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BASIC STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES IN RESEARCH

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Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 1

2009
2 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 1

CHAPTER 1

BASIC STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES IN

RESEARCH

F.A. Adesoji and M.A. Babatunde

Introduction
The essence of research is to solve problem(s). In order to do this,
we have to select a plan for this study which is being referred to as
“design of the experiment”. In this case, research can be regarded
as the application of the scientific method to the study of a
problem. Question/hypotheses are thought of in an attempt to find
solution to the problem at hand. In order to gather information or
data, instruments must be in place. The data collected are not
useful because they are referred to as raw data or untreated data
until they are analyzed by using appropriate statistical tools.
The design of experiment is inseparable from the statistical
treatment of the results. If the design of an experiment is faulty, no
amount of statistical manipulation can lead to the drawing of valid
inference. Experimental design and statistical procedures are two
sides of the same coin. Any research that deals with the
manipulation of variables which are basically of two types. These
are, numerical and categorical. Numerical variables are recorded as
numbers such as height, age, scores, weight, etc. Categorical
variables could be dichotomy (for example, male or female),
trichotomy (for example, high, medium and low economic status)
or polychotomy (for example, birth places). Statistical techniques
have to do with data generation, manipulation and interpretation.
In order to generate data, measurement is necessary. Measurement
is the ascribing of symbols or figures to entities and it is thus basic
2 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

to data analysis, interpretation and research in general. This is done

with the aid of well validated instruments.
The study of data is called STATISTICS and in a more refined
way, it deals with scientific and analytical methods of collecting,
organizing, analyzing and presenting data in such a way that some
meanings and conclusions could be made out of something that
appears to be jungle of data. Statistics can be very broadly
classified into two categories, viz, descriptive and inferential
statistics. Descriptive statistics refers to the type of statistics, which
deal with collection, organizing, summarizing and describing
quantitative data. For example, the average score describe the
performance of the class but does not make any generalization
about other classes. Examples of descriptive statistics are graphs,
charts (pie charts, columinal charts, bar charts, histogram, etc),
Pictograms, tables and any form whereby data are displayed for
easier understanding. Other examples are measures of central
tendency (mode, mean, median), correlation coefficient (degree of
relationship), kurtosis, skewedness etc.
Inferential statistics deals with the methods by which
inferences are made on the population on the basis of the
observations made on the smaller sample. For example, a
researcher may want to estimate the average score of two or more
classes of an English course by making use of the average score of
one class. Any procedure of making generalization that goes
beyond the original data is called inferential statistics. The
statistics provide a way of testing the significance of results
obtained when data are collected. It thus uses probability, that is,
the chance of an event occurring. Examples of inferential statistical
tools are student t-test, Analysis of Variance, Analysis of
Covariance, Correlation Analysis, Multiple regression,
Multivariate Analysis of Variance etc.
An area of inferential statistics called hypothesis testing is a
decision making process for evaluating claims about a population
based on information obtained from samples. Relationship among
variables can also be determined. Also, by studying past and
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 3

present, data and conditions; it is also possible to make predictions

based on this information. It would be observed that descriptive
statistics consists of the collection, organization, summarization,
and presentation of data while inferential statistics on the other
hand, consists of generalizing from samples to populations,
performing estimation and hypothesis testing, determining
relationships among variables, and making predictions.

Nature of Variables and Types of Data

Variables can be classified as qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct
categories, according to some characteristics or attributes. For
example, categorization according to gender (male or female) then,
variable gender is qualitative and it takes categorical data, let us
say 1 or 2. Other examples are religious preference, ability level
and geographical locations. Quantitative variables are numerical
and can be ordered or ranked. For example, the variable age is
numerical and people can be ranked in order according to the value
of their ages. Other examples are heights, weights and body
temperatures.
Quantitative can be further classified into two groups: discrete
and continuous. Discrete variables can be assigned values such as
0,1,2,3 and are said to be countable. Examples of discrete variables
are the number of children in a family, the number of student in the
classroom etc. Thus, discrete variables assume values that can be
counted. Continuous variables, by comparison can assume all
value in an interval between any two specific values. Temperature
is a continuous variable since it can assume all values between any
two given temperatures. Data could also be categorized as purely
numerical and not purely numerical. Mean cannot be determined in
a not purely numerical data. For example, data involving the
number of people and their mode of collecting information.
4 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Qualitative
Quantitative

Data
discrete
continuous

The mean can not be determined in this case compare with the
scores of group of students in a course of study. Data can also
assume nominal level (assigning A, B, C), or ordinal (ordered or
ranked), interval (precise difference exist) or ratio.
For example, scores of 50% and 51%- a meaningful one
point difference exists, but there is no true zero point. For example,
0oF does not mean no heat at all, and the ratio- here, in addition to
the difference between units, there is a time zero point and true
ratio between values. Note that there is no complete agreement
among statisticians about the classification of data into one of the
four categories. Also, data can be altered so that they fit into a
different category. For example, if you categorize income of
workers into low, average and high, then a ratio variable becomes
an ordinal variable.

Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests

The distribution of many test statistics can be said to be normal or
follows some form that can be derived from the normal
distribution. A characteristic property of the normal distribution is
that 68% of all of its observations fall within a range of ±1
standard deviation from the mean, and a range of ±2 standard
deviations includes 95% of the scores. In other words, in a normal
distribution, observations that have a standardized value of less
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 5

than -2 or more than +2 have a relative frequency of 5% or less.1

The exact shape of the normal distribution (the characteristic "bell
curve") is defined by a function which has only two parameters:
mean and standard deviation.

