bromates, iodine, nitric acid, peroxides,

module 1: fire chlorates, etc

Fire Air is composed of: 21% oxygen, 78%

nitrogen, 1% inert (inactive but are still
combustible) gases
 The heat and light that comes from
burning substances, produced by the Fire Triangle
combustion of substances.
 It is the manifestation of a rapid
 A geometrical figure that diagrams
chemical reaction occurring between a
the relationship between the three
combustible matter and an oxidizer. Such
elements of fire. Each side of the triangle
rapid chemical reaction releases energy
represents an element, such that if one
in the form of heat and light. When a
side is missing then there is no triangle;
substance burns, heat and light are
meaning fire cannot be produced.
produced. Burning is also called
combustion.
If any of the elements are not available, the
combustion does not take place.  Normally,
how are fire and light oxygen is supplied by air, ignition
temperature can be provided by the ignition
produced device (like a flame), and any combustible
Fire (conflagration) is the common term of material (usually organic matter) burns when
the burning process – the combustion of a heated by the ignition device.  Most
fuel.  Combustion involves rapid oxidation. combustible materials burn in the gaseous
state only.
Oxidation (slow & rapid)
If there is a sufficient supply of oxygen, there
is rapid oxidation resulting to complete
 The chemical reaction in which combustion.  If the supply of oxygen and
oxygen chemically combines with the vaporization of a matter is sufficient
organic elements (fuel) of a combustible combustion is accompanied by heat and light. 
substance. If there is an insufficient supply of oxygen,
there is smoldering fire.  In a smoldering fire,
Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid.  no flames are manifested.
The rapid oxidation of material is chemically
termed as combustion.  In some fuels, if the To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised
heat during oxidation is not easily dissipated, (increased) until the ignition point is reached. 
the temperature gradually rises until the Thus, before a combustible material starts to
material automatically ignites.  burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be
exposed to a certain degree of temperature. 
When this situation occurs, the material has When the temperature of a substance is very
undergone spontaneous combustion.  Rags high, it releases highly combustible vapors
or papers saturated or soaked with animal fat known as free radicals.
(or vegetable oil), if stored in confined space
where the heat of oxidation is not dissipated the theory of Fire
fast enough, tend to undergo spontaneous
combustion. Flash Point

elements of Fire  The lowest / minimum temperature

at which a substance gives off vapors that
1. Heat – ignition temperature burn momentarily (when a flame or spark
2. Fuel – combustible matter (organic is applied).
material, hydrocarbons)
3. Oxidizing agent – the common If a fuel’s temperature has reached its flash
oxidizing agent is oxygen; others are point, then it can be instantly ignited thus
producing a momentary fire.  If its Fire Properties
temperature still increases, such that it
continuously releases combustible vapors, the          Physical properties
condition results in sustained burning
(combustion).  Hence, the fuel is deemed to 1. Specific Gravity
have reached its fire point. 2. Vapor Density
3. Vapor Pressure
Fire Point 4. Temperature
5. Boiling Point
 The temperature at which the fuel 6. Fire Point
continues to burn after it has been ignited 7. Flash Point
– that even if the source of ignition has 8. Auto-ignition point – kindling
been removed, the fuel continues to burn. temperature

  Chemical properties

            If a substance automatically burns 1. Endothermic reaction

without any human or mechanical 2. Exothermic reaction
intervention, the temperature of the substance 3. Oxidation
has been spontaneously increased until it 4. Combustion
reaches the auto-ignition point. 5. Flame
Auto-ignition / Self-Ignition Point
Flame
 The lowest / minimum temperature
at which a substance can be heated to  The matter produced by the fire.
release vapors that will ignite without the  It is composed of burning
application of a flame or spark. incandescent gases.
 It refers to the temperature at which  It is manifested of fire when the fire
spontaneous combustion takes place. is in its gas-phased combustion.
 It is usually much higher (in
temperature than the fire point). Requirements to Produce Flame

