CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT during the first 6 months of life, but doesn’t seem to have

A. The Child and Adolescent Learner a purpose in modern life. A baby with arch her back, flail
Childhood- Childhood is define as the time for a boy or out, and then curl up if she feels as although she is being
girl from birth until he or she is an adult. It is more dropped.
circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of The final reflex is Tonic Neck. During the first 4 months,
puberty. when babies lie awake on their backs with their heads
The Convention of the Rights if the Child defines facing to one side, they will extend the arm on the side of
a child as” every human being below the age of 18 years their body that they’re facing and reflex the other arm at
unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is an angle, in a position that resembles a fencing pose. This
attained earlier”. reflex may help prepare them for voluntary reaching later
Adolescence- According to Stuart Judge, a noted in their environment.
educator and psychologist, adolescence is the period of Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop
transition from childhood to adulthood. Although “toddling”, or using the awkward, wide-legged robort-like
sometimes described as beginning in parallel with fertility stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they
or puberty and ending with maturity and independence, develop a smoother gait, they also develop the ability to
adolescence has a very variable and imprecise duration run, and hop. Children of this age can participate in
The onset of adolescence cannot be pointed in throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can
physiological term, although it is influenced by the same also push themselves around with their feet while sitting
sex hormones and refers to the same general period as on a riding toy.
physical sexual development. It represents a complex and Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs
sometimes disturbing psychological transition, using a method of bringing both feet together on each
accompanying the requirement for the accepted social step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adult
behavior of the particular adult and culture. place one foot on each step in sequence); However,
B. Physical and Motor Development. young children may still need some “back up” assistant to
A. Physical and Motor development prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new
Infants need to learn how to move and to use their skill. Children of this age will also be stumped when it’s
bodies to perform various tasks, a process better known time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around
as motor development. Initially, babies’ movements are and scoot down the stairs backwards. 3 to 4 years old can
simply the uncontrolled, reflexive movements they are jump and hop higher as higher as their leg muscles grow
born with, over time, they learn to move their body parts stronger. Many can even hop on one foot for shorts
voluntarily to perform both gross (large) and fine (small) period of time.
motor skills. In general, babies begin developing motor By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs
skills form head to tail (cephalocaudal), the center of the alone in the adult fashion (i.e. taking one step at a time);
body outward (proximodistal). They learn to control their Their running continues to smooth out and increase in
head and neck before they learn to maneuver their arms; speed. Children of this age can also skip and add spin to
they learn to maneuver their arms before they learn to their throws. They also have more control when riding
manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso their tricycles (or bicycles), and can be drive them faster.
before the learn how to move their arms and legs. During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine
The sucking reflex allows babies to drink milk and easier skills. They’re running even faster and can start to
nourish themselves in the days of life. ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In
Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is heard addition, they can step sideways. Children of this age
turning in the first days of life. begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the
Another permanent life-supporting reflex is head jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and
turning. This reflex allows a baby to turn his head if swing on their own. They often start jumping rope,
something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is skating, hitting balls with bats, and so on. Many children
blocking his airflow. of this age enjoy learning to play organized sports as
Another reflex that also babies survive is the rooting soccer, basketball, t-bale or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6
reflex. When babies root, they may nuzzle their face and years old often like to participate in physical
mouth into the caregiver’s chest or shoulder. extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or
The rest of the flexes have less survival value but are still dance. Children continue to refine and improve their
notable. For the first 3 to 4 months, babies have an gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond.
amazing grasping ability and reflex. They will grasp B. Brain Development
anything place in their palm and hold it with amazing The bran’s ability to change from experience is known as
strength for their size. Some infants in the first weeks of Plasticity. The human brain is especially plastic early in
life can support their entire body weight through that life, which is why the “nurture” part of the equation is so
grasp. important
While this reflex may not have any survival function in Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic-this is
modern times, it does help babies bond with caregivers the mechanism of learning-but plasticity declines in
and family in the first weeks of life. Similarly, for the first adulthood.
two months, babies will ‘step” with their legs if they are As a child’s brain develops, it goes through
held vertically with their feet touching a surface. Even several ’critical periods, a s developmental phase in which
though this reflex disappears months before babies begin the brain requires certain environmental input of it will
walking purposely, experts believes stepping helps not develop normally.