Figure 1: Probability Density Function. The left hand side of

the graph represents a Standard Normal Distribution Function

The attempt to choose the right test to compare measurements

may however be a bit difficult, since we must choose between two
families of tests: parametric and nonparametric. Many statistical
tests are based upon the assumption that the data are sampled from
a normal distribution. These tests are referred to as parametric
tests. Parametric statistics are statistics where the population is
assumed to fit any parametrized distributions (that is, most
typically the normal distribution).2 Commonly used parametric

1
Standardized value means that a value is expressed in terms of its difference
from the mean, divided by the standard deviation.
2
The normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution, is an important
family of continuous probability distributions, applicable in many fields. Each
member of the family may be defined by two parameters, the mean ("average",
μ) and variance (standard deviation squared) σ2, respectively. The standard
normal distribution is the normal distribution with a mean of zero and a variance
of one.
6 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

tests include the Mean, Standard deviation, the t-test (One-sample t

test, Unpaired t test, Paired t test), One-way ANOVA, Pearson
product moment correlation, Simple linear regression, Multiple
linear regression. For example, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
assumes that the underlying distributions are normally distributed
and that the variances of the distributions being compared are
similar. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient also
assumes normality.
Although parametric techniques are robust, that is, they
often retain considerable power to detect differences or similarities
even when these assumptions are violated, some distributions
violate the assumptions so markedly that a non-parametric
alternative is more likely to detect a difference or similarity.3
Hence, tests that do not make assumptions about the population
distribution are referred to as nonparametric-tests.
Specifically, nonparametric methods were developed to be
used in cases when the researcher knows nothing about the
parameters of the variable of interest in the population (hence the
name nonparametric). In more technical terms, nonparametric
methods do not rely on the estimation of parameters (such as the
mean or the standard deviation) describing the distribution of the
variable of interest in the population. Therefore, these methods are
also sometimes (and more appropriately) called parameter-free
methods or distribution-free methods. All commonly used
nonparametric tests rank the outcome variable from low to high
and then analyze the ranks.
For many variables of interest, we simply do not know for
sure that they are normally distributed. For example, we can not
state categorically that incomes of Universities staff in Nigeria are
distributed normally in the population. In addition, the incidence
rates of rare diseases are not normally distributed in the population,
the number of car accidents is also not normally distributed, and
neither are very many other variables in which a researcher might

3
The power of a statistical test is the probability that the test will reject a false
null hypothesis.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 7

be interested. Examples of nonparametric tests include Median,

Interquartile range, Wilcoxon test, Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-
Wallis test, Friedman test for dependent samples, Chi square test,
Spearman correlation, Coefficient of concordance.
Many observed variables actually are normally distributed,
which is why the normal distribution represents an empirical
discussion in the literature. The problem may occur when one tries
to use a normal distribution-based test to analyze data from
variables that are themselves not normally distributed. Another
factor that often limits the applicability of tests based on the
assumption that the sampling distribution is normal is the size of
the sample of data available for the analysis (sample size; n). We
can assume that the sampling distribution is normal even if we are
not sure that the distribution of the variable in the population is
normal, as long as our sample is large enough (for example, 100 or
more observations). However, if our sample is very small, then
those tests can be used only if we are sure that the variable is
normally distributed, and there is no way to test this assumption if
the sample is small.
Applications of tests that are based on the normality
assumptions are further limited by a lack of precise measurement.
For example, the assumption in most common statistical
techniques such as Analysis of Variance (and t- tests), regression is
that the underlying measurements are at least of interval, meaning
that equally spaced intervals on the scale can be compared in a
meaningful manner. However, this assumption is very often not
tenable because the data may represent a rank ordering of
observations (ordinal) rather than precise measurements. Choosing
between parametric and nonparametric tests is sometimes easy.
You should definitely choose a parametric test if you are sure that
your data are sampled from a population that follows a normal
distribution. Non-parametric tests could be selected under three
conditions:
8 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

 The outcome is a rank or a score and the population is clearly

not Gaussian. Examples include class ranking of students.
 Some values are off the scale, that is, too high or too low to
measure. Even if the population is Gaussian, it is
impossible to analyze such data with a parametric test since
you do not know all of the values. Using a nonparametric
test with these data is simple. Assign values too low to
measure an arbitrary very low value and assign values too
high to measure an arbitrary very high value. Then perform
a nonparametric test. Since the nonparametric test only
knows about the relative ranks of the values, it does not
matter that you did not know all the values exactly.
 If the data are not sampled from normal distribution, we
can consider transforming the values to make the
distribution become normal. For example, you might take
the logarithm or reciprocal of all values.
Despite the three cases stated above, it is not always easy to decide
whether a sample comes from a normal distributed population. For
example:
 If we collect many data points (maybe over a hundred or
so), we can look at the distribution of the data and it will be
fairly obvious whether the distribution is approximately
bell shaped. With few data points, it is difficult to tell
whether the data are Gaussian by inspection, and the formal
test has little power to discriminate between Gaussian and
non-Gaussian distributions.
 We can look at previous data as well. What is important is
the distribution of the overall population, and not the
distribution of our sample. In deciding whether a
population is Gaussian, we should look at all available data,
not just data in the current experiment.
When in doubt, some people choose a parametric test (because
they are not sure the Gaussian assumption is violated), and others
choose a nonparametric test (because they are also not sure
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 9

