Physics

Teacher Guide
Grade 10
Authors: Susan Gardner
Catherine Gaunt
Graham Bone

Advisers: Tilahun Tesfaye Deressu (PhD)

Endeshaw Bekele Buli

Evaluators: Yoseph Mihiret Mengistu

Gebremeskel Gebreegziabher
Yusuf Mohamed

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ministry of Education
Acknowledgments

The development, printing and distribution of this teacher guide has been funded through the General Education
Quality Improvement Project (GEQIP), which aims to improve the quality of education for Grades 1–12 students in
government schools throughout Ethiopia.

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia received funding for GEQIP through credit/financing from the
International Development Associations (IDA), the Fast Track Initiative Catalytic Fund (FTI CF) and other
development partners – Finland, Italian Development Cooperation, the Netherlands and UK aid from the
Department for International Development (DFID.

The Ministry of Education wishes to thank the many individuals, groups and other bodies involved – directly and
indirectly – in publishing the teacher guide and accompanying textbook.

© Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education

First edition, 2002 (E.C.)

ISBN: 978-99944-2-019-3

Developed, printed and distributed for the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education by:

Pearson Education Limited

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In collaboration with

Shama Books
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Ethiopia

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written
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Republic of Ethiopia, Federal Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No. 410/2004 Copyright and Neighbouring Rights
Protection Proclamation, 10th year, No. 55, Addis Ababa, 19 July 2004.

Disclaimer

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright owners of material used in this document. We apologise in
advance for any unintentional omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any
future edition

Printed in Malaysia
Contents

Introduction to the Teacher’s Guide 5

Unit 1 Motion in 2D 13
1.1 Projectile motion 15
1.2 Rotational kinematics 23
1.3 Rotational dynamics 28
1.4 Newton’s law of universal gravitation 33

Unit 2 Electrostatics 39
2.1 Electric charge 40
2.2 Electric forces and fields 45
2.3 Electrical potential 48
2.4 Capacitors and capacitances 50

Unit 3 Current Electricity 58

3.1 Electric current 59
3.2 Ohm’s Law and electrical resistance 61
3.3 Combinations of resistors 65
3.4 E.m.f. and internal resistance of a cell 69
3.5 Electric energy and power 71
3.6 Electric installation and safety rules 73

Unit 4 Electromagnetism 78
4.1 Magnetism 79
4.2 Concepts of magnetic field 83
4.3 Magnetic force 86
4.4 Electromagnetic induction 92

Unit 5 Introduction to electronics 100

5.1 Vacuum tube devices 101
5.2 Conductors, semiconductore and insulators 105
5.3 Semiconductors (impurities, doping) 107
5.4 Transistors (p-n-p, n-p-n) 112

Grade 10 3
Unit 6 Electromagnetic waves and geometric optics 118
6.1 Electromagnetic waves 120
6.2 Reflection of light 122
6.3 Refraction of light 127
Minimum Learning Competencies 141
Grade 10 Syllabus 145
Introduction to the Teacher's Guide
Unit 1

Some general aims of physics education

Physics is an important subject that contributes to the development of our
country in many ways. A knowledge and understanding of physics helps students
to understand the world and appreciate how it works. It contributes to a society
that benefits from this understanding, and produces people who realise how the
environment can be exploited in a sustainable way for the benefit of society.
It prepares students for employment, both in a general way and as a preparation
for careers that require knowledge of the subject, such as engineering or
communications. However, a study of physics does not just mean learning facts.
Physics, as with the other sciences, requires the student to develop problem-
solving skills.
The Secondary physics curriculum takes a competency-based, active learning
approach, underpinned by three broad outcomes: knowledge, values and attitudes,
and skills. The Students’ Book and Teacher’s Guide places emphasis on learner-
centred classroom and field activities, not only to help students to acquire
knowledge, but also to develop problem-solving and decision-making skills, as
well as a good attitude to society and the world around us.
The teacher must make the students aware that science is a dynamic activity, a
body of knowledge that constantly grows and is modified by experimentation.
He or she can utilise new approaches to teaching and learning, involving a range
of teaching styles, along with practical activities and field work, summarised in the
‘Teaching Methods’ section below.

General objectives of the Grade 10 physics course

When students have completed Grade 10 physics they should:
• Understand the motion of objects in horizontal, vertical, and inclined planes,
and with reference to the forces acting on the objects; the laws of conservation
of energy and of momentum for objects moving in one and two dimensions
• Develop basic manipulative skills to investigate motion in a plane, and solve
problems involving the forces acting on an object in linear, projectile, and
circular motion, with the aid of vectors, graphs, and free-body diagrams
• Understand the concepts of electrical, gravitational, and magnetic fields;
electromagnetic radiation; electromagnetic induction, and the interface between
energy and matter, the common applications of electrical and electronic circuits,
and the function and configuration of the components used in circuits
• Develop skills in using measuring instruments and familiar electrical devices;
constructing simple electrical circuits using common tools appropriately and
safely
• Appreciate the applications of electrical and electronic technologies to the
community
Each unit of study has specific learning competencies, and these are listed at
the beginning of each unit in both the Students’ Book and the Teacher’s Guide,
providing a useful checklist for both students and teachers.

Grade 10 5
Introduction

Teaching methods
The subject content can be delivered in different ways in order to achieve the
specific objectives. The type of teaching method used will affect the skills and
attitudes that the students develop. The teacher will want to use the most effective
methods for teaching a particular topic. In Physics, it is recommended that the
teacher use more than one teaching method in a single lesson – the discussion
method might be suitable for the beginning of the lesson, followed by the
discovery method, or a practical activity. The strengths and weaknesses of a range
of different methods are summarised in the table below:

Method Strengths and weaknesses

Lecture – content is delivered Students receive correct factual information from the teacher.
to students by teacher Useful to stimulate thinking.
Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
Students develop qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity and
enquiry.
Useful for large numbers of students.
Makes students passive because it is one-way communication.
Makes learning difficult to assess.
Discovery – teacher guides Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
students to discover scientific making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
facts for themselves Students develop qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity, interest
and co-operation.
Discussion – sharing of ideas Allows sharing of each other’s ideas.
between students and teacher Can be useful at start of a lesson to motivate students.
Allows everyone to participate actively.
A few people may end up dominating the discussion.
Not easy to conduct for large classes.
Can be time-consuming.
Teacher can easily lose track of the argument.
Question and answer – teacher Useful for gauging students’ understanding or knowledge of fact or
asks questions, students answer. concept.
Students also ask questions Useful for beginning and ending a lesson.
Need to ensure sufficient questions are framed to stimulate thinking –
closed questions do not achieve this.
Can be counterproductive if the teacher asks too many questions.
Problem solving – students Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
are presented with an exercise making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
where they must find an answer Students develop desirable qualities such as seeking knowledge,
to a problem curiosity, enquiry and responsibility.
Worked examples in the Students’ Book can usefully be presented as
problems for students to solve – see notes for each topic for further
details.
Can waste time if not properly planned and guided.

6 Grade 10
 Introduction

Assignments – specific task Students have the opportunity to research a topic and look for
given to students to find out information on their own.
about a particular problem or
issue
Worksheets – handouts to Allows students to think for themselves without outside influence.
guide students in practical work Allows individual ideas to be shared in a group.
Demonstration – teacher Students develop skills such as identification, observation, recording,
carries out practical work making predictions, synthesis, analysis and drawing conclusions.
if materials/equipment are Students develop desirable qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity,
inadequate or the procedure interest and cooperation.
is too complex or unsafe for
students
Practical activities – students Gives teacher an opportunity to develop students’ interest in the
carry out practical work subject.
individually or in groups; Teacher has opportunity to interact with students.
students gain hands-on Teacher provides the standard/expected results for each activity.
experience
Can be used with discussion method (during discussion of results).
This method is highly Students develop skills such as identification, observation, collecting,
recommended and should be measurement, manipulation, data recording, investigation, making
used as much as possible. predictions, interpretation, evaluation, synthesis and drawing
conclusions.
Students develop desirable qualities such as self-confidence, curiosity,
interest and co-operation.
Field work – outdoor learning Helps students develop skills such as identification, observation,
activity collecting, measurement, data manipulation, recording, analysis, report
writing and verbal reporting.
Students appreciate the environment.
Can waste time if not properly planned and guided.
Project – short- or long-term Helps students develop (among others) report-writing, presentation
investigation and data-analysis skills.
Students develop skills in using scientific methods.
Can be time-wasting if not properly planned and guided.
Case study – study carried Allows students to apply new knowledge and skills.
out on a particular natural Allows development of analytical and problem-solving skills.
environment, then applied to Allows exploration of solutions for seemingly complex problems.
another similar setting
Students may not see application to their own situation.
Students may get wrong results due to insufficient information.

Grade 10 7
Introduction

Schemes of work, lesson plans and records of work

A scheme of work is a plan for how the topics in the syllabus will be covered over
the course of the year. The scheme should be based on the Secondary Biology
syllabus. The construction of a scheme of work is an important role of a teacher.
In this Teacher’s Guide, a sequence of activities is suggested for each topic. However,
it may be necessary to vary this sequence from one school to another depending
on factors such as funding, laboratory facilities, seasonal availability of teaching
materials and time available for teaching, in addition to teacher preferences.
An effective scheme can be developed and modified over a period of time,
improving it from year to year as a result of teachers’ experience. Schemes of work
should always be prepared at the beginning of the school year. It is easier to keep
soft copies that can be updated when necessary.
A lesson plan acts as a guide for the teacher, outlining the activities that will
be carried out in order to achieve the specific objectives of the lesson. Lesson
plans are vital to ensure that teaching and learning is focused on objectives to be
achieved but teachers should not be afraid to deviate from plans occasionally if
necessary for the students. A record of work is compiled after every lesson. It is
a brief report summarising what has been covered in the lessons. The record of
work should note areas of deviations from the lesson plan and reasons for this.
Time spent reflecting on a lesson is time well spent since it enables more effective
teaching and learning.
It is hoped that the schemes of work and ideas for lesson plans in this Teacher’s
Guide will motivate teachers to develop their own schemes and lesson plans to
suit their preferred teaching methods and resources available in their school.
Each topic in this book contains the following sections:
• learning competencies
• suggested scheme of work for each topic
• guidelines for practical activities
• skills and attitudes to be developed
• answers to questions in the Students’ Book

Assessment: tests and examinations

Assessment helps you identify whether learning has occurred, and is part of the
teaching and learning process. The syllabus and minimum learning competency
documents (included at the back of this teacher guide) give a large number of
objectives that students are expected to achieve during the year. The review
questions and end-of-unit questions are set to help test these. However, it is
unlikely that teachers will be able to test every single objective in a term or year: if
we did that, there would be probably little or no time left for teaching! There is in
fact a danger that we spend too much time testing and too little time teaching.
We want to avoid this danger; yet at the same time it is important to meet the
requirements of the syllabus, which indicate that we should do our best to find
out, in one way or another, how far we have achieved the objectives set at the start
of a given unit. The answer is that we should carry out continuous assessment.
This means that in the course of ordinary classroom teaching, and setting and
marking assignments, we need to keep a record of how well the class does.

8 Grade 10
 Introduction

Continuous assessment helps teachers to ensure that all students have the
opportunity to succeed in school – in any class there may be a wide range of
abilities or needs, and by using continuous assessment, teachers can adapt their
approach to all of them. The teacher should continually observe the students to
see what they know and can do. There are many different kinds of assessment
activities included in this course: some, like the review questions, ask students to
recall information, while others, such as the boxed activities, focus on processes
such as analysis, constructing or showing a skill. There is a wide range of
approaches that can be used for this, including classroom experiments, field trips,
debating, role play, and research projects.
In both continuous assessment and regular testing/exam-setting, teachers should
assess all aspects of knowledge and understanding – knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Knowledge means recalling previously learned information, such as terminology,
classifications, sequences and methods. In tests, some of the key words used for
this sort of question are: list, define, describe, label, name.
Comprehension means understanding the meaning of information. A
comprehension question uses key words such as: summarise, interpret, contrast,
predict, distinguish, estimate, discuss.
Application is the use of previously learned information to solve problems in new
situations. It is identified by key words such as: demonstrate, calculate, complete,
illustrate, relate, classify.
Analysis means the breaking down of information into its component parts,
examining and trying to understand such information to develop conclusions
by identifying causes, making inferences, and/or finding evidence to support
generalisations. Questions contain key words such as: explain, separate, order,
arrange, compare, select, compile.
Synthesis means applying prior knowledge and skills creatively to produce a new
or original thing. Questions contain key words such as: plan, rearrange, combine,
modify, substitute, rewrite.
Evaluation means judging the value of something based on personal opinion,
resulting in a final opinion, with a given purpose, without really right or wrong
answers. Students might have to compare and discriminate between ideas, assess
the value of some evidence of a theory, or make choices based on a reasoned
argument. Examples of key words are: assess, recommend, convince, select,
summaries, criticise, conclude, defend.

Model lesson plan

Topic: Electric charge
Sub−topic: Charging materials
Duration: 40 minutes
Class: Grade 10
Date: 20 February 2011

Rationale
This is the first lesson in Unit 2: Electrostatics. In this lesson students will learn
how the topic relates to their everyday experience and thus motivate them for
further exploration in subsequent lessons.

Grade 10 9
Introduction

Lesson objectives
By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
• state the law of conservation of charge
• describe and explain how charged bodies attract or repel each other.
Pre−requisite skills and knowledge
• students will need to have studied Unit 1 in order to successfully complete
Activity 1.

Teaching/learning resources
• large sheets of paper for students to record ideas
• apparatus shown in Students’ Book Figure 2.2

Stage (time) Teaching and learning activities Learning points

Introduction (5 min) Discuss where students have Electrostatics is something we

experienced electrostatics in everyday experience in everyday life and has
life as described in Students’ Book important applications. There are also
page 50 associated hazards of which students
should be aware
Development (10 Discuss electric charge: Positive and negative charges usually
min) Atoms balance each other

Positive charge
Negative charge
[Possible link to students’ experience in
Chemistry: have they seen diagrams of
atoms showing nucleus and electrons?]
Discuss conservation of charge and how Transfer of charge from one material
charge cannot be created or destroyed, to another means balance between
only transferred positive and negative upset and material
becomes charged
Divide class into small groups and give There are many physical quantities that
each group piece of paper on which to are conserved – students should be
record ideas. Students should attempt beginning to understand that physics
Activity 1. Allow 5 minutes for this and is not a series of unrelated topics but
then bring class back together to discuss rather a set of related ideas
ideas
Demonstrate rubbing a piece of Perspex It is possible to charge materials by
and show how it attracts small pieces of rubbing them
paper
Divide the class into small groups (the
number in each group will depend Charged bodies attract or repel each
on how many sets of apparatus are other
available) and tell them to carry out
Activity 2. The students should discuss
and try to explain their observations in
the small group before you bring the
class back together to summarise the
results

10 Grade 10
 Introduction

Summary and What are the main points that we have Matter consists of atoms, which have
conclusion (7 min) learnt in this lesson? positive and negative particles which
Discuss with students and ask them normally balance each other
to explain their learning in their own Conservation of charge
words Many physical quantities are conserved
Materials can be charged by rubbing
Charged materials attract or repel each
other
Evaluation Students have opportunity to ask
questions and comment on the activity
– they may be asked to write a summary
of the lesson for homework

Note taking
During physics lessons, students should be actively involved in their learning. It
is important that they develop strategies for recording what they are doing in the
lesson which will enable them to revisit the concepts away from the classroom,
either to complete assignments or to revise for tests. Practical activities should
be recorded in such a way that another person could repeat the activity at a later
date (this is the principle on which scientific papers are written and, although
we do not need students to go into quite the detail given in such papers, we do
want them to begin to learn to record practical work accurately). The following
headings are recommended for a practical report:
• Aim of activity
• Apparatus used (with diagram)
• Method
• Results (which may include numerical data, which may be presented as a table
and/or graph)

Conclusion
Students should be taught that sometimes results from practical work are not
quite as the theory may predict – they should be encouraged to see this as a
positive learning experience and be taught that they should never attempt to fit
results to the theory but rather explain why their results may not fit the theory
(even if the explanation turns out to be that they did not take measurements
accurately enough)!
When summarising the main learning points of the lesson as indicated in the
lesson plan above, students can use the methods listed here.
Use bullet points to summarise the main points, for example, from the lesson
above, these would be:
• Matter consists of atoms, which have positive and negative particles which
normally balance each other
• Conservation of charge
• Many physical quantities are conserved

Grade 10 11
Introduction

• Materials can be charged by rubbing

• Charged materials attract or repel each other
Construct a spider diagram, for example, from the lesson above, this would look
like this:

activity 2

positive

charged materials
attract/repel atoms

negative

charging
materials

can charge charge

by rubbing conserved

many physical
perspex quantities conserved:
momentum

activity 1

12 Grade 10
Motion in 2D Unit 1

Learning Competencies for Unit 1 This unit should

By the end of this unit students should be able to: fill approximately
22 periods of
• Define the term projectile (and provide several examples). teaching time.
• Explain the difference between 1D and 2D motion.
• Correctly use the terms angle of elevation and angle of depression,
and explain the importance of the angle when it comes to launching
projectiles.
• Explain the effect gravity has on the motion of an object.
• Describe what happens to the horizontal and vertical velocities of a
projectile and the important characteristics of its flight.
• Demonstrate how to use the equations for uniform acceleration and how
to apply these to projectile motion.
• Define the term centre of mass.
• Conduct simple experiments to determine the centre of mass of 2D
objects.
• List the characteristics of uniform circular motion.
• Describe the relationships between radius, mass, forces and velocity for
an object following a circular path.
• Define the terms angular and tangential displacement, and angular and
tangential velocity.
• Express angles in terms of revolutions, radians and degrees.
• Define the term angular acceleration, and list its key characteristics.
• Identify the SI unit of angular velocity and angular acceleration.
• Explain the relationships between angular displacement, tangential
displacement, angular velocity, tangential velocity and angular
acceleration.
• Demonstrate how to use the equations of constant angular acceleration
and compare them with equations of constant acceleration.
• Define the moment of inertia of a point mass.
• Define rotational kinetic energy of a body.
• Solve simple problems relating to moment of inertia and rotational
kinetic energy.
• Define the term torque.
• Identify the SI unit of torque, N m, which is not the same as Joule.
• Express torque in terms of moment of inertia and angular acceleration.

Grade 10 13
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

• Derive an expression for the work done by the torque.

• Use the formula W = τθ to solve problems related to work done by torque.
• Define the angular momentum of a particle of mass m and write its SI
unit.
• State the law of conservation of angular momentum.
• Solve problems using the law of conservation of angular momentum.
• State the first and second conditions of equilibrium.
• Solve problems related to conditions of equilibrium.
• Define the term centre of mass (centre of gravity) of a solid body.
• Determine the centre of gravity using a plumb-line method.
• Define the terms stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium.
• State Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
• Determine the magnitude of the force of attraction between two masses
separated by a distance r.
• Calculate the value of g at any distance above the surface of the Earth.
• State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
• Use Kepler’s laws of planetary motion to determine the period of any
planet.
• Differentiate between orbital and escape velocity of a satellite.
• Determine the period of a satellite around a planet.
• Calculate the orbital and escape velocity of a satellite.
• Describe the period, position and function of a geostationary satellite.

14 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

1.1 Projectile motion This section should

fill approximately
Learning Competencies 5 periods of
teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define the term projectile (and provide several examples).
• Explain the difference between 1D and 2D motion.
• Correctly use the terms angle of elevation and angle of depression,
and explain the importance of the angle when it comes to launching
projectiles.
• Explain the effect gravity has on the motion of an object.
• Describe what happens to the horizontal and vertical velocities of a
projectile and the important characteristics of its flight.
• Demonstrate how to use the equations for uniform acceleration and how
to apply these to projectile motion.
• Define the term centre of mass.
• Conduct simple experiments to determine the centre of mass of 2D objects.
• List the characteristics of uniform circular motion.
• Describe the relationships between radius, mass, forces and velocity for
an object following a circular path.

Starting off
This is a quite a large section in what is a reasonably large unit. However, the
actual amount of new physics is relatively small. Students are challenged to apply
their understanding of the equations of uniform acceleration to two dimensions.
This begins with projectiles but in later sections goes on to look at circular motion.
Projectile mathematics is quite complex, especially if you factor in air resistance.
Students really benefit from plenty of practice questions and examples.
Throughout this section air resistance is assumed to be neglible.

Teaching notes
Begin by asking the students to list different examples of projectiles. Most will Activity 1.1: Answer
go down the route of weaponry. Discuss their suggestions and lead them to the
correct definition of a projectile (any object moving through the air without an Football, tennis
engine or motive force). Give alternative examples: a football, tennis ball, an oil ball, oil drop from
drop from the underside of a car, etc. underside of car, etc.

Discuss what makes projectile motion different from the motion they have studied
mathematically in the past. It is very important to draw out the idea that this kind
of motion is an example of 2D motion.
Explain that the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity may be
treated separately (more on this later) and revise resolving vectors (see Grade 9
Teacher’s Book). Limit examples to velocity and get the students to practise resolving
a couple of vectors (see Figure 1.3 in the Students’ Book). This is essentially just

Grade 10 15
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

revision of trigonometry, but is worth spending time on to ensure that all students
can resolve simple velocities into horizontal and vertical components.
First discuss the horizontal component of the velocity. Explain that throughout
this section we will be ignoring air resistance. This may be worth discussing
further, but in essence as long as the projectile is not too big or going too fast
this is a fair assumption. Explain that taking into account air resistance is very
complex and beyond the scope of this course.
Revise simple use of:
displacement = average velocity × time
Apply this to the horizontal velocity and discuss its key implication (a projectile
will travel further through the air if the horizontal velocity is greater or the time it
spends in the air is greater).
Ask the students what happens to the vertical velocity of the projectile, again
ignoring air resistance. This time the velocity increases as the projectile is
accelerated due to gravity (there are some good illustrations in the Students’ Book).
Stress to students that all objects will accelerate at the same rate of 9.81 m/s2 if
air resistance is ignored. You could extend this by describing Galileo’s famous
experiment dropping balls from the leaning tower of Pisa (even though recent
research suggests that he may never actually have carried this out).
Ask the students to sketch the displacement–time and velocity–time graphs for a
ball which has been dropped. Discuss their shapes, in particular the velocity–time
graph (see Figure 1.5 in the Students’ Book). The gradient is constant, so what does
this tell us about the motion of the ball? (It is uniformly accelerated.)
Explain that as the motion under gravity is an example of uniformly accelerated
motion, we can use the equations of uniformly accelerated motion:
1. v = u + at
2. s = _21 (u + v)t
3. s = ut + _21 at2
4. v2 = u2 + 2as
5. s = vt – _21 at2
Equations of uniform acceleration
s = displacement
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
a = acceleration (in this case 9.81 m/s2)
t = time
Spend some time revising these and applying them to a dropped ball as shown in
worked example 1.1. Students should practise using the equations through simple
calculations. It is very important to stress that these equations apply only to the
vertical velocity of the ball. The horizontal velocity remains constant and so the
acceleration is zero.
Students could conduct a simple experiment dropping a ball from various heights
and timing how long it takes to hit the ground. They could then calculate what

16 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

the time should be from each height and discuss the differences between the Activity 1.2: Answer
theoretical and experimental values as described in Activity 1.2.
Students’ own
Explain to students that the path a projectile follows depends on its horizontal results.
and vertical velocities. The shape of the path is called a parabola, the two velocities
cause this:
Activity 1.3: Answer
• Horizontally the ball moves at a steady speed.
• Vertically the ball accelerates due to gravity. Path is a parabola.
Distance travelled
Figures 1.10 and 1.11 in the Students’ Book highlight this relationship. This should varies with angle at
be discussed carefully with the students, ensuring that they are aware of the which it is thrown.
changing vertical velocity. The direction of this velocity should also be discussed.
This is perhaps best done through simple examples and calculations. Students could
Activity 1.4: Answer
work out the velocity of an object thrown vertically upwards after different times.
(See worked example 1.3.) If they use acceleration due to gravity as 9.81 m/s2 a) 60.9 m
(as opposed to –9.81 m/s2) they will find the velocity starts off negative, goes to b) -33.42 m
zero and then becomes positive.
Move on to demonstrate projectiles launched horizontally, perhaps roll a marble
off a desk (ideally from a simple track). Vary the velocity of the marble and ask the
students to observe its motion carefully.
Explain to the students that the time the marble is in the air depends only on its
Activity 1.5: Answer
initial height. Some may be reluctant to accept this idea, especially when more
complex examples are discussed (two rifle bullets, one dropped, the other fired Students’ own
horizontally from the same height take the same time to hit the floor!). Again results.
there are some time-lapse images of this in the Students’ Book (Figure 1.14), and
in addition students should carry out the simple experiment with the two coins
and the ruler described in Activity 1.5.
Explain that this effect is a result of the independence of horizontal and vertical
motion. This could be demonstrated further by rolling marbles along a board that
has been tilted at an angle. If the marble is simply released it rolls vertically down
the board and hits the bottom. If it is pushed so that it is travelling perpendicular
to the top of the board, it follows a curved path. With a bit of practice you will be
able to release two balls simultaneously and they will both hit the bottom of the
board at the same time.
Additionally students could conduct an investigation into the flight time of a
Activity 1.6: Answer
marble that rolls down a track and off the end of a desk as described in Activity
1.6. They will find the flight time is always the same. However, the range varies Students’ own
depending on the horizontal velocity and this leads back to results.
Horizontal displacement = horizontal velocity × flight time
This should be summarised through some practice calculations like worked
example 1.4. Students should be able to work out the flight time and range for
a number of different horizontally projected objects. Additionally they could
draw the trajectory of a known projectile, to scale, using a set of calculations (see
Students’ Book Activity 1.7 overleaf).
Finally, as part of horizontal projection, they could use the calculations to
determine the initial velocity of a projectile. This could either be a marble rolling
off a desk or they could make a simple projectile cannon. To do this they use a
stiff cardboard tube with a rubber band attached at one end. To make a projectile
they either use a marble or tightly roll up a piece of aluminium foil. They could

Grade 10 17
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Activity 1.7: Answer

Time/s Vertical Horizontal 130

120
displacement displacement x/m 110
y/m 100
90
1.0 6.91 2.0 80
70
2.0 23.62 4.0 60
50
3.0 50.15 6.0 40
30
20
4.0 86.48 8.0 10
0
5.0 132.63 10.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

fire the cannon horizontally from a known height and calculate the initial velocity
Activity 1.8: Answer
of the projectile from its range and flight time. (See also Activity 1.8) They could
Students’ own carefully pull the elastic band back different distances and so calibrate the cannon
results. (i.e. 1 cm pulled back may give a velocity of 0.8 m/s, etc.). This is particularly
useful later on in this unit.
Move on to projectiles launched at angles, revise the shape of the flight and
Activity 1.9: Answer
resolving velocities. Explain the terms angle of elevation and angle of depression
Since 2 sinθ cosθ as shown in Figures 1.20a and 120b (although in this course only angles of
= sin 2θ elevation will be used). Discuss the key features of the flight (maximum height,
2u2 sin θ × cos θ range, etc.). Students should carry out a few simple calculations to determine the
a maximum height of various projectiles fired at angles. Take care to stress it is the
vertical velocity that changes; the horizontal velocity remains the same and is
u2 sin 2θ useful only in determining the range of the projectile.
= a
Go on to show how the range of a projectile and its flight time may be calculated
using the equations. This can get quite complex and mathematical: it is perhaps
best to take time over this and complete it step by step. The Students’ Book
contains some good examples.
The students could then use their calibrated aluminium foil cannon and calculate
its range (for a given angle). They should then fire the projectile into a cup that
they have placed the correct distance away. This could be written up as a report,
with a focus on discussing the limitations (friction, not properly calibrated, etc.).
Students benefit from plenty of practice on these questions. They could make up
their own, including a clearly worked-through mark scheme, and test a partner.
To round off projectiles, the concept of the maximum range of projectiles should
be discussed. Students could use their cannon and fire it at different angles,
measuring the range each time. Once they have collected a set of results they
should plot a graph of angle against range. They could also carry out Activity 1.10.
Explain that the maximum range of any projectile is reached when it is fired at
45° (you may wish to prove this mathematically using the range equation in the
Students’ Book).
This section then moves on to look at centre of mass. This might seem a strange
jump but it is essential before other types of 2D motion can be explored (circular
motion, moment of inertia, etc.).
Define centre of mass and give a few simple examples. Explain to students that
the terms centre of mass and centre of gravity are often muddled. They are in the
same place, except in a non-uniform gravitation field. Students could draw lines of

18 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Activity 1.10: Answer

u2 sin 2θ
Using range =
a θ sθ sin2θ u u2 a range
300
(0) (0) (m/s) (m /s ) (m/s2) (m)
2 2
250

200
15 30 0.5 50 2500 9.81 127.42
150 30 60 0.87 50 2500 9.81 221.7
100 45 90 1 50 2500 9.81 254.8
50 60 120 0.87 50 2500 9.81 221.7
0
0.0 15 30 45 60 75
75 150 0.5 50 2500 9.81 127.42

symmetry through simple, regular shapes to determine the position of their centre
Activity 1.11: Answer
of mass (different triangles are good for this one). They could carry out Activity 1.11.
Discuss irregular objects (no calculations will be required). You could Students’ own
results.
demonstrate the position of the centre of mass of an irregular object by attaching a
small, bright LED to the object and throwing it through the air. If the light is at the
centre of mass, it will follow a parabolic path; if it is not, it will wobble as it moves Activity 1.12: Answer
through the air. Discuss the centre of mass theorem. Students should carry out
Activity 1.12 at this point. Students’ own
results.
Students should experimentally determine the centre of mass of an irregular 2D
shape (this is described in the Students’ Book in Activity 1.13).
Activity 1.13: Answer
The final part of this unit deals with uniform circular motion as another example
of 2D motion. Ask the students to attempt to define uniform circular motion, Students’ own
and use this to stress the importance of steady speed. Ensure students are aware results.
that when an object is performing uniform circular motion it is still accelerating.
Revise the idea of acceleration as a change in velocity. This is very important.
Revise Newton’s second law and discuss the fact that as any object undergoing
uniform circular motion is accelerating, there must be a net force acting on the
object. For now, just explain that this force is called centripetal force and it acts
towards the centre of the circle (more on this in Section 1.2).
Students should carry out a simple investigation using a home-made pendulum to
Activity 1.14: Answer
determine the factors that affect the size of this force (Activity 1.14 in the Students’
Book). They should be able to determine that radius, velocity and mass all affect Students’ own
the size of the required force (they should be able to feel this as they swing the results.
pendulum around).
Give lots of examples of centripetal forces (see Table 1.1 on page 21 of the
Students’ Book). Some students will assume that this force is a new type of force
and fail to realise that the centripetal force is just the name given to any force
(gravitational attraction, friction, etc.) that acts towards the centre of a circle. This
should be explained carefully to them.
Introduce them to the centripetal force equation on page 20 of the Students’ Book
(this will be revisited in Section 1.2). Students should practise using this equation,
including rearranging it to determine different factors and qualitatively discuss the
effect of each factor. Worked examples 1.8 and 1.9 are useful starting points.
Go on to discuss what will happen if the force required to make an object follow a
path of a certain radius cannot be produced. A good example of this is a car going

Grade 10 19
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

round a bend. What if the bend is icy or wet? The frictional force will not be large
enough and so the car will follow a path of greater radius and head towards the
outer edge of the road. Another example might be that if the pendulum they were
swinging earlier had greater mass, the string would snap. Students should discuss
the outcomes both qualitatively and quantitatively (more of this in Section 1.2).
SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity
1. What are projectiles?
SA Students do Activity 1.1 with a partner.
MA Students to do Activity 1.2 in a small group.
CA Discuss the question ‘How do theoretical times calculated for Activity 1.2 compare with
experimental results?’ with a partner.
2. Horizontal and vertical velocities
SA In a small group, carry out Activity 1.3.
MA In a small group carry out
Activity 1.4
Activity 1.5
Activity 1.6.
CA Do Activity 1.7 with a partner.
3. Range
SA Attempt Worked example 1.4 in small groups. After 5 minutes, take feed back on methods
before revealing given solution.
MA In small group carry out
Activity 1.8
Activity 1.9.
CA In pairs, do Activity 1.10.
4. Centre of mass
SA Activity 1.11 in pairs.
MA Activity 1.12
Activity 1.13
In small group.
CA Work with a partner to produce a spider gram to summarise pages 18−19 of Student Book.
5. Centripetal force
SA With a partner, list as many examples of uniform circular motion as possible. Feed back
ideas.
MA In pairs, carry out Activity 1.14.
CA Tackle review questions 1−6 in pairs.