infants learn how their legs works can be used. Early Milestones in Brain Growth
The Moro response is another reflex that is present 4 months: the infant’s brain responds to every sound
produced in all the languages of the world. complexity. Infants start without language. Yet by four
8 to 9 months: Babies can form specific memories from months of age, babies can read lips and discriminate
their experiences, such as how to push a ball to make it speech sounds.
roll. Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words
10 months: Babies can now distinguish and even without associated meaning, but as children age, words
produce the sounds of their own language (such as “da- acquire meaning, and connections between words are
da”) no longer pay attention to the sounds of language formed, in time, sentences start to form as words are
that are foreign. joined together to create logical meaning. As a person
12 months: Babies whose parents say, for example” gets older, new meaning and new associations are
Lookee at the doggie” will go to the appropriate picture created and vocabulary increases as more words are
of a dog in a picture book more often than those babies learned.
who are talked to normal, flatter voices. Infant use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal
12 to 18 months: Babies can keep in memory something vocalizations to communicate their wants, needs and
that has been hidden and find it again, even if it has dispositions. Even though most children begin to vocalize
completely covered up. They can also hold memory and eventually verbalize at various ages and at different
sequences of simple activities, such as winding up a jack- rates, they learn their first language without conscious
in-the-box until the figure pos up. instruction from parents or caretakers. It is seemingly
24 months: Preschool children now clear picture in mind effortless task that grows increasingly difficult with age.
of people who are dear to them, and the get upset when Of course, before any learning can begin, the child must
separated from these people (even their peers) be biologically and socially mature enough.
30 months: Preschool children can hold in mind a whole Biological Preconditions- Linguist do not all agree on
sequence of spatial maps and know where things are in what biological factors contribute to language
their environment. development, however most do agree that our ability to
36 months: A preschool child can now two different acquire such a complicated system is specific to the
emotions in his mind at the same time, such as being sad human species, Furthermore, our ability to learn
that he spilled ice cream on his cloths but glad that he’s language may have been developed through the
at birthday party. evolutionary process and that the foundation for
C. Factors Affecting Development language may be passed down genetically.
Maternal Nutrition- the nutritional status of the women Second Preconditions- it is crucial that children are
during adolescent pregnancy and lactation has a direct allowed to socially interact with other people who can
impact on the child’s health and development. vocalize and respond to questions. For language
Child Nutrition- the Child’s state of nutritional balance is acquisition to develop successfully, children must be in an
crucial in his early developmental age. environment that allows them to communicate socially in
Early Sensory Stimulation- Toys, soothing sounds and that language.
other sensorial stimulation contribute to the child’s There are a few different theories as to why and how
development. children develop language. The most popular explanation
D. Exceptional Development is that language is acquired through imitation. However,
Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities this proves to be more of a folk tale than anything. Two
may experience functional, visual, orthopedic, motor, or most accepted theories in language development are
hearing impairments, which may impact upon their psychological and functional. Psychological explanations
ability to walk, play and learn. Physical disabilities are focus on the mental processes involved in childhood
also often defined and categorized by some degree of language learning. Functional explanations look at the
limitation in the use of upper or lower extremities and social process involved in learning the first language.
maintaining posture and positioning. B. Bilingual Language Development
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit There are two major patters in bilingual language
Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)-Attention-Deficit acquisition; simultaneous Bilingualism and Sequential
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Hyperkinetic Disorder bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child
(as officially know in U.K., through ADHD is more acquires two languages at the same time before the age
commonly used) is generally considered to be a of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of
developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, words from both languages in the first stage. Stage 2
affecting about 5% of the world’s population. The occurs at 4 years and older when distinction between the
disorder typically presents itself during childhood, and is two languages takes place, and the child uses each
characterized by a present pattern of inattention and/or language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs
hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness, poor impulse before the child is 3 years old, but the child can draw in
control or impulsivity and distractibility, ADHD is on the knowledge and experience of first language while
currently considered to be a persistent and chronic acquiring the second language.