Flammable range or Explosive Range of a 1. high temperature

Fuel 2. reactants (fuel and oxidizer / gases /
vapors)
3. the concentration of short-lived
 It refers to the volume range needed intermediate chemical reaction between
to burn or explode a fuel when it is reactants
ignited.
Types of Flames
Combustion
may be in the I. According
form of: to color and
completeness
1. Glowing of combustion
combustion A. Luminous
(condense- flame
phased  reddish-
combustion) orange in
– manifested color
by embers
2. Gas- phased  it deposits
combustion soot because it
– flame (blue / yellow/orange) is a product of
incomplete combustion
 It has a lower temperature  It is represented by the fire
tetrahedron – a four-sided figure with the
B. Non-luminous flame sides representing fuel, temperature,
oxygen, and the uninhibited chemical
 bluish in color chain reaction.
 it does not deposit soot because it is
a product of complete combustion 2. Surface or Smoldering Mode
 it has a higher temperature than
luminous flame  It is represented by the fire triangle
with the three sides representing fuel,
II. According to burning fuel and air temperature, and oxygen.
mixture

a) Premixed flame – e.g. flame of a

Bunsen Burner or LPG
b) Diffused flame – e.g. flame of the
oxyacetylene  torch (ethyl alcohol
lamp)

module 2: the
III. Based on smoothness
evolution of fire
1. Laminar flame – smooth flame (ex.
from a candle) Early humans used fire to warm themselves,
2. Turbulent flame – rough flame (ex. cook food, and frighten away predators. 
building/forest fire) Sitting around a fire may have helped unite
and strengthen family groups and speed the
evolution of early society. Fire enabled our
Hydrocarbon
human ancestors to travel out of warm,
 Any substance containing primarily equatorial regions and, eventually spread
carbon and hydrogen (water). throughout the world.  But fire also posed
great risks and challenges to early people,
including the threat of burns, the challenge of
Pyrolysis controlling fire, the greater challenge of
 It refers to the chemical process starting a fire, and the threat of wildfires.
whereby fire consumes the most solid             As early civilizations developed,
part of the fuel. people discovered more uses of fire.  They
 It is the thermal decomposition of used fire to provide light, to make better tools,
combustible matter. and as a weapon in times of war.  Early
 It is the chemical decomposition of a religions often included fire as a part of their
solid fuel through the action of heat. rituals, reflecting its importance to society. 
Early myths focused on fire’s power.
Free radicals – combustible vapors such as:
            In ancient Greece and later, the fire
1. hydrogen gas was considered one of the four basic
2. carbon dioxide elements, a substance from which all things
3. carbon monoxide (most hazardous) – were composed.  Its great importance to
can cause asphyxia humans, the mystery of its powers, and its
4. nitrogen seeming capriciousness has made fire divine
or sacred to many people. Fire as a god is a
Two Basic Modes of Fire  characteristic feature of Zoroastrianism, in
which, as in many sun-worshiping religions,
1. Flaming mode
fire is considered the earthly representative or made use of fire so that they can remain
type of the sun.  active after the sunset, protect themselves
from predators, warm themselves, cook,
Vesta and make better tools.
2. Source of light by taking advantage
 Roman goddess of the hearth of the glow of wood-burning fires to
 To honor Vesta, the high priest of the continue their activities after dark and
Roman religion periodically chose six inside their dwelling.
priestesses called Vestal Virgins who 3. Enabled people to make better
were responsible to keep the holy fire weapons and tools.
going in a community hearth.
            People learned to control fire by
Prometheus blowing at it through reed pipes. Then they
used this technique to burn hollows in logs to
 Fire bearer
create cradles, bowls, and canoes.
 He stole fire from the gods, gave it to
man, and taught him many useful arts
and sciences. Fires in early civilizations

Early Fire Making Techniques 1. Artisans first used fire to make

pottery and bricks.
2. Ancient people developed improved
1. Rubbing together pieces of flint that
devices for using fire to provide light
could produce sparks that would set fire
3. The use of candles made of yarn or
to wood shavings.
dry brushes dipped in animal fat.
2. Rubbing together pieces of wood
until the wood produced a hot powder
that could light kindling Modern uses of fire
3. Adaptation of the bow and drill
which consisted of a block of wood and a 1. Used in appliances that rely on fire to
stick that was fixed in the looped string operate
of a small, curved bow. 2. Used to supplement the main heating
4. Use of wood piston to compress air system in their homes
inside a bamboo tube that contained 3. Used over campfires
wood shavings. Compressed air became 4. Used to manufacture products and
increasingly hotter, eventually igniting dispose of waste
the shavings. 5. Used in incinerators to destroy
5. Use of tinderbox – moisture-proof, garbage
metal carrying case held tinder, usually 6. Fire also heat large boilers to
charred cotton or linen cloth, and pieces generate steam which then powers large
of steel and flint. Striking the steel and turbines.
flint together produced a spark that 7. Used in power plants to generate
lighted the tinder. electricity
6. Tinderbox that operates like a 8. Used as a weapon in times of war
present-day cigarette lighter in which the (catapult)
rotary motion of a metal wheel against
flint set off sparks in tinder.
7. Development of phosphorus match.
(mid 19th century)

