly different characteristics.

In the crude state petroleum has minimal value, but when refined it provides high-value
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liquid fuels, solvents, lubricants, and many other products. The fuels derived from
petroleum contribute approximately one-third to one-half of the total world energy
supply and are used not only for transportation fuels (i.e., gasoline, diesel fuel, and
aviation fuel, among others) but also to heat buildings. Petroleum products have a wide
variety of uses that vary from gaseous and liquid fuels to near-solid machinery
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lubricants. In addition, the residue of many refinery processes, asphalt - a once-

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maligned by-product - is now a premium value product for highway surfaces, roofing
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materials, and miscellaneous waterproofing uses.

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Since there is a wide variation in the properties of crude petroleum (Table 1), the
proportions in which the different constituents occur vary with origin. Some crude oils
have higher proportions of the lower boiling components and other naturally occurring
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materials (such as heavy oil and bitumen) have higher proportions of higher boiling
components (asphalt constituents and residuum).
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Petroleum Specific API Residuum

gravity gravity >1000 F
% v/v
US Domestic
California 0.858 33.4 23.0
Oklahoma 0.816 41.9 20.0

Pennsylvania 0.800 45.4 2.0

Texas 0.827 39.6 15.0
Texas 0.864 32.3 27.9
Foreign
Bahrain 0.861 32.8 26.4
Iran 0.836 37.8 20.8
Iraq 0.844 36.2 23.8

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Petrochemicals - Basics - James G. Speight

Kuwait 0.860 33.0 31.9

Saudi
Arabia 0.840 37.0 27.5
Venezuela 0.950 17.4 33.6

Table 1: Typical variations in the properties of petroleum.

For the purposes of terminology, it is preferable to subdivide petroleum and related

materials into three major classes (Table 2: (1) materials of natural origin, (2)
manufactured materials, and (3) materials that are integral fractions derived from the
natural or manufactured products.

Natural Derived Manufactured

materials materials Materials

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Natural gas Saturates Synthetic crude oil

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Petroleum Aromatics Distillates
Heavy oil Resins Lubricating oils
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Bitumen* Asphaltenes Wax
Asphaltite Carbenes** Residuum
Asphaltoid Carboids** Asphalt
Ozocerite (natural wax) Coke
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Kerogen Tar
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Coal Pitch
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*Bitumen from tar sand deposits.

**Usually thermal products from petroleum
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processing.

Table 2 Sub-division of petroleum and similar materials into various sub-groups.

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1.1. Native Materials

1.1.1. Petroleum

Petroleum and the equivalent term crude oil, cover a wide assortment of materials
consisting of mixtures of hydrocarbons and other compounds containing variable
amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen, which may vary widely in volatility, specific
gravity, and viscosity. Metal-containing constituents, notably those compounds that
contain vanadium and nickel, usually occur in the more viscous crude oils in amounts
up to several thousand parts per million and can have serious consequences during
processing of these feedstocks (Speight, 2007). Because petroleum is a mixture of
widely varying constituents and proportions, its physical properties also vary widely and
the color from colorless to black.

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PETROLEUM: CHEMISTRY, REFINING, FUELS AND PETROCHEMICALS - Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and
Petrochemicals - Basics - James G. Speight

Petroleum occurs underground, at various pressures depending on the depth. Because of

the pressure, it contains considerable natural gas in solution. Petroleum underground is
much more fluid than it is on the surface and is generally mobile under reservoir
conditions because the elevated temperatures (the geothermal gradient) in subterranean
formations decrease the viscosity. Although the geothermal gradient varies from place
to place, it is generally on the order of 25 to 30oC/km (15oF/1000 ft or 120oC/1000 ft,
i.e. 0.015oC per foot of depth or 0.012oC per foot of depth).

The major components of petroleum are hydrocarbons, compounds of hydrogen and

carbon that display great variation in their molecular structure. The simplest
hydrocarbons are a large group of chain-shaped molecules known as the paraffins. This
broad series extends from methane, which forms natural gas, through liquids that are
refined into gasoline, to crystalline waxes. A series of ring-shaped hydrocarbons, known
as the naphthenes, ranges from volatile liquids such as naphtha to high molecular
weight substances isolated as the asphaltene fraction. Another group of ring-shaped

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hydrocarbons is known as the aromatics; the chief compound in this series is benzene, a

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popular raw material for making petrochemicals.

Non-hydrocarbon constituents of petroleum include organic derivatives of nitrogen,

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oxygen, sulfur, and the metals nickel and vanadium. Most of these impurities are
removed during refining.