condition for which no medical cure is available ADHD is Detecting delays in the speech and language of
most commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past multilingual children presents a challenge. The authors
decade. state that “the key is to obtain information about the
E. Linguistic and Literary Development child’s entire language system, not just the primary or
A. Natural History and Language Development secondary language”.
Language development is a process that starts early in The following “red flags” may indicates that the child
human life, when a person begins to acquire language by who is simultaneously acquiring two languages id
learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. Children’s experiencing problems with language development.
language development moves from simplicity to Less  No sounds by 2-6 months
than one new words per week for 6-15 month-old the intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to
children. more accurately represent the world and perform logical
 Less than 20 words (in the two languages combined operations on representations of the concepts grounded
by 20 months: and in the world. The theory concerns the emergence and
 No use of word combinations and a very limited acquisitions of the schemata-schemes, of one perceives
vocabulary by age 2-3 years the world-in ”developmental stages”, time when children
 Red flags for abnormal language development in the are acquiring new ways of mentally representing-
sequential acquisition of two language include. information.
 Lack of normal milestones in the first language 1. Sensorimotor period (years 0-2)
 Prolonged phase of not talking Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes,
 Difficulty of retrieving words according to Piaget, in addition to explore their world.
Factors Affecting Language Development Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation
1. Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the of the congenital reflexes:
child) The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage,
2. Delayed general development (global developmental occurs form birth to six weeks and is associated
delay), physical development motor skills), cognitive primarily with the developmental reflexes. Three
development etc. primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of
3. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very objects in the mouth following moving or interesting
interested in language, prefers other modalities e.g. objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when
physical activities an object makes contact with the palm (palmar
4. Poor control and/or coordination of the speech grasp). Over this first six weeks of life, these reflexes
muscles; lips, tongue etc. begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the
5. Medical problems palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.
6. Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks” The second sub-stage, primary circular reaction
communication intent” phase, occurs form six weeks to four months and is
7. Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, associates primarily with the development of habits.
impacted earwax etc. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action
8. Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving involving only one’s body begins. An example of this
9. Exposure to too many languages for the child type of reaction would involve something like an
10. Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child infant repeating the motion of passing their hands
everyone talks for, the “babied” child has a more before their face. The schema developed during this
dominant sibling etc. stage inform the infant about the relationships
11. Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, among his body parts (e.g. in passing the hand in
pressure to perform etc. form of his eyes he develop a motor schema for
12. Short attention span. moving his arm so that the hand becomes visible.
13. Family history of speech and language delays or The third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions
difficulties phase, occurs from four to nine months and is
C. Exceptional Development associated primarily with the development of
Aphasia- Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to coordination between vision and apprehension.
produce and/or comprehend language due to injury to Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional
brain areas specialized for these functions. It is not a grasping for a desired object, secondary circular
result of deficits in sensory, intellect, or psychiatric reactions, and differentiations between ends and
functioning. Depending on the area and extent of the means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp
damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to the air in the direction of a desired object, often to
speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of wide the amusement of friends, family, younger and older
variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension siblings, grandparents, etc. Secondary circular
and production, such as being able to sing but not to reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an
speak. external object begin; for example, moving a switch
Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation
manifests primarily as a difficulty with written language, between means also occurs. This is perhaps of one of
particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the the most important stages of a child’s growth as it
result of a neurological differences but is not intellectual signifies the drawn for logic. However, babies still
disability. Most people with dyslexia have average or only have a very early rudimentary grasp of this and
above average intelligence. most of their discoveries have an “accidental” quality
Evidence suggests that dyslexia results for differences in to them in that the initial performance of what will
how the brain processes written and/or verbal language. soon becomes a secondary circular reactions occurs
It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties by chance; but the operant conditioning causes the
resulting from other causes, such as deficiencies in initial “ accidental” behavior (which was followed by
intelligence, a non-neurological deficiency with vision or an “interesting pattern of stimulation) to be
hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction. repeated. And the ability to repeat the act is the
D. Cognitive Development result of primary circular reactions established in the
A. Theories of Cognitive Development previous stage. For example, when the infant’s hand
Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). His theory accidentally makes contact with an object in hid field
provided many central concepts in the field of
developmental psychology and concerned the growth of
 of vision is based on the primary of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point of
circular reaction bringing his hand into his field of view of others. Example, if a child is in trouble, he or she
vision. Thus, the child learns (at the level of might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my
schemata) that “if he can see it then he can also mom cannot either.