whether the Gaussian assumption is met). There are four cases to

consider in the answer whether one chooses between a parametric
or nonparametric test sample sizes:
1. The central limit theorem ensures that parametric tests
work well with large samples even if the population is non-
Gaussian. In other words, parametric tests are robust to
deviations from Gaussian distributions, so long as the
samples are large. The problem is that it is impossible to
say how large is large enough, as it depends on the nature
of the particular non-Gaussian distribution. Unless the
population distribution is quite distorted, you are probably
safe choosing a parametric test when there are at least two
dozen data points in each group.
2. Nonparametric tests work well with large samples from
Gaussian populations. The probability (P) values tend to be
a bit too large, but the discrepancy is small. In other words,
nonparametric tests are only slightly less powerful than
parametric tests with large samples.
3. In a small sample situation, we can not rely on the central
limit theorem if we use a parametric test with data from
non-Gaussian populations because the P value may be
inaccurate.
4. In addition, when we use a nonparametric test with data
from a Gaussian population, the P values also tend to be
quite high. The nonparametric tests lack statistical power
with small samples.
Thus, large data sets present no problems. It is usually easy to
tell if the data come from a Gaussian population, but it does not
really matter because the nonparametric tests are so powerful and
the parametric tests are so robust. However, small data sets present
a dilemma. It is difficult to tell if the data come from a Gaussian
population, but it matters a lot. The nonparametric tests are not
powerful and the parametric tests are not robust.
10 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Basic Statistical Techniques

A multitude of different statistical tools is available, some of them
simple, some complicated, and often very specific for certain
purposes. In analytical work, the most important common
operation is the comparison of data, or sets of data, to quantify
accuracy (bias) and precision. The value of statistics lies with
organizing and simplifying data, to permit some objective estimate
showing that an analysis is under control or that a change has
occurred. Statistical techniques can be used to describe data,
compare two or more data sets, determine if a relationship exists
between variables, test hypotheses and make estimates about
population measures. Some well known statistical tests and
procedures for research observations are:

The t-test
The t-test is the most commonly used method to evaluate the
differences in means between two groups. For example, the t-test
can be used to test for a difference in test scores between a group
of patients who were given a drug and a control group who
received an injection. Theoretically, the t-test can be used even if
the sample sizes are very small (e.g., as small as 10) as long as the
variables are normally distributed within each group and the
variation of scores in the two groups is not reliably different.
The p-level reported with a t-test represents the probability of
error involved in accepting the research hypothesis about the
existence of a difference. It is the probability of error associated
with rejecting the hypothesis of no difference between the two
categories of observations (corresponding to the groups) in the
population when, in fact, the hypothesis is true. If the calculated p-
value is below the threshold chosen for statistical significance
(usually the 0.05 level), then the null hypothesis which usually
states that the two groups do not differ is rejected in favor of an
alternative hypothesis, which typically states that the groups do
differ.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 11

There are however specific assumptions underlying the use of the

t-test:
1. The sample data should be normally distributed.
2. The sample must be representative of the population so that
we can made generalizations at the end of the analysis.
3. Equality of variances. Equal variances are assumed when
two independent samples are used to test a hypothesis.
4. The dependent measurements involved in the calculation of
the means must come from either interval or ratio scales.
Since all calculations are carried out subject to the null
hypothesis, it may be very difficult to come up with a reasonable
null hypothesis that accounts for equal means in the presence of
unequal variances. Consequently, the null hypothesis is that the
different treatments have no effect which therefore makes unequal
variances untenable. A fundamental issue in the use of the t-test is
often whether the samples are independent or dependent.
Independent samples typically consist of two groups with no
relationship while dependent samples typically consist of a
matched sample (alternatively a paired sample) or one group that
has been tested twice (repeated measures).
Dependent t-tests are also used for matched-paired samples,
where two groups are matched on a particular variable. For
example, if we examined the heights of men and women in a
relationship, the two groups are matched on relationship status.
This would call for a dependent t-test because it is a paired sample
(one man paired with one woman). Alternatively, we might recruit
100 men and 100 women, with no relationship between any
particular man and any particular woman; in this case we would
use an independent samples test. Another example of a matched
sample would be to take two groups of students, match each
student in one group with a student in the other group based on a
continous assessment result, then examine how much each student
reads. An example pair might be two students that score 70 and 71
or two students that scored 55 and 50 on the same continous
assesment. The hypothesis would be that students that did well on
12 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

the test may or may not read more. Alternatively, we might recruit
students with low scores and students with high scores in two
groups and assess their reading amounts independently.
An example of a repeated measures t-test would be if one
group were pre- and post-tested. For example, if a teacher wanted
to examine the effect of a new set of textbooks on student
achievement, he/she could test the class at the beginning of the
year (pre-test) and at the end of the year (post-test). A dependent t-
test would be used, treating the pre-test and post-test as matched
variables (matched by student).

Table 1: T-Test for Comparison of Mean Score of LPT and CT

groups
Treatment N - SD t-value Sig.(t)
Groups x
LPT 120 11.69 3.19
CT 120 10.27 3.37 7.92 0.000

In all the testing of this nature, the probability value is very

important when interpreting the print-out. If the probability is less
than 0.05 (the probaibility for committing type 1 error), the result
is significant and we reject the null hypothesis. The reverse is the
case if the probability is greater than 0.05.