1.1.2. Heavy Oil

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Heavy crude oil is a type of crude oil which does not flow easily. It is a relative term,
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compared to (conventional) light crude oil, but relates to technical issues involved in
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production, transportation, and refining. The physical properties that distinguish heavy
oil from conventional oil include higher viscosity and specific gravity, as well as
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molecular composition.

The definition of heavy oil is usually based on the API gravity or viscosity, and the
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definition is quite arbitrary although there have been attempts to rationalize the definition
based upon viscosity, API gravity, and density. For example, heavy oils were considered to
be those crude oils that had gravity somewhat less than 20o API with the heavy oils falling
into the API gravity range 10 to 15o. For example, Cold Lake heavy crude oil has an API
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gravity equal to 12o and extra heavy oils, such as tar sand bitumen, usually have an API
gravity in the range 5 to 10o (Athabasca bitumen: 8oAPI). Residua would vary depending
upon the temperature at which distillation was terminated but usually vacuum residua are
in the range 2 to 8o API (Speight and Ozum, 2002; Speight, 2007).

1.1.3. Bitumen

Bitumen is a naturally-occurring material that is found in deposits where the

permeability is low and passage of fluids through the deposit can only be achieved by
prior application of fracturing techniques (Abraham, 1945; Hoiberg, 1964).

The expression tar sand is commonly used in the petroleum industry to describe
sandstone reservoirs that are impregnated with a heavy, viscous bituminous material.

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Alternative names, such as bituminous sand or oil sand, are gradually finding usage,
with the former name (bituminous sands) more technically correct. The term oil sand is
also used in the same way as the term tar sand, and these terms are used
interchangeably.

Tar sands have been defined in the United States (FE-76-4) as: the several rock types
that contain an extremely viscous hydrocarbon which is not recoverable in its natural
state by conventional oil well production methods including currently used enhanced
recovery techniques. The hydrocarbon-bearing rocks are variously known as bitumen-
rocks oil, impregnated rocks, oil sands, and rock asphalt.

The recovery of the bitumen from tar sand formations depends to a large degree on the
composition and construction of the sands. Generally, the bitumen found in tar sand
deposits is an extremely viscous material that is immobile under reservoir conditions
and cannot be recovered through a well by the application of secondary or enhanced

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recovery techniques. In fact, the bitumen in tar sand formations requires a high degree

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of thermal stimulation for recovery to the extent that some thermal decomposition may
have to be induced. Current recovery operations of bitumen in tar sand formations
involve use of a mining technique.
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In many countries other than North America, the term bitumen is applied not only to
any of various solid or semisolid mixtures of hydrocarbonaceous materials that occur in
nature bit also to the refinery products which are obtained as residues from the
distillation of petroleum (Speight, 1999). In Great Britain and continental Europe the
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terms bitumen and asphaltic bitumen are employed only with reference to the black or
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brown petroleum-like substances that are called asphalt in the United States.
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1.1.4. Wax
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Naturally occurring wax, often referred to as mineral wax, occurs as a yellow to dark
brown, solid substance that is composed largely of paraffins. Fusion points vary from
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60°C (140°F) to as high as 95°C (203°F). They are usually found associated with
considerable mineral matter, as a filling in veins and fissures or as an interstitial
material in porous rocks. The similarity in character of these native products is
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substantiated by the fact that, with minor exceptions where local names have prevailed,
the original term ozokerite (ozocerite) has served without notable ambiguity for mineral
wax deposits.

Ozokerite (ozocerite), from the Greek meaning odoriferous wax, is a naturally occurring
hydrocarbon material composed chiefly of solid paraffins and cycloparaffins (i.e.
hydrocarbons). Ozocerite usually occurs as stringers and veins that fill rock fractures in
tectonically disturbed areas. It is predominantly paraffinic material (containing up to 90
percent non-aromatic hydrocarbons) with a high content (40 to 50 percent) of normal or
slightly branched paraffins as well as cyclic paraffin derivatives. Ozocerite contains
approximately 85% carbon, 14% hydrogen, and 0.3% each of sulfur and nitrogen and is,
therefore, predominantly a mixture of pure hydrocarbons; any non-hydrocarbon
constituents are in the minority. Ozocerite is soluble in solvents that are commonly
employed for dissolution of petroleum derivatives, e.g. toluene, benzene, carbon

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disulfide, chloroform, and ethyl ether.

On distillation in a current of superheated steam, ozokerite yields a candle-making

material resembling the paraffin wax obtained from petroleum, but of higher melting-
point, and therefore of greater value if the candles made from it are to be used in hot
climates. There are also obtained in the distillation light oils and a product resembling
vaseline. The residue in the stills consists of a hard, black, waxy substance, which in
admixture with rubber is employed under the name of okonite as an electrical insulator.
Mining of ozokerite has diminished due to competition from paraffin was manufactured
from petroleum. Ozocerite has a higher melting range than most petroleum waxes and is
still favored for some applications, such as electrical insulators, candles, or as the filling
in extra-soft paper tissues.