Uses of Fire

Prehistoric Uses of Fire

1. Hunter-gatherers (people who lived
module 3: Fuels
by hunting and gathering wild food)
FUELS (COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS) 4. Class D Fuels (can cause Class D
fires)
            Most fuels release energy by burning  Combustible metallic substances
with oxygen in the air.  But some, especially such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
chemical fuels used in rockets, need special sodium and potassium
oxidizers in order to burn.  Oxidizers are 5. Class K – Kitchen fires
compounds that contain oxygen.  Nuclear  A new classification as of 1998 and
fuels do not burn but release energy through involves fires in combustible cooking
the fission (splitting) or fusion (joining fuels such as vegetable or animal fats.
together) of atoms.
Solid Fuels
            In the fire triangle, fuel is one of the
vital elements needed to produce fire.  To
1.BIOMASS (wood-based
burn fuel, it must be heated to its ignition
products/plants)
point.
 Given name to replaceable organic
General Categories of Fuels matter such as wood, garbage, and
animal manure useful to produce
1. Solid combustible materials energy.
– includes organic or inorganic, natural  Wood has been used as a fuel since
or synthetic, and metallic solid materials. prehistoric times longer than any
2. Liquid combustible materials other material.
- includes all flammable liquid fuels and  Biomass materials other than wood
chemicals. are also used as fuels.
3. Gaseous substances – includes those e.g. Heat produced by burning nutshells, rice
toxic hazardous gases that are capable of and oat hulls, and other by-products of food
ignition. processing is often used to operate plant
equipment.
Classification of Combustible Materials 
FACTORS AFFECTING
1. Class A Fuels (can cause Class A COMBUSTIBILITY OF WOOD AND
fires) WOOD-BASED PRODUCTS:
A. Physical Form
 Ordinary combustible materials that B. Moisture content – water content
are usually made of organic substances C. Heat conductivity
such as wood and wood-based products D. Rate and period of heating
 It includes some of those synthetic E. Rate of combustion
and/or inorganic materials like rubber, F. Ignition temperature
leather, and plastics.
2. FABRICS & TEXTILES
2. Class B Fuels (can cause Class B  Almost all fibers and textiles are
fires) combustible

