PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

7
CHAPTER

3. Basis of Classification : Classification is

CONTENTS done on the basis of similarities in properties
so that the systematic study could be made
 INTRODUCTION
about them
 EARLY ATTEMPTS OF
Early attempts of classification
CLASSIFICATION
 Lavoisier's Classification :
 MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC Lavoisier classified elements into metals and
nonmetals. This classification was based on
LAW & PERIODIC TABLE
certain distinctive physical properties such as
 MODERN PERIODIC TABLE hardness, malleability and luster. On the basis of
these properties, sodium and lead were classed
together as belonging to the group of metals.
Introduction
Limitations
One hundred and fifteen elements are known till
date and many more may be known in future. All (1) Hardness, malleability and luster were found
elements differ in their properties due to the to be the only common properties of sodium
presence of different kinds of atoms in them. and lead, otherwise the two elements were
entirely different.
Elements combine to form millions of
compounds. (2) In such a classification there was no place for
elements with properties resembling those of
 Important Terms and Concepts :
metals as well as nonmetals.
1. Need of Classification : It is difficult to
There fore, Lavoisier's classification was found to
study each and every element individually
be inadequate.
and to know its properties and uses.
Therefore, they have been classified into  Dobereiner's Classification :
groups on the basis of their similarities in Law of triads In 1817, German chemist Johann
properties. Dobereginer classified elements having similar
2. Classification : Classification means chemical properties into groups of three. These
groups were called triads. He proposed a law
grouping of elements on the basis of
known as Dobereiner's law of triads. According to
similarities in properties, e.g., All of you
this law, when elements are arranged in the order
belong to class X because you resemble in
of increasing atomic mass in a triad, the atomic
you properties, e.g., All of you have passed
mass of the middle element was found to be
class IX, all of you are in age group of 13-15
approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the
years.
atomic masses of the other two elements.
 Set I Set II Set-III The classification of elements into triads was very
successful in predicting the atomic mass and
Element Atomic Element Atomic Element Atomic properties of the middle element. Further, this
mass mass mass classification showed that there exists some
relationship between the properties of elements
Calcium 40 Lithiu 7 Chlorin 35.5 and their atomic masses. This paved the way for
m e future attempts at classification of elements.
Strontiu 87.5 Sodium 23 Bromin 80 Limitation : All the elements could not be
m e grouped into triads.
Barium 137 Potassi 39 Iodine 127  Newlands' Classification :
um Law of octaves In 1864, John Newlands, and
Average of the Average of the Average of the English chemist, showed that when elements are
arranged in the order of their increasing atomic
atomic masses atomic masses atomic masses of
masses, the eighth element, starting from a given
of calcium and of lithium and chlorine and iodine element, was a kind of repetition of the first one,
barium potassium like the eighth note in an octave of music, i.e.,
35.5  127
40  137 7  39   81.2
  88.5   23 2 sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa,
2 2
where the first and the eighth note are same.

Atomic mass of Atomic mass of Atomic mass of A part of Newlands' classification is given below
strontium = 87.5 sodium = 23 bromine = 80 where the figures under the symbols show the
atomic masses
Octaves of music and Newlands' arrangement of elements
Indian : sa re ga ma pa dha ni
Octaves sa
Western : do re mi fa so la ti
do
Newlands's H Li Be B C N O
arrangement of 1.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
elements with F Na Mg Al Si P S
atomic masses 19.0 23.0 24.0 27.0 28.0 31.0 32.0
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
35.5 39.0 40.0 52.0 48.0 55.0 56.0
Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
58.93 and 58.71 63.54 65.37 88.90 114.82 74.92 78.96
Br Rb Sr Ce and La Zr — —
79.90 85.47 87.62 140.12 and 138.91 91.22