1.1.5. Asphaltite

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Asphaltites are a variety of naturally occurring, dark brown to black, solid, nonvolatile

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bituminous substances that are differentiated from bitumen primarily by their high
content of material insoluble in the common organic solvents and high yields of thermal
coke. The resultant high temperature of fusion (approximate range 115 to 330°C, 240 to
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625°F) is characteristic. The names applied to the two rather distinct types included in
this group are now accepted and used for the most part without ambiguity.

Gilsonite was originally known as uintaite from its discovery in the Uinta Basin of
western Colorado and eastern Utah. It is characterized by a bright luster and a carbon
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residue in the range 10 to 20% by weight. The mineral occurs in nearly vertical veins
varying from about an inch to many feet in width and is relatively free of occluded
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inorganic matter. Samples taken from different veins and across the larger veins may
vary somewhat in softening point, solubility characteristics, sulfur content, and so on,
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but the variation is not great. It is evident in all instances that it is essentially the same
material, and it is therefore appropriate to apply a single name to this mineral. However,
caution should be exercised in using the same term without qualification for similar
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materials until it can be shown that they are equivalent to gilsonite.

The second recognized type in this category is grahamite, which is very much like
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Gilsonite in external characteristics but is distinguished from the latter by its black
streak, relatively high fixed carbon value (35 to 55%), and high temperature of fusion,
which is accompanied by a characteristic intumescence. The undifferentiated term
grahamite must be used with caution; similarities in the characteristics of samples from
different areas do not necessarily imply any chemical or genetic relationship.

A third but rather broad category of asphaltite includes a group of bituminous materials
known as glance pitch, which physically resemble Gilsonite but have some of the
properties of Grahamite. They have been referred to as intermediates between the two,
but the possibility does exist that they are basically different from gilsonite and may
represent something between bitumen and grahamite.

1.1.6. Asphaltoid

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Asphaltoids are a further group of brown to black, solid bituminous materials of which
the members are differentiated from the asphaltites by their infusibility and low
solubility in carbon disulfide. These substances have also been designated asphaltic
pyrobitumen, as they decompose on heating into bitumen-like materials. However, the
term pyrobitumen does not convey the impression intended; thus the members of this
class are referred to as asphaltoids since they closely resemble the asphaltites.

Pyrobitumen, is a naturally occurring solid organic substance that is distinguishable

from bitumen (q.v.) by being infusible and insoluble. When heated, however,
pyrobitumen generates, or transform into, bitumen-like liquid and gaseous hydrocarbon
compounds. Pyrobitumen may be either asphaltic or non-asphaltic. The asphaltic
pyrobitumen are derived from petroleum, are relatively hard, and have a specific gravity
below 1.25. They do not melt when heated but swell and decompose (intumesce).

1.1.7. Bituminous Rock and Bituminous Sand

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Bituminous rock and bituminous sand (see also bitumen) are those formations in which
the bituminous material is found as a filling in veins and fissures in fractured rocks or
impregnating relatively shallow sand, sandstone, and limestone strata. The deposits
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contain as much as 20% bituminous material, and if the organic material in the rock
matrix is bitumen, it is usual (although chemically incorrect) to refer to the deposit as
rock asphalt to distinguish it from bitumen that is relatively mineral free. A standard
test (ASTM, 2007) is available for determining the bitumen content of various mixtures
with inorganic materials, although the use of word bitumen as applied in this test might
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be questioned and it might be more appropriate to use the term organic residues to
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include tar and pitch

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Bituminous rocks generally have a coarse, porous structure, with the bituminous
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material in the voids. A much more common situation is that in which the organic
material is present as an inherent part of the rock composition insofar as it is a
diagenetic residue of the organic material detritus that was deposited with the sediment.
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The organic components of such rocks are usually refractory and are only slightly
affected by most organic solvents.
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Bibliography

Abraham, H. (1945). Asphalts and Allied Substances. Van Nostrand, New York.
Ali, M.F., El Ali, B.M., and Speight, J.G. 2005. Handbook of Industrial Chemistry: Organic Chemicals.
McGraw-Hill, New York.