touch it” and this results in a schemata which is the 5. Inability to Conserve-though Piaget’s conservation
knowledge that is external environment is populated experiments (conservation of mass, volume and number
with solid objects. after the original fo m has been changed. For example, a
The fourth sub-stage, called the coordination of child in this phase will believe that a string which has up
secondary circular reactions stage, which occurs from in”o-o-o-o” pattern will have a larger number of beads
nine to twelve months, is when Piaget thought that than a string which has a oooo: pattern, because the
object permanence developed. In addition, the stage latter pattern has less space between Os; or that a tall,
is called the coordination of secondary circular thin 8-ounce cup has more liquid in it than a wide, short
reactions stage, and is primarily with the 8-ounce cup.
development of logic and the coordination between 6. Animism- The child believes that inanimate objects
means and ends, this is extremely important marks have: lifelike” qualities and are capable of action.
the beginning o goal orientation or intentionally, the Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it likes a real
deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective. person. In a way this like using their imagination.
The fifth sub-stage, tertiary circular reactions phase, 3. Concrete operational period (years 7-11)
occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages
associated primarily with the discovery of new means of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. This stage,
to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between
juncture as the “young scientist”, conducting pseudo- the ages 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the
experiments to discover new methods of meeting appropriate use of logic. Important process during this
challenges. stage are:
The six sub-stage, considered “beginning of symbolic a. Seriation- the ability to arrange objects in an order
representation”, is associated primarily with the according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For
beginnings of insight, or true creativity. In this stag example, if given different-shaded objects they may make
the trial- and error application of schemata, which a colour gradient.
was observable during the previous stage, occurs b. Classification-the ability to name and identify sets of
internally ( at the level of schemata rather than of objects according to appearance, size or other
motor responses), resulting in the sudden characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects
appearance of new effective behaviors (without any can include another, a child is no longer subject to the
observable trial-and-error). This is also the time when illogical limitations of animasim ( the belief that all
symbols (words and images) begin to stand for other objects are alive and therefore have feelings)
objects. This marks the passage into the
preoperational stage. c. Decentering- where the child takes into account
2. Preoperational period (years 2-7) multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example,
The Preoperational stage is the second of four stage of the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide
cognitive development. By observing sequence of play, but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller
Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of cup.
the second year a qualitatively new kind of psychological d. Reversibility- where the child understands that
functioning occurs (Pre) Operatory Thought in Piagetian numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to
theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to
The hallmark of the preoperational stage is spare and rapidly determine that if 4 +4 equals 8, 8/4 will equal 4,
logically inadequate mental operations. the original quantity
According to Piaget, the Pre Operational stage of e. Conservation- understanding that quantity, length
development follows the Sensorimotor stage and occur or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or
between 2-7 years of age. It includes the following appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a
processes. child is presented with two equally-sized, full cup they
1. Symbolic functioning- characterized by the use of will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a
mental symbols, words, or pictures, which the child uses pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the
to represent something which is not physically present other filled up.
2. Centration-characterized by a child focusing or f. Elimination of Egoncentrism- the ability to view
attending to only one aspect of a stimulus or situation. things from another’s perspective (even if they think
For example, in pouring a quantity of liquid from an incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in whom
narrow beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child Jane puts a doll under the box leaves the room, and then
might judge the quantity of liquid to have decreased, Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A
because it is”lower”- that is, the child attends to the child in the concrete operation stage will stay that Jane
height of the water, but not the compensating increase in will still think it’s under the box even through the child
the diameter of the container. knows it is in the drawer
3. Intuitive thought- occurs when the child is able to 4. Formal operation period (years 11-adulthood)
believe in something without knowing why she or he The formal operational period is the fourth and final of
believes it. the periods of cognitive development in the Piaget’s
4. Egocentrism- a version of centration, this denotes a theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete
tendency of a child to only think for her or his own point
Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age Long Term Memory
(puberty) and continuous into adulthood. It is The final storing house of memorial information, the long
characterized by acquisition of the ability to think term memory store holds information until needed again.
abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from Capacity: unlimited?
the information available. During this stage the young Duration: indefinite?