Starting from lithium (Li) the eight element is Limitation :

sodium (Na). The eight element starting from
(i) This law worked well for lighter elements
sodium is potassium. The properties of lithium,
(up to calcium), but it could not be applied to
sodium and potassium are similar. The properties
heavier ones (elements of higher atomic
of beryllium, magnesium and calcium are similar
masses) because starting from calcium every
too.
eight element was found to have properties
different from those of the first element.
 (ii) Newlands emphatically said that only 56 Mendeleev's periodic law and periodic
elements do exist in nature and no more  table
element is likely to be discovered in future.
But this concept was later on found to be
untrue with the discovery of many new While working systematically on the physical and
elements which defined the law of octaves. chemical properties of elements, Dmitri Invanovich
Mendeleev noticed that properties of elements varied
(iii) In arranging elements in the form of a table, regularly with the atomic mass. He arranged the 63
Newlands clubbed two elements together at elements then known in a table on the basis of
the same place and in the same column. Not similarities in properties. It was found that most of the
only this, he also placed some dissimilar elements occupied places in the table in order of their
elements in the same column. For example, increasing atomic masses. In 1869, Mendeleeve
cobalt (Co) and nickel (Ni) were clubbed formulated a law, now known as the periodic law. The
law is stated as follows.
together in the column of fluorine (F),
chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br) (under sa/do). The properties of elements are periodic functions
We know that cobalt and nickel have of their atomic masses. This means, if the elements are
properties entirely different from those of arranged in order of increasing atomic masses then
fluorine, chlorine and bromine. It is also those with similar properties are repeated at regular
intervals.
known that cobalt and nickel have properties
similar to those of iron. But iron (Fe) was On the basis of the periodic law, Mendeleev
placed in a column (under ni/ti) different presented his classification in the form of a table, now
from the column of cobalt and nickel. known as Mendeleev's periodic table. A simplified
version of this periodic table is given below. In this
However, this law support to the idea that the table, copper, silver and gold find places in groups I as
properties of elements depend upon the atomic well as VIII.
masses. It also showed that the properties of
elements are repeated after a certain interval, i.e.,
the properties of elements are periodic in nature.
Groups
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Periods
H
1
1
Li Be B C N O F
2
7 9.4 11 12 14 16 19
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3
23 24 27.3 28 31 32 35.5
K Ca Ti V Cr Mn Fr Co Ni Cu
4 ?
39 40 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63
Cu Zn ? ? As Se Br
5
63 65 68 72 75 78 80
Rb Sr Yt Zr Nb Mo ? Ru Rh Pd Ag
6
85 87 88 90 94 96 100 104 104 106 108
Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
7
108 112 113 118 122 125 127
Cs Ba Di Ce
8 ? ? ? ?
133 137 138 140
9 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Er La Ta W Os Ir Pt Au
10 ? ? ?
178 180 182 184 195 197 198 199
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
11 ? ?
199 200 204 207 208
Th U
12 ? ? ? ?
231 240
This table consists of vertical columns called groups  Modified version of Mendeleev's Periodic
and horizontal rows called periods. There are only Table :
eight groups in the table. Mendeleev left some vacant The elements which were undiscovered and for
places (shown by question marks) for the yet whom Mendeleev had left vacant places were
undiscovered elements. Noble gases were not discovered later. Some of these are scandium
discovered then. So, he did not provide any place for (Sc), gallium (Ga) and germanium (Ge). These
them in his periodic table. elements were accommodated in their proper
Mandeleev's idea was remarkable in that he used a places in the table. The elements helium (He),
fundamental atomic property (atomic mass) as the neon (Ne), argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe)
basis of classification. While classifying elements he and radon (Rn) became known only towards the
laid special emphasis on tow factors. end of the nineteenth century. These elements,
called noble gases, were placed in the table as a
1. Similar elements were grouped together. separate group, called 0 group. The periodic table
2. Elements were arranged in order of increasing had to be modified then. The modified version of
atomic masses. the table is shown below.