ANOVA/ANCOVA /MCA
The purpose of analysis of variance (ANOVA) is to test
differences in means (for groups or variables) for statistical
significance. This is accomplished by analyzing the variance, that
is, by partitioning the total variance into the component that is due
to true random error and the components that are due to differences
between means. These latter variance components are then tested
for statistical significance, and, if significant, we reject the null
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 13

hypothesis of no differences between means, and accept the

alternative hypothesis that the means (in the population) are
different from each other.
The variables that are measured (for example, a test score) are
called dependent variables. The variables that are manipulated or
controlled (for example, a teaching method or some other criterion
used to divide observations into groups that are compared) are
called factors or independent variables. Analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) is a general linear model with one continuous
explanatory variable and one or more factors. ANCOVA is a
merger of ANOVA and regression for continuous variables.
ANCOVA tests whether certain factors have an effect after
removing the variance for which quantitative predictors
(covariates) account. If there is a significant difference among the
groups, pairwise comparison is carried out. The pairwise tests that
could be used in order to detect the pairs which are significantly
different include Scheffe, Duncan or Turkey.
Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA), which is part of
ANOVA or ANCOVA, is a technique for examining the
interrelationship between several predictor variables and one
dependent variable in the context of an additive model. The MCA
can handle predictors with no better than nominal measurements
and interrelationships of any form among the predictor variables or
between a predictor and dependent variable. It is however essential
that the dependent variable should be either an interval-scale
variable without extreme skewness or a dichotomous variable with
frequencies which are not extremely unequal. In addition, it gives
the percentage contributions of treatment and other categorical
variables to the variance of the dependent measure.
However, the overall percentage contribution of all the
variables (composite) to the variance of the dependent measure
could also be obtained from the Multiple R square, which is
0.207*100=20.7%.
14 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Table 2: Summary of Analysis of Covariance of Subjects Post-

test Achievement Scores in Narrative Composition
Source of Sum of Squares Df Mean F Sig of F
Variation square
Covariates PRE 591.274 1 591.274 33.019 000
ECAT
Main Effects 370.979 3 123.660 6.905 000*
TRT
Explained 962.273 4 240.568 13.434 000
Residual 3689.026 206 17.708
Total 4651.229 210 22.143
*Significant at p<0.05

Table 2 shows that there is significant main effects of treatment

since the probability is less than 0.05. In Table 3, if Adjusted
Deviation is added or subtracted to the Grand Mean, the result is
the mean score for each of the treatment groups. For example, the
mean score of WLBIS group is 9.42-0.09=9.33. Table 4 shows that
significant differences existed between groups 1, 2 and 3
separately, and group 4.

Table 3: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) of Posttest

Achievement Scores in Narrative Composition
Grand Mean=9.42
Variable Category N Unadjusted ETA Adjusted for BETA
Deviation Independents
+Covariates
Deviation
TRT
1.WLBIS 55 -0.18 -.09
2.PLEBIS 52 2.26 1.65
3.WLPLEBIS 53 .45 .52
4.CS 50 -2.68 -2.20
.37 .29
Multiple R Square .207
Multiple R .445
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 15

Table 4: Scheffe Post-Hoc Analysis of Posttest Means of

Achievement in Narrative According to Treatment Groups
Achievement GRP 4 GRP 3 GRP 2 GRP 1
Mean Treatment
7.22 GRP 4
9.33 GRP 1 *
9.94 GRP 3 *
11.07 GRP 2 * *
(*) Indicates significant differences that are shown in the lower triangle

Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)

The Multrivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) is designed to
test the significance of group differences. The only substantial
difference between the two procedures is that MANOVA can
include several dependent variable, wheras ANOVA can handle
only one dependent variable. MANOVA is based on the following
assumptions:
 The observations within each sample must be randomly
sampled and must be independent of each other.
 The observations on all dependent variables follow a
multivariate normal distribution in each group.
 The population covariance matrices for the dependent
variables in each group must be equal (homogeneity of
covariance matrices).
 The relationships among all pairs of dependent variables
for each cell in the data matrix must be linear.

Example
A research is interested in examining whether age of some set of
workers could affect their income and hours worked per week. The
two dependent variable being income and hours worked per
week.The three tables below show the Multivariate Analysis of
Variance.
 16 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Table 5: Box’s Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices

Box‟s M 6.936
F 0.766
δf1 9
δf2 2886561
sig 0.648

Table 6: Multivariate Tests for Income and Hours Worked by

Age Category
Effect value F Hypothesis Error Sig. Eta-
δf δf Squared
Intercept 0.957 7507.272 2.00 680.0 0.000 0.957
Pillai‟s
Trace
0.043 7507.272 2.00 680.0 0.000 0.957
Wilk‟s
Lamdba
22.080 7507.272 2.00 680.0 0.000 0.957
Hotelling‟s
Trace
22.880 7507.272 2.00 680.0 0.000 0.957
Roy‟s
Largest
root
Age 0.091 10.791 6.00 1362.00 0.000 0.045
Pillai‟s
Trace
0.909 11.035 6.00 1360.00 0.000 0.046
Wilk‟s
Lamdba
0.100 11.279 6.00 1358.00 0.000 0.047
Hotelling‟s
Trace
0.099 22.457 3.00 681.00 0.000 0.090
Roy‟s
Largest
root
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 17

Table 5 reveals that there is no significant diefference in the

observed variance (F(9,289)=0.766). Therefore Wilk‟s Lambda f
ratio will be used (If there is a significant difference, Pillai‟s Trace
F ratio will be used). Table 6 reveals that there is a significant
difference among the age groups with respect to income income
and hours worked per week. (F(6,1360) = P<0.05; Z2 =0.046).

Table 7: Univariate ANOVA Summary Table

Source Dependent Sum of df Mean F Sig Eta-
Variable Squares Square Squared
Corrected Income 1029.016 3 343.005 20.995 0.000 0.085
Model
HRS 64.281 3 21.427 0.167 0.919 0.001
Intercept Income 128493.5 1 128493.5 7864.97 0.000 0.920
HRS 1410954 1 1410954 10972.71 0.000 0.942
Age Income 1029.016 3 343.005 20.995 0.000 0.085
HRS 64.281 3 21.427 0.167 0.919 0.001
Error Income 11125.807 681 16.337
HRS 87568.119 681 128.588
Total Income 149966.0 685
HRS 1575151 685
Corrected Income 12154.82 684
Total
HRS 87632.4 684
R = 0.085 (Adjusted R =0.081) ; R = 0.001 (Adjusted R2 =0.004)
2 2 2