adult is able to understand such things as love ”shades of Executive Control Processes
gray”, logical proofs, and values, Also known as executive processor, or Metacognitive
Lev Vtgotsky-Psychologist, was born in 1896 in Orsha, skills
Belarys (then a part of the Russian Empire). Vygotsky was Guide the flow of information through the system, helps
tutored privately by Solomom Asphiz and graduated from the learner make informed
Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he attended the Example processes-attention, rehearsals, organization,
Institute of Pyschology in Moscow (1924-34), where he sometimes call METACOGNITVE SKILLS
worked extensively on ideas about cognitive Forgetting
development, particularly the relationship between The ability to access information when needed
language and thinking. His writings emphasized the roles There are two main ways in which forgetting likely
of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and occurs:
argued that language was the most important symbolic Decay-Information is not attended to, and eventually
tool provided by society. fades away. Very prevalent in Working memory.
Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution Inference-New or old information blocks’ access to the
concerns the inter-relationship of language development information in question.
and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky’s book Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering
“Thinking and Speaking”, establishes the explicit and Organization- info that is organized efficiently should be
profound connection between speech (both silent inner recalled
speech and oral language), and the development of Deep processing- This is focusing upon meaning.
mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be Elaboration- Connecting new info with old, to gain
noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being meaning.
qualitatively different than normal (external) speech, For Generation- Things we produce are easier to remember
Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning, e.i. than things we hear.
children learn adults and other children Context-Remembering the situation helps recover
Information Processing Theory information
There are three primary stages in IP Theory: Personalization- making the information relevant to the
Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and individual
attended Memory Methods
Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or Memorization ( note the same as learning)
extended period of time depending upon the processes Serial Position Effect ( recency and primacy) you will
following encoding remember the beginning and end of list most readily
Retrieval- The information is found at the appropriate Part Learning- Break up the list to increase
time, and reactivated fr use on a current task, the true memorization
test of effective memory. Distributed Practice- Break up learning sessions,
The initial appeal of information processing theories was rather than cramming all the info in at once ( Massed
the idea that cognitive processes could be described in a Practice)
stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a path Mnemonics Aids
along which information is taken into the memory Loci Method- Familiar place, associate list with items
system, and reactivated when necessary. Most theories in place (i.e. living room)
of information processing center around three main Peg-type- Standard list is a cue to the target list.
stages in the memory process. Acronym – SCUBA
Sensory Register Chain Mnemonics- EGBDF
The first step in the IP model, hold ALL sensory Key word Method- Association of new word/ concept
information for a VERY BRIEF time period. with well know word/concept that sounds similar.
Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more that we Theories of Intelligence
can ever perceive. 1. Psychometric Theories
Duration: Extremely brief- in order of 1 to 3 seconds Psychometric theories have sought to understand
The Role of Attention the structure of intelligence; the form it takes, it
To move information into consciousness, we need to categories, and its composition. Underlying psychometric
attend to it. That is, we only have the ability to perceive intelligence theory is a psychological model according to
and remember later those things that pass through the which intelligence is a combination of abilities that can be
attention gate. measured by mental testing. These tests often include
Short Term Memory (working Memory) analogies, classification / identification, and series
Capacity: What you can say about in 2 seconds. Often completion. Each test score is equally weighted according
said to be 7+/_2 items. to the evidence of underlying ability in each category.
Duration: Around 18 seconds or less British psychologist Charles E. Spearman published the
To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you first psychometric theory 1904. His theory noted that
need to rehearse people who excelled on one mental ability test often did
There are two types of rehearsal- Maintenance and well on the others, and people who did poorly on one of
Elaborative
them tended to do poorly with others. Using this allowed them to study the basis of cognition-perception,
concept, Spearman devised a technique of statistical learning and memory. Individual differences in the tasks
analyzing that examined patterns of individual scores. became apparent, which they related to differing
This analysis helped him discover what he believed to be patterns of performing and operating manual
the two sources if these individual differences: representations.
the ”general factor” which is our general intellectual Several years later, Robert Stemberg suggested
ability, and a test-specific factor. an alternative approach to studying cognitive process. He
American psychologist L.L. Thurstone disregarded argued, based on evidence he had gathered, that there
with Spearman’s theory and his isolation of the “general weak only a weak relationship between basic cognitive
factor” of intelligence. Thurstone believed that the tasks and psychometric test scores because the tasks
“general factor “ resulted from Spearman;s method of being used were too simple. Although simple task involve
analysis, and that if analysis were more thorough, seven cognitive processes, they are peripheral rather than
factors would emerge. These seven factors were central.
collectively called the “primary mental abilities” and Although opposing cognitive theories exist, they are all
included verbal comprehension, verbal comprehension, based on the serial processing of information, which
verbal fluency, numbers, spatial visualization, inductive means that cognitive processes are executed one after
reasoning, memory, memory and perceptual speed. another in a series.