Activities
• Drop a ball from various heights and time its flight time.
• Conduct a simple two-coin experiment.
• Investigate the flight time of projectiles launched with different horizontal
velocities.
• Produce scale drawings of trajectories of horizontal projectiles.
• Construct and use a simple aluminium foil cannon (two different activities).
• Practise various calculations of the maximum height and range of projectiles.

20 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

• Carry out experimental investigations into how angle affects the range of
projectiles.
• Draw lines of symmetry through simple, regular shapes to determine the
position of the centre of mass.
• Determine the centre of mass of an irregular 2D shape.
• Determine factors affecting the size of the centripetal force acting on a
pendulum bob.

Resources
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vectors/u312a.cfm
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/projectile-motion

Where next?
This section encompasses a vast range of topics, most of which are further
developed in the remaining sections of this unit. Projectile motion does not really
get much more complex until air resistance starts to be factored in, but this will
not happen until the second or third year of university courses. More complex
examples can be given to students, but in essence they always break down into
resolving and using the equations of constant acceleration.
Centre of mass is studied in much more detail as part of Section 1.3. Here the
basic idea is taken further and the importance of the distribution of mass is
studied as part of work into moment of inertia.
Circular motion forms the main focus of the remainder of this unit. This includes
angular acceleration, angular equations for constant acceleration, torque and
angular momentum, and planetary orbits.

Answers to review questions

1. a) i Negligible air resistance
ii The weight acts downwards causing deceleration
b) i Using v = u + at, t = 0.36 s
ii 7.1 m (or 7.14 m)
c) i Same time t in air, so vt is greater
ii Longer time t in air, so vt is greater
2. The point at which all the mass of the object may be considered to be
concentrated.
3. On the vertical axis, the projectile will initially experience deceleration due to
gravity acting on its mass (weight). This will occur until the projectile reaches
its maximum height, at which point its vertical component of velocity will
be zero. It will then accelerate (due to its weight) downwards until (assuming
there are no losses, i.e. drag forces) it reaches its original firing vertical
component of velocity, immediately before it hits the ground. The horizontal
component of velocity is assumed constant with time as there is no horizontal
acceleration acting on the projection (assuming no losses).

Grade 10 21
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

4. a) 1.3 s
b) 2 m
c) 17.7 m
5. 104.5 m
6. 11,600 N
7. The centre of stability of a ship is calculated using the metacentric height (the
distance between its centre of gravity and its metacentre). The metacentre
(M) is the point at which a vertical line through the original, vertical centre of
buoyancy as shown in the diagram.

The centre of mass of a ship must be below the centre of stability to ensure that
the ship remains stable in all conditions.
8. a) t = 1s
Use s = ut + _21 at2
= –19.6 × 1 + _21 × 9.8 × 1
= –19.6 + 4.95
= –14.65 m
Use v = u + at
= –19.6 + 9.8 × 1
= –9.8 m/s i.e. upwards
t = 2s
Use s = ut + _21 at2
= –19.6 × 2 + _21 × 9.8 × 4
= –19.6 m
Use v = u + at
= –19.6 + 9.8 × 2
= 0 m/s
t = 3s
Use s = ut + _21 at2
= –19.6 × 3 + _21 × 9.8 × 9
= –58.8 + 44.1
= –14.7 m
Use v = u + at
= –19.6 + 9.8 × 3
= 9.8 m/s i.e. downwards

22 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

t = 4s
Use s = ut + _21 at2
= –19.6 × 4 + _21 × 9.8 × 16
=0m
Use v = u + at
= –19.6 + 9.8 × 4
= 19.6 m/s
b) i ii
20 20

15 10

s (m) 10 v (mls) 0

5 –10

0 –20
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
t (s) t (s)

1.2 Rotational kinematics

This section takes the students’ understanding in a new direction. It focuses on
rotational motion, applying the ideas covered in the previous topic to rotating
objects. This includes careful differentiation between rotation and linear
quantities and applying the equations of constant acceleration to rotating systems.
There is slightly more new physics than in the last section: however, most of this is
not conceptually challenging; just a clarification of terms and their mathematical
relationships. Students really benefit from lots of practice questions, activities and
examples. This section is not very experimental, but there is plenty of opportunity
for students to complete practice exercises.

Learning Competencies This section should

By the end of this section students should be able to: fill approximately
5 periods of
• Define the terms angular and tangential displacement, and angular and teaching time.
tangential velocity.
• Express angles in terms of revolutions, radians and degrees.
• Define the term angular acceleration, and list its key characteristics.
• Identify the SI unit of angular velocity and angular acceleration.
• Explain the relationships between angular displacement, tangential
displacement, angular velocity, tangential velocity and angular
acceleration.
• Demonstrate how to use the equations of constant angular acceleration
and compare them with equations of constant acceleration.

Grade 10 23
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Teaching notes
Start by swinging an object (like a small cork) on the end of a piece of string
around your head. Ask the students to describe its motion. Try to elicit the
terms displacement and velocity from the students. Most will describe the linear
velocity and displacement of the object. Use this to lead into the idea of angular
equivalents and their importance in describing rotational motion.
Start by explaining angular displacement; using diagrams such as Figure 1.31 in
the Students’ Book or the cork on the string helps the students to visualise what
you are describing. Discuss the units for angular displacement. Spend some time
going over the use of the radian and its importance. The equation

θ= l
r
where θ is angular displacement in rad, l is the arc length in m and r is the radius
Activity 1.15: Answer of the circle, is helpful in demonstrating the usefulness of the radian. The students
3 revs, 6π radians, should be given time to practise converting from revolutions, radians and degrees.
1080° There is a simple activity (Activity 1.15) in the Students’ Book using clock hands.
0.0278 revs, 0.17 When the students are confident using the radian as the standard angular
radians, 10° measure, move on to angular velocity. Most students will not have any problems
3.5 revs, 7π radians, with this as it is so similar to the definition and application of linear velocity.
1260° However, it is worth stressing that the equation may be written as:

ω = 2π
T
However, there is no need at this stage to relate this to frequency (ω = 2πf).
Activity 1.16: Answer
Students should practise some simple calculations of angular velocity like worked
540°s–1 and 90 rpm example 1.10 and Activity 1.16.
Demonstrate the cork on the string again and ask the students what would happen
if the string were to break suddenly. Lead this into the idea of tangential velocity.
Revise the idea that this tangential velocity is always changing (as the direction is
changing) and as a consequence the object is accelerating.
Introduce v = rω and provide the students with plenty of examples to practise
calculating angular and tangential velocity. Students could carry out a simple
practical activity using their own corks on string. Here they measure the time
taken for ten revolutions for a given radius and then calculate v and ω. Stress the
effect on tangential velocity for an increasing radius for a given angular velocity.
Go back to the idea of acceleration. Revise centripetal acceleration from the last
chapter and introduce its two equations:
a = v2 and a = rω2
r
There is no need to derive the first one however, this is a good summary of the
radian and more able students may find this proof helpful. Again students should
be given some practice questions using these quantities (Activity 1.17in the
Students’ Book involving planetary data). It is also worth showing how you get
mv2
F= (used in the previous chapter) from Newton’s second law (F = ma) and
r
the equation for centripetal acceleration.

24 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Activity 1.17: Answer

Planet Orbital Average distance Angular Tangential Centripetal

period/days from Sun/m velocity rad/s velocity m/s acceleration m/s2
Mercury 88 5.8 x 1010 8.26 x 10–7 47 908 0.04
Venus 225 1.1 x 1011 3.23 x 10–7 35 530 0.01
Mars 686 2.3 x 1011 1.06 x 10–7 24 380 2.58 x 10–3
Jupiter 4330 7.8 x 1011 1.68 x 10–8 13 104 2.20 x 10–4
Neptune 60 000 4.5 x 1012 1.21 x 10–9 5445 6.58 x 10–6

Revise the idea of uniform circular motion and this time relate it angular velocity
and steady speed. Ask the students to discuss with a partner how else might an
object travelling in a circular path be accelerating. Most will describe an object
getting faster as it goes around (demonstrate with the cork on the string). Explain
the correct use of the term tangential acceleration and use this to introduce the
notion of a changing angular velocity, and so an angular acceleration.
Sometimes students can muddle the three different accelerations covered in this
section (centripetal, tangential and angular). Spend some time ensuring they
are aware of the differences; a simple diagram may help, along with some careful
examples and practice questions.
This section ends by introducing the equations of constant angular acceleration.
Revise the equations of constant linear acceleration introduced in Section 1.1
and then see whether students can use the knowledge from this section to write
equivalent equations for constant angular acceleration. When they have had time
to attempt this, show them the table on page 28 of the Students’ Book and discuss
the comparison.
Work through the worked examples.
SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity
1. Angular displacement
SA Discussion activity on page 24 of Student Book in pairs.
MA Activity 1.15 in pairs.
CA Further examples of calculations to be tackled in pairs.
2. Angular velocity
SA Worked example 1.10 to be tackled in pairs. Approaches to be discussed before given answer
solution is revealed.
MA Activity 1.16 to be discussed with a partner.
CA In pairs, summarise pages 25−26 of Student Book.
3. Centripetal acceleration (1)
SA In pairs discuss what they understand by term ‘acceleration’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.17 in pairs.
CA Review results of activity in small groups.

Grade 10 25
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

4. Centripetal acceleration (2)

SA 2
Discuss why centripetal force is given by F = mv with a partner.
r
MA Discussion activity on page 27 of Student Book in pairs.
CA Feed back results of discussion in small groups.
5. The equations of constant angular acceleration
SA In pairs, write down the equations of constant linear acceleration.
MA Given the parameters on page 28 of Student Book, work with a partner to derive the
equations of constant angular acceleration from the equations of constant linear
acceleration. Feed back ideas.
CA Review questions to be tackled in pairs.

Resources
http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/py105/notes/Rotationalkin.html
http://www.pearson.com.au/linkedfiles/free/9780582547827/CPL3.pdf

Where next?
This section has defined the relationships that will be used in the remainder of
this unit. Students need to be competent in using these relationships for
successful completion of the unit, so it is important that they are given plenty
of practice in using and manipulating the various equations. Students will study
the moment of inertia, torque and the conditions for equilibrium in the next
section, before moving on to look at the motion of planets and satellites in the
final section of the unit.

Answers to review questions

1. a) Angular displacement is the angle
through which an object moving in
a circular path is displaced, as shown
in Figure 1.1. Its units are
revolutions, degrees or radians. °

Figure 1.1
b) Tangential displacement is the linear distance travelled by an object moving
in a circular path. Its units are metres.
c) An object that moves round a complete circle will have an angular
displacement of 2π radians but a tangential displacement of 0 m because it
has returned to its starting point.
2. a) Angular velocity is the angle travelled per unit of time. Its units depend on
the unit used for the angle so could be rev/s, degrees/s or rad/s.
b) Tangential velocity is the distance travelled in a linear fashion per unit time
so its units are m/s.

26 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

c) v = rω
v = 2 × 3 = 6 m/s
3. a) Angles may be expressed in revolutions (or fractions of a revolution),
degrees or radians.
b) If you measure the angle with a protractor you will find it is 45°. This is
equivalent to _81 of a revolution or π_4 radians.
4. a) Angular acceleration is defined as the change in angular velocity per
unit time and its units depend on the unit for the degrees. The units are
therefore rev/s2, degrees/s2 or rad/s2.
b) Angular acceleration acts towards the centre of the circle. It can be found
using the formula a = v__r . If the mass of an object moving in a circle is
2

mv2
constant then from Newton’s second law, the force acting F =
r
5. a) The equations of motion with constant angular acceleration are:
ω = ω0 + αt
θ = _21(ω0 + ω)t
θ = ω0t + _21 αt2
ω2 = ω02 + 2αθ
θ = ωt – _21 αt2
ω = final angular velocity
ω0 = initial angular velocity
α = angular acceleration
t = time
θ = distance
b) ω = 5 + 2 × 10 = 25 rad s−1
c) θ = 20 × 5 – _21 × 2 × 52 = 100 – 25 = 75 rad
6. Use v = rω
ω = 7.27 × 10–5
r = (6 400 + 35 600) × 103 m
= 4.2 × 107 m
v = 7.27 × 10–5 × 4.2 × 107
= 3 053 m/s
2
7. a) F = mv
r

F (N) m (kg) v (m/s) r (m)

? 80 5
Distance travelled in 2s = 3.14 × 10 m
= 31.4 m
Distance travelled in 1s = 31.4 m
2
= 15.7 m

Grade 10 27
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

v = 15.7 m/s
f = 80 × 15.72
5
= 3943.8 N
= 3944 N (nearest newton)
b) 3944 = 49.3
800
This force is approximately 50 times greater than the astronauts’ weight.

This section should 1.3 Rotational dynamics

fill approximately
7 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define the moment of inertia of a point mass.
• Define rotational kinetic energy of a body.
• Solve simple problems relating to moment of inertia and rotational
kinetic energy.
• Define the term torque.
• Identify the SI unit of torque, N m, which is not the same as Joule.
• Express torque in terms of moment of inertia and angular acceleration.
• Derive an expression for the work done by the torque.
• Use the formula W = τθ to solve problems related to work done by torque.
• Define the angular momentum of a particle of mass m and write its SI
unit.
• State the law of conservation of angular momentum.
• Solve problems using the law of conservation of angular momentum.
• State the first and second conditions of equilibrium.
• Solve problems related to conditions of equilibrium.
• Define the term centre of mass (centre of gravity) of a solid body.
• Determine the centre of gravity using a plumb−line method.
• Define the terms stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium.

Starting off
This section builds on the material studied in the last section so you need to begin
by checking that students are comfortable with the relationships studied there.
You could do this by devising a short quiz where you give one of the variables
such as tangential velocity and students have to tell you how it is related to angular
velocity.

28 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Teaching notes
This section could become rather too abstract for the majority of your students.
It requires quite a bit of mathematical manipulation of equations. Therefore,
wherever possible, you should have some visual aids to help students to grasp the
concepts.
A good example of this is the first section, ‘The moment of inertia of a point mass’.
If you can have two wheels of the same diameter and thickness, one like a bicycle
wheel and one a wheel made from solid material, as shown in Figure 1.39 in the
Students’ Book, then the students will find it easier to follow the argument put
forward in the text.
If possible organise the students into groups to carry out Activity 1.18. If you Activity 1.18: Answer
do not have enough equipment then it works as a demonstration, but this is a
practical subject and students should have as much opportunity as possible to Students’ own
carry out investigations rather than watching demonstrations. results.

We then move on to consider the rotational kinetic energy of a body. Before

studying this section, ensure that the students remember the expression for linear
kinetic energy, i.e. KE = _21 mv2. It would be helpful to give some students some
quick questions to make sure that they remember how to use this equation: you
could use the example of the arrow on page 9 of the Students’ Book with a mass
of 200 g for the arrow (note that 200 g has to be converted to 0.2 kg to use in the
equation – make sure that students understand why this is the case). It would be
worth drawing some diagrams like these to help students to understand how the Activity 1.19: Answer
moment of inertia varies according to the axis of rotation.
Starting with the
Activity 1.19 gives students an opportunity to consolidate their understanding by expression for linear
comparing linear and rotational kinetic energy. kinetic energy,
Now make sure that students can follow the worked examples on moments of KE = 1_2 mv2, we can
inertia (worked examples 1.14 – 1.16). If necessary, give further practice by first replace linear
changing the figures given in these examples. For example, you could change velocity by angular
the first one to ‘Find the moment of inertia of a point mass of 0.005 g at a velocity ω to give
perpendicular distance of 3 m from its axis of rotation.’ KE = 1_2 mω2
Before discussing torque and its SI unit, make sure that students remember the Students should
definition of a moment (a moment at a point is the force at that point multiplied then remember
by the perpendicular distance to the pivot). Make sure that students understand that the rotational
how the unit N m is derived: force × distance, so N × m, but also ensure that they equivalent of mass is
realise that this is different from a Joule, which is the work done when moving a moment of inertia, I.
force a given distance. In the case of a torque, the force itself does not move. This gives
Activity 1.20 enables students to discuss why distance is part of the definition of KE = 1_2 Iω2 as
a torque. This discussion could be extended to cover the point about the unit not required.
being the same as a Joule, and why.
You may want the students to try and work out how torque would be defined in Activity 1.20: Answer
terms of moment of inertia and angular acceleration before they read this section
Movement = force ×
of the Students’ Book. If they can work out this sort of relationship for themselves distance
then they have really understood the underlying concepts and made connections
between different areas of the syllabus. torque is rotational
equivalent of
We then consider the work done by a torque. Work through the worked examples movement
(1.18 and 1.19) and use them as a basis for further practice questions if your
torque = force ×
students require this. angle (distance)

Grade 10 29
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Before progressing to angular momentum, make sure that students remember

how to define linear momentum. Draw out from them the law of conservation of
linear momentum. If you prepare them in this way, the sections that follow will
prove to be easier to grasp.
Activity 1.21 is a fun way to demonstrate the principle of conservation of angular
Activity 1.21: Answer momentum in action. Activity 1.22 gives an opportunity for students to see where
Students’ own Physics is used in real life. Opportunities such as this can be extremely motivating
results. and help students to develop an interest in the subject, which in turn will aid their
learning.
Activity 1.22: Answer Work through the worked example 1.20 with the students and, as before, use it as
the basis for further practice questions if required.
Students’ own
results. Activity 1.23 is an opportunity for students to consolidate their learning so far
in this section by making a poster to compare linear and rotational motion.
Encourage students to include diagrams as well as text: they may also wish to
Activity 1.23: Answer include everyday applications where possible.
Look at the table The final part of this section concerns equilibrium and the centre of mass of a
on page 28 as a solid body. A simple demonstration of a system in equilibrium can be set up as
starting point. follows.

pencil

100g mass 100g mass

Figure 1.2 ruler

Ensure that students understand the implications of the two conditions for
equilibrium.
You may wish to give further examples of systems that are in equilibrium based on
the worked example if your students require more practice.
Students have already considered the centre of mass of a 2D irregular shape. Now
Activity 1.24: Answer
they extend this knowledge to 3D solid shapes. They explore the centre of mass of
Students’ own a solid object in Activity 1.24 using a similar method to that used in Activity 1.13.
results.
You may wish to extend students by asking them to research further information
about practical applications of centre of mass. The section can be rather abstract
and students benefit from seeing how it its applied outside the classroom.
When considering stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium, it would be useful
if you could demonstrate the differences using real objects. Figure 1.3 shows a
child’s toy that demonstrates stable equilibrium.

Figure 1.3

30 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy
SA In pairs, students discuss what they understand by ‘inertia’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.18 in pairs.
CA Review questions 1−3 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Comparing linear and rotational kinetic energy
SA In pairs, produce definition of ‘kinetic energy’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.19 in pairs.
CA Review activity in small groups.
3. Torque
SA In pairs, students write down what they know about ‘moments’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.20 in pairs.
CA Review questions 4−7 to be tackled with a partner.
4. Angular momentum
SA With a partner, students write down law of conservation of momentum. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.21 with a partner.
CA Review questions 8−9 to be tackled with a partner.
5. Applications of the principle of conservation of angular momentum
SA In pairs, discuss how a skater as shown in Figure 1.42 in the Student Book uses the
conservation of angular momentum.
MA Activity 1.22 in pairs.
CA Review question 10 to be tackled with a partner.
6. Comparing linear and rotational motion
SA In pairs, write down Newton’s first and second laws. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.23 in pairs.
CA Present posters in small groups. Evaluate effectiveness in terms of clarity of information and
attractiveness.
7. Equilibrium
SA In pairs, discuss what they understand by the term ‘equilibrium’ and try and try and suggest
examples from everyday life. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.24 in pairs.
CA Review questions 11−15 to be tackled in pairs.

Activities
• Exploring rotational inertia.
• Comparing linear and rotational kinetic energy.
• Comparing linear and rotational motion.
• Determining the centre of gravity of solid objects.

Resources
http://www.antonine-education.co.uk/Physics_A2/Options/Module_7/Topic_1/
topic_I_rotational_dynamics.htm
http://dev.physicslab.org/Document.aspx?doctype=38filename=RotaryMotio
n_RotationalDynamicsRollingSpheres.xml

Grade 10 31
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Where next?
The next section applies the concepts from this section to planetary orbits and
satellites. This area can prove to be motivating to students and, if while you are
studying the section, there happens to be a topical application of the content, such
as the launch of a satellite or space probe, then you should use this to enhance the
students’ learning.

Answers to review questions

1. The moment of inertia of a point mass is a measure of the manner in which
the mass is distributed in relation to the axis about which it is rotating. To find
the moment of inertia of a point mass use the formula I = MR2 where I is the
moment of inertia, M is the mass and R is the perpendicular distance of the
1 point mass from the axis of rotation.
2. Rotational kinetic energy of a body is the energy the body has as a result of
movement around an axis. It is found using the formula KE = ½Iω2 where KE
is the kinetic energy, I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity.
3. a) I = 0.005 × 10−3 x 32 = 0.000045 kg m2
b) I = _52 × 0.3 × 0.62 = 0.0432 kg m2
c) KE = _21 × 0.003 × 0.62 = 0.00054 J
2 4. Torque = force × perpendicular distance from axis of rotation and its SI unit is
N m.
5. torque = moment of inertia × angular acceleration.
6. Work done = force × distance so
work done by torque = torque × angle it turns through = τ × θ.
7. a) Work done = 3.5 × _21 π = 1.75 π J
plumb 3
line b) Torque = = 12 π N m
π _1
4
3 8. The angular momentum of a particle of mass m is moment of inertia ×
angular velocity = Iω. Its SI unit is N s.
9. The law of conservation of angular momentum states that if no resultant
torque is acting, the angular momentum of a body cannot change.
10. Examples of uses of the law of conservation of angular momentum are
when a skater folds in their arms in order to increase her rate of rotation,
or conversely when she stretches out her arms in order to reduce her rate of
rotation.
pencil 11. The first and second conditions of equilibrium are: if the forces in a system
4 line sum to zero then the system is in equilibrium; if the torques in a system sum
to zero then the system is in equilibrium.
12. a) is in equilibrium because the torques are 3 N m anticlockwise and 3 N m
clockwise.
13. The centre of mass (centre of gravity) of a solid body is the point at which the
body’s whole mass can be considered to be concentrated for the purpose of
calculations.
Figure 1.5

32 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

14. You can determine the centre of gravity of a solid object using a plumb-line
method by:
(1) putting a series of hooks into the solid around its edges;
(2) hanging the solid from one of these hooks so that it is free to rotate;
(3) construct a simple plumb line using some string and a mass;
(4) hang this from the hook so that it hangs vertically down;
(5) use a sharp pencil to show the position of the plumb line;
(6) repeat for all the hooks;
(7) the lines should cross at the centre of gravity of the solid (see Figure 1.5).
15. An object is in stable equilibrium if, when it is slightly displaced, it returns to
its original position.
An object is in unstable equilibrium if, when it is slightly displaced, it moves
further away from its original position.
An object is in neutral equilibrium if, when it is slightly displaced, the system does
not necessarily return to its original position but neither does it move further
away. For example, if you kick a football along the ground it will roll a little way
and then stop at another spot. The kick changes its position but not its stability.

1.4 Newton’s law of universal gravitation This section should

fill approximately
5 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• State Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
• Determine the magnitude of the force of attraction between two masses
separated by a distance r.
• Calculate the value of g at any distance above the surface of the Earth.
• State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
• Use Kepler’s laws of planetary motion to determine the period of any planet.
• Differentiate between the orbital and escape velocity of a satellite.
• Determine the period of a satellite around a planet.
• Calculate the orbital and escape velocity of a satellite.
• Describe the period, position and function of a geostationary satellite.

Starting off
Discuss the motion of the planets around the Sun. Find out what students know
about the Solar system and artificial satellites. Explain that this topic is the basis
for space exploration and satellites. Discuss any topical space issues such as recent
satellite launches, space missions, etc. If possible, ask students to carry out some
research of their own into this topic, perhaps generating questions that they would
like to be able to answer at the end of the study period.

Grade 10 33
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Teaching notes
The section begins by considering the basic law that governs attraction between all
objects in the Universe. It is worth pointing out the universal nature of the law to
students as they often find this quite amazing. Work through the worked example
1.22 carefully. Stress that the force of attraction is generally not felt on Earth as it
would be weak between two bodies on Earth.
When considering the variation of the value of g above the surface of the Earth, it
is important that students realise that they need to add the height above the Earth
to the radius of the Earth and use this value for r in the formula – it is easy to
forget this and thus come up with the wrong answer to calculations.
It is worth stressing to students how amazing Kepler’s research was at the time.
Activity 1.25 overleaf gives students an opportunity to verify Kepler’s third law.
Activity 1.26 gives students the opportunity to research some uses of geostationary
satellites.
Before moving on to the section on geostationary satellites, see if students can
come up with any uses of satellites in our lives on Earth. Examples may be for
weather forecasting or for communications. The orbit of geostationary satellites
will be above the equator.

Activity 1.25: Answer

Data that they will need is given in the table. The results should be as shown below.
Planet Orbital Average Orbital Average distance Orbital period2 /
period distance from period2 from Sun3 average distance
(days) Sun (m) from Sun3
Mercury 88 5.8 × 1010 7,744 1.95 × 1032 3.97 × 10−29
Venus 225 1.1 × 1011 50,625 1.33 × 1033 3.81 × 10−29
Mars 686 2.3 × 1011 470,596 1.22 × 1034 3.85 × 10−29
Jupiter 4,330 7.8 × 1011 18,748,900 4.75 × 1035 3.94 × 10−29
Neptune 60,000 4.5 × 1012 3,600,000,000 9.11 × 1037 3.95 × 10−29
If you consider the final column in the table, where all the figures round to 4 × 10 −29, this is a truly remarkable
result and verifies Kepler’s third law.

Activity 1.27: Answer

Students need to use the fact that the period of a geostationary satellite is
24 hours.
2π 6.28
The orbital velocity will therefore be rad s–1 =
24 × 60 × 60 86,400
= 0.000073 rad s–1 = 0.26 rad h–1.

34 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Newton’s law of universal gravitation
SA In pairs, students write list of planets in solar system. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise pages 40−41 of Students’ Book.
CA Review questions 1−2 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Finding g at any distance
SA With a partner, students discuss a) value of g on Earth b) where value of g is used in
calculations (e.g. potential energy = mgh). Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise pages 41−42 of Student Book.
CA Review question 3 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
SA With a partner, discuss what keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 1.25 in pairs.
CA Review question 4 to be tackled in pairs.
4. Geostationary satellites
SA With a partner, discuss what they understand by ‘satellite’ and give examples. Feed back
ideas.
MA Activity 1.26 in small group.
CA Activity 1.27 with a partner.
Review question 5 to be tackled with a partner.
5. Escape velocity of a satellite
SA Review question 6 to be tackled in pairs.
MA With a partner, produce a spider gram to summarise the unit.
CA End of unit questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Verify Kepler’s third law.
• Research uses of geostationary satellites.
• Calculate the orbital velocity of a satellite.
• Calculate the escape velocity of a satellite.

Resources
http://www.physicsclassroom.com
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/Lect/history/newtongrav.html

Where next?
This section completes the unit. In Grade 11, the concepts will be extended
further.

Grade 10 35
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

Answers to review questions

1. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that if two masses M1 and M2 are
a distance r apart, then the force between them is proportional to the product
of the masses and the inverse of the square of r. F = G M1 M2/r2 where G is the
gravitational constant.
2. F = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2 × 3.3 × 1023 kg × 2 × 1030 kg /(5.8 × 1010 m)2
= 1.31 × 1022 N
3. g = Gme
r2
G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2 r = 6378.1 km + 1 km = 6.3791 × 106 m
mE = 5.98 × 1024 kg
g = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2 × 5.98 × 1024 kg = 9.802 m/s2
(6.3791 × 106 m)2
4. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are as follows:
1. Each planet moves in a path called an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus.
2. The line that joins the Sun to the orbiting planet sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.
3. The square of the time it takes the planet to go round the Sun (that is, the
square of its year) is proportional to the cube of its average distance from
the Sun.
5. The period of a geostationary satellite is 24 hours. It is positioned above the
equator and is used for communications and weather forecasting.
6. The orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity with which it travels around its
orbit. The escape velocity of a satellite is the velocity that it would require in
order to escape the Earth’s potential well.

Answers to end of unit questions

1. a) A projectile is any object moving through the air without an engine or other
motive force.
b) Examples include tennis balls and rifle bullets.
2. a) Angle is important when launching projectiles since the range equation tells
us that maximum range is achieved when a projectile is launched at 45°.
b)
range (m) u (m/s) a (m/s2) θ (°) 2θ (°) sin 2θ
? 25 9.81 45 90 1
u2 sin2θ
Use range =
a
252 × 1
=
9.81
= 63.7 m

c) The vertical velocity of a projectile changes because of the force of gravity
but the horizontal velocity remains constant.