Table 7 shows that there is significant difference among the

age groups in income (F(3, 681) =20.995; P< 0.05; Z2 =0.001). Post
hoc analysis could be used to determine the source of significant
difference. This is done in the same way it is done in ANOVA or
ANCOVA.
18 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a statistical technique used for the modeling
and analysis of numerical data consisting of values of a dependent
variable (response variable) and of one or more independent
variables (explanatory variables). The dependent variable in the
regression equation is modeled as a function of the independent
variables, corresponding parameters (constants), and an error term.
The error term is treated as a random variable. It represents
unexplained variation in the dependent variable. The parameters
are estimated so as to give a best fit of the data. Most commonly
the best fit is evaluated by using the least squares method, but
other criteria have also been used. For some kinds of research
questions, regression can be used to examine how much a
particular set of predictors explains differences in some outcome.
In other cases, regression is used to examine the effect of some
specific factor while accounting for other factors that influence the
outcome.
Regression analysis requires assumptions to be made
regarding probability distribution of the errors. Statistical tests are
made on the basis of these assumptions. In regression analysis the
term model embraces both the function used to model the data and
the assumptions concerning probability distributions. Regression
can be used for prediction (including forecasting of time-series
data), inference, hypothesis testing, and modeling of causal
relationships. These uses of regression rely heavily on the
underlying assumptions being satisfied. Regression analysis has
been criticized as being misused for these purposes in many cases
where the appropriate assumptions cannot be verified to hold.
The set of underlying assumptions in regression analysis is that:
 The sample must be representative of the population for the
inference prediction.
 The dependent variable is subject to error. This error is
assumed to be a random variable, with a mean of zero.
 The independent variable is error-free.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 19

 The predictors must be linearly independent, that is, it must

not be possible to express any predictor as a linear
combination of the others.
 The errors are uncorrelated, that is, the variance-covariance
matrix of the errors is diagonal and each non-zero element
is the variance of the error.
 The variance of the error is constant (homoscedasticity).
 The errors follow a normal distribution. If not, the
generalized linear model should be used.
The violation of any of these implied conditions could have
potentially negative effects for your research. In a simple linear
regression, we examine a causal relationship between a dependent
variable , Y, and one independent variable, X. Linear regression is
synonymous with equation of a straight line. This is because it is
important to make certain that a linear relationship exists between
the factors before running a regression model. For example, we can
express the relationship between the dependent variable y and the
independent variable x through the following formula:

y =m0 + m1x1 … (1)

That is, equation (1) says that y can be expressed as a linear

function of x. The constant for the model is represented by the
parameter m0. Regression is a tool that allows us to take data from
some sample and use these data to estimate m0 and m1. These
values are then used to create predicted values of the outcome,
with the observed or true value from the data designated as y and
the predicted value as . Furthermore, in equation (1), the value m1
measures the causal effect of a one unit increase of X on the value
of Y. The parameter m1 is also referred to as the regression
coefficient for X, and is the average amount the dependent variable
increases when the independent variable increases one unit and
other independents are held constant. Thus, when independent
measure increases by 1, the dependent variable increases by m1 units.
20 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

In multiple linear regression, there are more than one

independent variable in the model. Multiple regression allows
researchers to examine the effect of many different factors on some
outcome at the same time. The general purpose of multiple
regression is to learn more about the relationship between several
independent or predictor variables and a dependent variable. This
is because the simple linear regression is a simplification of reality.
In real life, there are more than one variable that affects the
behaviour of the dependent variable. It can be specified as follows:

Y= m0 + m1x1 + m2x2 … + mnxn (2)

Where Y is the dependent variable; x1 and x2 are the

independent variables; and c0, c1, c2, are the parameters. The
intercept of the regression is c0 while c1 and c2 are referred to as the
partial regression coefficients. The error term is represented by ui.
Hypothesis testing are conducted to show whether the parameters
that have been estimated are statistically significant or, whether the
independent variables contribute to the explanation of variation in
the dependent variable. If we are able to reject the null hypothesis
at an acceptable significance level, then we conclude that the
parameter is not statistically significant. The quality of the fitness
of the model is determined by the R2. The R2 has a value that is
between 0 and 1. High values of R2 will indicate that the model fits
the data well. A limitation in the use of R2 is that its value increases
with the number of explanatory variables. It does not usually
penalize for the consequence loss of degrees of freedom as the
number of explanatory variables increases. The power of the test is
therefore affected. Thus, the adjusted R-square was developed to
take care of the inadequacies. In addition, the F-statistic test for the
joint significance of all the parameters in the model.
The composite and relative contributions of independent
variables to the dependent variable are usually determined through
multiple regression. These are explained in Tables 8, 9 and 10
respectively.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 21

Table 8: Composite Effect of Independent Variables (School

Environment and Teacher Competency) on Dependent
Variable (achievement in Integrated Science).
Multiple R Adjusted Standard F Sign F
Correlation Square R-Square Error of
(R) The
Estimate
0.962 0.926 0.923 4.2834 307.025 0.000*

Table 8 shows Multiple Correlation R, the square of this

correlation (R2), Standard Error and F value and the probability
value (Sig. F). The variables under consideration correlated
significantly with the dependent variable. R value is 0.926. If R is
squared and the result is multiplied by 100, the percentage
contribution of all the independent variables taken together to the
variance of the dependent variable is obtained. In this case,
R2=0.923, R2*100=92.3%.

Table 9: Analysis of Variance

Source of Sum of DF Mean F Significance
Variance Squares
Regression 39432.31 7 5633.188 307.025 0.000*
Residual 3155.80 172 18.348
Total 42588.11 179
*Significant of p<0.05.