Most psychologists agree that a broader The assumption is that we process chunks of
subdivision of abilities than Spearman’s classification is information one at a time, trying to combine the
necessary, but only some agree with hierarchal processes into an overall problem-solving strategy. Other
subdivision. It quickly became apparent to many psychologists have challenged this idea, arguing that
psychologists that were problems that could not be cognitive processing is parallel, meaning that we process
addressed by psychometric theories. The number of large amounts of information simultaneously. However, it
abilities could not be positively identified, and the has proved difficult to distinguish between serial and
differences between them could not be clearly defined parallel models of information processing.
due to the limitations of testing and analysis. However, Despite evidence and support of cognitive
the most significant problem extended beyond the intelligence theories, a major problem remains regarding
number of abilities: what happens in someone’s mind the nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do not take
when they are using the ability in question? Psychometric into account that the description of intelligence may
theories had no means of addressing this issue, and differ from one cultural group to another. Even within
cognitive theories began to fill this gap. mainstream cultures, it will known that conventional
2. Cognitive Theories tests do not reliably predict performance. Therefore in
During the era of psychometric theories, people’s test addition to cognition, the context in which the cognition
scores dominated the study of intelligence. In 1957, operates also needs to be accounted for.
American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized how some Exceptional Development ( Cognitive Development)
psychologists study individual differences and other Giftedness- For many years, psychometricians and
study commonalities in human behavior, but the two psychologists, following the footsteps of Lewis Terman in
methods never meet. Cronbach voiced the need for two 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This “legacy”
methods to be united, which let to the development of survives to the present day, in that giftedness and high
cognitive theories of intelligence. IQ continue to be equated in some conceptions of
Without understanding the processes underlying giftedness. Since that early time, however, other
intelligence, we cannot come to accurate conclusions researchers (e.g, Cattell, Guilford, and Thurnstone) have
when analyzing test scores or assessing someone’s argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such a
performance. Cognitive analysis helps the interpretation unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted
of the test scores by determining to what degree the approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the
score reflects reasoning ability and the degree to which it 1980s has provided data which support notions of
is a result of not understanding the questions or multiple components to intelligence. This is particularly
vocabulary. Psychometric theories did not differentiate evident in the examination of “giftedness” by Stenberge
between these two factors, which have a significant and Davidson in their edited Conceptions of Giftedness.
effect on the determination of intelligence. Many people The many different conceptions of giftedness presented,
are excellent reasoners but have modest vocabularies, although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most
and vice versa. of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple
Underlying the cognitive approach to intelligence qualities, not all of which are intellectual, IQ socres are
is the assumption that intelligence is comprised of a set often viewed as in adequate measures of giftedness.
of mental representations of information, and a set of Motivation, high self concept, and creativity are they key
processes that operate the mental representations. It is qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of
assumed that a more intelligent person represents giftedness.
information better, and operates more quickly on these Mental Retardation- is a term for a pattern of
representations than does a less intelligent person. persistently slow learning of basic motor and language
Several different cognitive theories of intelligence have skills (“milestones”) during child hood, and a significantly
emerged over the years. One was introduced by Earl below-normal global intellectual capacity as an adult. One
Hunt, Nancy Frost, and Clifford Lunneborg, who in 1973 common criterion for diagnosis of mental retardation is
showed one way on which psychometric and cognitive tested intelligence quotient (IQ ) of 70 or below and
modeling could be combined. Instead of using deficits in adaptive functioning.
conventional psychometric tests, they used tasks that
People with mental retardation may be described as Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
having developmental disabilities, global development are marked by a conflict, for which successful
delay or learning qualities. resolution will result in a favorable outcome, for
Autism- is a brain development disorder characterized by example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an important
impairments in social interaction and communication, event that is conflict resolves itself around, for
and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited example, meaning of one’s life.