36 Grade 10
 Unit 1: Motion in 2D

3. a) The centre of mass theorem states that when a force is applied to an object,
the object acts as though its mass were a point mass at its centre of mass.
b) A practical application of centre of mass is binary star system, where the
stars orbit the centre of mass of the system. Centre of mass also enable the
analysis of objects to be simplified since objects can be modelled as single
particles.
4.
Constant linear Constant angular
acceleration acceleration
v = u + at ω = ω0 + αt
s = _21 (u + v)t θ = _21 (ω0 + ω)t
s = ut + _21 at2 θ = ω0 t + _21 αt2
v2 = u2 + 2as ω2 = ω02 + 2αθ
s = vt + _21 at2 θ = ωt – _21 αt2
5.
θ (rad) ω0 (rad/s) ω (rad/s) t (s)
? 3 25 10
Use θ = _21 (ω0 + ω)t
= _21 (3 + 25) × 10
= _21 × 28 × 10
= 140 rad
6.
I (kgm2) M (kg) R (m)
? 0.75 0.4
Use I = _21 MR2
= _21 × 0.75 × 0.42
= 0.06 kgm2
7.

17 N

17 N
R

8.
P

60°
30°

Since system in equilibrium Psin30 + Rsin60 = W

Grade 10 37
Unit 1: Motion in 2D

9.
F (N) G (Nm2 kg–2) Mmoon (kg) Mearth (kg) R (m)
? 6.67 × 10–11 2 × 1024 6 × 1024 4 × 108
G M1 M2
F =
R2
6.67 × 10–11 × 2 × 1024 × 6 × 1024
=
(4 × 108)2
8.004 × 1038
=
1.6 × 1017
= 2.5 × 1018 N
10.
g (m/s2) G (Nm2 kg–2) M1 (kg) r (m)
? 6.67 × 10–11 6 × 1024 4.2 × 107
G M1
Use g =
r2
6.67 × 10–11 × 6 × 1024
=
(4.2 × 107)2
4.002 × 1014
=
1.764 × 1015
= 0.226 m/s2
11. a) Y
X

50° 40°

Weight = 80 × 9.81 = 785 N

b)
Y 40°

W = 785 N

X
50°

c) i x = 785 cos 50° = 505 N
y = 785 cos 40° = 601 N
12. The duration of a day would increase. The water would distribute more evenly
across the globe so the moment of inertia would increase. The Earth’s angular
momentum would stay the same so its angular velocity would decrease.

38 Grade 10
Electrostatics Unit 2

Learning Competencies for Unit 2 This unit should

fill approximately
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
19 periods of
• State the law of conservation of charge. teaching time.
• Describe and explain the charging processes: charging by rubbing,
conduction and induction.
• Perform an experiment to charge an electroscope by conduction and by
induction.
• Describe the distribution of charge on a conductor of variable shape.
• Explain how lightning is formed.
• Describe the use of a lightning rod.
• Describe how equipment works using electrostatic principles.
• Describe hazards and uses of electrostatics.
• Define an electric field.
• Represent diagrammatically the electric field lines around and between
two points.
• Distinguish between the electric field inside, outside and between
surfaces of a spherical metallic conductor.
• State Coulomb’s law.
• Compare Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
• Calculate the force acting on a charge due to two other charges placed on
the same plane (line of action).
• Calculate the force between three charges placed in a line.
• Calculate the electric field strength at a point due to charges placed
collinearly and at right angles.
• Define electric potential and its SI unit.
• Distinguish between absolute potential and potential difference.
• Show that 1 N/C = 1 V/m.
• Explain equipotential lines and surfaces.
• Draw equipotential lines and surfaces in an electric field.
• Define the term electric potential energy.
• Describe the structure of a simple capacitor.
• Define the term capacitance and its SI unit.
• Apply the definition of capacitance to solve numerical problems.

Grade 10 39
Unit 2: Electrostatics

• Use the circuit symbol to represent a capacitor.

• Explain the charging and discharging of a capacitor.
• Define the term dielectric and explain what is meant by a dielectric
material.
• Identify combination of capacitors in series, parallel and series−parallel.
• Explain the effect of inserting dielectric in the gap between the plates of
a parallel plate capacitor.
• Derive an expression for the effective capacitance of capacitors connected
in series and parallel.
• Draw an electric circuit diagram for a simple capacitor, series and parallel
connections of two or more capacitors using symbols.
• Solve problems on combination of capacitors.
• Define parallel plate capacitor.
• Describe the factors that affect the capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor.
• Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
• Find an expression for the electric potential energy stored in a capacitor.
• Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor using one of three possible
formulae.
• State some uses of capacitors in everyday life.

This section should 2.1 Electric charge

fill approximately
6 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• State the law of conservation of charge.
• Describe and explain the charging processes: charging by rubbing,
conduction and induction.
• Perform an experiment to charge an electroscope by conduction and by
induction.
• Describe the distribution of charge on a conductor of variable shape.
• Explain how lightning is formed.
• Describe the use of a lightning rod.
• Describe how equipment works using electrostatic principles.
• Describe hazards and uses of electrostatics.

40 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

Starting off
This unit introduces electrostatics and finishes by considering capacitors and
capacitance, which are important in electronics. Many students will have
experienced electrostatics in the form of the mild ‘shock’ from metal objects such
as door handles. This section includes many practical activities that can be carried
out in small groups. Encourage students to discuss their observations – by doing
so they will be consolidating their understanding and supporting their peers in
their learning.

Teaching notes Activity 2.1: Answer

Begin by discussing students’ experiences of electrostatic phenomena, as outlined For example,
in the Students’ Book. The conservation of charge is an important concept for momentum, angular
students to grasp, as is the concept that like charges repel and opposite charges momentum, energy
attract. Activity 2.1 gives students an opportunity to make links between this
section and the last unit – they should readily recall that angular momentum is Activity 2.2: Answer
another physical quantity that is conserved, for example. They may also talk about
the conservation of energy. Students should
conclude that the bar
We move on now to consider how materials can be charged using various of Perspex carries
methods. The first one considered is rubbing. You may wish to show students a charge that is
how rubbing a piece of Perspex can make it attract small pieces of paper (they will opposite to that of
carry out a similar activity for themselves later in the unit). the rod of polythene.
Activity 2.2 demonstrates the attraction/repulsion between opposite/like charges.
Activity 2.3: Answer
You need to try Activity 2.3 yourself before you ask students to do it. You need to
find out the best flow rate for the stream of water, and how much the comb needs The molecules in the
to be rubbed in order to charge it sufficiently to attract the water stream. water have a slight
charge, which is
Activity 2.4 is fun for the students though you might like to check that no one has called polarisation,
a fear of balloons before you start! Students should be able to draw conclusions and so the water
about the surface of the balloon and the surface to which it sticks. stream has an overall
We now consider charging materials by conduction. Students may have charge that will
experienced this method of charging without realising what was happening, result in it being
as outlined in the Students’ Book. Activity 2.5 gives students an opportunity to attracted to the
charged comb.
charge an electroscope by conduction.
Go through the explanation of charging by induction carefully and ask
Activity 2.4: Answer
questions along the way to check understanding. It would be worthwhile testing
understanding further by asking students to redraw the diagrams in the Students’ The surfaces must
Book to show what happens if a positively charged rod is brought near a neutral have opposite
metal sphere. The diagram produced should look like Figure 2.1 on this page. charges.

1 + + 2 3
+ + + + + Activity 2.5: Answer
+
+ + + − − + +
+ + + − −−
+ − + + + − − The electroscope
− ++
− + − − has a fine sheet of
− − + − + − gold leaf, which will
move when charge is
applied to the metal
plate above it.
Figure 2.1

Grade 10 41
Unit 2: Electrostatics

Activity 2.6 tests understanding further by requiring students to devise and

Activity 2.6: Answer
carry out an experiment to charge an electroscope by induction. By asking
Students’ own students to draw diagrams to explain what happens, we are testing their ability to
results. communicate scientific ideas, which is an important skill to develop.
Activity 2.7 is an opportunity for students to carry out an investigation using small
Activity 2.7: Answer pieces of newspaper and a charged surface.
The paper is The next section on the distribution of charges on the surfaces of conductors is
attracted to the important ground work for the understanding of how lightning conductors work,
glass by electrostatic which is covered a little later. You may wish to test students’ understanding by
attraction, but giving them some other surfaces, such as the ones here, on which to draw the
this attraction is likely distribution of charge.
temporary as the
glass will not hold
its charge – it
leaks away into the
surrounding air.

Activity 2.8: Answer Figure 2.2

It is charged. If you have access to a Van der Graaff generator, students will enjoy the
demonstration outlined in Activity 2.8. If you cannot carry out the demonstration
yourself, you could discuss the question posed in the Students’ Book using the
Activity 2.9: Answer photograph as a stimulus.
Lightning rod Introduce the next section by talking about students’ experiences of
conducts electric thunderstorms. What do they see? What do they hear? Can they describe
charge safely to how some tall buildings are protected from lightning? If so, can they use the
ground so their it
information from this section to explain how lightning conductors work before
does not damage
buildings.
they read the explanation in the Students’ Book?
Divide the class into groups to discuss why the inside of a car is a safe place to
shelter in a storm and to design a poster to show younger children how to stay safe
Activity 2.10: Answer
in storms.
The lightning will be The section now moves on to discuss applications of electrostatics. Activity 2.12
conducted safely to
gives students an opportunity to use their knowledge to design a model chimney
earth by the body of
the car.
filter. Before discussing how a photocopier works, you could arrange for the
students to see one in action if you have one in school. Small groups would be best
for this so that students can see the process clearly from start to finish. If you can
Activity 2.11: Answer arrange this you may want to ask students to attempt to explain what is going on
before they read through the explanation in the Students’ Book.
Students’ own
results. A brief discussion of the hazards of electrostatics comes before Activity 2.13 which
requires students to summarise this area of the section using the technique of a
mind map. This technique is a useful one for students to master as it can be used
Activity 2.13: Answer
to summarise notes for revision at examination or test time.
Students’ own mind
map.

42 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. What is electric charge?
SA Activity 2.1 in small group.
MA Activity 2.2 in small group.
CA Review questions 1−3 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Electrostatic attraction
SA With a partner, discuss what is meant by ‘electrostatic’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 2.3 in small group.
Activity 2.4 in small group.
CA Review questions 4−6 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Charging materials
SA With a partner, discuss experiences of ‘electric shocks’. Feed back where and how these
occurred.
MA Activity 2.5 in small group.
Activity 2.6 in small group.
Activity 2.7 in small group.
CA Review question 7 to be tackled with a partner.
4. Distribution of charges
SA With a partner, discuss why charges on the surface of a conductor will spread out evenly.
Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 2.8 in a small group.
CA Review question 8 with a partner.
5. Thunderstorms
SA Activity 2.9 in a small group.
MA Activity 2.10 with a partner.
Activity 2.11 with a partner.
CA Review question 9 with a partner.
6. Applications of electrostatics
SA Activity 2.12 in a small group.
MA Activity 2.13 in a small group.
CA Review questions 10 and 11 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Recalling physical quantities that are conserved.
• Testing how charged bodies attract or repel each other.
• Exploring the electrostatic attraction of water.
• Hanging balloons using electrostatic attraction.
• Charging an electroscope by conduction.
• Charging an electroscope by induction.
• Investigating charging by induction.
• Using a Van der Graaff generator to make a fluorescent tube glow.
• Discussion on how tall buildings may be protected from lightning.
• Explaining why the inside of a car is safe in a storm.

Grade 10 43
Unit 2: Electrostatics

• Designing a poster on safety in storms.

• Designing a model chimney filter.
• Mind map about the uses and hazards of electrostatics.

Resources
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/electrical-charges.htm
http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/Physicalscience/electric-charge.html

Where next?
The next section considers electric forces and fields. This extends the work in this
section by considering why charges attract or repel in terms of electric fields.

Answers to review questions

1. When there is moisture in the air, as there is on a damp day, the charged water
molecules quickly remove charge from a charged object.
2. Most objects we meet in daily life appear to be uncharged because the positive
and negative charges balance out – there are equal numbers of both.
3. − − −
+ + + − −
+ + + − −
− −−
Figure 2.3
4. A plastic comb that has been rubbed will become electrostatically charged and
so will attract small pieces of paper.
5. a) Plastic objects frequently become covered with dust because they may
be slightly charged and thus dust is attracted to them by electrostatic
attraction.
b) By rubbing such objects with a duster one may in fact increase the charge
on the object, which will, in turn, attract more dust.
6. The very fine charged droplets are attracted to the surface of the car, which is
charged in the opposite way to the droplets of paint. The droplets of paint will
spread themselves evenly over the surface of the car.
+ 7. a) By rubbing an inflated balloon on your clothing, you charge that surface of
++ the balloon, which can then stick on the ceiling.
+
+ b) The balloon eventually drops off the ceiling because the charge on its
+
surface will leak away to the surrounding air.
8. The distribution of charge on a sphere is uniform.
9. A lightning conductor is designed to conduct a lightning strike safely to earth
so that it does not damage the building. It has a sharp point at its tip which
collects the charge as shown in Figure 2.4.
10. a) Some uses of electrostatics are: chimney filters, paint sprays, photocopiers.
Figure 2.4 b) Some hazards of electrostatics are: lightning, sudden discharge causing
damage to delicate electronic components.
11. Some antistatic device ares: antistatic bags, antistatic clothing, antistatic mats,
antistatic wrist straps.
44 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

2.2 Electric forces and fields This section should

fill approximately
5 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define an electric field.
• Represent diagrammatically the electric field lines around and between
two points.
• Distinguish between the electric field inside, outside and between
surfaces of a spherical metallic conductor.
• State Coulomb’s law.
• Compare Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
• Calculate the force acting on a charge due to two other charges placed on
the same plane (line of action).
• Calculate the force between three charges placed in a line.
• Calculate the electric field strength at a point due to charges placed in a
line and at right angles.

Starting off
This section does not contain as many practical activities as the last section.
Students will need to be able to manipulate formulae and change the subject of
an equation. Begin with a short quiz that checks that they are able to do this – use
equations from Unit 1 such as F = ma, or I = MR2. Ask students to explain the
steps for rearranging an equation in their own words.

Teaching notes Activity 2.14: Answer

Explain the concept of an electric field carefully. Activity 2.14 gives students an Students’ explanation
opportunity to consolidate their understanding by explaining given field plots.
Note that this section has links to Section 4.2, so students need to understand it Activity 2.15: Answer
thoroughly to support later learning.
Students’ explanation
Activity 2.15 gives students a chance to see if they can apply their knowledge to a
new situation. This is a valuable skill and should be encouraged wherever possible
throughout the course.
Electric field strength is defined by a mathematical relationship between the force F
experienced by an electric charge in the field and the size of the charge. Remind
students how to rearrange the equation using the triangle in Figure 2.5. Q E
Ask students to explain the various stages of the worked examples in their own
words. You could give them the problem without the working to see how far they Figure 2.5
can progress, and use the given working as a scaffold for their learning as necessary.
We then move on to consider the force between charges, which is summarised
in Coulomb’s law. Again, students are invited to make links with other learning

Grade 10 45
Unit 2: Electrostatics

in Activity 2.16 by comparing Coulomb’s law to Newton’s law of universal

Activity 2.16: Answer
gravitation, which they met in Section 1.4. Making these links can help students to
For example: remember the formulae. Again, it would be valuable to ask students to explain the
• Both inverse square steps in the worked examples in their own words.
relationship Activity 2.17 requires students to explain why the results in the worked examples
• Newton’s law demonstrate the inverse square relationship.
attraction between
masses, Coulomb’s Activity 2.17: Answer
law attraction
The key to this is that the distances are 1 m and 2 m, respectively, and the charges
between charges
are the same, so one would expect the inverse square relationship to lead to one
• Coulomb’s law result being 1_4 of the value of the other. If you divide 3.15 × 1011 by 7.875 × 1010 you
constant on find that the answer is 4, so 7.875 × 1010 is indeed 1_4 of 3.15 × 1011.
denominator,
Newton’s law When we consider more than two charges, the key to solving the problems is a
constant on good diagram showing both size and direction of all the forces acting. Make sure
numerator that the students can follow the working in worked example 2.7.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. What is an electric field?
SA With a partner, summarise Student Book pages 60−61.
MA Activity 2.14 with a partner.
CA Review questions 1−3 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Explaining field patterns
SA With a partner, discuss how charges are distributed on the surface of a spherical conductor.
Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 2.15 with a partner.
CA Research electric shielding with a partner.
3. Electric field strength
SA Feed back research from end of last lesson.
MA Work with a partner to tackle examples of electric field strength calculations.
CA Tackle review questions 4−7 with a partner.
4. Coulomb’s law (1)
SA Activity 2.16 with a partner.
MA Worked examples 2.5 and 2.6 to be tackled with a partner before solutions are revealed.
CA Activity 2.17 with a partner.
5. Coulomb’s law (2)
SA Worked example 2.7 to be tackled with a partner. Feed back ideas for approach to solution
before given solution is revealed.
MA With a partner, summarise page 66 of the Student Book.
CA Review questions 8−9 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Explaining field plots.
• Explaining field patterns.

46 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

• Comparing Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

• Explaining how the results of calculations demonstrate the inverse square
relationship.

Resources
http://library.thinkquest.org/10796/ch12/ch12.htm
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/waves_particles/wavpart3.htm

Where next?
This section leads on to a consideration of electric potential in Section 2.3 and also
links to Section 4.2.

Answers to review questions

1. The term ‘electric field’ means the region in which an electric charge will
experience a force as a result of other electric charges being present.
2. The electric field around a a positive charge (a) and a negative charge (b) is
shown below.
a b

+ −

The arrows indicate the direction of a force on a positive charge.

3. The electric field around a positive and a negative charge (a), around two
negative charges (b) and between two oppositely charged flat metal plates (c) is
shown below.
a b c
+ + + + + + +
+ − − −
− − − − − − −

4. The unit we use to measure electric charge is the coulomb. Its correct
abbreviation is C.
F
5. E = __
Q so F = EQ = 18 × 2 = 36 N
6. The force would act in the opposite direction.
F F 12
7. E = __ __ __
Q Q = E = 48 = 0.25 C
kQ1 Q2 2 = 2.16 × 109 N
8. F = _____ = 9.0 × 109 N m2 C−2 × 3 × __
2
r 2 5

kQ1 Q2 10–6
9. F = _____ = 9.0 × 109 N m2 C−2 × 3 × 10−12 × 2 × ____ = 2.16 × 10−10 N
r 2 5 2

Grade 10 47
Unit 2: Electrostatics

This section should 2.3 Electric potential

fill approximately
4 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define electric potential and its SI unit.
• Distinguish between absolute potential and potential difference.
• Show that 1 N/C = 1 V/m.
• Explain equipotential lines and surfaces.
• Draw equipotential lines and surfaces in an electric field.
• Define the term electric potential energy.

Starting off
This relatively short section introduces the important concept of electric potential
and equipotential lines and surfaces. You need to ensure that students are
confident with the concept of an electric field exerting a force on charged objects
before beginning this section. You could give a short quiz to check that they
are able to work out the force on various charges and the electric field strength
equation. Base the questions on the worked examples in the last section.

Activity 2.18: Answer Teaching notes

a The section begins by defining electric potential at a point. It is worth stressing
that the electric potential at a point is measured relative to that at infinity, as this
concept is needed when we move on to show the difference between absolute
− potential and potential difference. Students need to understand the concept of
potential difference when they study electric circuits in the next unit, so this is an
important step in their learning and should not be rushed.
b Work through the equivalence of 1 N/C and 1 V/m carefully. If you can get
students to explain the steps in their own words they will be consolidating their
understanding of the underlying concepts more thoroughly than they will by
+ − simply reading the text. As always, students need to be actively involved in their
learning in order to ensure depth of understanding.
We move on now to consider equipotential lines and surfaces. It might be worth
c using analogies with which students are familiar here: for example, contour lines
on maps show lines of equal altitude, isobars on weather maps show lines of
+ + equal pressure. This may aid students’ understanding and help them to complete
Activity 2.18, which requires them to draw equipotentials. Note that they have
already met such diagrams in the last section: here we simply explain the precise
nature of the diagrams more formally.
Before considering electric potential energy, revise potential energy that a body
possesses because of its position. Give a few quick examples: for instance, what
potential energy does a piece of chalk of mass 0.001 kg have when it is on a desk
that is 1 m high? (PE = mgh = 0.001 × 9.81 × 1 = 0.0098 J).

48 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

Then consider electric potential energy and remind students about the principle
of conservation of energy, i.e. that energy cannot be created or destroyed, simply
converted from one form to another. Give some simple examples such as electric
energy being used in a light bulb, where it is converted to light and heat energy.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Electric potential
SA Discuss with a partner what they understand by ‘potential energy’. Feed back ideas.
MA Examples of calculating electric potential to be tackled with a partner.
CA Review answers to problems from main activity.
2. Absolute potential an d potential difference
SA Discuss meaning of term ‘absolute’ with a partner. Feed back ideas.
MA Produce a poster showing why 1 V/m = 1 N/C with a partner.
CA Evaluate posters in small groups.
3. Equipotential lines and surfaces
SA With a partner, list as many words as possible that use ‘equi’. Examples ‘equilateral’,
equidistant, equiangular, equimolecular
MA Activity 2.18 with a partner.
CA Review question 4−5 to be tackled with a partner.
4. Electric potential energy
SA Experiment with compressing a spring. Discuss with a partner.
MA Give examples of energy conversions in a small group.
CA Review question 6 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Drawing equipotentials.

Resources
http://www.rwc.uc.edu/koehler/biophys/4b.html
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circuits/u9l1b.cfm

Where next?
The next section considers capacitors and capacitance. Students will need the
concept of potential difference when considering capacitors.

Answers to review questions

1. Electric potential at a point in space is potential energy divided by the charge
that is associated with a static (does not vary with time) electric field. Its SI
unit is the Volt.

Grade 10 49
Unit 2: Electrostatics

2. To define absolute potential you need a reference point (for example, infinity).
Then you can say that:
electric potential at a point = work done per unit mass in bringing a small
object from infinity to a point in an electric field.
To define electric potential difference between two points P and Q, you need
to assume the absolute electric potential at P is VP and the absolute electric
potential at Q is VQ . Then the electric potential difference is VP − VQ
3. You can show that two quantities are equivalent by using their units.
From the definition of V we can find its units in terms of N, m and C.
V= 1 × q
4πε0 r
q
We know that the units for the constant term are N m2 C−2. The units for __
r
are C

m−1. So the units for V are N m2 C−2 C m−1.

This can be simplified, using the laws of indices, to N m C−1.

If we divide this by m, to give V/m, we get N/C. So 1 V/m = 1 N/C.
4. Equipotential lines are lines showing where the electric potential is the same
value. Equipotential surfaces are surfaces that have the same electric potential.
5.

− −

6. Electric potential energy is the energy a charge possesses because it is in the
region of other charges.

This section should 2.4 Capacitors and capacitances

fill approximately
4 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Describe the structure of a simple capacitor.
• Define the term capacitance and its SI unit.
• Apply the definition of capacitance to solve numerical problems.
• Use the circuit symbol to represent a capacitor.
• Explain the charging and discharging of a capacitor.
• Define the term dielectric and explain what is meant by a dielectric
material.
• Identify combination of capacitors in series, parallel and series−parallel.
• Explain the effect of inserting dielectric in the gap between the plates of
a parallel plate capacitor.

50 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

• Derive an expression for the effective capacitance of capacitors connected

in series and parallel.
• Draw an electric circuit diagram for a simple capacitor, series and parallel
connections of two or more capacitors using symbols.
• Solve problems on combination of capacitors.
• Define parallel plate capacitor.
• Describe the factors that affect the capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor.
• Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
• Find an expression for the electric potential energy stored in a capacitor.
• Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor using one of three possible
formulae.
• State some uses of capacitors in everyday life.

Starting off
This section links to the next unit on current electricity. You may wish to cover
some of that content before attempting this section; some of the explanations
require a knowledge of Ohm’s law, which is covered in Section 3.2, and there are
parallels in, for example, the formulae for combinations of capacitors and the
formulae for combinations of resistors (Section 3.3).
If you can get hold of some large capacitors from old TV power supplies, or a
selection of capacitors from an electrical supplier, show these to the students. See
if anyone knows what they are or where they might be used.

Teaching notes
Q
This section begins by explaining what a capacitor is and the basic structure of
a capacitor. It then moves on to consider capacitance and its SI unit. Make sure C V
that students are comfortable with rearranging the equation linking capacitance,
charge and potential difference between its terminals. Give plenty of practice
Figure 2.6
based on the worked examples in the Students’ Book. Remind students how to
use the triangle in Figure 2.6 if they need it to help them change the subject of the
equation. Activity 2.19: Answer

The section then moves on to consider the use of capacitors in electrical circuits. Light intensity
This links to the next unit and, as noted above, you may wish to cover some of that
content before the content here. Activity 2.19 gives students the opportunity to
observe what happens when a capacitor is connected to a battery to charge up and
then discharged through a bulb. If students can attempt to draw a graph showing
light intensity versus time to record their observations, then the later theory will
be easier for them to grasp. Time
The explanation of the charging and discharging of a capacitor requires knowledge
of Ohm’s law, which is covered in Section 3.2. If students have not covered this
section at this point then you will need to tell them the relationship V = IR where
V is potential difference, I is current and R is resistance in the circuit and explain
that they will find out more about this in Section 3.2.

Grade 10 51
Unit 2: Electrostatics

The concept of time constant for a circuit containing a capacitor is important,

as it is this that gives capacitors their usefulness in, for example, timing circuits.
Timing circuits often involve a variable resistor – again, it would be useful if
students had covered resistors in Unit 3 before they study this area.
This section then discusses dielectric materials and how they are used to increase
the capacity of the capacitor. You could perhaps use an analogy of putting a
sponge in glass – the sponge will soak up liquid so that the total volume of liquid
in the full glass is greater than that in the full glass without the sponge. Try
demonstrating this and ask students to compare the two volumes!

Activity 2.20: Answer Most of the remainder of this section is fairly mathematical. Students will need to
understand reciprocals and how to add fractions with different denominators. We
Students’ own consider combining capacitors in series and parallel circuits (combining resistors
results. in series and parallel is covered in Section 3.3). Begin this section by letting
students attempt Activity 2.20, which involves them charging and discharging
series and parallel combinations of resistors. Give them plenty of opportunity to
experiment and discuss their observations before you introduce the equations.
When you do introduce the equations, work through the worked example
carefully and ensure that the students understand the steps involved (ask them to
explain them in their own words). Give further examples based on this worked
example as necessary.
Activity 2.20: Answer Before studying the section on factors that affect the capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor, see if students can come up with some possible variables that will
Students’ own change the capacitance. You could guide them by using pieces of card in pairs to
observations. represent the plates of a capacitor. For example, show them a model of a capacitor
with two pieces of card, dimensions 10 cm × 5 cm, and ask them whether they
think such a ‘capacitor’ would have greater capacitance if the cards were 2 cm
apart or 5 cm apart. Then use two pieces of card dimensions 15 cm × 7 cm, and
ask which of the two ‘capacitors’ will have greatest capacitance when the plates are
same distance apart: the one with 10 × 5 plates or the one with 15 × 7 plates (think
about amount of charge stored on plates). Students should see that capacitance is
directly proportional to area (larger area gives more surface to store charge) and
inversely proportional to distance between plates (smaller distance means more
charge can be stored). Activity 2.21 gives students an opportunity to explore real
capacitors.
Students may like to do some research on various values of ε (dielectric constant)
for different materials, such as air, silicon and water.
The final mathematical section concerns the electric potential energy stored on a
capacitor. Make sure that students remember the definition of electric potential
energy from the last section. Work through the explanation of the reason for the
formula being E = _21 QV = _21 CV 2 carefully, asking questions as you go to check
understanding.
The section ends with a consideration of where capacitors are used in
everyday life.

52 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Capacitors
SA Discuss with a partner why a larger sphere will have a larger capacitance. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 2.19 in a small group.
CA Review questions 1−3 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Capacitor circuits
SA Discuss with a partner the meaning of the terms ‘series’ and ‘parallel’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 2.20 in a small group.
CA Review questions 4−5 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Factors that affect capacitance
SA Discuss in a small group why capacitance is directly proportional to area but inversely
proportional to distance between plates.
MA Activity 2.21 in small groups.
CA Review questions 6−11 with a partner.
4. Uses of capacitors
SA With a partner discuss what quantity capacitors store (energy). Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, research applications of capacitors. Produce a poster to summarise your
findings.
CA End of unit questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Charging and discharging capacitors.
• Charging and discharging series and parallel combinations of capacitors.

Resources
http://academic.greensboroday.org/~regesterj/potl/Electronics/Capacitors/caps.
htm
http://Level1.physics.dur.ac.uk/skills/capacitors.php

Where next?
This section has close links with Unit 3 as described above. Students will also
study circuits in Unit 5, Introduction to electronics.

Answers to review questions

1. A capacitor is a small device designed to store more charge at a lower
potential. The commonest way of doing this is to use two parallel plates, a tiny
distance apart and separated by an insulator (which may be air or may be a
dielectric material).
2. If a charge Q results in a rise of V in the potential, we define the capacitance of
the sphere by:

Grade 10 53
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

C=Q
V
This is the charge needed for each volt rise in the body’s potential. The units
will be coulombs per volt, C V−1, which we call farads, F.
3. a) Q = CV = 2 × 10−6 × 6 = 0.000012 C
b) E = _21 QV = _21 × 0.000012 × 6 = 0.000036 J
c) The energy has come from the electric potential energy as the charge is
increased from 0 to 0.000012 C.
2.0μF d) If the capacitor is then discharged, the energy is transformed into other
forms by the component through which the capacitor is discharged; for
5.0μF example, if the capacitor is discharged through a bulb then the energy is
transformed into light and heat.
Figure 2.10 4. a) The capacitance = 2.0 μF + 5.0 μF = 7.0 μF (see Figure 2.10).
b) The capacitance = 1 + 1 = 10 (see Figure 2.11).
2.0 μF 5.0 μF 7 μF
5. When a capacitor discharges through a resistor (or a bulb), the capacitor acts
2.0μF 5.0μF like a battery to drive a current through the resistor, but unlike a battery its
voltage drops rapidly as its charge drains away. Think of a capacitor charged
up to a voltage Vo, which is then emptied through a resistor R. When it is
Figure 2.11 first connected, the discharging current is determined entirely by the resistor
(since I = V/R for it) – the higher the value of the resistor, the more slowly the
capacitor will empty.
Figure 2.12 indicates how the charge remaining on
the capacitor will decrease with time; the vertical axis
actually shows the voltage across its plates, but this
also provides a measure of the charge left.
As the capacitor empties, so the voltage across its
plates drops. This decreasing voltage across the
resistor R results in a reducing discharge current, so
the capacitor empties ever more slowly. The resulting
Figure 2.12 curve is what we call exponential decay.
We can work out how long it takes for the voltage to
drop to 0.37 of its starting value (by which time the
capacitor has almost two-thirds emptied). We do this
by multiplying C by R. This gives what we call the time
constant of the circuit.
When a capacitor is charged through a resistor we
have the opposite to the discharge situation. Here the
capacitor charges rapidly at the start, but this then
continues at an ever-declining rate. It is a kind of
Figure 2.13 ‘upside down’ exponential curve. When the voltage
between the plates of the capacitor equals that of the battery, the charging
ceases (see Figure 2.13).
This time when the time constant has elapsed the capacitor is almost two-
thirds full. Such a circuit can be used as the basis for a timing circuit. When
the voltage across the capacitor reaches a certain value, it causes something

54 Grade 10
 Unit 2: Electrostatics

else to occur – a light to come on, for instance. If a control is provided by

which you can adjust the time delay, you will be altering a variable resistor to
change the value of R.
6. A dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of
a capacitor. The advantage of using a dielectric is that it stops the two charged
plates coming into contact with each other.
7. A dielectric increases the capacitance of the capacitor (so a greater charge can
be stored at a given voltage).
8. A parallel plate capacitor has two plates that are parallel to each other. If a
capacitor has two plates each of area A separated by a distance d, then it is
possible to calculate what its capacitance C will be by using the relationship:
C = εA
d
The symbol ε is a constant, which varies according to the dielectric that is used
to separate the plates.
The capacitance depends on the dielectric, the area of the plates and the
distance between them.
A × 10−3 so A = 5 × 10−6 x 0.4 × ___
−6 = 7.1 × 10−12 F m−1 __ 10−3
9.