Table 9 gives the Analysis of Variance. The F ratio here is

different from those of ANOVA and ANCOVA. The value here is
significant because the probability is less than 0.05. What this
means is that the R value earlier obtained is not due to chance.
22 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Table 10: Relative Contributions (Beta Weights) of the Seven

Independent Variables to Students’ Achievement in Integrated
Science

Independent Unstandarized Beta Rank T Significant

Variables Coefficients Weight
(Predictors) (β)
B Std.
Error
Constant 12.187 3.118 3.908 0.000
Special 0.687 0.061 0.548 1st 11.273 0.000*
Learning
Environment
Special 0.0097 0.122 0.020 5th 0.790 0.431
Equipment
Speech 2.742 0.301 0.435 2nd 9.104 0.000*
Theraphy
Knowledge 0.335 0.159 0.054 3rd 2.102 0.037
of Science
and
Education
Knowledge 0.0063 0.119 0.012 7th 0.539 0.591
of learners
Teachers‟ 0.0027 0.041 0.015 6th 0.670 0.504
strategies
Counselling 0.0033 0.029 0.025 4th 1.131 0.260
of parents
*Significant at p<0.05

Table 10 gives the relative effects of the independent variables

on the dependent variable. The B is referred to as partial
correlation, the Beta weight (β) is the weight contribution of each
variable. We also have t values for all the variables and the
probability values (sig.t). Note the ranking of the variables
according to their weight contributions. You will notice that the
constant is under B and not under Beta weight (β).
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 23

(.005)(.000
)

Fig.2: Hypothesized Recursive Model Showing Path

Coefficient and Zero Order Correlations

Figure 2 is a follow-up to Figure 1 after trimming of the

paths in Figure 1. The detail of the trimming could not be given but
it involves removing any path whose path-coefficient is less than
0.05. The model in Figure 2 is usually referred to as parsimonious
model. It shows the paths which have direct and indirect influence
on the dependent variable.

Path Analysis
This is an extension of multiple regression analysis. The use of
path analysis enables the researcher to calculate the direct and
indirect influence of independent variables on a dependent
variable. These influences are reflected on the path coefficients,
which are actually standardized regression coefficients (Beta
weights). Path analysis is one of the techniques for the study and
analysis of causal relations in ex-post facto research. It usually
24 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

starts with hypothesized model and end up with parsimonous

model. This is after carrying out trimming of the paths by using
structural equations. In the hypothesized model belo, variables X1,
X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, and X7 re called independent variables or
exogenous variables while variable X8 is referred to as dependent
variable or endogenous variable. The model is hypothetical.

Fig. 3: The Parsimonious Model

Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is useful in reducing a mass of information to a
manageable and economical description. For example, data on fifty
characteristics for 300 states are unwiedly to handle, descriptively
or analytically. Reducing them to their common factor patterns
facilitates the management, analysis and understanding of such
data. These factors concentrate and index characteristics without
much loss of information. States can be more easily discussed and
compared on economic, development, size and public dimensions
other than on the hundreds of characteristics each dimension
involves.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 25

It should be noted that standardizing one‟s variables before

applying factor analysis is not necessary because result of factor
analysis are not affected by the standardization, which is built into
the procedure.

A Hypothetical Situation
Suppose a 25 item questionnaire on students‟ attitude towards
Physics was administered to 40 students. Factor analysis could be
carried out to find out the commonalities of the test items such that
the 25 items would be reduced to a fewer number of items and the
instrument would still be able to measure validly and reliably the
construct attitudes towards Physics. Also, the scale items could be
sorted into their various components so that the items, which
correlate highly with themselves are group together.
Table 11 shows the initial eigen values which provide
information on the % variance explained by each of the variables.
It could be observed that out of the 25 items, the first 9 items
account for 76.75 of the total variance. The 25 items have been
reduced to 9 and the 9 items could be assumed to have measured
the construct, which the 25 items were designed to measure. This
shows that since the 9 items were found to account for 76.75 of the
total variance, if items 10-25 are explained, no serious harm would
be done to the scale of measurement.
The analysis was carried out to establish the number of
meaningful factors. Nine factors have thus been found to be
meaningful or nontrivial. These are the factors considered as
peculiar factors perceived by the students as their attitudes toward
Physics.
26 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Table 11: Total Variance Explained Students Attitudes Towards

Physics
Items Initial Eigen Values Extraction Sum of Squared
Loadings
Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative
Variance Variance
1 4.179 16.718 16.718 4.179 16.718 16.718
2 3.745 14.991 31.748 3.748 14.991 31.709
3 2.662 10.647 42.256 2.662 10.647 42.356
4 1.927 7.709 50.065 1.927 7.709 50.065
5 1.703 6.813 56.878 1.703 6.813 56.878
6 1.458 5.834 62.711 1.458 5.834 62.711
7 1.388 5.552 68.264 1.388 5.552 68.264
8 1.107 4.427 72.690 1.107 4.427 72.690
9 1.017 4.069 76.759 1.017 4.069 76.759
10 0.931 2.724 80.483
11 0.826 2.306 83.789
12 0.686 2.746 86.535
13 0.653 2.613 89.148
14 0.536 2.144 91.292
15 0.443 1.771 93.062
16 0.381 1.525 94.588
17 0.364 1.456 96.043
18 0.329 1.317 97.360
19 0.208 0.830 98.190
20 0.151 0.604 98.794
21 0.105 0.422 99.216
22 0.0830 0.333 99.549
23 0.05917 0.237 99.786
24 0.03782 0.151 99.937
25 0.01579 0.06316 100.000
Extraction Method: principal Component Analysis

Names are usually given to the isolated factors and different ietms
are loaded on each factors.
Correlations
Correlation is a measure of the relation between two or more
variables. It indicates the strength and direction of a linear
relationship between two random variables. The correlation is 1 in
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 27

the case of an increasing linear relationship, −1 in the case of a

decreasing linear relationship, and some value in between in all
other cases, indicating the degree of linear dependence between the
variables. The closer the coefficient is to either −1 or 1, the
stronger the correlation between the variables. If the variables are
independent then the correlation is 0, but the converse is not true
because the correlation coefficient detects only linear dependencies
between two variables.