before a child is three years old. These characteristics Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes
distinguish autism form milder spectrum disorder (ASD). known as “ virtues”, a term used, in the context of
Autism affects many parts of the brain, how this occurs is Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning”
poorly understood. Parents usually notice signs in the potencies”For example, the virtue that would emerge
first year or two of their child’s life, Early intervention from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly
may help children gain self-care and social skills, although counter-intuively, Erikson’s research reveals with
few of these interventions are supported by scientific breath-taking clarity how each individual must learn
studies. There is no cure, with severe autism, how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage
independent living is unlikely; with milder autism, there challenge in tension with one another not rejecting
are some success stories for adults, and an autistic one end of the tension or the other.
culture has developed, with some seeking a cure and Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are
others believing that autism is a condition rather than a understood and accepted as both required and
disorder. useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface.
Asperger’s Syndrome- (also Asperger’s Syndrome, Thus, “trust” and “mistrust” must both the
Asperger’s disorder, Asperger’s AS, or AD) is one of understood and accepted, in order for realistic
several autism spectrum disorders (ASD) characterized by “hope” to emerge as a viable solution at the first
difficulties in social interaction and by restricted and stage. Similarly, ”integrity” and “despair” must both
stereotyped interests and activities. AS is distinguished be understood and embraced, in order for actionable
for other ASDs in having no general delay in language or wisdom to emerge as a viable solution at the last
cognitive development. stage.
There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the stages in
of particular interventions is supported by only limited which they may be acquired are:
data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and Hope- basic Trust vs. Mistrust
function. The mainstay of treatment is behavioral Will- Autonomy vs, Shame and Doubt
therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor Purpose- Initiative vs. Guilt
communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, Competence- Industry vs. Inferiority
and clumsiness. Most individuals with AS can learn to Fidelity-Identity vs. Role Confusion
cope with their differences, but may continue to need Love- (in intimate relationships, work and family)
moral support encouragement to maintain an Intimacy vs, Isolation
independent life. Adults with AS have reached the Caring- Generativity vs, Stagnation
highest levels of achievement in fields such as Wisdom- Integrity vs. Despair
mathematics, physics and computer science, Researchers
and people with AS have contributed to a shift in
attitudes away from the notion that AS is a difference
rather than a disability.
Down Syndrome- Down syndrome or Trisonomy 21
( usuall Down’s Syndrome in Bristish English) is a specific
disorder caused by the presence of all or part if an extra
21st chromosome. It is named after John Longdon Down,
the Bristish doctor who described it in 1866. The
condition is characterized by a combination of major and Albert Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory)
minor differences in structure. Often Down syndrome is Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of
associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and complex behaviors on a triangular diagram illustrating
physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down the interactive effect of various factors. These three
syndrome can be identifies during pregnancy or at birth. factors are behavior (B), the environment (E), and the
Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than internal events that influence perceptions and
average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to actions. (P). the relationship between these three
moderate learning disabilities. Developmental disabilities factors is known as reciprocal determinism.
often manifest as tendency toward concrete thinking or Bandura identified three types of reinforces of
naiveté. A small number have severe to profound mental behavior. These were direct reinforcement, vicarious
disability. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated reinforcement and self-reinforcement. Direct
at 1 per 800 to 1,00 births. reinforcement would be directly experienced by the
Social and Emotional Development learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed
Theories of Socio-Emotional Development to be consequences of the behavior of the model.
Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German Self-reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction
developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal
his theory on social development of human beings, and performance standards.
for coing the phrase identity crisis. as wide array of competencies and skills that drive
managerial performance, measured by multi-rater
 Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, assessment and self-assessment (Bradberry and Greaves,
which are live models, symbolic models, and verbal 2005). In working with Emotional Intelligence (1998)
descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in Goleman explored the function of EI on the job, and
American society, the greatest range of exposure is in claimed EI to be the largest single predictor of success in
the form of symbolic models through mass media. the workplace, with more recent confirmation of these
In Bandura’s later work he introduces two other aspects findings on a worldwide sample seen in Bradberry and
to his Social Learning Theory. These are his work on the Greaves, “The Emotional Intelligence Quick Book”
self regulatory system and self efficacy. In the area of self (200%)
regulatory system/ self evaluative behaviors he said that Goleman’s model outlines four main EI constructs:
this system us based upon cognitive subprocesses that:  Self-awareness- the ability to read one’s emotions
- Perceive and recognize their impact while using gut feelings to
- Evaluate guide decisions.