Group  I II III IV V VI VII VIII 0

Periods A B A B A B A B A B A B A B
1 H He
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Kr
Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Xe
Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Rn
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
7 Fr Ra Ac**

Lanthanide series* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
(along with langhanum)
Actinide series** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(along with actinium)
 Features of the modified version of Mendeleev's Mendeleev allowed the subgroups to be
periodic table : represented within the same group.
1. Groups into subgroups : Each group of this 2. Prediction of errors : This periodic table
periodic table is further divided into two could predict errors in the atomic masses of
subgroups A and B. The properties of some elements on the basis of their position
elements within a subgroup resemble more in the periodic table. For example, when the
markedly but they differ from those of the periodic table was published, the
elements of the other subgroups. For experimental value of the atomic mass of
example., lithium (Li), sodium (Na), beryllium (Be) we was supposed to be 13.65
potassium (K), etc., of subgroups IA have and its valency, 3. So, the position of Be
close resemblance of properties but they have should have been somewhere else, but
hardly any resemblance to the coinage metals Mendeleev placed it at its appropriate
(Cu, Ag and Au) of subgroup IB. position on the basis of its properties. He
further suggested that the atomic mass of Be
needed correction. Mendeleev predicted its
 atomic mass to be 9.1 and valency, 2. Latter gallium which was discovered later. The
investigations proved him right. properties of gallium (Ga) were found to be
similar to those of boron and aluminium.
Similarly, the atomic mass of uranium was
corrected from 120 to 240. Corrections were 4. Basic features intact : All the basic features
also made in the atomic masses of gold, of Mendeleev's periodic table are intact even
platinum, etc. today. Even when a new class of elements,
i.e., noble gases, were discovered, they found
3. Predictions of properties of higher to
place in a separate group called the zero
undiscovered element : We know that
group. The existing order of the periodic table
Mendeleev classified the elements in order of
was not at all disturbed.
their increasing atomic masses. However, this
order had to be ignored at some places to  Discrepancies in Mendeleev's periodic table :
make sure that the elements with similar
Mendeleev's periodic table has the following
properties fell in the same group. In doing so,
defects.
he left some vacant places in the table. These
vacant places were kept reserved for elements 1. Position of hydrogen : The position of
not discovered till then. Mendeleev was hydrogen in the periodic table is anomalous.
confident that these elements would be Hydrogen resembles alkali metals (Li, Na, K,
discovered later and they would occupy these etc). So it may be placed in the group of the
vacant places. Not only this, he also predicted halogens (VII A).
the properties of these undiscovered elements
2. Position of lanthanides and actinides : The
on the basis of this study of his the properties
elements from atomic number 57 to 71 are
of the neighboring elements. Amazingly,
collectively known as lanthanides. They do
when the missing elements of Mendeleev's
not have a proper place in the periodic table.
periodic table were discovered subsequently,
They all have been placed at the same
their properties were found to be very similar
position in group III and period 6. Similarly,
to those predicted by Mendeleev.
the actinides (atomic numbers 89-103) also
The elements scandium, gallium and have no proper place in the periodic table.
germanium were not known in 1871 but their These elements have also been placed in the
existence was predicted by mendelev. He same position, in group III and period 7.
named these elements as eka-boron, eka-
3. Some similar elements are separated, while
Aluminium and eka silicon when these
some dissimilar elements have been placed
elements were discovered, they were named
in the group : Some similar elements are
scandium, gallium and germanium
separated in the periodic table. For example,
respectively and their properties were found
copper (Cu) and mercury (Hg), silver (Ag)
to be in good agreement with those predicted
and thallium (Tl), and barium (Ba) and lead
by Mendeleev. Properties of ka-aluminium
(Pb). On the other hand, some dissimilar
(predicted by Mendeleev) and those of the
elements have been placed together in the
gallium (discovered later) are given in table.
same group. For example, copper (Cu), silver
Property Eka-aluminium Gallium (Ag) and gold (Au) have been placed in group
I along with the alkali metals. Similarly,
Atomic mass 68 69.7 manganese (Mn) is placed in the group of the
Formula of E 2O 3 Ga2O3 halogens.
oxide
4. Presence of some anomalous pairs of
Formula of ECl3 GaCl3 elements : In Mendeleev's periodic table,
chloride elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic mass. In some places, this order has
Considering its atomic mass, titanium (Ti) been ignored.
should have been placed below aluminium in
the periodic table, but Mendeleev placed is (a) The atomic mass of argon is 40 and that
below silicon (Si) because the properties of of potassium is 39. But argon is placed
titanium were similar to those of silicon. before potassium in the periodic table.
Thus, a gap was left below aluminium in the
periodic table. This gap was filled up by
 (b) The positions of cobalt and nickel are not The failure of Mendeleev's periodic law
in proper order. Cobalt (at. mass = 58.9) to explain the wrong order of the atomic
is placed before nickel (at. mass = 58.6). masses of some elements and the position of
isotopes led scientists working in this field to
(c) Tellurium (at. mass = 127.6) is placed
conclude that atomic mass cannot be the basis
before iodine (at. mass = 126.9).
for the classification of elements. There must
(d) Thorium (at. mass = 232.12) is placed be a more fundamental property of elements
before protactinium (at. mass = 231) which can be the basis of classification.
5. Position of isotopes : The isotopes of an
element have no place in the periodic table.
Anomalous pairs of elements
Element  Ar K Co Ni Te I Th Pa
Atomic mass 40 39 59.9 58.6 127.6 126.9 232.12 231
Group 0 IA VIII VIII VI B VII B III B III B
(2) They have gradation in properties due to
 Modern Periodic Table :
gradually varying attraction of the nucleus and
Henry Moseley, an English physicist found that the the outer valence electrons as we go down the
atomic number (Z) was the fundamental property of group.
an elements and not the atomic mass for classification
 Main Features of the Long Form of the Periodic
of elements.
Table :
 Modern Periodic Law :
(1) It shows arrangement of elements based on
‘‘Properties of elements are periodic functions of their modern periodic law.
atomic numbers, i.e., the number of protons or electrons
(2) There are 18 vertical columns known as groups.
present in the neutral atom of an element.’’
(3) There are 7 horizontal rows known as periods.
 Long form of Periodic Table :
(4) Elements having similar outer electronic
Arranged in increasing order of their atomic
configurations, i.e., having same valence electrons
numbers.
have been placed in same groups, e.g.,
The prediction of properties elements and their
Group-1
compounds can be made with precision. All
K L M N O P Q
drawbacks of Mendeleev's Periodic Table vanish
H (1) 1
when the elements are arranged on the basis of
Li (3) 2, 1
increasing atomic numbers.
Na (11) 2, 8, 1
 Elements in a Group : K (19) 2, 8, 8, 1
(1) They show similar chemical properties due to Rb (37) 2, 8, 18, 8, 1
similar outer electronic configuration, i.e., same Cs (55) 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1
number of valence electrons. Fr (87) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1
Group-2 Bi (83) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5