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient

The most widely-used type of correlation coefficient is Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient. Pearson's correlation
coefficient is a parametric statistic. It is a common measure of of
the correlation between two variables X and Y. When measured in
a population the Pearson Product Moment correlation is designated
by rho (ρ). When computed in a sample, it is designated by the
letter r and is sometimes called Pearson's r. Pearson's correlation
reflects the degree of linear relationship between two variables.
Pearson correlation, assumes that the two variables are measured
on at least interval scales, and it determines the extent to which
values of the two variables are proportional to each other.
However, the value of correlation (that is, correlation coefficient)
does not depend on the specific measurement units used. For
example, the correlation between height and weight will be
identical regardless of whether inches and pounds, or centimeters
and kilograms are used as measurement units.

Spearman's rank correlation coefficient

The Spearman's rank correlation coefficient is a non-parametric
measure of correlation – that is, it assesses how well an arbitrary
monotonic function could describe the relationship between two
variables, without making any assumptions about the frequency
distribution of the variables.
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient does not require the
assumption that the relationship between the variables is linear, nor
does it require the variables to be measured on interval scales; it
28 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

can be used for variables measured at the ordinal level unlike the
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. However,
Spearman's correlation coefficient does assume that subsequent
ranks indicate equidistant positions on the variable measured.

Choosing Appropriate Statistical Technique in a Research

Enterprise
Statistical techniques can be used to describe data, compare two or
more data sets, determine if a relationship exists between variables,
test hypothesis and make estimates about population measures. Not
only it is important to have a sample size that is large enough, but
also it is necessary to see how the subjects in the sample were
selected. Volunteers generally do not represent the population at
large.
However, student should realize that computer merely give
numerical answer and save time and effort of doing calculations by
hand. It is the duty of students to understand and interprets
computer print-out correctly. Note that data can be subjected to
parametric and nonparametric statistics depending on the nature of
the data. Purely numerical data like student score in a chemistry
test could be subjected to a parametric test. Note that this score has
a zero origin like a score of 60% for example. On the other hand,
the number of people who read newspapers in the morning is not a
purely numerical data and it can only be subjected to a
nonparametric test. In this case, you can not perform all the
mathematical operations with the data. You can add, subtract but
you can not determine mean score neither can you carry out
division.
The variable type determines to some extent the type of
statistical (descriptive or inferential) method that it will support.
For example, while trichotomous and polychotomous variables
allow for the use of ANOVA/ANCOVA statistics, the
dichotomous and monochotomous allow for t-test analysis.
Variable types also influences the language of the hypotheses and
hence, inferences that can be made from such hypotheses.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 29

In any study, you describe, compare data or determine if

relationship exists between variables. If the percentage score of
group A is higher than that of group B, you are describing the
performance of the groups. When you go a step further by finding
out whether the performance are significantly different you are at
the realm of making inference and this informed the usage of the
parametric statistics; in this case, t-test. When we compare more
than two mean scores, determination of F ratio is involved; in this
case the statistical tool could be ANOVA or ANCOVA depending
on the design employed for the study.
If a study involves determination of relationship, we can use
Spearman Rank order correlation, Pearson Product moment
correlation, Chi-square statistics or even multiple regression
analysis. All depends on the nature of the research. Chi-square
shows the degree of association between two different bases of
classification. It should be noted that the z-test is used only when
the population parameters are known and the variable of interest is
normally distributed in the parent population. If the two conditions
are met, the z-test is used as an exact test, even for small samples
(n<30). However, if the variable is not normally distributed, a large
sample permits the use of a z-test. In this case, the use of z-test is
regarded as an approximate test. In most research situations, the z-
test for single mean is rarely encountered because the conditions of
normality and known parameters (  ) are rarely met. However z-
test could be used for two means from independent samples.
Normally, z-test is used to test for the mean of a large sample, and
the t-test used for the mean of small sample.
Examples of Topics, Research Questions, Hypotheses and
Selection of Appropriate Statistical Tools
As pointed out earlier, the selection of statistical tool in a study is a
function of the design of the experiment. Also, the language of the
hypotheses is determined by the design. However, a researcher
need not shy away from the fact that the topic of a research is an
offshoot of the statement of the problem. How then shall we
determine the statistics to apply in the analysis of data based on the
30 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

language of the topics, design, and the hypotheses? The following

examples would throw more light on the answer to the question.
1. Topic: Student, teacher and school environment factors as
determinants of achievement in Senior Secondary School
Chemistry in Oyo State, Nigeria.
Questions
i. What is the most meaningful causal model for students‟
achievement in secondary school Chemistry?
ii. To what extent will the seven independent variables when
taken together, predict students‟ achievement?
Interpretation
The key word in the topic is „determinant‟. This is a situation
where a variable (independent) could determine another variable
(dependent), a kind of causal relationship. The independent
variables here are: Student, teacher and school environment
variables while the dependent variable is achievement in Senior
Secondary school Chemistry. It would be observed that hypothesis
is not necessary here. This is an ex-post facto study of the survey
type in which the researcher need not manipulate the independent
variables, they have already manifested.
The first question demands that the experimenter would
construct hypothesized causal model, which he has to trim in order
to get the parsimonoius model. The second question has to do with
the determination of the composite effect of the independent
variables on the dependent variable. The answer to this question
could be obtained through multiple regression analysis. Path
analysis is an extension of multiple regression. Path coefficients
are the beta-weights in multiple regression.