5 × 10 0.4
7.1
× 10−12 F m−1 = 281.7 m2

10. Energy = _21 QV

= _21 CV2

11.
Energy (J) C (F) V (v)
? 100 × 10–6 22.5
Use E = _21 CV2
= _21 100 × 10–6 × (22.5)2
= 0.025 J

Answers to end of unit questions

1. Take a bar of Perspex and pivot it, for example by suspending it by a nylon
thread. Charge the suspended bar by rubbing it. Bring a second charged
Perspex rod up to the first one, and the first one will swing away.
Now charge the bar of Perspex again. Bring a charged rod of Polythene up to
the suspended rod, and you will see the suspended rod move towards it. The
bar of Perspex and the rod of Polythene have opposite charges.
2. The metal exterior of the car will conduct any static charge from lightning
safely to Earth so that it will not touch you.
3. a) F = QE = 4 × 5 = 20 N
b) Coulomb’s law states that the force between two point charges is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Grade 10 55
Unit 2: Electrostatics

c) Both Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of universal gravitation are inverse
square relationships.
4. An equipotential is a line along which all the points have the same electric
potential.
5. a) A capacitor is a small device which is used to store more charge at a lower
potential.
b) Some uses of capacitors in everyday life include in a camera flash, to
provide a break in a direct current circuit, to allow alternate currents to
pass, to link two stages of an amplifier and as the basis for a timing circuit.
c) In series total capacitance = 3.33 µF whereas in parallel
total capacitance = 15 µF so parallel arrangement gives higher capacitance.
d) Capacitance is inversely related to distance between plates, so if distance
doubles capacitance will halve in value if all other factors are constant. So
capacitance of A is half capacitance of B.
v
6. a) E =
d
30
=
0.02
= 1500 vm–1
F = EQ

= 1500 × 1.5 × 10–19

= 2.25 × 10–16 N
F
b) a =
M
2.25 × 10–16
=
9.1 × 10–31
= 2.47 × 10–14 mls

c) If positive plate is the lower one, the electron will accelerate downwards.
Distance
d) Speed =
Time
Distance
Time =
Speed
0.1
=
5 × 106
= 2 × 10–8 s

56 Grade 10
Current electricity Unit 3

Learning Competencies for Unit 3 This unit should

By the end of this unit students should be able to: fill approximately
14 periods of
• Define electric current and its SI unit. teaching time.
• Explain the flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor.
• Calculate the number of electrons that pass a point at a given length of
time when the current in the wire is known.
• Describe factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.
• Write the relationship between resistance R, resistivity ρ, length l and
cross-sectional area A of a conductor.
• Calculate the resistance of a conductor using the formula R = ρl/A.
• Find the relationship between resistivity and conductivity.
• Construct and draw an electric circuit consisting of a source, connecting
wires, resistors, a switch and a bulb using their symbols.
• Explain why an ammeter should be connected in series with a resistor in
a circuit.
• Explain why a voltmeter should be connected in parallel across a resistor
in a circuit.
• Do experiments using an ammeter and a voltmeter to investigate the
relationship between current and p.d. for metallic conductors at constant
temperature.
• Identify combinations of resistors in series, parallel and series–parallel
connection.
• Derive an expression for the effective resistance of resistors connected in
series.
• Derive an expression for the effective resistance of resistors connected in
parallel.
• Calculate the effective resistance of resistors connected in series.
• Calculate the effective resistance of resistors connected in parallel.
• Calculate the current through each resistor in simple series, parallel and
series–parallel combinations.
• Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor in simple series, parallel
and series–parallel connections.
• Define the electromotive force of a cell.
• Distinguish between e.m.f. and terminal p.d. of a cell.
• Write the relationship between e.m.f., p.d., current and internal
resistance in a circuit.
• Use the equation V = E–Ir to solve problems in a circuit.
• Identify cell combinations in series and parallel.
• Compare the e.m.f. of combinations of cells in series and parallel.

Grade 10 57
Unit 3: Current electricity

• Define electrical energy and power in an electrical circuit.

• Find the relationship between KWh and joule.
2
• Use P = VI = V__ = I2R to solve problems in electric circuits.
R 2
• Use W = VIt = I2Rt = V__ to calculate electric energy dissipated in an
R
electric circuit.
• Calculate cost of electrical energy expressed in KWh.
• Understand the dangers of mains electricity.
• Have some awareness of safety features incorporated in mains electrical
installations.
• Understand the nature of the generation and supply of electricity in
Ethiopia.
• Consider employment prospects in Ethiopia’s electricity industry.

This section should 3.1 Electric current

fill approximately
2 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define electric current and its SI unit.
• Explain the flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor.
• Calculate the number of electrons that pass a point at a given length of
time when the current in the wire is known.

Starting off
It is important that students realise that electric current is closely related to the
static electric charges they met in Unit 2 – electric current is what happens when
these charges move.
If you have access to a Van de Graaff generator, you can introduce the idea of
current very dramatically. Figure 3.1 below (part a) shows a girl with long hair,
standing on a polythene bowl, being slowly charged up by a Van de Graaff
generator. The electric charges slowly trickle up her arm, spread over the surface
of her body and cause her hair to rise (every single one of those charges is
repelling all the rest). She has been filled up with charge by means of this gentle
trickle, this tiny electric current, which continued to flow for a minute or so.
In (b) she starts to shake hands with another person who is standing on the floor.
In an instant, all that charge rapidly flows down her arm, jumps the air gap to the

Figure 3.1 (a) The girl

is slowly charged up by
a small current. (b) She
is rapidly emptied of
charge.

58 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

other person and escapes down to earth. She has emptied of charge by means of
a large electric current lasting for a very short time. It is the size of this current
that determines the severity of the shock; she did not notice the small current that
filled her up, but the rapid emptying gave a short, sharp shock.

Teaching notes
Students should be able to construct a galvanometer to detect when an electric
current is flowing.
Introduce the units used in studying electric current – the amp and the volt. Some
investigation/private research could be set for the students to discover the people
behind the unit names.
Introduce the concept of ‘conventional current’ carefully. This is the convention
for showing the flow of electricity in a circuit, which was established when it was
assumed that charge flowed round a circuit from the positive to the negative pole
of a cell. Although it is now known that the flow of charge is actually a flow of
electrons in the opposite direction (from the negative to the positive pole) the
convention of showing the flow of positive charge from positive to negative is used
on diagrams.
The activity ‘investigating the direction of current flow’ should fix in students’
minds the idea that current does move, and that the way in which the circuit is
connected is important.
In the activity ‘testing conductivity in different materials’ students will see
when electric current flows through a material because the light bulb becomes
illuminated, showing that electric current is flowing. Electric current flows
through materials that are good ‘conductors’ of electricity. These materials, mostly
metals, possess electrons, which are only weakly attached to their atoms
and are thus free to move. If a supply of energy is applied to a conductor,
electric charge flows through it forming an electric current. Students will
also see that some materials do not conduct electricity at all. They will see
that these are used as ‘insulators’.
A cell provides energy to make current flow in a circuit because the
chemicals within the cell produce a potential difference between its
positive and negative poles. This potential difference (p.d.) causes current
to flow if a circuit is connected between the poles of the cell. The students
will see from the fruit cell activity that using different combinations of
metals as electrodes will produce a different p.d. Figure 3.2
Summary of cell types
A primary cell produces electricity as a result of chemical action in the cell and is
usually irreversible.
A secondary cell is ‘charged’ by passing current through it in the opposite
direction to that taken when it is discharging. The actions in this cell (an example
is the lead–acid accumulator) are reversible.
There is also the electrolytic cell which does not produce electricity but, when
its electrodes are connected to a source of direct current, will decompose an
electrolyte (electrolysis). It can be used to plate one electrode with ions of the
electrolyte (electroplating).
Make sure the students are clear on the differences between the types of cell.

Grade 10 59
Unit 3: Current electricity

The specific uses of the thermocouple thermometer could be studied, and the
Seebeck effect studied. http://www.thermoelectrics.com/introduction.htm

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Electric current
SA Activity 3.1 in small groups.
MA Activity 3.2 in small groups.
CA Write a report on the activities in this lesson with a partner.
2. Cells and thermocouples
SA Activity 3.3 in small groups.
MA Activity 3.4 in small groups.
CA Activity 3.5 in small groups.
Review questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Constructing a galvanometer.
• Testing conductivity in different materials.
• Making an electrochemical cell.
• Investigating the direction of current flow.
• Making a thermocouple thermometer.

Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elecur.html
http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity1.htm (has some adverts)
www.mpoweruk.com/chemistries.htm
www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_9/5.html

Where next
More work could be done on the ‘fruit cell’ – linking the size of the voltage
produced by particular metals to their position in the electrochemical series.
Students could experiment using other equipment and solutions in place of the
juice in the fruit.
Students might be interested to hear about the strange phenomenon of
superconduction. If the resistance of metals goes up when you heat them, then it
must get less when you cool them. At very low temperatures, within a few degrees
of absolute zero (–273°C), some metals develop a fascinating property: their
resistance drops to nothing. They become superconducting. The resistance is not
simply very small; it is literally nil. If a current once starts in such a circuit it will
continue to flow, even though there is no battery. An application of this is seen
in the memories of some large computers. A vast number of tiny circuit loops,
immersed in liquid helium at 4 K, can store such currents indefinitely.

60 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

Answers to review questions

1. a) 3 C
b) 36 C
c) 360 C
2. 0.2 s
3. 300 s (5 minutes)
4. a) 1.9 × 1020
b) 1.0 × 10–5 kg (0.010 g)
5. Coulomb, measures charge
6. You would expect same e.m.f. but lifetime of smaller one would be shorter.
7. A primary cell uses the chemicals in it to supply electrical energy; a secondary
cell has to be charged up first.
8. a) 30 °C
b) 110 °C
c) –10°C
9. a) Heat conduction is fast in the small thermocouple junction; heat has further
to travel in the larger mercury-in-glass thermometer.
b) Heat conduction is fast in the metal from which the thermocouple junction
is made; heat passes more slowly through the glass – which is an insulator –
of a mercury-in-glass thermometer.
Both these factors allow the thermocouple junction measuring probe to
respond more quickly than a mercury-in-glass thermometer.
10. As a result of its atomic structure, an uncharged metal wire contains
conduction electrons (one or two electrons in an uncharged metal atom are
free to move within the structure of the metal). When a cell is connected to a
metal wire, these electrons move from the negative terminal of the cell to the
positive terminal, forming an electric current.

3.2 Ohm’s Law and electrical resistance This section should

fill approximately
3 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Describe factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.
• Write the relationship between resistance R, resistivity ρ, length l and
cross-sectional area A of a conductor.
• Calculate the resistance of a conductor using the formula R = ρl/A.
• Find the relationship between resistivity and conductivity.
• Construct and draw an electric circuit consisting of a source, connecting
wires, resistors, a switch and a bulb using their symbols.
• Explain why an ammeter should be connected in series with a resistor in
a circuit.
• Explain why a voltmeter should be connected in parallel across a resistor
in a circuit.
• Do experiments using an ammeter and a voltmeter to investigate the
relationship between current and p.d. for metallic conductors at constant
temperature.

Grade 10 61
Unit 3: Current electricity

Starting off
The construction and study of electric circuits is important in this section.
Students will need to remember that electric current will flow around a circuit
only if the circuit is complete.
It will be particularly helpful if you have sufficient equipment – cells, resistors,
light bulbs, connecting wires, and possibly ammeters and voltmeters – to allow
students to get some first-hand experience with electric circuits.

Teaching notes
Use the voltmeter and ammeter in the first activity (using a resistor not a light
bulb) to find results that demonstrate Ohm’s law. Make sure that you tell the
students that you will be looking in more detail at the way the ammeter and
voltmeter are used later in this section. Stress the importance of Ohm’s law in the
many calculations that arise in studying electric circuits.
You will be using a variable resistor in this activity and students might be
interested to learn more about this piece of equipment.
The current goes into a coil of bare resistance wire and escapes via the slider.
Moving the slider to the right in Figure 3.3 would introduce a greater length of the
resistance wire into the circuit, which would mean that there would be more ohms
of resistance.

Figure 3.3 How a variable resistor works

Introduce the unit of measurement of resistance, the ohm. Some investigation/
private research could be set for the students to discover the man behind the
unit name.
Demonstrate the effect of heat on resistance of a conductor. ‘Repeat’ the activity
in which Ohm’s law was discovered, but this time using a light bulb as the resistor.
Show the students what happens to the ammeter reading as the bulb glows.
Discuss the reason for poor electrical conduction at high temperatures. (You
might need to remind students that the light from a ‘conventional’ light bulb arises
from the fine piece of wire (the filament) within the glass bulb becoming hot and
glowing white hot. You can introduce calculations using the formula
ΔR = α R0 Δθ.
Demonstrate the effect of length and cross-sectional area on conduction (Activity
3). Use the analogy of a large flow of water through a wide pipe compared with a
small flow through a narrow pipe. Introduce calculations using the formula
ρl
R = __ .
A
Use the concepts of resistivity and conductivity.
Make sure students are confident with the basic symbols used in drawing electric
circuits – the cell, the resistor, variable resistor, light bulb, ammeter, voltmeter. Ask
them to draw circuits used in this section.
62 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

Discuss the correct position of an ammeter. Demonstrate that the ammeter has
the same reading at all points in a series circuit.
Demonstrate the correct position for a voltmeter. Encourage the students to
consider what the voltmeter is doing (make sure they don’t get the idea that it is
measuring volts flowing through it!): it is ‘sampling’ the potential at two points in
the circuit and displaying the difference in potential between the two points.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Resistance
SA With a partner, discuss the meaning of ‘resistance’. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, measure the resistance of a variety of resistors.
CA With a partner, make a poster about Ohm’s law.
2. Factors affecting resistance
SA Ohm’s law calculations to be tackled with a partner.
MA In a small group, explore the effect of heat on resistance.
CA Write a report on the investigation. Does a bulb obey Ohm’s law? Discuss with a partner.
3. Resistivity and conductors
SA With a partner, discuss how resistance, resistivity, length and cross−sectional area of a
conductor could be related. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, summarise pages 97−100 of the Student Book.
CA Review questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Investigate resistance of a resistor – vary the current (arrive at Ohm’s law)
(need to use voltmeter correctly here).
• Investigate resistance of a resistor – vary the temperature (light bulb).
• Investigate resistance of resistor – vary length and cross-sectional area.
• Construct a range of electrical circuits.
• Draw electric circuits using symbols.
• Use an ammeter to measure current (at various points in the circuit).
• Use a voltmeter to measure p.d.

Resources
www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/ohm/Q.ohm.intro.html
www.gcse.com/circuit_symbols.htm

Where next +

−
+

+
9v

You can demonstrate how the capacitor stores and releases charge if it seems −

relevant. Take a 9 volt battery plus connectors, a 470 μF electrolytic capacitor, a 15 kilohm

15 kilohm resistor, a switch, a voltmeter plus connectors, a timer measuring in

seconds and some graph paper. Figure 3.4
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3.4, being careful to connect the capacitor
the correct way round. If the voltage reading is not zero, it shows that the

Grade 10 63
Unit 3: Current electricity

capacitor retains charge from a previous application. This charge will need to
be discharged. To do this, touch both leads of the capacitor with the ends of a
connecting lead at the same time. This will allow the charge to equalise between
the two plates of the capacitor. Close the switch and record the voltage reading
every 5 seconds for 70 seconds. Plot a graph of voltage against time. It should form
a rising exponential curve. Test the voltage of the battery and compare it with the
maximum voltage reached by the capacitor – the two figures should be the same.
It could be interesting to repeat this for different values of capacitor.

Answers to review questions

1. 0.5 A
2. a) 8 Ω
b) The current would initially be more than 0.3 A (Resistance stays the same,
voltage increases greatly from 2.4 to either 110 or 220 V. From Ohm’s Law
I = V _ if there is a large voltage increase, there is a large increase in current.
R
c) The bulb would go out very quickly. This is because the large current would
cause the wire in the bulb to heat up to a very high temperature, causing it
to break. This is what happens inside a fuse (see Section 3.6)
3. 0.06 Ω
4. 18.7 Ω
5. a)
a b)

c) i) Make a table with two columns. Label the first ‘voltage’, the second
‘current’.
ii) C
 onnect the circuit shown in b (above) and take readings from the
I a
voltmeter and ammeter, recording them in the table.
iii) Adjust the variable resistor and take readings from the voltmeter and
ammeter, recording them in the table. A
V
iv) Repeat step (iii) for a range of readings.
v) Use the readings from the table to plot a graph of current against V
voltage. The graph will be of this shape:

V
d) The graph above shows that the resistance of the bulb increases at higher
voltages. To demonstrate Ohm’s Law, replace the bulb with a resistor and
repeat the steps in c (i to v) above.

64 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

6. a) I n the diagram, the voltmeter is connected across the cell, it should be

connected across the resistor.
b)
A

V
5V

7. A cell, consisting of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte, generates an
electromotive force. A battery is a group of separate cells.

3.3 Combinations of resistors This section should

fill approximately
3 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Identify combinations of resistors in series, parallel and series–parallel
connection.
• Derive an expression for the effective resistance of resistors connected
in series.
• Derive an expression for the effective resistance of resistors connected
in parallel.
• Calculate the effective resistance of resistors connected in series.
• Calculate the effective resistance of resistors connected in parallel.
• Calculate the current through each resistor in simple series, parallel and
series–parallel combinations.
• Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor in simple series, parallel
and series–parallel connections.

Starting off
Discuss the way in which electric circuits in Sections 3.1 and 3.2 have been connected.
Introduce the idea that this way is called ‘in series’ and that there is another
important way of connecting components in a circuit that they are about to learn.

Teaching notes
Series circuit – make sure students can see how current decreases as the number
of light bulbs connected in a series circuit increases (the lights become dimmer;
also see the ammeter reading). Use analogy of runners having to queue up to go
through narrow gates.
Make sure students realise what happens if one of the bulbs is removed – no
current flows in any part of the circuit. (Analogy of runners being faced with a
wall built across the track, or of a path where a bridge over a river is removed.)

Grade 10 65
Unit 3: Current electricity

Measure current and also p.d. across all resistors (not bulbs, see Section 3.2)
and show the students that the total resistance in the circuit is the sum of the
individual resistances. R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn.
Make sure that students see that the current is the same at all points in the circuit.
Demonstrate that the sum of the p.d. across each individual resistor equals the p.d.
across the cell, (V) V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ... + Vn
Parallel circuit – make sure students can see how additional lights connected in
parallel appear to each glow as brightly as one on its own. Use analogy of runners
having several gates to use – there is no queuing up so less slowing down.
Make sure students realise what happens if one of the bulbs connected in parallel
is removed – remaining bulbs stay lit.
Measure current through each resistor (resistor, not bulb see Section 3.2) (I1, I2, ...
In) and current through the unsplit part of the circuit (I). Discover that I = I1 + I2
+ ... + In.
Measure the p.d. across each resistor. Discover that the p.d. is the same across each
resistor. V = V1 = V2 = V3 … = Vn = V
Using Ohm’s law to calculate the current through each resistor:
Current through resistor 1 = … current through resistor 2 =
current through resistor 3 = ... current through resistor n =
Therefore, considering total current in circuit, I = sum of current flowing through
each resistor. Therefore = + + + ... + and as V = V1 = V2 = V3 etc. = + + ... +
Make sure students know that circuits can have both series and parallel elements.
Demonstrate such a circuit and make sure students can draw a circuit diagram.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Series and parallel circuits
SA With a partner, write down all you can remember about capacitors in series and parallel.
Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 3.6 in small groups.
CA With a partner, discuss how resistors in combination behave compared to how capacitors in
combination behave.
2. The voltage drop across resistors in parallel
SA Worked example 3.12 to be tackled with a partner. Feed back ideas on solution before given
solution revealed.
MA In a small group investigate the statement ‘if resistors are connected in parallel, they all
have the same voltage drop across them’.
CA With a partner, write a report on the investigation. Do your results support the statement?
3. Combining resistors
SA Worked example 3.13 and 3.14 to be tackled with a partner. Feed back ideas on solution
before given solution revealed.
MA With a partner, make a poster to summarise the three lessons in this topic.
CA Review questions to be tackled with a partner.

66 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

Activities
• Connect resistors in a range of series circuits; study current and p.d. at various
points.
• Connect resistors in a range of parallel circuits; study current and p.d. at
various points.
• Show how more complex circuits can include a variety of series and parallel
components; suggest uses.

Resources
http://physics.bu.edu/py106/notes/Circuits.html

Where next
Find circuits with practical applications which use both series and parallel elements.
Discuss these with the students. If there is time, introduce Kirchhoff ’s laws.
With lamps connected in series, if one bulb fails, the circuit is broken and all the
lights go out. This problem is avoided if the lamps are connected in parallel instead
You can check the currents by placing ammeters in the circuit as shown.

A 3A A
5A A 5A

A
2A
The readings next to the ammeters are a possible set of values that you might
obtain. When the current gets to the fork in the circuit, if the two branches are
identical the flow will split up evenly. With the circuit as drawn, the upper branch
must provide the easier route for the charge to flow through, which is why more of
the current takes that path. Whatever way it splits up, though, notice that the two
currents in the separate branches add up to the current approaching the junction.
Each second 5 coulombs of charge arrive there: 3 coulombs take one route, so the
other 2 coulombs must take the other route. This is Kirchhoff ’s current law.
Set up a circuit like Figure 3.6 below. The resistors may be light bulbs, lengths of
resistance wire, variable resistors or whatever you have handy. You do not need
four voltmeters; one will do, moved to each of the four locations in turn.
(1)
V

V
(2)

V (3) V (4)

See what your circuit gives, but one possible set of readings are these: (1) 6 V; (2)
0 V; (3) 2 V; (4) 4 V. Your readings will differ, but the two points you should agree
on are these:
1. There is no voltage drop down a conducting lead.

Grade 10 67
Unit 3: Current electricity

2. The voltage drops across each resistor in series add up to the voltage of the
battery.
This is known as Kirchhoff ’s voltage law.

Answers to review questions

1. a) 0.7 A
b) 0.5 A
c) 0.7 A
The bulb shown by the arrow will be brightest, this is because it has the largest
current passing through it.

Figure 3.5 The current splits at

the junction in the circuit

2. a) 4 A
b) 6 A
Each bulb has a difference resistance. More current will pass through a
bulb which has a small resistance than will flow through a bulb with a high
resistance.
3. c) 2.5 A
d) 5 A
The bulbs through which a current of 5 A passes will be brighter than those
through which a current of 2.5 A passes.
4.

Figure 3.6 Investigating voltage drops

in a series circuit

5. a) 2 Ω
b) 3 Ω
c) 2 A
6. 3 Ω
7. 20 Ω; 2.5 A
8. a) 6 Ω
b) 2 A
9. (Question 10 in the Students' Book)
a) 150 Ω
b) 0.02 A = 20 mA
c) 1 V

68 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

3.4 E.m.f. and internal resistance of a cell This section should

fill approximately
3 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define the electromotive force of a cell.
• Distinguish between e.m.f. and terminal p.d. of a cell.
• Write the relationship between e.m.f., p.d., current and internal
resistance in a circuit.
• Use the equation V = E – Ir to solve problems in a circuit.
• Identify cell combinations in series and parallel.
• Compare the e.m.f. of combinations of cells in series and parallel.

Starting off
Remind students about electromotive force (e.m.f., introduced in Section 3.1).
Remind students that a voltmeter measures the potential between two points.

Teaching notes
a Test the p.d. across the terminals of a cell.
b Connect the cell into a circuit and test the p.d. across the cell.
Show the pupils that the reading taken in b is lower than that in a. Encourage
students to think about what is happening in a and b. In a there is no flow of
electric current, while in b, the cell is driving current through a circuit. In Section
3.2 students have seen and measured the p.d. across resistors. Encourage them to
realise that there is a resistance inside the cell that is causing the reading in b to be
lower than that in a. The resistance inside the cell is known as internal resistance
and is shown using the variable r. Internal resistance should be taken into account
when performing calculations in a circuit.
Show that the e.m.f. (E) of a cell equals the p.d. across the total resistance in the
circuit (total p.d. in the circuit = p.d. across the cell’s internal resistance r plus p.d.
across any external resistor R). OR E = p.d. across cell + p.d. across resistor, and
using Ohm’s law V = IR:
E = Ir + IR, which can be rearranged to give (for example) voltage (V) across
resistor V = E – Ir
Demonstrate to students (and then let them try themselves if possible) what
happens if more than one cell is linked together in a circuit. Try several
arrangements.
1. Connect two cells positive to negative in series with a light bulb. Connect one
or two more cells (again positive to negative) in the circuit and make sure
students realise the bulb glows more brightly.
2. Using the circuit from 1, connect one or more of the cells positive to positive
and let the students see the light glowing less brightly. Explain that this is
because the cells are trying to push the current against each other and will
cancel each other out.

Grade 10 69
Unit 3: Current electricity

3. Experiment with cells connected in parallel and see what happens to the
brightness of the light bulb. The students will see that the light glows as
brightly, however many cells are connected.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Electromotive force and terminal voltage
SA With a partner, write a definition of electromotive force. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 3.7 in a small group.
CA Discuss results of activity 3.7 in small group.
2. Emf, current and internal resistance
SA With a partner, discuss the meaning of the term ‘internal resistance’. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, consider Figure 3.46 and try and derive an expression for E, the cell’s emf,
in terms of I, V, R and r.
CA Worked example 3.15 to be tackled with a partner. Feed back ideas on solution before given
solution revealed.
3. Combinations of cells
SA With a partner, discuss Figure 3.47. What do you think the total emf would be in each case
if one cell has an emf of 1.5 V?
MA Activity 3.8 in small group.
CA Review questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Measure the e.m.f. and the terminal p.d. of a cell.
• Connect cells together in series and in parallel, and measure the voltage of the
resulting battery of cells.

Resources
http://science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c123/emf.html
http://fizzics.co.uk/emf.aspx
www.batteryuniversity.com/partone-24.htm

Where next
When connecting cells in parallel and discovering that the light bulb in the circuit
glows as brightly however many cells are connected (step 3 above), students will
wonder what difference the number of cells makes. The answer is that the bulb
will burn for longer when several cells are connected in parallel than if a single
cell is used.

Answers to review questions

1. Think of electric current as a flow of positive charges around a circuit. These
are ‘pushed’ from the ‘+’ terminal of a cell, around the circuit and ‘pulled
towards’ the ‘–’ terminal of the other cell.
a) If the ‘+’ terminals of both cells were connected together, they would be
‘pushing’ against each other and no charges would flow around the circuit.
b) An ammeter is specially designed to allow current to flow very easily though
it in one direction, and if it flows the other way, the current ‘twists’ the
70 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

ammeter in the wrong direction and damages it. To stop this happening, one
terminal of the ammeter is marked with a ‘+’ to show which terminal should
be connected to the ‘+’ side of the cell. 
2. 0.6 A
3. a) 1 A b) 0.6 A
4. a) Where the voltmeter is connected in the diagram is effectively the same
as connecting it between A and B, as there is no resistance between the
connection points at A or B.
b) 2 A c) 3 V
5. a) 5 A b) 60 V

3.5 Electric energy and power This section should

fill approximately
2 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define electrical energy and power in an electrical circuit.
• Find the relationship between KWh and joule.
2
• Use P = VI = V__ = I2R to solve problems in electric circuits.
R 2
• Use W = VIt = I2Rt = V__ to calculate electric energy dissipated in an
R
electric circuit.
• Calculate cost of electrical energy expressed in KWh.

Starting off
It will stimulate debate if students share their ideas about which electrical
appliances use most electricity.

Teaching notes
Forget the usual meanings of the word ‘power’: they might confuse. The meaning
of power here is: The rate at which work is being done, or the rate at which energy
is being supplied or converted. Put another way, power is anything that can be
measured in the units joules per second (J/s), known as watts. Ask students to
list (from highest consumption to lowest) such appliances as – sewing machine,
heater, air conditioner, electric drill, food mixer, light bulb, computer, television,
refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, floor polisher – and then find out the actual power
ratings and see how they compare to initial assumptions. Using data for supply
voltage and power ratings discovered above, discover the current drawn by
various appliances. Find the cost of electricity per unit and calculate the cost of
running several of the appliances studied above.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Electrical energy and power
SA With a partner, attempt to define electrical energy and power. Feed back ideas.
MA Worked examples 3.16−3.19 to be tackled with a partner. Feed back ideas on solution before
given solution revealed.

Grade 10 71
Unit 3: Current electricity

CA With a partner, discuss which appliances should be investigated in Activity 3.9. Carry out
the activity at home.
2. Cost of electrical energy
SA Discuss results of activity 3.9 with a Partner. Work out how much each appliance costs to
run for 1 hour.
MA Worked examples 3.20−3.23 to be tackled with a partner. Feed back ideas on solution before
given solution revealed.
CA Review questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
Research electrical appliances at home and in school. Observe the power ratings
associated with them. (Could try finding out how power ratings have changed –
e.g. light bulbs, efficiencies.) Look at electricity bills.

Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elepow.html
www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Basic/Basic6PE.html

Where next
Introduce the concept of efficiency. If possible, find equivalent appliances with
different power ratings – one example could be the ‘old fashioned’ tungsten
filament light bulb compared with the compact fluorescent light bulb – and
discuss the value of using appliances which do a comparable job but use less
power. If possible, students could find out more about James Prescott Joule and
James Watt.