- Regulate behavior  Self- management-involves controlling one’s
Social Cognitive Theory- Utilized both in Psychology and emotions and impulses and adapting to changing
Communications posits that portions of an individual’s circumstances.
knowledge acquisition can be directly related to  Social awareness- the ability to sense, understand,
observing others within the context of social interactions, and react to other’s emotions while comprehending
experiences, and outside media influences social networks.
An important point in the social cognitive theory is that  Relationships management- the ability to inspire,
the learner’s behavior is guided by cognitive processes influence, and develop others while managing
rather than formed or shaped by reinforced practice. conflict.
Four component parts are responsible for the learning Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies
and performance acquisition. These are: within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are
1. Attentional processes not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that
Observer characteristics must be worked on and developed to achieve
-perceptual/cognitive capacities outstanding performance. Goleman posits that
-arousal level individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence
-past performance that determines their potential for learning emotional
Event characteristics competencies.
-relevance Moral Developmental Theory.
-affective valence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are places of
-complexity moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to
-functional value explain the development of moral reasoning. Created
-model’s characteristics while studying psychology at the University of Chicago,
Intrinsic rewards the theory was inspired by the work if Jean Piaget and a
2. Retentional processes fascination with children’s reactions to moral dilemmas.
Observer characteristics He wrote his doctoral dissertation at the university in
-cognitive skills 1958, outlining what are now know as his stages of moral
Event characteristics development.
-cognitive organization Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
-cognitive rehearsal 1. Obedience and punishment orientation
3. Motor reproduction process 2. Self-interest orientation
Observer characteristics (What’s in it for me)
-physical capabilities Level 2 (Conventional)
-subskill mastery 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
Event characteristics (The good boy/good girl attitude)
-selection & organization of responses 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
-feedback (Law and order morality)
4. Motivational processes Level 3 ( Post- Conventional)
Observer characteristics 5. Social contract orientation
-incentive preference 6. Universal ethical principles
-social bias (Principled conscience)
-internal standards Carol Gilligan- her fame rests primarily on in a Different
Event characteristics Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development
-external reinforcement (1982) in which she criticized Kohlberg’s research on the
-self- reinforcement moral development of used children. Which at the time
-vivacious reinforcement showed that girls on average reached a lower level of
Emotional Intelligence- (EI), often measured as an moral development than boys did. Giligan pointed out
Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ), describes an ability, that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were
capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the largely male, and that the scoring method Kohlberg used
emotions of one’s self, of others, and of groups. As tended to a favor a principled way of reasoning that was
relatively new area of psychological research, the more common to boys, over a moral argumentation
definition of EI is constantly changing. concentrating on relations, which would be more
The Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model
The El model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses in EL
amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw reason to revise his
scoring method as a result of Gilligan’s critique, after
which boys and girls scored evenly.
Her work formed the basis for what has become known
as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics that contrasts
ethics of care to so-called ethics of justice.
Factors Affecting Development
The following are some major factors affecting the social
and emotional development of children and adolescents:
Media
Parenting
Role Models
Peer groups
Exceptional Development in the Area of Social
Development
Leadership- the ability of an individual to influence,
motivate and enable others to contribute toward the
effectiveness and success of the organizations of which
they are members.
Juvenile Deliquency- Juvenile delinquency may refer to
either violent or non-violent crime committed by persons
who are (usually) under the age of eighteen and are still
considered to be a minor. There is much debate about
whether or not such a child should be held criminally
responsible for his or her own actions. There are many
different inside influences that are believed to affect the
way a child acts both negatively and positively, some of
which are as follows:
Abandonment
Social institutions
Peer pressure
Affective and Mode Disorders- The mood or affective
disorders are mental disorders that primarily affect mood
and interfere with the activities of daily living. Usually it
includes major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar
disorder (also called Manic Depressive Psychosis.