K L M N O P Q
Group-16
Be (4) 2 2
K L M N O P
Mg (12) 2, 8, 2
O (8) 2 6
Ca (20) 2, 8, 8, 2
S (16) 2, 8, 6
Sr (38) 2, 8, 18, 8, 2
Se (34) 2, 8, 18, 6
Ba (56) 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2
Te (52) 2, 8, 18, 18, 6
Ra (88) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2
Po (84) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6

Group-13 Group-17
K L M N O P K L M N O P
B (5) 2 3 F (9) 2 7
Al (13) 2, 8, 3 Cl (17) 2, 8, 7
Ga (31) 2, 8, 18, 3 Br (35) 2, 8, 18, 7
In (49) 2, 8, 18, 18, 3 I (53) 2, 8, 18, 18, 7
Tl (81) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3 At (85) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7
Group-14
Group-18
K L M N O P
K L M N O P
C (6) 2 4
Si (14) 2, 8, 4 He (2) 2
Ge (32) 2, 8, 18, 4
Ne (10) 2, 8
Sn (50) 2, 8, 18, 18, 4
Ar (18) 2, 8, 8
Pb (82) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4
Kr (36) 2, 8, 18, 8
Group-15
Xe (54) 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
K L M N O P
Rn (86) 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8
N (7) 2 5
(5) In periods, elements in which the number of
P (15) 2, 8, 5
electrons in the outermost shell increases
As (33) 2, 8, 18, 5 gradually in step one are placed, e.g.,