Answers to review questions

1. Students' own answers.
Energy Possible energy Possible economies
requirement sources
Lighting electricity, candles,
low energy light bulbs, making the best
electric torch use of daylight
Heat fire, electricity improving insulation, wearing more
clothes to keep warm
TV, computer, electricity using the equipment less and switching
games off when not using
Cooking electricity, gas, fire covering cooking pots while cooking

72 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

2. Students' own answers.

Energy Possible energy Possible economies
requirement sources
Lighting electricity low energy lighting, making sure the
school is built with big windows to
make the most of the natural light
Heating gas, electricity improving insulation, wearing more
clothes
Cooling electricity (fans or making sure the building is designed so
air conditioning) that it doesn’t get too hot
3. a) 5 A b) 150 W c) 2.5 A d) 75 W e) 37.5 W
The voltage supplied to both circuits is the same. The current flowing round
the second circuit is half that flowing round the first circuit. The heat produced
in the two 6 Ω resistors in the second circuit combined is therefore half that
produced in the single 6 Ω resistor in the first circuit and the heat produced
in one of the two resistors in the second circuit is thus one quarter of that
produced by the resistor in the first circuit.

3.6 Electric installation and safety rules This section should

fill approximately
2 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Understand the dangers of mains electricity.
• Have some awareness of safety features incorporated in mains electrical
installations.
• Understand the nature of the generation and supply of electricity in Ethiopia.
• Consider employment prospects in Ethiopia’s electricity industry.

Starting off
Remind students that the work they did in Sections 3.1 – 3.4 was concerned with
small voltage direct current supplied by cells and batteries of cells. The electricity
considered in Section 3.5 was mains electricity, supplied by Ethiopia’s power
stations. This is at a high voltage and is therefore potentially very dangerous,
hence the need for safety devices.

Teaching notes
Discuss the importance of earthing electrical equipment. Demonstrate the
action of a fuse (allowing the students to do this themselves if possible). After
the students have researched into the safety features in Ethiopia’s electrical
supply, discuss specific safety features used in Ethiopia’s electricity system. (Three
pin plugs incorporating an earth wire.) After the students have researched the
methods of power generation used in Ethiopia (hydro, solar, fossil fuel) discuss
the advantages and disadvantages of these methods.

Grade 10 73
Unit 3: Current electricity

Method Advantage Disadvantage

Hydro Constant supply, Only possible near river – need power
provided no shortage lines to distribute to other places; power
of rainfall lines are expensive to build and power is
lost in distribution.
Solar Conditions in Only available during daylight; battery
Ethiopia are suitable storage would be necessary at night.
Fossil fuel Can locate power Expensive (imported) fuel required,
station near demand which contributes to manmade global
warming.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Electrical safety
SA Activity 3.10 in small group.
MA Engineering project on page 116 of Student Book in small groups.
CA Review questions to be tackled with a partner.
End of unit questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Testing the action of a fuse.
• Researching safety features.
• Researching the sources of power generation in Ethiopia.

Resources
http://waltainfo.com/EEPCO/about.htm
http://ethioelectricagency.org/about.html
(solar) www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=solar_home-basics
(solar) www.solar4schools.co.uk/parents/Solar-Explained
(hydro) www.darvill.clara.net/altenerg/hydro.htm
(wind) www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20050309/Feature1.asp
(wind) www.alliantenergykids.com/EnergyandTheEnvironment/
RenewableEnergy/022397
(wind) www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=wind_home-basics
(fuse) www.explainthatstuff.com/fuses.html (has some adverts)
(domestic electricity safety features) www.furryelephant.com/content/electricity/
domestic-electricity/

Where next
Remind students of the conversion of energy from one form to another. Introduce
the concept of regenerative braking (the process of converting kinetic energy into
a form of energy that can be used or stored, rather than dissipating it as heat).
Discuss the hybrid motor engineering project – in particular the way the ‘electric
brakes’ in the car convert energy by recharging the battery. Also, the conversion of
energy into rotational energy in the fly wheel.

74 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

If time permits, investigate the way in which electricity can be produced from
wind (Unit 5 will introduce the generation of electricity from light [solar power]).
An electric motor consists of a coil of wire that can spin on an axle in a magnetic
field. If electricity is supplied to the coil of wire, it spins, turning the axle, which
can then be used to power other machines. If, instead, the axle is turned, the coil
of wire turns in the magnetic field and electricity is generated in the coil.
In this experiment wind power (from a hair dryer) turns a propeller attached to
the axle of an electric motor and electricity is generated by the electric motor at
different wind speeds.
Take a small motor (for example 1.5 v 200 mA) with 2 mm axle diameter, a Air Voltage
propeller to push fit onto 2 mm axle, a voltmeter or multimeter, 2 crocodile clip speed reading
leads, a hair dryer or other air blower with at least three different air speeds Insert slow
the axle of the electric motor into the hole in the centre of the propeller. Ensure it
is held firmly. Attach crocodile clip leads to the connections on the electric motor. medium
Attach the other ends of the crocodile clip leads to a multimeter (or voltmeter). fast
Switch the hair dryer to a slow speed and record the voltage reading in the table.
Adjust the setting of the hair dryer and record the voltage in the table. A higher
voltage will be recorded when a faster wind speed is used. This follows from
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
An electric motor can therefore also act as a generator. The energy to turn the
axle of a generator can come from many sources in addition to wind. Many power
stations use the steam generated from the heat of either burning fossil fuels (fossil
fuel power) or from decaying nuclear fuels (nuclear power). The energy from
falling water is also used to rotate turbines that power generators (hydro power).
There are places in which the ability of a generator to act in opposite directions
is very useful. If there is a reservoir at the top of a mountain and there is a lake
at the bottom, water can be stored in the reservoir at the top and used to run
the generators when electricity is needed. When demand for electricity is low,
electricity can be used to run the generator as a pump, which raises the water to
the reservoir at the top of the hill.
For an example of one such system, in Scotland, follow this link:
www.scottishpower.com/uploads/CruachanPowerStation.pdf

Answers to review questions

1. a) The kettle is earthed so that if a fault develops any dangerous large current
would run harmlessly to earth.
b) The fuse breaks the curcuit if the current is such that the circuit overheats.
2. a) i) MCBs are used instead of fuses in some appliances.
ii) An ECLB is used instead of a fuse in a domestic electricity supply board.
b) i) MCBs cut off the power if there is a fault which causes the appliance to
overheat. They can be re-set when the appliance cools down.
ii) ECLBs cut off the supply very quickly if a fault occurs. They are also
useful to prevent injury when using electrical equipment outdoors
since they will cut off the power supply quickly if the power cable is cut
accidentally.

Grade 10 75
Unit 3: Current electricity

Answers to End of Unit Questions

1. 9 A
2. 19 Ω
3. a) The ammeter should be in series not in parallel.
b) 4 Ω 1.5 A
c) 0 V

a
d) almost 0 A (resistance of voltmeter is very high)
4. a)
A

V

b)
Current 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
I p.d. 1.4 2.6 3.9 5.5 7.4 9.7 12.6
R 3.5 4.3 4.9 5.5 6.2 6.9 7.9

R
V c) Use the following points to plot on ordinary graph paper I
(0.4, 3.5) (0.6, 4.3) (0.8, 4.9) (1.0, 5.5) (1.2, 6.2) (1.4, 6.9) (1.6, 7.9)
10.0
Resistance of the bulb (R)

8.0

6.0
Resistance of
the bulb (V/I)
4.0

2.0

0.0
0 1 2
Current through the bulb (I)

The bulb’s resistance increases as the current increases. This is because it
becomes hotter. When the current is zero, the bulb cools down, but still has
a positive value for resistance, so the graph will not go through the origin.
d) about 2 Ω
5. 1.5 Ω

76 Grade 10
 Unit 3: Current electricity

6.
brass cap
pitch (to seal the battery)
carbon rod (+)
fine mixture of powdered carbon and
manganese (depolarizing agent)
saturated solution of ammonium
cholride (electrolyte) in paste form
zinc case (–)

The brass cap protects the carbon rod. The manganese dioxide converts the
hydrogen that builds up as a result of polarisation to water.
7. 0.06 Ω
8. a) 12 V
b) 180 C
R but R × l i.e. Ω m.
9. The units are not __
l
10.

It does not matter where the switch is positioned. The components are all in
series so the current passes through each in turn.
11. a) 3 A
b) 39 V
c) 13 Ω
12. 3 A, 5 A
13. a) 1 A, 2 A, 3 A
b) 6 A
c) 1 Ω
d) _R1 = _21 + _61 + _31
3+1+2 =6 =1Ω– the same result
=
6 6

14. a) 0.5 A, 3.75 V

b) 8 A, 0 V

Grade 10 77
 Electromagnetism Unit 4

This unit should Learning Competencies for Unit 4

fill approximately
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
20 periods of
teaching time. • Investigate the domain theory of magnetism.
• Describe a magnetic field.
• Perform and describe an experiment to demonstrate the existence of a
magnetic field around a current-carrying wire.
• Sketch the resulting magnetic field lines pattern of a current-carrying
wire.
• Apply the right-hand rule to determine the direction of magnetic field
lines around a straight current-carrying wire.
• Calculate the magnetic field strength at a point due to a straight current-
carrying wire.
• Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern of a current loop.
• Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern of a solenoid.
• Specify the polarity of a solenoid using the right-hand rule.
• Calculate the magnetic field strength at the centre of a solenoid.
• Describe the factors on which the force on a moving charge in a magnetic
field depend.
• Demonstrate the relation B = mv
__ from the fact that the centripetal force
qR
is provided by the magnetic force.
• Calculate the magnetic force acting on a moving charge in a uniform
magnetic field.
• Determine the direction of a force acting on a moving charge using the
left-hand rule.
• Demonstrate the existence of a force on a straight current-carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field.
• Derive the expression F = BIlsinθ from F = qvBsinθ.
• Apply the left-hand rule to determine what will happen when current
flows perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
• Calculate the magnitude and direction of force between two parallel
current-carrying conductors in a uniform magnetic field.
• Define the SI unit ampere.
• Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on a rectangular current-
carrying wire in a uniform magnetic field.
• Draw diagrams to show the action of a force on a simple d.c. motor and a
moving coil galvonometer.

78 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

• Define magnetic flux and its SI unit.

• State Faraday’s law of induction.
• Perform simple experiments that demonstrate an induced e.m.f. caused by
changing magnetic flux.
• State Lenz’s law.
• Indicate the direction of induced currents, given the direction of motion
of the conductor and the direction of a magnetic field.
• Describe the factors that affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a
conductor.
• Describe the link between electricity and magnetism.
• Apply Faraday’s law to calculate the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
• Define inductance and its SI unit.
• Distinguish between self- and mutual inductance.
• Apply the definition of inductance to solve simple numerical problems.
• Explain the action of the simple a.c. generator.
• Compare the actions of d.c. and a.c. generators.
• Draw a diagram of a transformer.
• Give a simple explanation of the principles on which a transformer
operates.
• Identify that, for an ideal transformer, Pout = Pin.
• Show that, for an ideal transformer, Vs /Vp = Ns /Np.
• Apply the transformer formulae to solve simple problems.

4.1 Magnetism This section should

fill approximately
6 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Investigate the domain theory of magnetism.

Activity 4.1: Answer

Starting off
Students should find
Students learnt about the magnetic force in Grade 9. Activity 4.1 gives them the
that like poles repel
opportunity to revisit this. Move on to discuss the Earth’s magnetic field and
and opposite poles
arrange for the students to carry out Activity 4.2 in small groups outside. attract.

Teaching notes Activity 4.2: Answer

This section centres on magnetic domains. To help students to understand the Students’ own
first section explaining the nature of magnetic domains, you could ask a group of results.
students to stand up and face a partner. This would be the analogy for

Grade 10 79
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

Figure 4.1a). Now ask the students to turn so that they all face in the same
direction (i.e. they are facing the back of the person in front of them). This is the
analogy for Figure 4.1b).
Activity 4.3 should be done in small groups if possible. Tell the students to take
Activity 4.3: Answer care with the iron filings as they will stain clothing. Encourage students to discuss
Students’ own their observations in their small groups and then bring the class back together to
results. discuss the results. Finally students should be given the opportunity to explain the
results to a partner in their own words in order to consolidate understanding.
Activity 4.4: Answer Point out to students that a magnet may become weaker over time, as explained
in the Students’ Book. Activity 4.4 requires Bunsen burners and associated safety
Students’ own precautions. Do make sure that students are aware of these before the activity
results. begins. Ask the students why the second (unheated) nail should be put on the
bar magnet for the same length of time as the first nail. This concept, of a fair
Activity 4.5: Answer test, is an important one for students to grasp and should be practised at every
opportunity in order to develop competent experimental scientists.
Students’ own
results. As with the previous activity, give the students the opportunity to discuss, and
attempt to explain, their observations in their small groups, before bringing the
class back together to talk about the results.
Activity 4.6: Answer The section moves on to discuss magnetic shielding. You may want to give
Students’ own students the opportunity to do some independent research into magnetic
results. shielding and where it is used in real life before they carry out Activity 4.5 and
Activity 4.6 in small groups. Before they attempt Activity 4.6, ask students for
ideas about how they can make this a fair test. For example, if the paper cup had
thicker paper than the plastic cup had plastic, would the test be fair? If not, why
not? (It would not be fair because the results could be influenced by the extra
thickness of paper rather than the nature of the materials themselves.)

Activities
• The force between two bar magnets.
• Using a compass.
• Investigating domains, magnetisation and demagnetisation.
• Magnetisation by heating and cooling.
• Magnetic shielding.
• Investigating which material makes the best magnetic shield.

Resources
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/magnetism.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/11924/emagnet.html

Where next?
The next section considers the magnetic field. It considers the magnetic fields
that are generated by electric currents. Students will need the skills learnt in this
section to carry out the activities.

80 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. The magnetic force
SA Activity 4.1 with a partner.
MA Activity 4.2 in a small group.
CA Review question 1 to be tackled with a partner.
2. What are magnetic domains?
SA Small groups of 6 students act as ‘human domains’. Arms spread wide, left hand ‘north’ and
right hand ‘south’. Arrange themselves as in Figure 4.2 a and b in Student Book.
MA Activity 4.3 in a small group.
CA Try to explain results of activity 4.3 to a partner.
Review questions 2−3 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Magnetisation by heating and cooling
SA In a small group, discuss pages 122−123 of Student Book.
MA Activity 4.4 in small groups.
CA Review questions 4−5 to be tackled with a partner.
4. Magnetic shielding
SA In a small group, think of situations where magnetic shielding may be used. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.5 in small groups.
Activity 4.6 in small groups.
CA Review question 6 to be tackled with a partner.

Answers to review questions

1. A compass needle is like a small suspended bar magnet. Its north seeking pole
will point to the Earth’s north pole.
2. a) Imagine a piece of steel to be made up of a huge number of invisibly small
magnets. In an ordinary unmagnetised piece of steel, the little magnets are
there, but they are in clusters rather like you would get if you threw a large
number of small bar magnets into a box. The ‘N’ end of one magnet is up
against the ‘S’ end of another, and the two effectively cancel each other out
(see Figure 4.1a). These are magnetic domains. S
S N S N N
b) Figure 4.1b) shows the steel when it is Nfully magnetised.
S There are a large
N S test tube

number of north poles at one end of the Sbar,Nand the sameSnumber

N S N of south
poles at the other. iron filings

compass

S N S N S N N SN SN SN S N S S
N S
N S N S N S Figure 4.2
S N S N S N N S

N Figure
SN SN 4.1
SN S N S S angle of deflection
N S
3.N Fill a test tube two-thirds full withS iron filings or shredded steel wool and
N bring the end of the tube towardsSfirst the north end of a compass needle and
then the south end as shown in Figure 4.2.
Record the maximum angle to which the needle is deflected (see Figure 4.3). Figure 4.3

Grade 10 81
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

Now stroke the tube 50 times with a permanent magnet and repeat the
procedure. Record the results.
Finally, shake the tube vigorously for one minute (make sure the tube is firmly
sealed otherwise the iron filings will go everywhere)! Record the results.
4. The tiny magnets, or domains, of the nail, are the individual atoms that make
up the nail. These atoms will be moving slightly from a given position, and
as the nail is heated they will move more and more. By heating the nail until
it is red hot, you cause all the domains to jumble up. As the nail cools on
a permanent magnet, the jumbled-up domains line up again and the nail
becomes magnetised again.
5. Place the nail on a permanent magnet. The permanent magnet will cause the
domains to line up so that the nail becomes magnetised.
6. Cut the bottoms from two paper cups of different sizes, two plastic cups of
different sizes and two tin cans of different sizes.
Place a compass on a table and record the direction of magnetic north. Now
place two bar magnets 7 cm to the east and west of the compass so that the
north pole of one faces the south pole of the other, as shown in Figure 4.4.
Record the angle of deflection.

7cm 7cm

Figure 4.4
Now remove the magnets and place a tin can over the compass. Put the
magnets back in the same position as shown in Figure 4.5.
tin can over compass

7cm 7cm

angle of deflection
Figure 4.5
Record the angle of deflection. Remove the magnets and place a second can
over the first so that the compass is now shielded by two cans. Replace the
magnets. Record the angle of deflection.
Repeat this procedure using first the plastic cups and then the paper cups.
Place your results in a table like this:

Shielding material Angle of deflection of compass

No shield
One tin can
Two tin cans
One plastic cup
Two plastic cups
One paper cup
Two paper cups

82 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

The best magnetic shield is the combination with the smallest angle of deflection
of the compass.

4.2 Concepts of magnetic field This section should

fill approximately
3 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Describe a magnetic field.
• Perform and describe an experiment to demonstrate the existence of a
magnetic field around a current-carrying wire.
• Sketch the resulting magnetic field lines pattern of a current-carrying wire.
• Apply the right-hand rule to determine the direction of magnetic field
lines around a straight current-carrying wire.
• Calculate the magnetic field strength at a point due to a straight current-
carrying wire.
• Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern of a current loop.
• Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern of a solenoid.
• Specify the polarity of a solenoid using the right-hand rule.
• Calculate the magnetic field strength at the centre of a solenoid.

Starting off
Remind students about their learning in Section 2.2 about electric fields. Give
a short quiz to make sure that this learning is brought to the front of students’
minds as there are parallels between electric and magnetic fields which they
will need to appreciate later in the unit. You could use Activity 2.2 as the basis
for this quizTeaching notes

Teaching notes Activity 4.7: Answer

The section begins by answering the question ‘What is a magnetic field?’. Activity Students’ own
4.7 gives students an opportunity to observe a magnetic field – that of a bar results.
magnet. Activity 4.8 extends this to three dimensions.
We move on to consider magnetic fields that exist around electric currents. Activity 4.8: Answer
Activity 4.9 requires students to use compasses to plot the magnetic field around
a current-carrying wire. This is an important concept, so allow plenty of time for Students’ own
this activity and for discussion of the results. results.

The right-hand rule needs to be explained carefully. Go through the worked

example to make sure students understand how to use the rule. Give further Activity 4.9: Answer
examples and ask students to predict the direction of the field lines. Students’ own
We now consider magnetic field strength, given the symbol B. The first arrangement results.
we consider is a simple current F1 carrying wire. The relationship
F = BIL is important and students should have opportunities to work with it,
as in the worked example 4.2. Check that all students are comfortable with the

Grade 10 83
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

mathematical manipulation of the equation to each of the variables the subject: if

necessary, work through the rearrangement to make B, then I, then L the subjects in
turn, so that students get used to the process. Give further practice using examples
like the worked example as necessary – at this stage the numbers do not need to be
complicated, it is the process of manipulation of the equation that is important.
Activity 4.10 gives students an opportunity to plot the magnetic field of a current
Activity 4.10: Answer
loop. It would be worth promoting discussion on the similarities and differences
Students’ own between this field and the field the students plotted in Activity 4.9. Activity 4.10
results. gives a good introduction to the next section, which is the magnetic field of a
solenoid, which is basically several loops of current.
A solenoid is an electromagnet – it is magnetic when a current flows through its
coils but not when the current is switched off.
Solenoids are used in practical applications: for example, at certain stages of a
cycle in a washing machine, the solenoid attached to a spring turns on a tap to
admit more water.
The strength of a magnetic field in a solenoid includes a term µ0 – the permeability
of free space. Students should not worry too much about precisely what this
means at this stage – the value will always be given in questions requiring
calculations to be carried out.
Work through the worked example carefully and note that the answer has been
given in terms of π, as π appears in the defined value of the permeability of free
space. Give further examples as necessary until students are comfortable with the
formula and can manipulate it to change the subject as required.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Magnetic fields
SA With a partner, students discuss what they think a magnetic field is. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.7 in small groups.
Activity 4.8 in small groups.
CA Write a report on the activities.
2. Magnetic fields around a current−carrying wire
SA With a partner discuss ‘what is an electric current?’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.9 in small groups.
CA Review questions 1−4 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Magnetic field of a current loop
SA In a small group, discuss what factors affect the strength of a magnetic field around a
current loop. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.10 in a small group.
CA Review questions 5−6 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Magnetic fields in two dimensions.
• Magnetic fields in three dimensions.
• Plotting the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying wire.
• Finding the magnetic field of a current loop.

84 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy–astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magcon.html
http://www.studyphysics.ca/2007/30/06_forces_fields/18_apply_mag.pdf

Where next?
The next section considers the magnetic force. It shows how the force on a
magnetic field has practical applications in devices such as motors.

Answers to review questions

1 a) A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic force may be exerted. Put
a compass down in a magnetic field and it will experience a force making it
set in a particular direction.
b) Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
clamp stand

clamp

paper

Switch on the current and then use a compass to plot the field lines.

2. a) b)

c)

Diagram 1
3.

Grade 10 85
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

F = 36 = 2 T
4. F = BIL so B = __
IL 6 × 3

5. a) S S N S N
b) N
SN S N S N S N S N SN
S
N N S N S
N
N S N
S N
S N S NS N
S
S
N
N
S
S

6. B = µ0NI = 4π × 10−7 H m–1 × 5000 × 5 = 0.01 π T

This section should 4.3 Magnetic force

fill approximately
6 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Describe the factors on which the force on a moving charge in a magnetic
field depend.
mv
• Demonstrate the relation B = __ from the fact that the centripetal force
qR
is provided by the magnetic force.
• Calculate the magnetic force acting on a moving charge in a uniform
magnetic field.
• Determine the direction of a force acting on a moving charge using
left-hand rule.
• Demonstrate the existence of a force on a straight current-carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field.
• Derive the expression F = BIlsinθ from F = qvBsinθ.
• Apply the left-hand rule to determine what will happen when current
flows perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
• Calculate the magnitude and direction of force between two parallel
current-carrying conductors in a uniform magnetic field.
• Define the SI unit ampere.
• Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on a rectangular current-
carrying wire in a uniform magnetic field.
• Draw diagrams to show the action of a force on a simple d.c. motor and a
moving coil galvonometer.

Starting off
The first two sections of this section require students to remember prior learning:
first of all F = BIL from the last section, and then the equation for centripetal

force, F = mv Make sure that these two equations are in the front of students’
2.

R
minds by asking questions to draw these equations from them – you could do
this in the form of a quiz. For example, what is the equation to find the force on a
current-carrying wire? What is the equation for the centripetal force?

86 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

Teaching notes Activity 4.11: Answer

The first section describes the factors that affect the force on a single charge Start by equating
moving in a magnetic field of strength B. The force depends on the strength of the mv2
F = ___ and F = Bqv
magnetic field, B, the size of the charge, q, and the velocity, v. This is summarised
R
in the equation F = Bqv.
mv2 = Bqv
to give ___
We then move on to consider the centripetal force experienced by a charge in a
R
magnetic field, which will move in a circular path (this is used in equipment such
as mass spectrometers, which are used to identify chemicals in samples). Activity We can divide each
4.11 requires students to work with a partner to derive the expression side by v to give
mv
__ = Bq
B = mv R
qR. Finally we divide
Work through the worked example slowly, asking students to explain each step in each side by q to
their own words. You may prefer to set the problem without the solution and see give mv
__ = B as
qR
how students go about solving it. This is useful formative assessment. required.
Activity 4.12 gives students the opportunity to explore the motor effect. Give
plenty of time for this and, if possible, allow the students to work in groups so Activity 4.12: Answer
that they can discuss their observations. Encourage them to try and explain what
Students’ own
they see in their group before bringing the whole class back together to discuss the results.
explanation given in the Students’ Book.
Fleming’s left-hand rule should be explained carefully. Make sure that students do Activity 4.13: Answer
not confuse it with the right-hand rule introduced earlier!
Start with F = Bqv
We now revisit a current-carrying conductor and discuss how the force varies and F = BIL
according to the angle between the wire and the field. This means Bqv =
Activity 4.13 gives students the opportunity to derive the expression F = qvBsinθ BIL

We now consider the force between two parallel current-carrying conductors. In We can therefore
Activity 4.14 students are given the opportunity to observe this force. This is an replace the ‘BIL’ part
important step as the unit of current, the ampere, is defined using this technique. of F = BILsinθ with
Bqv to give
From parallel current-carrying conductors we move on to a rectangular current-
F = qvBsinθ as
carrying wire. Again, do not rush this section as students need to have a thorough required.
understanding of this in order to understand how the electric motor works.
The section finishes by considering how the apparatus for a motor can be adapted Activity 4.14: Answer
to measure current in the moving coil galvanometer.
Students’ own
results.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Magnetic fields and the centripetal force
SA With a partner, write down the centripetal force equation and the equation for the force on a
moving charged particle.
MA Activity 4.11 with a partner.
CA Review questions 1−2 to be tackled with a partner.
2. The motor effect
SA With a partner, discuss what ‘motor’ means. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.12 in small groups.
CA Review questions 3−4 to be tackled with a partner.

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Unit 4: Electromagnetism

3. The force on a current−carrying conductor

SA With a partner, discuss the factors that determine the force on a current−carrying wire. Feed
back ideas.
MA Activity 4.13 with a partner.
CA Review question 5 to be tackled with a partner.
4. The force between two current−carrying conductors
SA With a partner, write a definition of the ampere. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.14 in a small group.
CA Review questions 6−7 to be tackled with a partner.
5. The electric motor
SA With a partner, discuss and summarise Student Book pages 136−137.
MA With a partner, produce a poster to explain how an electric motor works.
CA Review questions 8−9 to be tackled with a partner.
6. The moving coil galvonometer
SA With a partner, write a list of uses of a galvanometer. Feed back ideas.
MA With a partner, produce a presentation to explain how a moving coil galvanometer works.
CA Review question 10 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Deriving B = mv
__
qR
• Demonstrating the motor effect
• Deriving F = qvBsinθ from F = BILsinθ
• Demonstrating the force between two parallel current-carrying conductors.

Resources
http://hyperphysics.phy_astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfor.html
http://www.ricat.edu/~yhn/phys226/Ch21A.pdf

Where next?
The next section extends the work in this section by considering electromagnetic
induction. We look at transformers and students are given the opportunity to
build an a.c. motor.

Answers to review questions

1. The factors on which the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field depend
are: the size of the magnetic field, the size of the charge, q, and its velocity, v.
Therefore, for a single charge, the force is given by
F = Bqv
2. A particle of mass m carries a charge q and is travelling with a velocity v. It
enters a region where there is a perpendicular magnetic field of flux density B.
a) F = Bqv

88 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

b) The path of the particle due to this force will be a circle because when you
apply Fleming’s left-hand rule, the deflection of the particle is such that its
path is a circle.
mv2
c) F = Bqv = ___ r
mv 2
Bqv = ___
r

Divide both sides by v

mv


Bq = ___
r

Multiply both sides by r

Bqr = mv
Divide both sides by Bq
mv
r = = ___

Bq

d) r = 9.1 × 10
–31 kg × 4.5 × 107 m s–1
= 0.0128 m
0.02 × –1.6 × 10–19 C


3. The arrows on magnetic lines of force show the direction of the force
experienced by the north pole of a magnet. The south pole of the magnet will
be pushed the opposite way.
Figure 4.12a shows the magnetic field due to the current. When the current
flows, both magnets will be pushed downwards. The magnets are usually
fixed in position. By Newton’s third law, if they are being pushed down, the
current in the wire will experience an equal sized push upwards (see Figure
4.12b)). This is the motor effect.

4. The Flemings right-hand rule is used to predict the direction of the movement Figure 4.12
produced by the motor effect (see Figure 4.13). Hold the thumb and first
two fingers of your left hand at right angles to each other. If the First finger
points along the magnetic Field and the second finger shows the Conventional
Current, then the THumb points in the direction of the Thrust (movement).
5. The factors that determine the size of a force on a current-carrying conductor
are:
• the current
• the length of the wire Figure 4.13
• the strength of the magnet.
6. Two parallel wires each carrying a current will interact with each other. If the
currents are both flowing the same way they attract one another; with currents
going opposite ways they repel (see Figure 4.14).
The current in one wire creates a magnetic field that extends out to where the
second wire is. The current in this second wire then experiences a force due to
the motor effect.
Set up the equipment so that current flows as in Figure 4.14. First have the Figure 4.14
current in each wire flowing in the same direction and then reverse the
direction of one of the currents.

Grade 10 89
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

7. If one ampere is flowing in each of two parallel wires 1 m apart in a vacuum

then the force on each wire due to the other will be exactly 2 × 10–7 N on every
metre length.
8. a) F
 = BIAN where F = force, B = magnetic field strength, I = current, A = area
of coil N = number of turns
b) F = 0.2 T × 1 A × 0.025 m2 × 100 = 0.5 N
9. The left-hand rule will predict the directions of the forces, as shown in Figure
4.15.

Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16 shows a coil carrying a current in a magnetic field. Figure 4.17
analyses the same coil by using Fleming’s left-hand rule. It starts as in a, the
forces causing it to rotate. After a quarter of a turn b the forces acting on the
wires might distort the coil, but they will no longer turn it. If you pushed
the coil round a bit more, the forces on the coil would simply return it to the
upright position c.

Figure 4.16 Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18

If by the time the coil reached the position in c the battery leads to it could be
reversed, so the current flowed the other way, the situation would become that
shown in Figure 4.18 and the coil would continue to rotate.
To lead the current into the coil, and to reverse its direction automatically at
the right moment, the coil ends up in two segments of metal called a split-ring
commutator (see Figure 4.19). The two wires from the battery end in brushes,
which press against each of the segments of the commutator.
In cheap motors these brushes may be strips of springy metal, but in better
ones they are usually blocks of carbon pressed against the commutator by
springs. Sparking at the brushes tends to cause burns on the material used:
with ordinary metals this is liable to lead to non-conducting corrosion, but
carbon will oxidise to carbon dioxide gas, which will still leave a clean surface.
Such brushes will need replacement from time to time as they wear down and
burn away.