 Materials that are in the form of FIBER – very fine thin strand (thread-like)
flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic object
substances, oil, and other chemicals such FABRIC – twisted or wooden fibers
as those liquid petroleum products. TEXTILES – machine woven or knitted
fabric
3. Class C Fuels (can cause Class C
fires) Classification of fibers
a. NATURAL FIBERS
1. From plants – cellulose fibers
 Normally fire-resistant materials  Coir (coconut fibers)
 Materials used in electrical wiring  Kapok, cotton (seed fibers)
and other electrical appliances
 Pineapple fiber
 Pulp (wood fiber)
2.From animals  Partially decayed plant matter found
 Wool, silk, protein fibers (leather) in swamps called bogs and used as a
3. From minerals fuel chiefly in areas where coal and
 Asbestos oil are scarce.
b. Synthetic or artificial fibers  In Ireland and Scotland, for example,
1. Organic Fibers peat is cut, formed into blocks and
 Cellulose fibers dried.
 Non-cellulose fibers  The dried blocks are then burned to
2. Inorganic Fibers heat homes.
 Fiberglass, steel
Liquid Fuels
FACTORS AFFECTING THE
COMBUSTIBILITY OF FIBERS  Made primarily from petroleum, but
some synthetic liquid fuels are also
a. Chemical Composition produced
 Except when the material contains
PETROLEUM
flame/fire retardant
 Fiber finish – fiber coating  Also called CRUDE OIL, rangers
 Fabric weight from clear yellow-brown oils to
 Tightness of weave thick, black tars.
 Flame – retardant treatment  Some crude oils are burned as fuels
in stoves and boilers without
LIMITING OXYGEN INDEX (LOI)
processing.
 A numerical basis of measuring the  Most petroleum is refined to produce
tendency of a fabric to continuously such fuels as gasoline, diesel oil, and
burn once source of ignition is kerosene.
removed. a.) GASOLINE
 If the LOI of a fabric is HIGH, the  Used to provide energy for most
probability that it will cease to burn motor vehicles and piston-engine
once the flame is removed is also airplanes
HIGH.
 Fabrics with high LOI and HIGH
TEMPERATURE are safer for b.) DIESEL OIL
clothing and furnishing because they  Powers most planes, ships, and large
do not ignite easily. Also, they will trucks
not continue burning after the source c.) KEROSENE
of heart or flame is removed.  Provides energy for jet planes
3.Plastics DISTILLATE OILS
 Included as ordinary fuels under  These are light oils which are used
CLASS A chiefly to heat homes and small
4. COAL buildings.
 Burned to create heat to turn water
into steam. The steam is often used GASOHOL (gas & alcohol)
to rotate turbines, machines that
generate electricity.  Mixture of gasoline and alcohol
 Some coal is made into COKE, a  The alcohol in gasohol is often
charcoal-lie solid that is an essential produced from such grains such as
raw material in the production of iron corn and wheat.
and steel TWO GENERAL GROUPS OF LIQUID
 It is used to heat buildings and FUELS
provide energy for industrial
machinery. 1. FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
5. PEAT  Have a flash point between 37.8°C
(100°F) and a vapor pressure not
 exceeding 40 psi (per square inch) at 2. Composed of very tiny particles
37.8°C. (molecules) at constant random motion
in a straight line.
2.CORROSIVE LIQUIDS 3. Gas molecules collide against one
another and against the wall of the
 Have a flash point at or above
container and are relatively far from
37.8°C (100°F)
one another.
NOTE: Technically speaking, flammable and
CLASSIFICATION OF GASES
combustible liquids will not cause fire. It is
the VAPORS they produce which BURN or I. BASED ON SOURCE
EXPLODE TO AIR under the influence of 1. NATURAL GAS
heat. GASOLINE is the most widely used  Used to heat buildings, cook food,
flammable liquid. and provide energy for industries
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF  Consist chiefly of methane, a
FLAME PROPAGATION AND BURNING colorless and odorless gas
OF LIQUIDS  Usually mixed with compounds of
the foul-smelling element sulfur so
1. Wind velocity gas leaks can be detected.
2. Temperature  butane and propane, which make
3. Heat of combustion up a small portion of natural gas,
4. Latent (invisible) and heat of become LIQUIDS when placed
evaporation under large amounts of pressure –
5. Atmospheric pressure (dependent on when pressure is released, they
the environment) change back into gas. Such fuels,
often called liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG) or liquefied natural gas
(LNG), are easily stored and shipped
as liquids.
TECHNIQUES OF PREVENTING FIRE 2. MANUFACTURE GAS
AND EXPLOSION CAUSED BY LIQUID  This gas-like synthetic liquid fuels
FUELS are used chiefly where certain fuels
are abundant and others are scarce.
1. Exclusion of ignition source
 Coal, petroleum, and biomass can be
2. Exclusion of air supply – excluding air
converted to gas through heating and
by various means
y various chemical procedures.
3. Shutting of the fuel supply, IF
 Gas can also be produced by treating
POSSIBLE
such biomass as animal manure with
4. Keeping liquids in closed containers
bacteria called anaerobes. The
5. Proper ventilation to prevent the
bacteria expel methane as they digest
accumulation of vapor within the
the waste.
flammable range
II. BASED ON USAGE
6. Using an atmosphere of inert gas
1. Fuel gas
instead of air
2. Industrial gases
7. Cooling the liquid to stop evaporation
8. Combination of the above  Oxygen, acetylene
 Freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide
GAS FUELS  Hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia,
chlorine
 Includes natural and manufacture gas  Chlorine, fluorine
 Such fuels flow easily through 3. Medical gases
PIPES and are used to provide every  Chloroform, nitrous oxide
for homes, businesses, and industries  Oxygen
CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS FUELS BASIC HAZARDS OF GASES
1. Matters that have no definite volume When confined in a container:
and no definite shape.
1. Gases expand when heated
2. Pressure is developed inside the
container causing container failure
3. The gas container is destroyed due to
contact with flames
Hazards vary with the physical and
chemical properties of the gas and the
nature of the environment in two which
they are released. All gases, except oxygen,
are hazardous to life if they displace the
breathing air.