Sb (51) 2, 8, 18, 18, 5

 Period 1 H He  Naturally occurring Elements :
(K-shell) 1 2
 Elements upto atomic number 92 occur in nature
Second Period Li(3) Be(4) B(5) C(6) N(7) O(8) F(9) Ne(10)
(K, L, shells) 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8 except Technetium, Tc (Z = 43) and Promethium,
Pm (Z = 61) which are formed from radioactive
(6) Each group in the table signifies identical outer
shell electronic configuration i.e., same valence elements where ‘Z’ represents atomic number.

electrons, e.g., group 1 has 1 valence electron, Synthetic Elements : Elements beyond atomic
group 2 has 2 valence electrons, group 13 has 3, number 92 are man-made elements. They are also
group 14 has 4 valence electrons. called synthetic elements
(7) Each period starts with filling of new shell, e.g.,
Groups :
1st Period – K shell (1st shell) starts filling
(1) Elements in a group have same number of
with Hydrogen and ends at
valence electrons.
Helium.
(2) The chemical properties of valence electrons,
2nd Period – L shell (2nd shell) starts filling
e.g., all the group 1 elements have 1 valence
from Li (3) upto Ne (10)
electron. They form positively charged ions by
3rd Period – M shell (3rd shell) start filling
losing one electron, when required amount of
from Na (11) upto Ar (18)
energy is supplied to them i.e., Li+, Na+, K+.
4th Period – N shell (4th shell) starts filling
Group 1 elements are called alkali metals.
from K (19) upto Kr (36) and so
Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth
on.
metals.
(8) The periodic table is divided in four blocks :
Group 2 elements when 2 valence electrons in the
(a) s-block elements : Group 1 and 2
outermost shells. They can lose both the valence
elements are called s-block elements.
electrons to form dipositive cations, i.e., Be2+, Mg2+,
(b) p-block elements : Group 13 to 18 elements Ca2+, etc. Positively charged ions are called cations.
are called p-block elements
Group 13 elements belong to boron family, 14 to
(c) d-block elements : Group 3 to group 12 are
carbon family, 15 to Nitrogen family, 16 to Oxygen
called d-block elements or transition
family.
elements (in between s- block and p-block
elements) Group 16 elements contain 6 valence electrons in
their outermost shells, i.e., two electrons less than
(d) f-block elements : The elements placed at
the bottom of the periodic table are known the maximum number of electrons that can be

as f-block elements. The fourteen elements present in the outermost shell. They can gain 2
after La(57) (Lanthanum) are called electrons more easily rather than lose 6 electrons.
Lanthanoides and 14 elements after They change into dinegative ions such as O2–, S2–.
Actinium Ac (89) are called Actinoides. Group 17 elements called Halogens contain 7
valence electrons. They can gain one electron to
 acquire stable electronic configuration, i.e., 8 electrons (4) The second period contains 8 elements :
in the outermost shell and form uni-negative (single Lithium Li(3), Beryllium Be(4), Boron B(5),
negative) ions such as F–, Cl–, Br–, I–. Carbon C(6), Nitrogen N(7), Oxygen O (8),
Fluorine F(9) and Neon Ne (10). The second
Negatively charged ions are called anions.
period has 2 shells (K and L) and L shell is
Group 18 elements called noble gases, have their
progressive filled.
outermost, shell completely filled. The elements of
(v) The elements of 3rd period are :
this group have no tendency to lose or gain electrons.
Thus, the elements of this group have zero valency 3rd Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)
and are almost unreactive. Hence they are called
(K, L, M 2, 8, 1 2, 3, 2 2, 8, 3 2, 8, 4 2, 8, 5 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
Noble gases. However, nowadays, compounds of Kr,
shells)
Xe and Rn have been prepared.
In 3rd period, 3rd shell (M-shell) is being
In any particular group, the number of shells increase progressively filled and there are three shells.
but the number of valence electrons remains the same.
4th period has 18 elements
 Periods :
5th period has 18 elements
(1) The horizontal rows in the periodic table are
6th period has 32 elements
called periods.
7th period has 32 elements
(2) There are 7 periods in the long form of periodic
table In periods, the number of valence electrons increases
from left to right in s and p-blocks
(3) The first period contains 2 elements, Hydrogen
and Helium. They have only one shell.
 Periodicity in Properties : Group I Electronic No. of Atomic
Configuration Shells radius
The properties of elements depends upon the
(pm)
electronic configuration which changes along a period
and down a group in periodic table. Li(3) 2, 1 (2 shells) 133