2. Topic: Effects of guided discovery and self-learning strategies

on secondary school students‟ learning outcome in
Chemistry.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 31

Hypotheses
1. There is no significant main effect of treatment on
i. Learning outcome in Chemistry
ii. Attitude to Chemistry
2. There is no significant main effect of ability on:
i. Learning outcome in Chemistry
ii. Attitude to Chemistry
3. There is no significant main effect of gender on
i. Learning outcome in Chemistry
ii. Attitude to Chemistry
4. There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and
gender on
i. Learning outcome in Chemistry
ii. Attitude to Chemistry

Interpretation
The topic shows effects of two methods of instruction
(independent) variables on two dependent variables (learning
outcome in Chemistry and attitude to Chemistry). There should be
a control group. The design then becomes: Pretest, Posttest, control
group experimental design. Therefore, the appropriate statistical
tool is Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) with pretest scores as
covarite. Two categorical varaibles are being investigated. These are
gender (dichotomous) and academic ability level (trichotomous). And
because of the interaction hypotheses, there must be factorial design.
Here it is 3 x 2 x`3, which is interpreted as follows: treatment at 3
levels, gender at 2 levels nd academic ability at 3 levels.

3. Topic: A comparative analysis of leadership styles of male

and female managers in the banking industry in
southwestern Nigeria.
Hypothesis
There is no significant relationship in the leadership styles of
male and female managers in the banking industry.
32 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Interpretation
Other hypotheses could be based on other vaiables investigated in
the study. Here, the nature of the data generated cannot be purely
numerical. Therefore, non-parametric statistics is the best bet. The
candiadte could use Chi-square statistic for analyzing te data
collected.

4. Topic: An evaluation of extra-mural studies programmes of

the University of Ibadan 1989/90 and 1998/99
sessions.
Hypotheses:
1. The extra-mural studies significantly influenced
achievement of self-actualization and self-esteemvalues of
candidates.
2. There is no significant difference in the academic
achievement of candidates in the 1989/90 and 1998/99
sessions.
3. Ther is no significant difference in the cademic
achievement of candidates from three different locations in
the 1989/90 session.
Interpretation
It could be observed that there are different languages in the three
hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 could be tested using Chi-Square statistic
because of the word “influence”. Hypothesis 2 and 3 has to do with
purely numerical data (academic achievements). While hypothesis
2 is a test of significnce between two sets of candidates from two
sessions, hypothesis 3 is a test of significance among candidates
from three different locations. In this case, hypothesis 2 will be
tested using t-test while hypothesis 3 will be tested uning Analysis
of Varianace (ANOVA). Note that the word “Evaluation” in the
topic can accommodate virtually all statistical procedures; it all
depends on the nature of the hypothesis.
 Basic Statistical Techniques in Research 33

5. Topic: Impact of government labour integration policy on

Nigerian dockworkers‟ productivity in Nigerian Ports
Authority, Nigeria.
Hypotheses:
1. Ther is no significant impact of government labour
integration policy on Nigerian workers‟ productivity in
public and private sectors of the economy.
2. There is no significant impact of government labour
integration policy on Nigerian male and female workers‟
productivity.
3. There is no significant impact of government labour
integration policy on three different categories of workers‟
productivity.
Interpretation
It could be observed that this could also be a cause and effect
study. The word “impact” in the topic is synonymous with
“effect”. Thus, the study demands the usage of t-test and Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA) depending on the nature of the hypotheses.
The study is ex-post facto but of the experimental type. Hypothesis
1refers to public and private sectors therefore, t-test will be
appropriate. Hypothesis 2 will also be tested with t-test beause it is
between male and female workers while hypothesis 3 can only be
tested with Analsysi of Variance (ANOVA) because three
categories of workers are involved.

6. Topic: Relationship between some school factors and

Secondary School system efficiency in Ogun State,
Nigeria.
Hypotheses
1. There is no significant relationship between the school
related factors and school system efficiency.
2. There is no significant relationship between school location
and school system efficiency.
Other hypotheses could be generated based on other school-related
factors.
 34 F.A. Adesoji & M.A. Babatunde

Interpretation
This is a descriptive survey research and based on the languages of
the topic and hypotheses, it is a relational study. The hypotheses
could be tested by Pearson Product Moment Correlation or Chi-
square statistic. If ranking is involved the candidate could still
make use of Spearman rank order correlation.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Unprocessed data are called raw data. Data have to be processed
by making use of computers to for analysis. This is because
manual procedures for estimating and computing relevant statistics
have become increasingly tedious or entirely impossible.
Computers are now applied in all aspects of statistical analyses,
from the calculation of simple sums to the estimation of large scale
stochastic models.
There are numerous statistical programs for analyzing data.
These are known as package or canned programs. The popular
programs in this class include SPSS, SAS, GAUSS, E-Views,
RATS, LIMDEP, and STATA. However, the most popular series
for the educational researcher is the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS). SPSS contains many of the most common
statistical procedures needed by the students.

References
Adesoji, F.A. (2006). Statistical Methods for Data Analysis and
Data Interpretation In Alegbeleye, G.O, Mabawonku, I and
Fabunmi, M (eds.) Research Methods in Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Bluman, A.G. (1990) Elementary Statistics. McGraw Hill, Higher
Education, New York.
Gbadegesin, A., R. Olopoenia, and A. Jerome (2005) “Statistics for
the Social Sciences”. Ibadan University Press.
Gujarati, D. N (1995) Basic Econometrics. 3rd Edition. McGraw
Hill, New York.

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