90 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

Figure 4.19

10. The greater the current flowing around the coil of an electric motor, the more
strongly it will try to turn. This suggests a way to measure the size of a current:
let it flow through a motor, and make the coil try to turn while it is held back
by a spring. The bigger the current, the further the coil will manage to stretch
the spring.
This is the basis of the moving-coil galvanometer. (The coil of the instrument
is shown in Figure 4.20.) The current can be fed into the coil and out again
via the hairsprings at top and bottom; no commutator is needed because the
rotation of the coil is restricted to just a fraction of a turn.
Figure 4.20 shows a view of the
complete arrangement from
above. The coil can rotate inside
the gap of a steel horseshoe
magnet, which has curved pole
pieces. The soft iron cylinder
which sits in the middle of the
coil (but does not rotate with it)
itself gets turned into a magnet
because of the presence of the
permanent magnet; one of its
effects is to increase the strength
of the field within the gap.

Figure 4.20
Its other effect is to give the instrument a linear scale. In the gap there is a
radial field, so as the coil rotates within the gap it always stays along the field
lines. The torque remains proportional to the current.
A galvanometer thus measures an electric current. The greater the current
round the coil, the more marked the motor effect is and the further the
hairsprings are wound up.
A typical instrument is so sensitive that its pointer will be moved to the end
of the scale by a current of perhaps 5 × 10–3 A; we say that it has a full-scale
deflection of 5 mA. Even though copper is used for the windings of its coil, it
consists of such a long length of so very thin wire that it may have a resistance
as high as 50 ohms or more.

Grade 10 91
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

This section should 4.4 Electromagnetic induction

fill approximately
7 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define magnetic flux and its SI unit.
• State Faraday’s law of induction.
• Perform simple experiments that demonstrate an induced e.m.f. caused by
changing magnetic flux.
• State Lenz’s law.
• Indicate the direction of induced currents, given the direction of motion
of the conductor and the direction of a magnetic field.
• Describe the factors that affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a
conductor.
• Describe the link between electricity and magnetism.
• Apply Faraday’s law to calculate the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
• Define inductance and its SI unit.
• Distinguish between self- and mutual inductance.
• Apply the definition of inductance to solve simple numerical problems.
• Explain the action of the simple a.c. generator.
• Compare the actions of d.c. and a.c. generators.
• Draw a diagram of a transformer.
• Give a simple explanation of the principles on which a transformer
operates.
• Identify that, for an ideal transformer, Pout = Pin .
• Show that, for an ideal transformer, Vs /Vp = Ns /Np .
• Apply the transformer formulae to solve simple problems.

Starting off
Begin by considering magnetic flux and its relation to magnetic field strength. Go
through the worked example in the Students’ Book carefully. Show the students
a loop of wire as shown in Figure 4.49 on page 142 of the Students’ Book (but do
not let the students have the book open at this point). Do the students think a
current can flow in the wire? Discuss.

Activity 4.15: Answer Teaching notes

Students’ own Now let the students open their Students’ Books and work through the
results. explanation of electromagnetic induction. Activity 4.15 gives students an
opportunity to observe the dynamo effect. As always, they should work in small
groups and discuss their observations before you bring the class back together to
talk about the activity.

92 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

We now move on to discuss the two laws of electromagnetic induction: Faraday’s

Activity 4.16: Answer
law and Lenz’s law. Read through the theory section covering Faraday’s law
carefully with the students and ask questions to check understanding. You may Students’ own
want to do Activity 4.16 as a class demonstration but involve the students as much observations.
as possible, and certainly they should be encouraged to attempt to explain the
observations.
Discuss the theory section on Lenz’s law. Ask the students to give you the answers
to the questions before the answers are given in the text. Students should always
be encouraged to think through an argument for themselves and not simply
receive it passively from the teacher or Students’ Book.
When considering the section on applying Lenz’s law to a solenoid, it would be
a good idea to demonstrate the text using a solenoid connected to a sensitive
ammeter and a magnet and inserting the magnet into the solenoid. It is always
helpful to use visual aids where possible.
Activity 4.17 is an opportunity for students to see Lenz’s law in action. If possible
this activity should be done in small groups and students should be encouraged to Activity 4.17: Answer
discuss their observations with their peers. Students’ own
Activity 4.18 and Activity 4.19 are opportunities for students to see how magnets observations.
can be used to produce movement.
Activities 4.20 and 4.21 are opportunities for students to consolidate their learning. Activity 4.18: Answer
First they design a poster to summarise their learning. Then they consider the Students’ own
relationship between the motor effect and dynamo effect. Making such links observations.
assists students to remember the content of the lessons and helps them to see
learning as a continuum rather than as separate blocks that bear no relation to one
another. Activity 4.19: Answer
We move on to consider inductors. It would be useful to set up a circuit Students’ own
containing an inductor so that you can demonstrate the text. You should plan to observations.
set up the circuit shown in Figure 4.53 on page 147 of the Students’ Book so that
students can relate the theory to their own observations.
Activity 4.20: Answer
When considering the time constant in an inductor circuit, remind students about
their learning in Section 2.4, where we covered the time constant in a circuit Should include some
containing a capacitor. practical examples
of the dynamo
It is important that students can distinguish between self-inductance and mutual effect from everyday
inductance, so work through these two sections carefully, asking questions to test life (e.g. bicycle
understanding. Work through the worked example – as before, you may wish to lights powered by
set the problem and ask students to attempt it before using the given solution. the motion of the
We move on to consider a simple a.c. generator. This extends the work in the wheel).
previous section, where students learnt about the simple motor. Make sure that
students appreciate the difference: this time the coil has to be turned rather than Activity 4.21: Answer
turning by the motor effect.
Right-hand rule.
Activity 4.22 will test students’ understanding of the theory as they are required
to use the information given to build their own simple generator. Activity 4.23
requires them to work in a small group to compare the actions of a.c. generators Activity 4.22: Answer
and simple motors.
Students’ own
The section then moves on to consider transformers, which are an important part results.
of the electricity supply network. Transformers are a practical application of the
dynamo effect.

Grade 10 93
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

Activity 4.23: Answer

d.c. generator a.c. generator

Activity 4.24: Answer Turns half a turn by motor effect Coil is turned rather than turning by
Students’ own then would stop unless battery motor effect
results. leads could be reversed
Split ring commutator reverses Slip rings connect to outside circuit
Activity 4.25: Answer direction of current automatically

A non-zero current
is produced for an When considering step-up and step-down transformers, give students plenty of
instant. practice in using the equations. Use the worked example given as the basis for
your own examples; as always, you should ask the students to explain the steps
required in their own words to assess understanding.
Activity 4.26: Answer
Activity 4.24 requires a flyback transformer from an old TV. A useful background
Students’ own
website is http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyback_transformer.
results.
Activity 4.25 is a group discussion activity that will test students’ understanding.
Students are then invited to carry out some research on one of the given applications.
Activity 4.27: Answer
Activity 4.26 is an opportunity for students to explore transient electric currents.
They need to know
that P = VI (which We then consider the ideal transformer equation. As always, question the students
they met in Section as you work through the text to check understanding.
3.5). Activity 4.27 tests understanding by requiring students to show that for an ideal
Then since Vout × 3out transformer, Pout = Pin.
= Vin × Iin Work through the worked example in the usual way and give further examples
Pout = Pin based on this as necessary.
Activity 4.28 requires students to build either a toothpick motor or a cork motor.
Activity 4.28: Answer You will find details about how to do this at http://www.ceressoft.org/Files/emotors.
htm. This activity should be carried out in small groups. Note that students may
Students’ own need to look at Section 5.4 for information about the photo transistor circuit.
results.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Faraday’s law
SA Activity 4.15 in a small group.
MA Activity 4.16 in a small group.
CA Review questions 1−3 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Lenz’s law (1)
SA Activity 4.17 in a small group.
MA Activity 4.18 in a small group.
Activity 4.19 in a small group.
CA Review questions 4−8 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Lenz’s law (2)
SA With a partner, write down Lenz’s law.
MA Activity 4.20 in a small group.
CA Activity 4.21 in a small group.

94 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

4. A simple a.c. generator

SA In a small group, discuss and summarise Student Book pages 146−147.
MA Activity 4.22 in a small group.
CA Activity 4.23 in a small group.
5. Transformers (1)
SA Activity 4.24 in a small group.
MA Activity 4.25 in a small group.
CA Review questions 9−14 to be tackled with a partner.
6. Transformers (2)
SA With a partner, discuss how transformers are used in everyday life. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.26 in a small group.
CA Review question 15 to be tackled with a partner.
7. Build an a.c. motor
SA Activity 4.27 with a partner.
MA Activity 4.28 in a small group.
CA End of unit questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Demonstrating the dynamo effect.
• Faraday’s law.
• Lenz’s law in action.
• Magnets producing movement.
• Factors that affect the magnitude of an induced current in a conductor.
• The relationship between the motor effect and the dynamo effect.
• Build a simple a.c. generator.
• Compare the actions of a.c. and d.c. generators.
• A flyback transformer.
• Lenz and Faraday and decaying fields.
• Transient electric current.
• Power in the ideal transformer equation.
• Build an a.c. motor.

Resources
http://www.mgnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/electromagneticinduction/
index.html
http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/magnetism/electro/EMI.htm

Where next?
Unit 6 considers electromagnetic waves. Students will need to recall Faraday’s law.
In Unit 6, we bring together ideas about electric fields from Unit 2 and magnetic
fields from this unit and consider how they interact in electromagnetic radiation.

Grade 10 95
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

Answers to review questions

1. magnetic flux = magnetic flux density (magnetic field strength) × area. Its SI
unit is T m2.
2. The size of the e.m.f. in volts is proportional to the rate at which the conductor
is cutting through flux lines.
3. Wind about 1000 turns of wire around the copper pipe that is about 1 m long
and attach the turns of wire to a light bulb as shown in Figure 4.45 on page
139 of the Students’ Book. Drop the magnet through the pipe. The bulb should
light.
4. The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change that is
causing it.
5. Use Fleming’s left-hand rule.
6. The factors that affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a conductor are: the
rate at which the conductor is cutting through flux lines, the strength of the
magnetic field, the number of turns if the e.m.f. is induced in a solenoid.
7. When a wire is moved through a magnetic field, a current is generated by the
dynamo effect.
8. Faraday’s law can be used to calculate the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
9. Inductance is defined as the property in an electrical circuit where a change
in the electric current through that circuit induces an e.m.f. that opposes the
change in current. Its SI unit is the henry.
10. Self-inductance occurs when a current is first switched on in a coil and the
build-up of the magnetic flux induces a voltage in the coil that opposes the
battery in the circuit to delay the build-up of current. Mutual inductance
occurs when a changing current in one coil induces a voltage in a
neighbouring coil.
11. It is difficult to generate a continuous current by swinging a wire in a magnetic
field. Whichever way you move the wire you soon come out of the magnetic
field, which means the wire is no longer cutting through flux lines.
Figure 4.21 shows an end-on view of such a wire.
The wire is going round at a steady speed, so it is cutting the lines
of force at a maximum rate at points A and B: at these moments the
voltage induced in the wire is at its greatest, one way round at A and
Figure 4.21 the other way round at B.
At stages C and D in the rotation, although the wire is moving, no
lines of force are being cut, so at those instants the voltage is zero.
The graph in Figure 4.22 shows what will happen in the course of one
complete revolution, starting at C.
Suppose you have not a single wire but a rectangular coil, which may
be rotated about an axle. As the left-hand side moves up through the
Figure 4.22 magnetic field the right-hand side will move down. Although they are
opposite ways round, the two combine to pump current round the coil
rather than cancelling each other.
A practical arrangement by which the coil may be rotated and yet
joined to a circuit is shown in Figure 4.23.

96 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

The connection to the outside circuit is made by sliding

brush contacts and a pair of slip rings. The two slip rings
are joined to the coil; they are metal rings with the axle at
the centre, and they spin round with the coil.
12.
d.c. generator a.c. generator
Turns half a turn by motor Coil is turned rather than
effect then would stop turning by motor effect
unless battery leads could be Figure 4.23
reversed
Split ring commutator Slip rings connect to outside
reverses direction of current circuit
automatically

13.

Figure 4.24
14. The alternating voltage applied to the input drives a current round the
primary to magnetise the core. As the state of magnetisation of the
core changes, an alternating voltage will be induced in the secondary.
There is no reason why these two voltages should be the same size, and
the main purpose of transformers is to change the size of a voltage.
The one shown in Figure 4.25 is a step-down transformer: it steps
the voltage down so that low voltage equipment can be run from the
mains.
15. Vout × Iout = Vin × Iin
Iin Vout Ns
= =
Iout Vin Np
Figure 4.25
where Vout is the alternating voltage produced in the secondary coil,
and Vin is the alternating voltage that is applied to the primary coil,
for Ns and Np.

Answers to end of unit questions

1. You use a magnetic shield to protect sensitive equipment such as electronic
circuits from magnetic fields.
2. A material that is a good magnetic conductor will form a more effective
magnetic shield by limiting the amount of penetration to the equipment being
shielded.
3. When a nail becomes magnetized, the domains of magnetic clusters are
broken up and rearranged into lines.

Grade 10 97
Unit 4: Electromagnetism

F = B where F is force, B is magnetic field strength, I is current and L is

4. a) __
IL
length.
b) B = 15 = 15 = 2 N
(3 × 2.5) 7.5
5. Right hand rule
6. The motor effect is the movement that occurs when a current-carrying wire is
placed in a magnetic field.
7. B = µ0NI so you need to know permittivity of free space, number of turns in
solenoid and current.
8. The iron core in a solenoid becomes magnetised as a result of the current
passing through the solenoid coil, increasing the magnetic field strength due to
the coil alone.
mv
9. B =
qR

Where B = magnetic field strength

m = mass of particle
v = velocity of particle
q = charge of particle
R = radius of path
mv2
10. a) Bqv =
R
mv
q=
BR
q v
=
m BR
b) _21 mv2 = qV
2qV
v2 =
m
v= 2qV
√ m
q I
c) = 2qV ×
m √ m BR
q2 2qV
=
m m B2R2
2

q2 2qVm
×m=
m2 m B2R2
q2 2qV
= 2 2
mq qB R
q 2V
= 2 2
m BR

98 Grade 10
 Unit 4: Electromagnetism

q 2V
d) = 2 2
m BR
2Vm
R2 =
qB2

R= 2Vm
√ qB2
= 2 × 3000 × (35 × 1.67 × 10–27)
√ 1.6 × 10–19 × (3.0)2
= 3.507 × 10–22
√ 1.44 × 10–18
=
√ 2.44 × 10–4
= 0.016 m
11. The motor effect is the effect the force experienced by a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field.
12. Faraday’s law of induction states that the size of the induced e.m.f. in volts is
proportional to the rate at which the conductor is cutting through flux lines.
Δ0
13. ε =
Δt
6Tm2
=
I
=6V

ΔI
14. εind L =
Δt
3
= 3 × 10–3 × 2

= 4.5 × 10–3 V
V N
15. Vs = Ns
p p

16. a) A transformer requires a constantly changing magnetic field to operate. This

is obtained from an alternating supply.

b) If connected to a battery, the magnetic field will be constant and so the
transformer would not operate.

Grade 10 99
 Introduction to electronics Unit 5

Learning Competencies for Unit 5

This unit should
By the end of this unit students should be able to: fill approximately
• Define the term electronics. 11 periods of
teaching time.
• State the importance of electronics in your daily life.
• State what is meant by thermionic emission.
• Describe the behaviour of vacuum tubes.
• Describe the function of a cathode ray tube.
• Describe the uses of a cathode ray tube.
• Represent both d.c. and a.c. on current–time or voltage–time graphs.
• Use the current–time or voltage–time graphs to find the period and frequency
of alternating currents or voltages.
• Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
• Give examples of semiconductor elements.
• Distinguish between instrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
• Describe a semiconductor in terms of charge carriers and resistance.
• Explain doping to produce the two types of semiconductors.
• Indentify semiconductors as p-type and n-type.
• Describe the mode of conduction by the majority and minority carriers.
• Define the term diode and show its circuit symbol.
• Draw a current versus voltage characteristics (graph) to show the behaviour of the p-n junction.
• Describe how a semiconductor diode can be used in a half-wave rectification.
• Sketch voltage–time graphs to compute the variation of voltage with time before
and after rectification.
• Distinguish between direct current from batteries and rectified alternating current
by consideration of their voltage–time graphs.
• Show the circuit symbols of semiconductor devices such as thermistor, LED, LDR and transistors.
• Distinguish between p-n-p and n-p-n transistors.
• Identify the base, emitter and collector of a transistor.
• Use the following terms correctly: forward biased and reverse biased.
• Describe the behaviour of semiconductor devices such as thermistor, LED, LDR,
photodiode and transistors.
• Use the circuit symbols for the gates.
• Draw the truth tables for the different logic gates and for a combination of logic gates.
• Explain the action of logic gates: NOT, OR, AND, NOR, NAND.

100 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

5.1 Vacuum tube devices This section should

fill approximately
3 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define the term electronics.
• State the importance of electronics in their daily life.
• State what is meant by thermionic emission.
• Describe the behaviour of vacuum tubes.
• Describe the function of a cathode ray tube.
• Describe the uses of a cathode ray tube.
• Represent both d.c. and a.c. on current–time or voltage–time graphs.
• Use the current–time or voltage–time graphs to find the period and
frequency of alternating currents or voltages.

Starting off
Don’t worry if you don’t have access to a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) for this
section; a well-labelled diagram of a CRO would be a suitable alternative for your
explanation of the structure and function of the CRO.
Don’t spend too much time on the detailed structure of the CRO, it is a relatively
specialised piece of equipment that students don’t necessarily understand
until they need to use one. Deeper study of the television tube could be more
helpful, although these are becoming less common with the advent of flat-screen
televisions.

Teaching notes
Teaching about thermionic emission should follow on from what the students
have learned (in Unit 3) of conduction electrons.
It should be made clear to students that heating a metal with a high melting point,
such as tungsten, to a very high temperature can allow electrons to escape the
metal’s surface, and that electrons emitted in these circumstances are said to be
produced by thermionic emission.
The thin tungsten filament (C in Figure 5.1) can be raised to a high enough
temperature to start thermionic emission by using a current of only a few
milliamperes through a small heating wire.
C A cathode anode
glass vacuum tube glass vacuum tube
supply to − supply to −
heating wire heating wire −
− −

mA zero mA
current

− + + −

Figure 5.1 Diode (current flowing) Figure 5.2 Diode (no current)

Grade 10 101
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

In Figure 5.1, the tungsten filament is placed in a vacuum tube (a glass container
from which most of the air has been removed) to avoid collisions between the
electrons and air particles. If another piece of metal (A) is placed in the glass
container a short distance away from C the electrons that are thermionically
emitted from C can be attracted to A.
This container is called a diode, as there are two pieces of metal (electrodes)
inserted into it.
If electrode A is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and electrode C to
the negative terminal, a current is detected with a milliammeter.
As the power supply in the diode circuit pushes electrons from negative to
positive, the electrons must have travelled from the filament C (the cathode) to the
other electrode A (the anode).
The electrons produced by the cathode are called cathode rays.
In Figure 5.2, the diode is connected in the reverse direction, (anode connected
to the negative terminal of the power supply and cathode to positive). As current
is still flowing to the heating wire, electrons are still emitted from the hot cathode,
but they are not attracted to the now negatively charged ‘anode’ and no current
flows in the diode circuit.
If the current to the heating wire is turned off there is no current in the diode
circuit, as there is no thermionic emission from the cathode.
Demonstration – Maltese cross
If you have access to a Maltese cross tube, it would be very useful to demonstrate
the nature of cathode rays.
aluminium
maltese cross
cathode anode shadow
6V light shadow
heater
supply field
N electron
fluorescent S
high voltage flow
screen
supply 0-3kV movement
Figure 5.3 Maltese cross tube Figure 5.4 Deflection of cathode rays
The Maltese cross tube is a diode with an obstacle (the Maltese cross shape) and
a fluorescent screen (Figure 5.3). When the heater supply is switched on, the
filament glows and a shadow of the Maltese cross is cast on the screen. When the
3 kV diode supply is connected, electrons produced at the cathode are accelerated
towards the anode (a hollow metal cylinder). The electrons pass through the
anode and on towards the metal Maltese cross. The electrons that strike the
Maltese cross are stopped, but those that travel past it strike the fluorescent screen,
where their kinetic energy is converted to light energy (green light). The Maltese
cross casts a shadow that corresponds exactly to the light shadow produced by
the cathode filament alone. We can see therefore that cathode rays possess energy
and travel in straight lines to produce a shadow of any obstacle in their path. If we
bring a bar magnet near to the tube, the cathode ray shadow moves but the light
shadow does not. This shows that cathode rays are not a form of electromagnetic
radiation but move in the direction indicated by the motor rule for moving
electrons.

102 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

Mention the X-ray tube – another vacuum tube device – to the students. (There is
a brief description in the Students' Book.)
Introduce the students to the CRO using the diagrams and examples in the
Students' Book.
Make sure students understand the use of the X and Y deflecting plates on the
CRO. These allow the cathode ray beam to be deflected by varying voltages.
Make sure the students also understand the use of the controls – gain control
(applied to the Y plates) and time base (applied to the X plates) – which allow
voltage signals to be analysed.
Encourage the students to understand the value of the CRO in the measurement
of voltage and of both direct and alternating currents.
Work through the examples in the Students' Book.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Electronics around us
SA Activity 5.1 with a partner.
MA In a small group, research uses of X−rays.
CA Feed back research from main activity.
2. Cathode ray oscilloscope
SA With a partner, discuss how transformers are used in everyday life. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 4.26 in a small group.
CA Review question 15 to be tackled with a partner.
3. TV picture tubes
SA With a partner, tackle worked examples 5.2 and 5.3. Feed back ideas before given solution is
revealed.
MA In a small group, research how a picture is produced in an older style TV. How is it produced
in more modern sets?
CA Review questions 5−6 to be tackled with a partner.

Resources
(vacuum tube) www.vacuumtubes.net/How_Vacuum_Tubes_Work.htm
thermionic emission www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/audio/part9/
page1.html
(thermionic diode) www.bookrags.com/research/diodes-wop/ (has some adverts)
(cathode rays) http://library.thinkquest.org/19662/low/eng/cathoderays.html
X-rays http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/xtube.html
(CRO) http://boson.physics.sc.edu/~hoskins/demos/cathoderay.html
(CRO) www.doctronics.co.uk/scope.htm

Where next
• The television picture tube should be studied, as this is a very important, and
very familiar, vacuum tube device.

Grade 10 103
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

• In the CRO the electron beam is deflected by the electric field set up when
a p.d. is applied to the X or Y plate, but in the television tube the electron
beam is deflected by rapidly varying magnetic fields applied from coils (which
receive signals from the television tuner) around the narrow part of the tube.
• As electrons are negatively charged, they are deflected by this magnetic field in
the opposite direction to that predicted by Fleming’s left hand rule.
• Magnetic deflection allows deflection of the beam through much bigger angles
than would be given by electric deflection. This allows the tube to be much
shorter than it would be if electric deflection were used.

Answers to review questions

1. a) The heater warms the cathode to encourage thermionic emission.
b) Electrons are emitted from the cathode.
c) Electrons are attracted to the anode.
d) Voltages are applied to the x plates to move the beam of electrons from side
to side (horizontally). Voltages are applied to the y-plates to move the beam
of electrons up and down (vertically).
2. The spot on the screen of a CRO moves horizontally 2 cm in a time of 1 ms.
3. b) 3 V
c) 4.5 V
d) 4.5V
4. a) The voltage to be examined is connected across the y-plates of the CRO.
The deflection of the beam corresponds to the voltage.
b) The deflection of the beam produced by the voltage on the CRO responds
to any changes in voltage very quickly because it is produced by a beam of
electrons whose mass is very small.
c) Virtually no current is drawn from the voltage source because it is just
producing a deflection in a beam of electrons – there are no moving
mechanical parts.
5. The anode gets very hot and would be in danger of melting if not specially
designed. The tip is made of tungsten, which has a high melting point; the
remainder of the anode is made of a block of copper, which conducts heat
away. There might also be cooling fins, or the anode could be cooled by having
a liquid pumped around it.
6. X-rays are used medically for investigations, and for treatment of some
tumours. They are also used to check welds in pipes and to investigate the
contents of cases in airport security checks. They can also be used in the
laboratory to investigate the atomic structure of crystals, and in astronomy,
X-rays detected from space can give useful information.
The great danger with X-rays is that they are ionising radiation. They can
cause radiation burns and damage to the DNA within cells, which can lead to
tumours or sterility. The risks are greatest for those who regularly work with
the equipment. To keep these to a minimum there should be adequate lead
shielding (lead absorbs X-rays). The operators should not approach closer than
they need to, and should stay in the vicinity no longer than necessary.

104 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

5.2 Conductors, semiconductors and insulators This section should

fill approximately
1 period of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
• Give examples of semiconductor elements.
• Distinguish between instrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
• Describe a semiconductor in terms of charge carriers and resistance.

Starting off
Students should be reminded of what they learnt in Unit 3 about conduction in
conductors, insulators and semiconductors, and of the role played by electrons in
the atomic structure of these materials.

Teaching notes
The movement of electric current through semiconductors is not straightforward,
and care should be taken to make sure students grasp the details.
Students will already be aware that, when considering conduction, materials fall
into three classes:
• Conductors – metals and carbon – in which atomic structure charge is carried
by unfixed or ‘conduction’ electrons.
• Insulators – glass, plastic and most non-metals – in whose atomic structure
electrons are held firmly and are largely unable to move.
• Semiconductors – such as silicon (the most important), germanium, lead
sulphide, selenium and gallium arsenide – in which electric current is able
to flow through the atomic structure. The mechanism of this flow is to be
explained in this lesson.
Students are introduced to the structure of a semiconductor – specifically to the
‘crystal lattice’ made from the linked structure of semiconductor atoms, such as
silicon.
By explaining this structure to the students, and introducing them to the idea
that some electrons can be ‘shaken free’ of this structure, you should then be able
to introduce the idea of the positive ‘hole’ left in the structure when an electron
moves away.
It should then be clear that this ‘hole’ plays the part of a positive charge carrier
into which other electrons move, freeing up further holes in the structure.
If students consider what happens when an electric field is applied to a piece
of semiconductor material, it should be clear that electrons and holes move in
opposite directions (electrons towards the positive pole of the power source and
holes to the negative pole) and the semiconductor exhibits intrinsic conduction.

Grade 10 105
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

Activity 5.2 should illustrate to the class the movement of positive and negative
charge carriers. In this activity, the people sitting on the row of chairs (think of
them as electrons) move in one direction, while the empty chair (think of this as a
positive ‘hole’) moves in the other.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Conductors, semiconductors and insulators
SA Activity 5.2 in groups of 10.
MA In a small group, produce a poster to summarise pages 163−165 of the Student Book.
CA Review questions 1−3 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Mysteriously moving chair activity.

Resources
(semiconductor crystal lattice) http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/
sili.html#c4
(intrinsic semiconductor) http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/
intrin.html

Where next
• Students are reminded that, although the semiconductors they have looked
at in this lesson are able to support some electrical conduction using the
movements of positive and negative charge carriers, they are not very good
conductors of electricity.
• You could introduce the idea that there is a technique to improve the
effectiveness of conduction in semiconductors, and that students will hear
about this in the next lesson.

Answers to review questions

1. The structure of a semiconductor contains both freely moving electrons and
‘holes’. If a voltage is applied to a semiconductor, it will conduct, because
electrons move in one direction, and ‘holes’ in another, within the material.
2. At higher temperatures, more electrons in the semiconductor will have enough
energy to break free, so the material conducts better.
3. In the lattice of a silicon crystal, an electron can be ‘shaken free’ of one silicon
atom. When an electron leaves an atom in this way, the atom becomes positively
charged. The effect of an electron leaving an atom is therefore to create a positive
charge in the silicon crystal. This positive charge carrier is called a ‘hole’.

106 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

5.3 Semiconductors (impurities, doping) This section should

fill approximately
4 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Explain doping to produce the two types of semiconductors.
• Indentify semiconductors as p-type and n-type.
• Describe the mode of conduction by the majority and minority carriers.
• Define the term diode and show its circuit symbol.
• Draw a current versus voltage characteristics (graph) to show the
behaviour of the p-n junction.
• Describe how a semiconductor diode can be used in a half-wave rectification.
• Sketch voltage time graphs to compute the variation of voltage with time
before and after rectification.
• Distinguish between direct current from batteries and rectified
alternating current by consideration of their voltage–time graphs.
• Show the circuit symbols of semiconductor devices such as thermistor,
LED, LDR and transistors.

Starting off
Students should be reminded of the nature of ‘intrinsic’ conduction in a
semiconductor lattice – the way charge flows through a semiconductor by the
movement of electrons (towards the positive pole of the power supply) leaving
positive ‘holes’ which move in the other direction (towards the negative pole of
the power supply).

Teaching notes
Compare and contrast the atomic structures of silicon (four electrons in its outer
shell) with boron (three electrons in its outer shell) and arsenic (five electrons in
its outer shell). Using Activity 5.3 to reinforce these facts.
Remind students that the silicon (intrinsic) semiconductor material they met in
the last lesson was not a very good conductor of electricity.
Introduce the idea that, by a process known as doping, an intrinsic semiconductor
can be made to conduct more effectively, becoming known as an extrinsic
semiconductor.
Doping a semiconductor with a very small number of atoms of an element such
as arsenic (five electrons in its outer shell) increases the number of electrons, or
negative charge carriers, in the semiconductor lattice (arsenic is thus described
as a donor impurity as it introduces free electrons into the lattice). This type of
doped semiconductor is called n-type. Electrons are the majority charge carrier in
an n-type semiconductor.
Doping a semiconductor with a very small number of atoms of an element such
as boron (three electrons in its outer shell) increases the number of holes, or
positive charge carriers, in the semiconductor lattice (boron is thus described as
an acceptor impurity; it traps electrons when introduced into the semiconductor

Grade 10 107
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

lattice, resulting in an increase in holes). This type of doped semiconductor is

called p-type. ‘Holes’ are the majority charge carrier in a p-type semiconductor.
Stress the fact that atoms of elements used for doping should be approximately the
same size as the semiconductor atoms. It is important not to distort the structure
of the semiconductor lattice. Use Activity 5.4 to reinforce this.
Having established the structures of p-type and n-type semiconductors, introduce
the concept of the p–n junction diode. (Remind students of the thermionic diode
from the first section of this unit – this should help them remember that current
can pass in only one direction through a diode.)
Use diagrams to show how charge carriers move when an electric field is applied.
Make sure the students understand the terms
− forward bias (the diode is forward biased when the p-type junction of the
diode is connected to the positive pole of the supply voltage) and
− reverse bias (the diode is reverse biased when the p-type junction of the diode
is connected to the negative pole of the supply voltage).
Use the demonstration for testing the conduction of a diode to make sure students
understand the importance of the voltage characteristics of current flow through a
semiconductor diode.
Stress the fact that no current will flow in the forward direction until a voltage of
0.6 V is applied, and that virtually no current flows in the reverse direction unless
a very large voltage is applied, at which point the diode breaks down.
Investigating input devices
It will be useful if you are able to demonstrate the properties of a range of ‘input
devices’ to the students. These are electronic components that detect light,
moisture, heat etc. and react by changing their resistance, which produces a signal
to the electronic circuit in which they are used. The choice of a particular input
device depends on the function to which the circuit is to be put.
a
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is used to detect light. You will need an LDR,
a multimeter and a small lightproof box (large enough to cover the LDR) for this
test.
Take the multimeter and set to read resistance (in kilohms). Press the probes
b of the multimeter firmly against the leads of the LDR, cover the LDR and take
the reading on the multimeter. Remove the covering from LDR, expose to the
illumination of the room and take the multimeter reading. Hold the LDR in the
light from a light bulb, or the Sun, and take the multimeter reading.
You will be able to show the students that the resistance of the LDR was very high
when it was covered, that it dropped to a low level when uncovered, and that it
was lower still when near the light or in the sunshine.
Figure 5.5 A moisture meter is used to detect the presence of water. You will need a moisture
a LDR component meter, a multimeter, some water and a teat pipette for this test.
b LDR symbol
Take the multimeter and set to read resistance (in kilohms).
Press the probes of the multimeter firmly against the leads of the moisture sensor
and take a reading when the sensor is dry.
Take a small amount of water into the pipette and carefully squeeze water over the
metal bars of the moisture sensor and then take a reading.