There is periodicity in properties, i.e., repetition of Na(11) (3 shells) 154

2, 8, 1
properties after a regular interval due to similarity in
electronic configuration. K(19) (4 shells) 201
2, 8, 8, 1

Rb(37) (5 shells) 216

2, 8, 18, 8, 1
 Atomic Size (Atomic radii) :

Atomic size means radius of an atom. It is defined as Cs(55) (6 shells) 235

2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1
distance between centre of nucleus and outermost
shell (valence shell) of an isolated atoms.  Variation of Atomic size along a Period :

Atomic size goes on decreasing along a period from

 Covalent Radii : left to right

It is defined as half of the distance between the Reason : It is due to increase in nuclear charge
centres of nuclei of two atoms (bond length) bonded (number of protons in nucleus) which pulls the
by a single covalent bond, e.g., Bond length in case of electrons towards it, i.e., force of attraction between
H—H (Hydrogen molecule) is 74 pm. nucleus and valence electrons increase, therefore
atomic size decreases, e.g.,
Covalent radius = 1/2 × 74 pm = 37 pm (picometre)
Elements of 2nd Elements of 3rd
[1 pm = 10–12 m]
Period Atomic Period Atomic
It can be measured in case of diatomic molecules of radius (pm) radius (pm)
non-metals.
Li (3) Na(11)
 Metallic Radii : If is defined as half of the
133 154
internuclear distance between the two metal ions in a
metallic crystal. It is measured in case of metals. Be(4) Mg(12)

 Variation of Atomic size in a Group : 89 136

Size generally increases from top to bottom in a B(5) Al(13)

group.
80 125
Reason : It is due to addition of a new shell, i.e.,
C(6) Si(14)
number of shells go one increasing, e.g., pm stands
77 117
for picometre, i.e., 10–12 m.
 N(7) P(15) atomic size increase down a group, the force of
attraction between the nucleus and the valence
70 110 electrons decrease, therefore, the energy required to
O(8) S(16) remove the electrons, i.e., the ioisation energy goes
on decreasing
66 104
Example :
F(9) Cl(17)
Group I Ionisation Group 2 Second First
64 99 Energy Ionisation Ionisation

 Energy Energy (in

(in kJ mol–1)
kJ mol–1)
 Ionisation Energy and Electron Affinity : (in kJ mol–1)
Chemical nature and reactivity of an element depend Li 500 Be 1757 899
upon the ability of its atoms to donate or accept
Na 496 Mg 1450 737
electrons. This can be measured quantitatively with
the help of ionisation energy and electron affinity of K 420 Ca 1146 590
its atoms : Rb 403 Sr 1064 549
Ionisation energy : It is defined as the energy
Cs 376 Ba 965 503
required to remove an electron completely from an
isolated gaseous atom of an element. The energy  Variation of Ionisation energy along a Period :

required to remove the 1st electron is called first It goes on increasing generally along a period from
ionisation energy. left to right with decrease in atomic size.

Reason : Due to decrease in atomic size, the force of

A(g) + I.E1  A+(g) + e–
attraction between the valence electrons and the
nucleus increase and, therefore, more energy is
 Second Ionisation Energy : he energy required to required to remove electron.
remove an electron from a unipositive ion is called Example :
the second ionisation energy.
Elements of 2nd Period I.E. in kJ mol–1
A+(g) + I.E2  A2+ (g) + e– Li 500

Te second ionisation energy is greater than the first Be 900

ionisation energy due to increase in positive charge, B 801
hence increase in force of attraction between the
C 1085
nucleus and the valence electron.
N 1400
Ist I.E. < 2nd I.E. < 3rd I.E.
O 1314
 Variation of Ionisation energy down a Group :
Ionisation energy goes on decreasing down a group. F 1680

Reason : It is due to the increase in the distance Ne 2080

between the valence electrons and the nucleus as the
 There is a decrease in ionisation energy from Be to B Example :
and from N to O, the reason of which you will study
Group 17 E.A. (kJ mol–1)
in higher classes.
F 333
Group 18 elements (noble gases) have the highest
ionisation energy in respective periods due to stable Cl 348

electronic configuration, i.e., 8 electrons in their Br 324

valence shells except He which has 2 electrons.
I 295

However, deviations to this rule are observed in

 Electron Affinity : variation of electron affinity.