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PETROLEUM: CHEMISTRY, REFINING, FUELS AND PETROCHEMICALS - Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and
Petrochemicals - Basics - James G. Speight

Ancheyta, J., and Speight, J.G. 2007. Hydroprocessing of Heavy Oils and Residua. CRC-Taylor &
Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida.
Andersen, S.I. (1994). Fuel Sci, Technol. International. 12: 51.
ASTM. (2007). Annual Book of Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials. West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
ASTM. 2009. Annual Book of Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
Becker, J.R. 1997. Crude Oil Waxes, Emulsions, and Asphaltenes. PennWell Publishing Company, Tulsa,
Oklahoma.
Falk, J.E. (1964). Porphyrins and Metalloporphyrins. Elsevier, New York.
Girdler, R.B. (1965). Proc. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technologists 34: 45.
Hildebrand, J.H., Prausnitz, J.M., and Scott, R.L. (1970). Regular Solutions. Van Nostrand-Reinhold,
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Hoiberg, A. J. (1964). Bituminous Materials: Asphalts, Tars, and Pitches. John Wiley and Sons. New

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Hsu, C.S., and Robinson, P.R. 2006. Practical Advances in Petroleum Processing. Springer, New York.
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IP. (2007). Standard Methods for Analysis and Testing of Petroleum and Related Products. Institute of
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Petroleum, London, England.
Jones, D.S.J. 1995. Elements of Petroleum Processing. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Kohl, A.L. and Nielsen, R.B., 1997. Gas Purification. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas.
Koots, J. A., and Speight. J. G. (1975). Fuel 54:179.
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Long, R.B., and Speight, J.G. (1998). In Petroleum Chemistry and Refining. Taylor & Francis Publishers,
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Mitchell, D. L., and Speight. J. G. (1973). Fuel 52:149.

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Mokhatab, S., Poe, W.A., and Speight, J.G. 2006. Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and
Processing. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Parkash, S. 2003. Refining Processes Handbook. Gulf Professional Publishing, Elsevier, Burlington,
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Massachusetts.
Pfeiffer, J.H. (1950). The Properties of Asphaltic Bitumen. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
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Publishers, Washington, DC. Chapter 3.

Sadeghbeigi, R. 1995. Fluid Catalytic Cracking Handbook. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas.
Simanzhenkov, V., and Idem, R. 2003. Crude Oil Chemistry. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.
Smith, K.M. (1975). Porphyrins and Metalloporphyrins. Elsevier, New York.
Speight, J. G. (1994). The Chemistry and Technology of Coal. 2nd Edition. Marcel Dekker. New York.
Speight, J.G. (1999). Asphalt. Kirk-Othmer Concise Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology. 4th Edition.
1999, p. 192.
Speight, J.G. 1990. Fuel Science and Technology Handbook. Marcel Dekker, New York.
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PETROLEUM: CHEMISTRY, REFINING, FUELS AND PETROCHEMICALS - Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and
Petrochemicals - Basics - James G. Speight

Speight, J.G. 2000. The Desulfurization of Heavy Oils and Residua, 2nd Edition. Marcel Dekker Inc., New
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Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida.
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Speight, J.G., Long, R.B., and Trowbridge, T.D. (984) Fuel. 63: 616.
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Biographical Sketch

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Dr. Speight has more than thirty years of experience in areas associated with the properties and
processing of conventional and synthetic fuels. He has participated in, as well as led, significant research
and development in refining heavy oil and coal, and related environmental issues. He has well over four
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hundred publications, reports, and presentations detailing these research activities and has taught more
than forty related courses.
Dr. Speight is currently editor of the journal Petroleum Science and Technology (formerly Fuel Science
and Technology International) and editor of the journal Energy Sources. He is recognized as a world
leader in the areas of fuels characterization and development. Dr. Speight is also Adjunct Professor of
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Chemical and Fuels Engineering at the University of Utah.

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Dr. Speight is the author/editor/compiler of more than twenty books and bibliographies related to fossil
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fuel processing and environmental issues. As a result of his work, Dr. Speight was awarded the Diploma
of Honor, National Petroleum Engineering Society, For Outstanding Contributions to the Petroleum
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Industry in 1995 and the Gold Medal of Russian Academy of Sciences (Natural) for Outstanding Work in
the Area of Petroleum Science in 1996. He has also received the Specialist Invitation Program Speakers
Award from NEDO (New Energy Development Organization, Government of Japan) in 1987 and again in
1996 for his Contributions to Coal Research. Dr. Speight also received the degree of Doctor of Sciences
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from the Scientific Research Geological Exploration Institute (VNIGRI), St. Petersburg, Russia For
Exceptional Work in Petroleum Science in 1997. In 2001, Dr. Speight was also awarded the Einstein
Medal of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Natural) in recognition of Outstanding Contributions and
Service in the field of Geologic Sciences.
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