108 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

You will be able to show students that the resistance of the dry moisture sensor a
was extremely high – its construction shows that the metal bars connected to
the two leads are separated by an air gap, and air is a very poor conductor of
electricity. The resistance was lower when the bars were covered with water, as
water allows a small electric current to flow between the metal bars linking the
two leads.
b
A thermistor is used to detect heat. For this test you will need a thermistor, a
multimeter, a source of heat (such as a large wattage light bulb) and a source of moisture probes

cold (ice cube).

Take the multimeter and set to read resistance (in kilohms). Press the probes of
the multimeter firmly against the leads of the thermistor and take the reading at Figure 5.6
room temperature. Take a reading while holding the thermistor close to a source a moisture meter
of heat. Take a reading when touching the thermistor with an ice cube. component
b moisture meter
You will be able to show the students that the resistance of the thermistor dropped symbol
with increasing temperature.
In Activity 5.5, students can investigate how the voltage generated by a
photovoltaic cell changes in different light levels.
Rectification a

If you are unable to illustrate output voltages referred to in this section on a CRO,
you can refer to the illustrations in the Students' Book. b
Make sure students understand the idea of alternating current (a.c.) and how
this can be rectified (turned into direct current) using the semiconductor diode.
Explain that this process is called half-wave rectification. Illustrate the fact that Figure 5.7
this process produces a rather irregular ‘spurting’ current using the relevant a thermistor
voltage–time graph. component
Compare the voltage–time graph produced from an a.c. current following half- b thermistor symbol
wave rectification with the direct current (d.c.) output from a battery.
Introduce the fact that a capacitor can smooth the direct current produced from
half-wave rectification, and illustrate with the relevant voltage–time graph.
If time permits, discuss full wave rectification, which is described in the
Students' Book.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Doping
SA With a partner, summarise Student Book pages 160−167.
MA In groups of nine, Activity 5.3.
CA Review question 1 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Semiconductor lattices
SA With a partner, write down what understand by ‘lattice’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 5.4 with a partner.
CA With a partner, produce a spidergram explaining how doping affects semiconductor lattices.
3. Diodes and their uses
SA With a partner, explore the current−voltage characteristics of the semiconductor diode.
MA Activity 5.5 in a small group.
CA Write a report on the activities in this lesson.

Grade 10 109
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

4. Rectification
SA With a partner, summarise Student Book pages 173−174.
MA In a small group, explore rectification using diodes. Display outputs on a CRO screen.
CA Review questions 2−5 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Human wire activity.
• Modelling the lattice of a semiconductor activity.
• Current–voltage characteristics of semiconductor diode.
• Light into power activity.

Resources
http://www.howstuffworks.com/diode.htm
(doping, p-type, n-type, diode) http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/
dope.html#c3
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/diode1.htm (has some adverts)
(diode) http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/diode2.htm (has some adverts)

Where next
Students might think that input sensors can be used directly in electrical circuits
to, for example, switch on a warning light or a motor when an LDR senses light.
It is important that they discover that there are limitations to these devices, which
make their use less straightforward.
For this demonstration you will need three 1.5 volt cells, two short wire
connectors, three long wire connectors, one LDR, a buzzer, a table lamp and a
6 volt motor.
+ 4.5v
+ 4.5v

cells cells

0v
0v
LDR buzzer
LDR buzzer
Figure 5.8 a circuit with LDR and buzzer b LDR and buzzer circuit in symbols
Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 5.8 with the table lamp shining on the
LDR. Cover and uncover the LDR.
Disconnect the buzzer and replace with the motor. Cover and uncover the LDR.
You will be able to show that the buzzer sounded when light shone on the LDR
and it stopped sounding when the LDR was covered. A buzzer going off when a
light goes on could make a useful alarm.
However, when the motor was connected in place of the buzzer, it did not work at all.
The problem with the simple circuit in Figure 5.8 is that the LDR still retains a
relatively high resistance even when light is shining on it and, although it can be
used in a circuit with a low-powered device such as buzzer or an LED, it cannot

110 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics
be used in this way to switch on a component such as a motor, which requires
more power.
Other input devices also share this problem.
In electronics, one circuit is often used to switch on another circuit and input
devices, therefore, tend to be used in this way. Students will learn about two ways
in which this is done in Section 5.4:
• Transistors – varying the voltages applied to a transistor in one circuit can
affect the current flowing in a separate circuit.
• Relay circuits – circuits where a sensor switches on a low-powered circuit
which operates an electromagnet to close a switch in another circuit which
controls more powerful components

Answers to review questions

1. a) Arsenic is an example of a donor impurity because it releases free electrons
into the silicon lattice. An arsenic atom fits into the lattice in place of a
silicon atom (it is a similar size and will not significantly distort in the
lattice). After making four covalent bonds with the surrounding silicon
atoms, the arsenic atom has one electron over. This becomes a free electron,
available to conduct electricity.
b) An n-type semiconductor has an excess of electrons, this describes a silicon
lattice doped with arsenic atoms.
2. a) 1.5 A. The current will pass through the 1 Ω and 3 Ω resistors.
It will not pass though the diode which is reversed biased in this circuit
(and hence possessing infinite resistance). Current is therefore given
by I = V/R = 6/(1 + 3) = 6/4 = 1.5A
b) 6 A. The diode is now forward biased and the current will pass through
the diode (as it requires zero voltage) rather than through the 3 Ω resistor.
Current is therefore given by I = V/R = 6/1 = 6 A.
3. Current will only pass through a diode valve in one direction, from the hot
cathode to the anode. If the polarity of the main supply is reversed, the cold
anode does not emit electrons into the vacuum and so current does not flow.
The diode valve therefore acts as a rectifier as it allows current to flow through
it in one direction only.
4. a) p-type semiconductor material (semiconductor material such as silicon,
which has been doped with an acceptor impurity such as boron) is
uncharged because it is made of uncharged silicon and boron atoms – even
though it has positively charged ‘holes’ within its structure.
n-type semiconductor material (semiconductor material such as silicon,
which has been doped with a donor impurity such as arsenic) is uncharged
because it is made of uncharged silicon and arsenic atoms – although it has
additional conduction electrons within its structure.
b) At a junction between the two types of semiconductor material, some of the
free electrons in the n-type ‘topple’ over the edge into any nearby ‘holes’ in
the p-type.
c) Both materials were uncharged, but as the electrons ‘topple over’ the
boundary, the p-type is left with an overall negative charge and the n-type
with a positive charge. For silicon, a voltage of around 0.6V is created in
this way.

Grade 10 111
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

d) For a small distance each side of the boundary (of the order of 1 μm) – a
shortage of ‘holes’ one side and free electrons the other is created. This
area is called a ‘depletion zone’ and it prevents any more electrons from
crossing the boundary, so in that direction the diode will not conduct. In the
depletion zone there are no more ‘holes’ in the p-type and no free electrons
in the n-type, so it forms a non-conducting strip which blocks all current.
5.
Diode Light emitting Light-dependent Thermistor
diode (LED) resistor (LDR)

The An LED emits A light- The thermistor

semiconductor light when dependent is a piece of
diode is formed current passes resistor conducts semiconductor
from a layer through it in electricity, but material which
of p-type the forward in the dark it has a high
semiconductor direction. This has a very high resistance in
joined to a makes the LED resistance. the cold. Its
layer of n-type a very useful Shining light resistance drops
semiconductor component – if on it appears as it becomes
material. It allows there is one in to ‘unjam’ it, warmer.
current to pass a circuit it is because its
round a circuit possible to see resistance falls.
in one direction immediately The brighter the
only. if current is light, the better it
This section should flowing. conducts.
fill approximately
3 periods of
teaching time. 5.4 Transistors (p-n-p, n-p-n)

Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Distinguish between p-n-p and n-p-n transistors.
• Identify the base, emitter and collector of a transistor.
• Use the following terms correctly: forward biased and reverse biased.
• Describe the behaviour of semiconductor devices such as thermistor, LED,
LDR, photodiode and transistors.
• Use the circuit symbols for the gates.
• Draw the truth tables for the different logic gates and for a combination
of logic gates.
• Explain the action of logic gates: NOT, OR, AND, NOR, NAND.

112 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

Starting off
Transistors are important components of electronic circuits because they use the
input of relatively small circuits to control circuits carrying large currents.

Teaching notes
Remind students that electronic sensor cannot be used in a circuit that uses
significant power (seen in ‘Where next’ at the end of the lesson notes for 5.3).
Introduce the idea that transistors can use the input of relatively small signals to
control circuits carrying relatively large currents.
Discuss the structure of the bipolar junction transistor – refer to the diagram in
the Students' Book.
Although there are notionally two types of this transistor (n–p–n and p–n–p),
both appear to have the structure of two diodes back to back. Make sure students
realise that, from what they have already learned, no current should be able to
flow through such a structure.
Describe the three electrodes on the n–p–n (the more usual type) of transistor –
base, emitter, collector.
It would be helpful if you could now demonstrate the action of a transistor as
voltage divider.
In this demonstration, you vary the voltage applied between the connections to
the transistor by varying the values of resistors connected between them and show
the students how this affects the ability of the transistor to conduct electricity.
You will need a transistor (a 2N3053 was used here), a 10 Ω resistor, a 100 Ω
resistor, a 560 Ω resistor, a 1 kilohm variable resistor, a 5 mm LED, a 9 volt battery
and snap connector, a multimeter, clip leads or connecting system such as a
breadboard.

Vc 100Ω LED +Vc

Vc 100Ω LED +Vc
+9v
+9v
560Ω
560Ω 560Ω
560Ω
transistor 10Ω
transistor 10Ω
10Ω 100Ω
10Ω R1100Ω
1 kilohm
1 kilohm R1 B C
variable B C
1 kilohm variable
1 kilohm resistor R2
variable resistor R2 E
variable E
resistor
resistor
0v
0v

a equipment b breadboard c circuit

Figure 5.9
Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 5.9 (make sure you have identified the
base, emitter and collector wires of the transistor) with the variable resistor set at
0 (as far as possible in the anticlockwise direction). Draw the students’ attention
to the fact that the LED is not lit – despite the fact that a large battery appears to
be connected to it! Adjust the multimeter to read voltage. Touch one probe to the

Grade 10 113
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

base wire of the transistor and the other to the emitter wire. This voltage should
read zero.
Increase the voltage applied to the base of the transistor by turning the variable
resistor control in a clockwise direction, until the LED is just lit. Touch one probe
of the multimeter to the base wire of the transistor and the other to the emitter
wire. This voltage should read between 0.6 and 0.7 volts. This is the usual potential
difference between base and emitter that is required to allow the transistor to
conduct.
This demonstrates how the transistor can control the power to another circuit.
Make sure that students know that the application of around 0.6 V to the base of a
transistor allows current to flow in a circuit through the transistor from collector
to emitter.
In the Transistor as amplifier demonstration you can demonstrate the other use of
the transistor.
Make sure that students are confident with the operation of the transistor, testing
some of the circuits shown in the Students' Book, which use input devices such as
the LDR, LED, thermistor and the photovoltaic cell.
Introduce the students to the logic gates shown in the Students' Book.
Construct truth tables for logic gates and combinations of logic gates.
Discuss the operation of some of the logic gate combinations in the Students'
Book.
When discussing the use of logic gates, you may well need to explain the operation
of a relay. If the resistance in a sensor, – such as an LDR – falls sufficiently to
allow a small current to flow in a circuit in which there is an electromagnet,
this electromagnet can act on a switch in a second circuit, closing it to allow a
large current to flow through a device such as a motor. This combination of an
electromagnet and a switch is known as a relay. Relays are important devices that
allow a small current in one circuit to affect a large current in a second circuit.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Transistors
SA With a partner, make a poster to explain how the bipolar transistor operates.
MA In a small group, use a transistor as an amplifier as described on page 179−180 of the
Student Book.
CA Review question 1 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Logic gates (1)
SA With a partner, write down what understand by term ‘logic’. Feed back ideas.
MA In a small group, make a poster to summarise pages 184−187 of the Student Book.
CA Review question 2 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Logic gates (2)
SA Review questions 3−4 to be tackled with a partner.
MA In a small group, produce a presentation about how logic gates are used in circuits.
CA End of unit questions to be tackled with a partner.

114 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

Activities
• Transistor as amplifier demonstration.

Resources
(transistor) http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/diode2.htm (has some adverts)
(Boolean Logic) http://computer.howstuffworks.com/boolean.htm (has some
adverts)
(logic gates) http://computer.howstuffworks.com/boolean1.htm (has some
adverts)

Where next
Students should feel confident in examining simple electronic circuits and
interpreting their function.

Answers to review questions

1. 6.0 × 10–4 A (0.60 mA)
2. a) NOT gate

INPUT OUTPUT
0 1
1 0
b) AND gate

INPUT A INPUT B OUTPUT

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
c) NAND gate

OUTPUT
INPUT A INPUT B NAND
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Grade 10 115
Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

d) OR gate

INPUT A INPUT B OUTPUT

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
e) NOR gate

OUTPUT
INPUT A INPUT B NOR
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

3. a) 1 If the output of the gate is a ‘1’, it acts as if is part of the positive voltage
line – if it is 0, it acts like part of the 0 V line, so the output needs to be a ‘1’.
b) 1, 1
4.
A B C D E
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0

Answers to end of unit questions

1. 3 V
2. The boron atom makes only three covalent bonds in the silicon lattice, leaving
the lattice one electron short, so there is a positive ‘hole’ at this point.
3. The current obtained from a battery is constant.

direct current
current
produced by
a diode
direct current
from a battery

time

The current obtained from an alternating supply with a diode is constantly

varying, and is zero for half the cycle (when the a.c. supply is negative).

116 Grade 10
 Unit 5: Introduction to electronics

4. n-type semiconductor material (semiconductor material such as silicon,

which has been doped with a donor impurity such as arsenic) has additional
conduction electrons within its structure because the arsenic atom has five
electrons in its outer shell. After making four covalent bonds in the silicon
lattice it has one electron over. This becomes a free electron, available to
conduct electricity.
p-type semiconductor material (semiconductor material such as silicon,
which has been doped with an acceptor impurity such as boron) has positively
charged ‘holes’ within its structure because the boron atom has three electrons
in its outer shell. It makes three covalent bonds in the silicon lattice, leaving
the lattice one electron short, so there is a positive hole at this point.
5. In a digital system, a voltage is either on or off. It is usual to represent ON
(the full voltage) by 1 and OFF (zero voltage) by 0. Logic gates are connected
between the two supply rails of an electronic circuit – one is at zero (0), the
other at the supply voltage (1).
6. a) NAND gate
OUTPUT
INPUT A INPUT B NAND
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
If both inputs are joined together, only lines 1 and 4 of the above table will be
relevant. (input 0, output 1 and input 1 output 0). This is the same as the truth
table for the NOT gate.
b) NOT gate
INPUT OUTPUT
0 1
1 0

Grade 10 117
 Electromagnetic waves and Unit 6
geometrical optics

This unit should Learning Competencies for Unit 6

fill approximately By the end of this unit students should be able to:
16 periods of
teaching time. • Explain how electromagnetic waves are produced.
• Describe the nature of electromagnetic waves.
• Compare mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
• Draw diagrams to represent transverse waves.
• Use straight lines to represent the direction of energy flow (rays).
• Identify that electromagnetic waves emitted by the Sun have a wide
continuous range of frequencies (and wavelengths.)
• Explain some uses of electromagnetic radiation.
• Explain what is meant by the rectilinear propagation of light.
• State the laws of reflection.
• Perform experiments to test the laws of reflection using a plane mirror.
• Use the laws of reflection to explain how images are formed in a plane
mirror.
• Find the position of a virtual image produced by a plane mirror using a
ray tracing method.
• Use the laws of reflection to solve problems.
• Give examples of the uses of plane mirrors.
• Distinguish between concave and convex mirrors.
• Identify the meanings of: principal axis, principal focus, radius of
curvature, magnification in relation to concave and convex mirrors.
• Distinguish between real and virtual images.
• Apply the appropriate sign convention when using mirror equations.
• Find the position and nature of the image formed by a concave and a
convex mirror using the mirror equation and a ray tracing method.
S h
• Use the relation magnification = __i = __i to solve problems.
So ho
• Give examples of the uses of curved (concave and convex) mirrors.
• Define the term refraction.
• State the conditions in which refraction occurs.
• Define the refractive index of a material.

118 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

• Use Snell’s law to solve simple problems.

real depth to find the refractive
_____________
• Use the formula refractive index =
apparent depth
index of a liquid and a solid in the form of a rectangular glass block.

• Perform experiments to test the laws of refraction.
• Draw a diagram representing the passage of light rays through a
rectangular glass block.
• Give examples of observations that indicate that light can be refracted.
• Identify that the passage of a ray of light through a parallel-sided
transparent medium results in the lateral displacement of a ray.
• Define the critical angle θc.
• Explain, with the aid of a diagram, what is meant by critical angle and
total internal reflection.
• Identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur.
• Perform calculations involving critical angle and total internal reflection.
• Describe how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres.
• Distinguish between convex and concave lenses.
• Identify the meaning of: principal focus, principal axis, focal point,
radius of curvature, magnification in relation to converging and diverging
lenses.
• Apply the appropriate sign convention when using thin lens equations.
• Find the position and nature of the image formed by a convex and
concave lens using the thin lens formula and a ray tracing method.
• Define the power of a lens.
• Explain how the image is formed due to combination of thin lenses.
• Draw a ray diagram to show how images are formed by lenses in a simple
microscope and a simple telescope.
• Compare and contrast the structure and functions of the human eye and
the camera.
• Describe how the human eye forms an image on the retina for different
object distances.
• Identify some defects of the eye and their correction with lenses.
• Explain what is meant by the dispersion of white light to produce a
spectrum.
• Identify that the passage of a ray of light through a triangular
transparent prism results in a deviation of a ray.

Grade 10 119
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

This section should 6.1 Electromagnetic waves

fill approximately
3 periods of
teaching time. Learning Competencies
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Explain how electromagnetic waves are produced.
• Describe the nature of electromagnetic waves.
• Compare mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
• Draw diagrams to represent transverse waves.
• Use straight lines to represent the direction of energy flow (rays).
• Identify that electromagnetic waves emitted by the Sun have a wide
continuous range of frequencies (and wavelengths).
• Explain some uses of electromagnetic radiation.

Starting off
Begin by ensuring that students remember previous learning about electric and
magnetic fields. You could organise a quiz based on the exercises in units 2 and 4.
Then show students a water wave moving in a small tank of water. You can have
a shallow tank of water and start a wave by dropping a stone into the centre. Ask
students to describe what they observe.

Activity 6.1: Answer Teaching notes

Students’ own Make sure that students understand the diagram of a transverse wave. Explain
results. electromagnetic waves carefully. Stress that these waves can travel through a
vacuum (this is how light from the Sun reaches Earth). Organise the students into
groups of about 20 to carry out Activity 6.1, which is a visual representation of
an electromagnetic wave. It is important that students realise that the electric and
magnetic fields are at right angles and remember how a change in the electric field
will induce a change in the magnetic field.
Activity 6.2 gives students an opportunity to discuss mechanical and
electromagnetic waves in a small group.

Activity 6.2: Answer

Highlight the fact that mechanical waves need a medium through which to travel
but electromagnetic waves can travel through a vacuum; that mechanical waves
transport energy and not material, but electromagnetic waves transport energy and
momentum that can be transferred to matter with which they interact. Mechanical
and electromagnetic waves have amplitude, frequency, wavelength and period.
The next section discusses the relationship between frequency, wavelength and
speed. This is an important step and should not be rushed. Use the worked
example as the basis for further questions for the students – you may wish to set
them the problem and see how they tackle it before revealing the solution. This
can give you valuable information for assessment purposes.

120 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

The electromagnetic spectrum is an important concept for students to grasp.

Activity 6.3: Answer
Students need to realise that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is
3 × 108 m/s but that they have varying wavelengths and thus frequencies, which Some information
means that they have a variety of uses (and hazards). Activity 6.3 is an opportunity is given in the
for students to summarise the properties of electromagnetic radiation.A text, but you may
wish to use this as
an opportunity to
involve students in
further independent
research.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Electromagnetic waves
SA With a partner, list examples of waves in everyday life. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 6.1 in groups of 20.
CA Review questions 1−2 to be tackled with a partner.
2. Comparing mechanical and electromagnetic waves
SA With a partner, explain terms ‘amplitude’, ‘frequency’, ‘wavelength’. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 6.2 in small groups.
CA Review questions 3−5 to be tackled with a partner.
3. Uses of electromagnetic radiation
SA Activity 6.3 in a small group.
MA In a small group, produce a spidergram of the summary on pages 198−199 of the Student
Book.
CA Review questions 6−7 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Modelling an electromagnetic wave.
• Compare mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
• Uses of electromagnetic radiation.

Resources
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/emwaves.htm
http://physics.bi.edu/~duffy/PY106/EMwaves.htm

Where next?
The final two topics in this unit focus on one area of the electromagnetic spectrum
– visible light. Section 6.2 concentrates on reflection of light and Section 6.3
refraction of light.

Answers to review questions

1. The vibrations in electromagnetic waves come from electric and magnetic
fields. Electromagnetic waves are produced when a magnetic field and
an electric field are at right angles to each other. They carry energy and
momentum that may be transferred to matter with which they interact.

Grade 10 121
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

2. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. Electromagnetic waves do not

need a medium through which to travel – they can travel through a vacuum.
3. Mechanical waves need a medium through which to travel but electromagnetic
waves can travel through a vacuum; mechanical waves transport energy and
not material, but electromagnetic waves transport energy and momentum
that can be transferred to matter with which they interact. Mechanical and
electromagnetic waves have amplitude, frequency, wavelength and period.

4. amplitude
wavelength
A

Figure 6.1
direction of energy flow (ray)
frequency = number of peaks that pass point A per second

5. The frequency, wavelength and speed of a wave are related by the formula
speed = frequency × wavelength
In symbols this is written as
v = fλ
The units need to be: m/s for speed; Hertz for frequency; metres for wavelength
6. This diagram shows the electromagnetic spectrum.

γ rays X rays ultraviolet visible light infrared microwaves radio waves
rays rays

10–12 m 10–10 m 10–8 m 6 x 10 –7 m 10–6 m 10–2 m 1m

Figure 6.2
v = 3 × 108
7. v = fλ so f = __
λ 1 × 10−10 = 3 × 10 Hz
18

This section should 6.2 Reflection of light

fill approximately
6 periods of Learning Competencies
teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Explain what is meant by the rectilinear propagation of light.
• State the laws of reflection.
• Perform experiments to test the laws of reflection using a plane mirror.
• Use the laws of reflection to explain how images are formed in a plane
mirror.
• Find the position of a virtual image produced by a plane mirror using a
ray tracing method.
• Use the laws of reflection to solve problems.
• Give examples of the uses of plane mirrors.
• Distinguish between concave and convex mirrors.

122 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

• Identify the meanings of: principal axis, principal focus, radius of

curvature, magnification in relation to concave and convex mirrors.
• Distinguish between real and virtual images.
• Apply the appropriate sign convention when using mirror equations.
• Find the position and nature of the image formed by a concave and a
convex mirror using the mirror equation and a ray tracing method.
S h
• Use the relation magnification = __i = __i to solve problems.
So ho
• Give examples of the uses of curved (concave and convex) mirrors.

Starting off
This topic explores a phenomenon with which students will be very familiar from
everyday life: reflection of light. Begin by drawing out this existing experience. For
example, ask students how they get themselves ready for school in the morning. At
some point they will probably use a mirror. Explain that ‘rectilinear propagation
of light’ simply means light travels in straight lines!

Teaching notes Activity 6.4: Answer

Activity 6.4 gives students an opportunity to explore reflection in a plane mirror. Students’ own
They then work in a small group to think about where reflection occurs in nature. results.
This practical experience leads to a discussion of the laws of reflection. Students
will need to be proficient with using protractors and understand how to measure Activity 6.5: Answer
angles. It would help students to grasp this section if you could reproduce the
diagrams in the Students’ Book on the board and work through the text, referring Examples may be
to the diagram as you go. Question students to test understanding. For example, if reflections in a
the angle of incidence is 40°, what would the angle of reflection be? (40° as well). lake, reflections
on the bodies of
Activity 4.6 is an opportunity for students to make a simple optical instrument – a insects.
periscope. You may wish students to work with a partner to do this activity, or you
may wish to set it as an assignment to be done at home.
The explanation of why you cannot see your reflection in a piece of paper brings
Activity 6.6: Answer
out an important point – if light is scattered in all directions you will not get a
visible image. Students’ own
results.
We move on to use the laws of reflection and a ray tracing method to explain how
an image is formed in a plane mirror. Again, if you can reproduce the diagrams
from the Students’ Book on the board and refer to them as you work through the
explanation this will be helpful for students.
You should work through the worked example carefully – again, if you provide
enlarged copies of the diagrams for students and involve them in the steps this will Activity 6.7: Answer
be beneficial.
Examples include
Activity 6.7 is an opportunity for students to work in a small group and see how getting dressed,
this learning is relevant to their daily lives. hyding, law, etc
We move on now to discuss concave mirrors. If you can provide some tablespoons
at this point for students to look at the images formed in them, it would be helpful. Activity 6.8: Answer
Activity 6.8 should be carried out in small groups, with students discussing their Students’ own
observations and trying to explain them in their own words. The magnification of results.
images in concave mirrors explains some of their practical uses.

Grade 10 123
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

The introduction to convex mirrors points out the properties of images formed by
such mirrors. Students should note Figure 6.21, which summarises the terms used
in concave and convex mirrors – this vocabulary has a counterpart in concave
and convex lenses, which we meet in Section 6.3.
The distinction between real and virtual images is best made using the question
‘can you capture this image on a screen?’. If you can capture the image, it is real, if
you cannot, it is virtual.
Activity 6.9 is similar to Activity 6.7 and gives a further opportunity for students
Activity 6.9: Answer
to relate learning to everyday experience.
Students should Activity 6.10 gives students the chance to find the focal length of a concave mirror,
think about shaving which leads neatly on to the section that considers the mirror equation. Make sure
mirrors, driving
that students understand that virtual images are given a negative sign in the mirror
mirrors, etc.
equation. Work through the worked example carefully – as usual you may wish
to set the problem and see how the students tackle it before discussing the given
Activity 6.10: Answer solution. Give plenty of practice using your own examples based on the one given.
Students’ own The ray tracing method should be explained carefully. Ask students to explain in
results. their own words how to use this method to check understanding. They will need
this understanding when we consider the technique in relation to lenses in
Section 6.3.
The section ends by considering the magnification relationship for mirrors.
See whether students can come up with the relationship for themselves before
showing them the formula: talk about the image height and object height and how
they might give an idea of magnification, for example.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Reflection of light
SA With a partner, list examples of reflection in everyday life. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 6.4 in a small group.
CA Activity 6.5 in a small group.
2. Laws of reflection
SA Discuss review question 1 with a partner. Feed back ideas.
MA Activity 6.6 with a partner.
CA With a partner, make a poster about the laws of reflection.
3. Images in plane mirrors
SA Worked example 6.2 individually, before given solution revealed.
MA Activity 6.7 in a small group.
CA Feed back from the activities in the lesson. What went well? What would you do differently?
4. Concave and convex mirrors (1)
SA Review questions 2−6 to be tackled with a partner.
MA Activity 6.8 in small group.
CA Activity 6.9 in small group.
5. Concave and convex mirrors (2)
SA Feed back ideas from Activity 6.9.
MA Activity 6.10 in small group.
CA Review the activity.

124 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

6. Equations for mirrors

SA Worked example 6.3 to be tackled with a partner.
MA With a partner, make a poster to summarise Student Book pages 208−209.
CA Review questions 7−12 to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Investigating the reflection of light.
• Natural examples of reflection.
• Making a simple periscope.
• The uses of plane mirrors.
• Investigating the behaviour of a concave mirror.
• The uses of concave and convex mirrors.
• Determining the focal length of a concave mirror.

Resources
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-ii/light-reflection/light-
reflectionindex.php
http://www.csun.edu/~psk17793/S9CP/S9%20Reflection_of_light.htm

Where next?
The next section uses some of the ideas introduced here and applies them to
lenses.

Answers to review questions

1. Rectilinear propagation of light simply means that light waves travel in straight
lines.
2. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. The reflected ray lies
in the plane which contains the incident ray and the normal.
3. Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 6.3. comb mirror

flash light paper

Break every other tooth of the comb.

Draw the rays that appear to be coming
from the mirror on the paper.
4. Consider the mirror shown here, Figure 6.3
with the object at point O.
O

The first law tells us that the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle ir
of reflection, so in the diagram i = r. i r

Figure 6.4

Grade 10 O
125
 ir
i r

Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

Now trace the reflected rays beyond

O
the mirror using dotted lines as
shown on the right.
a i r
i r

The point where the dotted lines meet is

the position of the image, I.
b

I
Figure 6.5

5.

10 cm 35° 35°

10 cm

Figure 6.6

6. Examples of the uses of plane mirrors include checking that clothing is tidy,
that hair is tidy, making a room look bigger by reflecting light.
7. Figure 6.7 shows the difference between concave and convex mirrors.
8.
concave convex principal focus

Figure 6.7 principal axis

radius of curvature

Figure 6.8
principal axis

radius of
curvature

Figure 6.9

9. Magnification is defined as the height of the image divided by the height of the
object. It is just a number, and will have no units. We can calculate it will as
follows:
v where v = height of image and u = height of object
Magnification = __
u
10. Real images may be captured on a screen but virtual images cannot be
captured on a screen.
11. The notation used is:
f = the focal length of the mirror.
u = the distance from the object to the centre of the mirror.
v = the distance from the centre of the mirror to where the image is formed.