It is the energy change when an electron is gained by  Metallic and Non-metallic Character :
a neutral gaseous atom converting it into a
Group 1 to 12 are metals. Group 13 to 18 comprise
negatively charged ion.
non-metals, metalloids and metals.
It is a measure of attraction or affinity of the gaseous
Metalloids : Those elements which resemble both
atom for an extra electron to be added.
metals and non-metals are called metalloids. They
Cl(g) + e  Cl (g) + E.A.
– –
are also called semi-metals, e.g., Boron, Silicon,
Germinaium, Arsenic, Antimony, Tellurium and
 Factors :
Polonium.
It depends upon atomic size as well as electronic
Properties of Metals :
configuration.
(i) The are malleable.
 Variation down the Group : (ii) They are ductile.
Electron affinity goes on decreasing down the group
(iii) They are good conductors of heat and
in general.
electricity.
Reason : Due to the increase in atomic size, the force
(iv) They have generally 1 to 3 valence electrons.
of attraction between the nucleus and the electron to e
(v) They have the same or less number of electrons
added becomes less.
in their outermost shell than the number of
shells.
 Variation along a Period :
(vi) They are mostly solids.
Electron affinity increase from left to right in period.
Properties of Non-metals :
Reason : It is due to decrease in atomic size which (i) They exist in solid, liquid or gaseous state.
leads to an increase in the force of attraction between
(ii) Non-metals are generally brittle.
the nucleus and the electrons to be added.
(iii) They are non conductors.

(iv) They have 4 to 8 valence electrons.

 Variation of Metallic Character : In Mendeleev's periodic table there are eight groups
(I to VIII). Each group is divided into subgroups A
Metallic character increases down a group due to
and B, except group VIII. In the modern periodic
decrease in ionisation energy. It decrease along a
table there are 18 groups.
period due to increase in ionisation energy from left
to right The vertical columns of the periodic table are
called groups.
 Variation of Non-metallic Character :
The horizontal rows of the periodic table are called
Non-metallic character decreases down a group
periods.
because of decrease in electron affinity which is due
to increase in atomic size. Modern periodic law. The physical and chemical
properties of elements are a periodic function of
Along a period, non-metallic character increases from
their atomic numbers.
left to right due to increase in electron affinity which
is due to decrease in atomic size The modern periodic table (long form) is based on
atomic number.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
There are seven periods in the periodic table. The
Dobereiner's law of triads states that in a given set of first six periods consists of 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32
three elements (triad) the atomic mass of the middle elements respectively. The seventh periods is still
element is approximately equal to the average of the incomplete.
atomic masses of the other two elements.
Elements in a group have similar properties.
Newland's law of octaves states that if the elements
The regular occurrence of similar chemical
are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, the
properties of elements with increasing atomic
eighth element starting from a given element shows
number is known as chemical periodicity.
a repetition of the properties of the first element.
A series of transition elements starting from
According to Mendeleev's periodic law, the physical
actinium are called actinides or actinoids.
and chemical properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic masses. A family of elements headed by helium in the
periodic table constitutes the noble gases. They are
Mendeleev's periodic table (i) helped correct the
unrecactive.
wrongly assigned values of atomic masses of some
elements, and (ii) predicted the properties of some An element that is intermediate between metals and

undiscovered elements. nonmetals is known as a metalloid.

In Mendeleev's periodic table (i) isotopes had no The elements of group 1 are called alkali metals.

place, and (ii) some similar elements are separated, The elements of group 2 are called alkaline earth
while some dissimilar elements are placed in the metals.
same group.
 Exercise-I
A. Very Short Answer Type Questions B. Short Answer Type Questions
Q.1 Classify as acidic, basic and amphoteric oxide Q.10 State the modern periodic law
Na2O, Al2O3 and SO2
Q.11 Explain Newland’s law of octaves
Q.2 Pick the odd one out
Q.12 Give reasons for the following:
(i) H, N, P, Na (ii) H, He, O, C
(i) Atomic size decreases as we move from left
(iii) C, N, O, Cs (iv) Cs, Cl, Ca, Cd
to right across a period
Q.3 Give one example each of the following
(ii) Atomic size increases as we move from top
(i) Metal belonging to Group 12.
to bottom along a group.
(ii) Metal belonging to Group 2.
(iii) Non-metal belonging to the halogen group. Q.13 Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine were
(iv) Most reactive halogen.
put in one group on the basis of their similar
(v) Alkali metal which is radioactive.
properties.
Q.4 Give one example each of transition element, (A) What is the name of this group or family?
lanthanide, actinide and radioactive element.
(B) State two of these similar properties.
Q.5 What are the vertical columns in the periodic
Q.14 Explain why potassium is more reactive than
table called ?
lithium and chlorine less reactive than fluorine.
Q.6 Give an example of an element discovered after
Mendeleev gave the periodic table Q.15 State two defects in Mendeleev’s periodic table

Q.7 An element of group 14 has an atomic number

Q.16 For the main groups of the periodic table, the
of 14. State whether this element will have
metallic properties of the elements vary
metallic properties
approximately with their position as shown in

Q.8 (i) What is the position of hydrogen in the the chart below.
periodic table? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
H He
(ii) Where are lanthanides and actinides placed
A B
in the periodic table? C D
Q.9 Two atoms A and B have the following Find A, B, C, D
distribution of protons and neutrons
Atoms Protons Neutrons
C. Long Answer Type Questions
A 6 6 Q.17 What were the early attempts to classify the

B 6 7 elements?

Which element do they represent? How are A Q.18 What is meant by the statement, ‘properties of
and B related? elements are a periodic function of atomic
number’?
Q.19 Define the following:
(A) group, (B) period, (C) representative
elements’ (D) transition elements,
(e) lanthanides and (F) actinides

Q.20 Sodium and aluminium have atomic numbers 11

and 13 respectively. They are separated by one
element in the periodic table and have valencies
of 1 and 3 respectively. Chlorine and potassium
are also separated by one element in the periodic
table. Their atomic numbers are 17 and 19
respectively, but both have a valency of
1.Explain why.

Q.21 How does the modern periodic table differ from

the Mendleeve’s periodic table

Q.22 Write a short note on the following:

(i) Dobereiner’s triads
(ii) Newland’s law of octaves
(iii) Lothar Meyer’s curves

Q.23 Discuss the variation in the following along a

group and a period:
(i) Atomic size (ii) Ionization energy
(iii) Metallic character (iv) Electron affinity
(v) Chemical reactivity
 Exercise-II
A. Fill in the blanks
Q.1 Vertical columns of elements in the periodic
table are called.......
Q.2 The number of electrons in the valence shell of  
the atom of an element indicates the ......to
which the element belongs.
Q.3 The first period contains .........elements.
Q.4 The oxides of the elements of groups 1 and 2 are
...... in nature.
Q.5 Electronegativity ...............along a group from
top to bottom.
Q.6 Alkali metals belong to group ........... and halogens
belong to group ................in the periodic table.
Q.7 The basis of modern periodic table is............

B. True /False Type Questions

Q.8 Elements of a group have the same chemical
properties.
Q.9 Element with least ionization energy is
Ceasuim.
Q.10 The element with configuration ns2np5 will
belong to group 17.
Q.11 Helium is the noble gas with least atomic size
Q.12 Elements having atomic numbers 57 to 71
constitute the lanthanide series.
Q.13 The nature of an element can be predicated on
the basis of its position in the periodic table.
Q.14 Within a group, various elements show variation
in properties
Q.15 From top to bottom in a group, electronegativity
increases.