126 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

The connection between them is:

__1 + __1 = __
1
u v f
If the image is virtual then we use a negative sign for the distances.
12. a)__1 + __
1 = __
1
20 v f
__ 1 – __
1 = __
1 so v = 60 cm image is real and 60 cm from mirror
15 20 v
__ 1 + __
1 = __
1
15 v f
__ 1 – __
1 = __
1 so v = 17.1 cm image is real and 17.1 cm from mirror
8 15 v
b)
a)
O b) O
15cm 8cm
f f
20cm

I
I 15cm

Figure 6.10

6.3 Refraction of light This section should

fill approximately
7 periods of
Learning Competencies teaching time.
By the end of this section students should be able to:
• Define the term refraction.
• State the conditions in which refraction occurs.
• Define the refractive index of a material.
• Use Snell’s law to solve simple problems.
• Use the formula refractive index = real depth to find the refractive
apparent depth
index of a liquid and a solid in the form of a rectangular glass block.
• Perform experiments to test the laws of refraction.
• Draw a diagram representing the passage of light rays through a
rectangular glass block.
• Give examples of observations that indicate that light can be refracted.
• Identify that the passage of a ray of light through a parallel-sided
transparent medium results in the lateral displacement of a ray.
• Define the critical angle θc.
• Explain, with the aid of a diagram, what is meant by critical angle and
total internal reflection.
• Identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur.
• Perform calculations involving critical angle and total internal reflection.
• Describe how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres.

Grade 10 127
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

• Distinguish between convex and concave lenses.

• Identify the meaning of: principal focus, principal axis, focal point,
radius of curvature, magnification in relation to converging and diverging
lenses.
• Apply the appropriate sign convention when using thin lens equations.
• Find the position and nature of the image formed by a convex and
concave lens using the thin lens formula and a ray tracing method.
• Define the power of a lens.
• Explain how the image is formed due to combination of thin lenses.
• Draw a ray diagram to show how images are formed by lenses in a simple
microscope and a simple telescope.
• Compare and contrast the structure and functions of the human eye and
the camera.
• Describe how the human eye forms an image on the retina for different
object distances.
• Identify some defects of the eye and their correction with lenses.
• Explain what is meant by the dispersion of white light to produce a
spectrum.
• Identify that the passage of a ray of light through a triangular
transparent prism results in a deviation of a ray.

Starting off
This section builds on ideas we met in Section 6.2. By devising a quiz, check that
students can recall the difference between concave and convex mirrors and the
terms used when considering concave and convex mirrors (e.g. principal axis,
principal focus, radius of curvature and magnification). Check that they can recall
the mirror equation and the sign convention used with this equation.

Activity 6.11: Answer Teaching notes

Straw or stick looks The section begins by looking at a simple example of refraction. Students are
‘bent’. given the opportunity to set the situation up for themselves in Activity 6.11. They
should be given time to discuss their observations in small groups. At this stage
you should remind students about the word ‘normal’, which they met in Section
6.2 when considering the laws of reflection. Its meaning here is the same as before.
Take time to discuss the section on consequences of refraction and see whether
students can add to the list of examples given in the text.
Snell’s law requires students to have an understanding of sines of angles. Make
sure that students are comfortable with this mathematical concept before studying
the physics. It is important to show students how their study of mathematics
has applications in other subjects such as this so that they see the value of
mathematical study, even if they are not natural mathematicians!
It would be good to set the problem in the worked example and see how students
tackle it before discussing the given solution, but you should prompt them to draw
a diagram so that they can see what is going on.

128 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

Activity 6.12 is an opportunity for students to apply their learning to a new

Activity 6.12: Answer
situation. Students should discuss the questions thoroughly and record some
hypotheses about what will happen before testing their ideas using apparatus. Speed of light will
be the same in both
At this point you could demonstrate refraction of water waves: take a shallow tank media.
of water and put a block of glass into the water. Set up some water waves and ask
students to describe what happens to the waves in the different depths of water.
Activity 6.13: Answer
Activity 6.13 is an opportunity for students to observe the refraction of a light
ray through a glass block. The block should be sized so that it fits neatly into the Students’ own
centre of a piece of paper and the angle of incidence should be such that it is easy results.
to measure using a standard protractor. You may wish to reduce the light levels in
the classroom for this activity so that the light beam is easier for students to see. Activity 6.14: Answer
Activity 6.14 should demonstrate lateral displacement, which is discussed on page
215 in the text. Students’ own
results.
Work through the section on apparent depth carefully. If possible, have a tank of
water with an object under the water that students can observe while you discuss
the text. Visual aids are always useful when discussing theory such as this, and can
help to hold students’ interest. It is also easier to involve them in their learning
since you can question them about what they observe. The activity about using

refractive index = real depth to find the refractive index of the liquid should
apparent depth
reinforce the theory.
Activity 6.15: Answer
Activity 6.15 gives students an opportunity to see where everyday observations
support the theory. Students’ own
results.
Total internal reflection is a concept that has grown in importance because it has
applications in fibre optics, which are used in communications, medicine and
other industries. Take time to ensure that students understand what is happening. Activity 6.16: Answer
In Activity 6.16, you should add the fluorescein to the water and students should Students’ own
not put their hands in the water. Apply usual safety precautions for chemical use results.
at this point. Use the worked example as the basis for further examples for your
students.
Activity 6.17: Answer
You may wish to ask students to carry out some independent research into the
applications of fibre optics, which can then be shared with the rest of the class. You Students’ own
could ask students to prepare presentations on their research, which will assist results.
them with their language studies. They should also carry out Activity 6.17.
The section then moves on to consider lenses. There are
parallels here with the previous topic when we considered Activity 6.18: Answer
concave and convex mirrors. Start by drawing a lens
like the one in the Students’ Book on page 219 and ask focal point

students to add the principal focus, principal axis, focal

length to the diagram, using their knowledge of similar
radius of
terms when considering curved mirrors. Stress the use curvature
of the term power in connection with lenses as this is the
u
term used by opticians when prescribing lenses for glasses. v
principal axis

Activity 6.18 gives students an opportunity to reinforce

the work done as a class by comparing lenses and mirrors. principal rays

The section on magnification should also be intuitive if magnification = v

u
students remember the definition of magnification from
their work on mirrors.

Grade 10 129
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

Activity 6.19 is an opportunity for students to work in small groups and see how a
Activity 6.19: Answer
lens works. You may need to darken the classroom during this activity.
Students’ own
Ask students to give you the mirror formula and then give the notation for the
results.
lens formula. See whether the students can see that the thin lens formula is the
same as that for mirrors, with the same sign convention. This means they only
have to remember one formula, which can be applied to two separate situations!
Work through the worked example so that they can see the formula in action and
give further examples as required.
The next section considers how to find the position and nature of an image formed
by a lens using a ray tracing method. This is similar to the ray tracing method
students met in Section 6.2 but you should allow plenty of time for students to work
through this section. It would be helpful if you could reproduce the Students’ Book
diagrams on the board and refer to them as you discuss the text.
The explanation on how an image is formed due to a combination of thin lenses
should be worked through carefully as it is preparation for our consideration
of optical instruments. Question students to check understanding as you work
through the text and encourage students to ask questions if there are any points
that they do not understand fully.
When considering optical instruments, if you can show students an example of
Activity 6.20: Answer
the instruments, then this is beneficial. You may be able to borrow a model of a
Students’ own human eye from colleagues who teach Biology. Activity 6.20 is an opportunity
results. for students to explore ‘near points’, while Activity 6.21 gives an opportunity for
work in small groups to compare and contrast the structure and function of the
human eye and the camera. Students could present their thoughts in the form of a
comparison table like the one started here.

Activity 6.21: Answer

Focusing Image capture Image orientation

mechanism
Human eye muscles around eye retina upright image
Camera adjusting lens film inverted image

The section on defects of the eye and their correction with lenses needs to be
handled sensitively so that those students who have eye defects do not feel unusual
Activity 6.22: Answer
in any way.
Students’ own We then move on to discuss diffraction of light. As with refraction, diffraction is
results.
a phenomenon that can be observed with water waves. You could set up a shallow
tank of water and show how waves are diffracted through an obstacle in the centre
Activity 6.23: Answer of the tank. Figure 6.11 shows the set up you could use.
Students’ own obstacle
results. water
side veiw
of obstacle

Activity 6.24: Answer Figure 6.11

Students’ own This final section of the topic is very practical. Activities 6.22, 6.23 and 6.24 all
results. involve diffraction, and you could arrange for students to move round these

130 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

activities to reduce the amount of equipment needed. For example, 20 students

Activity 6.25: Answer
could start with Activity 6.21, 20 with Activity 6.22, 20 with Activity 6.23. Then
they could all move on to the next activity: those who did Activity 6.21 could visible light has a
move to Activity 6.22, those who did Activity 6.22 could move to Activity 6.23, range of wavelengths
and those who did Activity 6.23 could move to Activity 6.21. This process could be that will be refracted
repeated until all students have carried out the three activities. by different angles
by the glass, thus
Activity 6.25 needs to be done with all the class at once. Students should work in producing the
small groups and should try and explain their observations using their knowledge spectrum
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Bring the class back together and discuss students’ explanations before working Activity 6.26: Answer
through the explanation given in the Students’ Book. Student’s own
Activity 6.26 involves students in building a spectroscope using a cracked CD. results.
Make sure that students note the warning about not looking directly at the Sun, as
this could cause blindness. You may like to set this activity as an assignment that Activity 6.27: Answer
can be done at home. Student’s own
The final two activities, Activities 6.27 and 6.28, work as a pair and lead students results.
to design a collector for the Sun’s heat energy, which can be used to heat a small
amount of water. Such technology is becoming increasingly important as the Activity 6.28: Answer
reserves of fossil fuels worldwide are depleted. Student’s own
results.

SA = starter activity MA = main activity CA = concluding activity

1. Refraction
SA Activity 6.11 with a partner.
MA Activity 6.12 in small group.
CA Review questions 1−2 to be tackled with a partner.
2. The laws of refraction
SA With a partner, summarise Student Book page 214.
MA Activity 6.13 with a partner.
Activity 6.14 with a partner.
CA Activity 6.15 with a partner.
3. Total internal reflection
SA Activity 6.16 with a partner.
MA Activity 6.17 in small group.
CA Review questions 3−12 to be tackled with a partner.
4. Lenses
SA Activity 6.18 with a partner.
MA Activity 6.19 in small group.
CA Review questions 13−16 to be tackled with a partner.
5. Optical instruments
SA With a partner, list as many pieces of equipment that use lenses as you can. Feed back
ideas.
MA Activity 6.20 in small group.
CA Activity 6.21 in small group.

Grade 10 131
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

6. Diffraction
SA Activity 6.22 in small group.
MA Activity 6.23 in small group.
Activity 6.24 in small group.
CA Review questions 17−21 to be tackled with a partner.
7. Dispersion of light
SA Activity 6.25 in small group.
MA Activity 6.26 in small group.
Activity 6.27 in small group.
Activity 6.28 in small group.
CA Review questions 22−23 to be tackled with a partner.
End of unit questions to be tackled with a partner.

Activities
• Observing refraction.
• Discussion on refraction.
• Testing the laws of refraction and drawing a diagram representing the passage
of light rays through a rectangular glass block.

• Using refractive index = real depth to find the refractive index of a liquid.
apparent depth
• Observations that indicate that light can be refracted.
• Exploring increasing the angle of incidence.
• Transmission of light through a fibre optic cable.
• Comparing lenses and mirrors.
• Using a concave lens.
• Exploring ‘near points’.
• Comparing and contrasting the structure and functions of the human eye and
the camera.
• Diffraction of light.
• Two slit diffraction.
• Using a diffraction grating.
• Exploring dispersion of white light.
• The CD spectroscope.
• Measuring the solar constant using a Fresnel lens.
• Design a collector for the heat of the Sun.

Resources
http://www.school-for-champions.com/light-refraction.htm
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/geoopt/refr.html

Where next?
This is the final section in the Grade 10 syllabus. You should now begin to revise
the content covered in the entire grade and prepare students for their end of year
examination. Base revision questions and the end of year examination questions
on the exercises given in the Students’ Book, because these have been designed to
check that the learning competencies have been achieved.

132 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

Answers to review questions

1. Refraction is the change in the direction of travel of a light beam that occurs as
the light crosses the boundary between one transparent medium and another.
2. Some materials refract light at their boundary more than others. The extent to
which each one does this is measured by its refractive index, given the symbol
n. The refractive index is a number larger than one, such that the greater
the number the greater the refraction produced. Water, for example, has a
refractive index of 1.33, while that of common glass is just a shade over 1.5.
Figure 6.13 illustrates to scale the difference that this makes. The water has the
smaller refractive index, so its surface bends the light less.

Figure 6.12

The refractive index of a medium is given by Snell’s law.

3. 1.48
5 cm = 1.67
4. refractive index = _____
3 cm

5. Refraction occurs when a wave crosses a boundary between one medium and
another.
6. Take a piece of plain paper. Set up the apparatus shown in Figure 6.13 so that a
narrow beam of light is incident on one face of a rectangular glass block and is
refracted as it crosses the boundary.

Figure 6.13

Trace round the outline of the block. Use a sharp pencil to trace the incident
beam of light and the beam of light as it exits the block. Take the paper from
under the block and join the two rays as shown in the right-hand diagram.
Draw on the normals for the incident beam and the exit beam. Now measure
the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. Use Snell’s law to find the
refractive index of the block.
7. Examples of observations that indicate that light can be refracted include the
apparent bending of a straw in a glass of water, stars appearing to be higher
than they really are in the night sky and the shimmering effect that can be seen
above a Bunsen burner flame.
8. Because the two opposite faces of the block are parallel, by geometry the light
must meet the second face at the same angle, θ2, (see Figure 6.13). This means
that as the light leaves the glass it is refracted by the same amount the other

Grade 10 133
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics
a b
a b
a a
air
air b b way, and so must emerge on a path parallel to its original one as shown in
air air Figure 6.14. The sideways shift of the beam is called the lateral displacement.
water
water
water water The extent of the lateral displacement depends on the angle at which the light
b is incident on the outer surface of the glass block. At an angle of incidence
c
c
d
d ofe0° (that
e is, when it hits the block at right angles to its surface) the lateral
d e ?
c d e displacement is of course nil. As the angle of incidence increases, so does the
?
? ?
displacement.
c
c
c c
9. The critical angle is defined as the particular angle of incidence for which the
e
?
light emerges along the surface (at an angle of refraction of 90°). The critical
angle is the angle marked as c in Figure 6.14.

Figure 6.14 10. For total internal reflection to occur the angle of incidence must be greater
than the critical angle.
11. At the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90°
sin θ1
Using the relationship n = ______ we get:
sin θ

sin 90 1
n = ______ ___
but as sin 90 = 1, sin c = = 0.65789… so c = 41°
sin c 1.52

12. Once introduced into one end of a glass rod, the light cannot escape so long
as it always hits the side walls at an angle of incidence greater than the critical
angle for the material of the rod. The light is trapped in what seems like a kind
of pipe with silvered walls, as shown in Figure 6.15.
Recent advances in technology have led to a whole range of applications of this
effect. Individual plastic fibres can be made which, optically insulated from
one another, may be enclosed side by side in a non-transparent sheath. The
result is a bundle no wider than the average electrical wiring to lamps, and so
flexible that it can be tied in knots without affecting its performance.

Figure 6.15

13. Figure 6.16 shows the difference between convex and concave lenses.
14.

concave convex focal point

concave convex

Figure 6.16
radius of
curvature

u
principal axis
v

principal rays

magnification = v
u

Figure 6.17

134 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

15. O

Figure 6.18
1
16. The power of a lens =
its focal length in metres
so the larger numbers go with the stronger lenses. The unit of power in the
optical sense will be m–1, given the name dioptres. Thus a lens with a focal
1_ = 5 dioptres.
length of 20 cm would have a power of _0.2 m
17. To view an image and make best use of the available light you need Intermediate
an arrangement such as that shown in Figure 6.19. It is no good image
Fo
putting your eye at the point ‘I’ itself: that would be like trying to O F
read this print by resting your eyeball on the page! You must stand o

back so you can focus on it clearly.

Objective
The first stage in forming an image with a combination of thin lens
lenses can therefore be drawn like this (though the angles are much Figure 6.19
exaggerated for clarity):
The image, labelled ‘intermediate image’ in the drawing, is typically 10–15 cm
back from the objective.
In principle you could cast this image on to a screen put there, but in practice
it would be far too faint. It would be better to try to view it by placing your eye
back to the right of the drawing; it does not matter how far back, so long as the
image is outside your near point so you can focus on it.
In a combination of thin lenses you achieve a second stage of magnification by
looking at the image not directly but through a second lens.
The intermediate image must therefore lie inside the focus fe of the second
lens. Unfortunately the two rays whose progress we have followed so far
are not ‘special’ ones for the second lens – they will be refracted through it
and help to form the virtual final image which we see, but their path is not
predictable. Therefore we have had to add some construction lines to see
where the image would be produced, and then draw the rays emerging from
the second lens spreading out from there.

Eyepiece lens
Intermediate image Objective Eye lens
acts as object for
eyepiece lens
α α1
Fo Fl Fo
Fl
O Fo I Fe

Objective
lens
(fo) ge (Fe)
inal ima
oint of f
p
Top
Final image
∞
that is veiwed

Figure 6.20 Figure 6.21

Grade 10 135
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

Mirror in
18. sprung
holder

Screen
Frosted Object
light bulb

Metre ruler,
so all components
are aligned

Flat bench

Figure 6.22
19.
Focusing mechanism Image capture Image orientation
Human eye muscles around eye retina upright image
Camera adjusting lens film inverted image

20. You can look at close-up objects or distant ones. Unless you require spectacles,
the image in both cases is clearly focused on the retina.
Most of the refraction of the light, to make it converge to a focus on the eye’s
retina, takes place as the light first enters the eyeball at the boundary between
air and the cornea. This is where the greatest change in the speed of light
occurs, and it is that speed change that causes the refraction.
The fine control of the focusing is done by the lens, but only a little of the total
refraction takes place there; as the light goes between the liquid in the eye
and the lens, there is only a small change in speed and therefore only a small
difference in refractive index.
The eye’s ability to focus on objects at varying distances is given the name
accommodation. It is the ring of muscles around the lens that enables the eye
to accommodate. With a distant point object the light is almost parallel, and
the eye’s lens focuses it back to a point on the retina. When you view a near
object, the light spreading out from it and reaching your eye will be diverging
strongly and yet the same lens has to focus it on the same retina. A stronger
lens is needed to accomplish this second feat, and the muscles achieve this by
causing the lens to bulge up into a fatter, more rounded shape.
Figure 6.23 illustrates this process in a well-adjusted eye which does not
need spectacles. For simplicity, all the bending of the light is shown occurring
at the lens.

Figure 6.23

In a) the eye is focusing on a close object. The lens has to be made into a very
rounded shape, to refract the light enough for it to meet on the retina. In b)
the object is more distant. The light is not diverging so much, so less bending
is needed to make the rays meet on the retina, and the lens is not so ‘bulged

136 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

up’. Finally, in c) the object is very distant. The apparently parallel rays are
actually diverging from a point a long way off. Less refraction is needed and
the lens is its natural shape and the muscles are relaxed.
21. 1 Short sight (myopia). This happens if the lens is too strong for the eye or,
looked at another way, the eyeball is too long for the lens. With an object at
the far point (that is, the greatest distance which can be focused clearly) the
lens is fully relaxed – and for this eye the far point is not all that far away!
For objects at greater distances the lens can go no weaker, so light from
them is made to meet in front of the retina and so the image is blurred.
The one compensation is that the near point will be exceptionally close.
To correct this fault, a diverging lens must be placed in front of the eye so
parallel light is made to enter the eye as if it was spreading out from the eye’s
far point (see Figure 6.24).
2 Long sight (hypermetropia). This time the lens is too weak. The parallel
light from distant objects would not be focused by the relaxed lens
until past the retina, but they can still be seen clearly by causing the lens
to bulge – thus using up some of the available accommodation already.
This means that as an object approaches, the lens soon bulges to
its maximum extent. Thus the near point will be an inconveniently large
distance away.
This fault may be corrected with spectacles containing converging lenses, to
strengthen the eyeball’s optical system (see Figure 6.24).

When lens is When lens is fully

fully relaxed bulged to its strongest The cure

Normal
eye (still just strong enough to
focus a distant point object Near point
on to the retina) Distant ~ 250 mm

Weaken with a
Short (Lens won’t
sight O O
go any I
weaker, so
[The lens in more distant Lens relaxed
the eye is Distance to Far point distant
objects are V. Close
too strong] far point
not focused) near point Distant object appears to be at eye’s
far point, so can just be focused

Long Strengthen with a

sight relaxed
... too weak when fully O
[The lens in relaxed even to focus on
the eye is very distant objects.
too weak] (... but you can see V. Distant
them clearly, nevertheless, near point This lens has already done
by already bulging the
part of necessary focusing
lens a bit)

Figure 6.24

Grade 10 137
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

3 Old sight (presbyopia). As people age, the lens in their eye may become less
supple. In that case the power of accommodation may become affected at
both ends of the range – their near point is too far away, so a book has to
be held at arm’s length, and their far point is too close so they cannot see
distant things clearly.
In that case a pair of reading spectacles with diverging lenses and a pair of
general viewing spectacles with converging lenses may be needed, or else a
single pair of bifocals.
4 Astigmatism. This problem arises if a person’s cornea has a different
curvature in the horizontal plane from that in the vertical plane. This results
cylindrical lens in two slightly different powers. Vertical lines in the field of view may be
sharply focused, for instance, while horizontal lines are a bit blurred.
The remedy is a pair of spectacles fitted with cylindrical lenses, whose
surfaces are each part of a cylinder rather than a sphere (see Figure 6.25).
Figure 6.25 These increase the power of the eye in one plane, to bring it up to the power
in the other plane.
22. White light has a range of wavelengths, from blue to red. Since wavelength
and speed are related by the equation v = fλ, then a range of wavelengths
will produce a range of speeds since all the light has the same frequency. The
amount of refraction is related to speed and so the different wavelengths in
white light are refracted by different amounts to produce a spectrum. The rays
are deviated by the prism.
23. Refraction results in lateral displacement of the ray. The incident ray will
undergo lateral displacement and so be deviated.

Answers to end of unit questions

1. In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of 3 x 108 m s−1.
2. X−rays are used to take pictures of inside the body to show any bone fractures.
They are absorbed more by bone (which is denser than the surrounding
muscles). Infrared radiation is used in infrared cameras, which are used in
rescue operations to detect the presence of bodies. Microwaves and radio
waves are used for communications: for example, radio and telephone signals.
3. Set-up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Break every other tooth of the
comb. Draw the rays that appear to be coming from the mirror and the paper.
Measure angles as shown.
0

138 Grade 10
 Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

v 25
4. Magnification = __ __
u = 5 =5

5. Examples of the uses of curved (concave and convex) mirrors are shaving
mirrors and driving mirrors.
6. Whenever light crosses a boundary between the transparent media, the sines
of the angles on each side of the boundary bear a constant ratio to each other
sin θ1
= n where n is refractise index of the medium.
sin θ2
7.

8. Suppose you find yourself under water with a torch that gives a narrow beam.
Figure 6.14 illustrates the effect of shining the light on to the underside of the
water surface at a progressively larger and larger angle (as measured to the
normal). Only the path of the main beam is shown:a there willbalways be some
air
reflection back as well. At a particular angle of incidence (marked c in diagram
d the light emerges along the surface. If you
watershine the light at a greater angle of
incidence than this e then the beam will be totally internally reflected.

a b c d e
air ?

water
c

1 1 1
9. c + = d e
So Si f ?
1 1 1
+ =
0.04 0.06 fc
1
= 41.67
f
f = 0.024 m
10. Television signals need to be boosted by using satellites above the Earth to
travel long distances. Satellites did not exist until the 1960s.
11. a) The diffraction of waves is a change of direction of waves as they move
around obstacles.
b) 

12. The wavelength of sound waves is a similar order to that of, for example, the
width of a door. Diffraction of sound is therefore observable. However, light
waves have a wavelength of the order of 6 × 10–7 m. Evereyday objects are
much larger than this.

Grade 10 139
Unit 6: Electromagnetic waves and geometrical optics

13. a) Critical angle = c

1
sin c =
n
1
sin c = = 0.752
1.33
c = 48.8°

1
b) sin c =
n
1
sin c = = 0.413
2.42
c = 24.4°

c
14. a) n =
v
nA > nB

Since c is constant, if
c c
>
vA vB
vA < vB
Light travels more slowly in A
b) Since n > 1 then c > v
Therefore the speed of light in both materials must be less than that in air.

140 Grade 10
Minimum learning Grade 10
competencies
Area of Competency Grade 10
Motion in two dimension • Describe motion in two dimension
• Define the term projectile and give common examples of projectile
• Identify any projectile is moving under the influence of gravity
• Describe the difference among the terms vertical, horizontal and inclined
projection
• Identify that projectile motion consists of two independent motions
• Solve problems related to projectile motion
• Identify the path followed by a projectile projected at an angle is parabolic
• Define uniform circular motion, tangential velocity, centripetal
acceleration, centripetal force and centrifugal force
• Define rotational motion, angular displacement, angular velocity and
angular acceleration
• Describe the relationship between angular quantities and linear quantities
• Solve problems related to uniform circular motion and rotational motion
• Describe rotational with constant angular acceleration
• Solve problems using equations of motion with constant angular
acceleration
• Define moment of inertia, torque, angular momentum and centre of
gravity
• State conservation of angular momentum and condition of equilibrium
• Describe rotational kinetic energy in terms of moment of inertia and
torque in terms of angular acceleration and moment of inertia
• State laws of universal gravitation and Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion.
• Describe the variation of acceleration due to gravity with altitude
• Solve problems related to moment of inertia of a system of particles with
respect to a given axis.
• Solve problems related to rotational kinetic energy, torque, angular
momentum, conservation of angular momentum, conditions of
equilibrium and center of gravity
• Distinguish between orbital velocity and escape velocity
• Describe about geostationary satellite and explain their uses
• Apply the law of universal gravitation to solve common problems
• Demonstrate scientific enquiry skills such as observing, predicting,
comparing, communicating, problem solving, asking questions, applying
concepts, analyzing

Grade 10 141
Grade 10: Physics Minimum Learning Competencies

Electrostatics • State the law of conservation of charge and law of electrostatics

• Describe the charging processes and charge distribution on a conductor of
different shapes
• Identify that lightening is an electrostatic phenomenon and explain the
role of a lightening rod
• Describe about the electrostatic danger in aircraft and some applications of
electrostatics
• State Coulomb’s law
• Define the terms: electric field, electric field strength, electric field lines,
test charge
• Determine the magnitude and direction of force between two point
charges
• Identify electric field inside a conductor is zero
• Define the terms: electric potential and distinguish between absolute
potential and potential difference
• Determine the electric potential at a given point due to a point charge and
system of charges
• Describe about equipotential lines and surfaces
• Calculate the electric potential energy between two charges
• Define the terms: capacitor, capacitance, parallel plate capacitor, dielectric
• Calculate the effective capacitance of capacitors in series, parallel and in
series parallel combinations
• Determine the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without a
dielectric and the energy stored
• List some applications of capacitors
• Demonstrate scientific enquiry skills such as observing, inferring,
communicating, comparing, solving problem, applying concepts, relating
cause and effect, asking questions, experimenting
Current electricity • Define the terms electric current, receptivity, conductivity and resistance
• Describe flow of electric charge in a metallic conductor as conventional
and electron current
• State Ohm’s law and calculate resistance, current and voltage using
Ohm’s law
• Solve problems related to electric current, receptivity, conductivity
• Draw a simple electrical circuit with resistors in parallel and series in
different position of switches
• Calculate equivalent resistance, current through each resistance, current
through the entire circuit and voltage drop across each resistor in any
connection
• Mention the merit of galvanometer, an ammeter and voltmeter and
describe the connection of ammeter and voltmeter in an electric circuit
• Define the terminal voltage, electromotive force (e.m.f.), internal
resistance of a cell and show their relationship
• Identify series and parallel connection of cells and compute the total e.m.f.
of cells

142 Grade 10
 Grade 10: Physics Minimum Learning Competencies

• Express electrical energy using in terms of current, voltage and resistance

• Calculate electrical energy consumed, power dissipated and cost of
electrical energy
• Describe with the aid of diagrams for sketch, installation of household
circuit
• Demonstrate the scientific enquiry such as: observing, inferring,
classifying, comparing, making models, measuring, asking questions,
experimenting, interpreting illustration, applying concept, solving
problems
Electromagnetism • Define the magnetic field and identify that the magnetic field lines around
straight current-carrying wires are concentric circles
• Determine the direction of magnetic field lines around straight current
loop, solenoid
• Calculate the magnetic field strength at a point due to straight current-
carrying wire current loop and inside a solenoid
• Identify that a moving charge in a magnetic field current carrying
conductor experiences a magnetic force
• Describe how moving charged particles are deflected by uniform magnetic
field
• Solve problems on motion of charged particles in a magnetic field and
current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
• Determine the magnitude and direction of a force between two parallel
current carrying wires separated by a distance d
• Show with the aid of diagram the direction of the forces acting on each
sides of a rectangular current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field
• Determine the magnitude and direction of the torque acting on a current
loop in a magnetic field
• Describe how a moving coil galvanometer operates
• Describe the working principle of a DC motor.
• Define the terms: magnetic flux
• State Faraday’s Law of induction and Lenz’s Law
• Determine the magnitude and direction of induced e.m.f. or current using
Faraday’s law of induction and Lenz’s law respectively
• Define the terms: electromagnetic induction, inductance, self and mutual
inductance
• Explain the working principle of an AC and DC generator
• Explain the principle of operation of transformer
• Solve problems involving inductance and transformer
• Demonstrate scientific enquiry skills such as: observing, inferring,
comparing, making models, applying concepts, measuring, interpreting
illustrations, solving problems, relating cause and effects

Grade 10 143
Grade 10: Physics Minimum Learning Competencies

Introduction to • Define the term electronics

Electronics • State what is meant by harmonic emission
• Describe the function of CRT and its use
• Describe semiconductors in terms of charge carrier and resistance
• Describe how semiconductors can be used in half wave rectification
• Describe the behaviour of semiconductor devices such as thermistor, LDR,
LED, photodiode, Zender diode, transistor
• Demonstrate scientific enquiry skills such as classifying, comparing,
relating cause and effect, interpreting illustrations, asking questions

Electromagnetic waves • Describe the circumstances in which electromagnetic waves are produced
and geometrical optics and the nature of electromagnetic waves
• Identify all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum
• Identify that EM waves emitted by the Sun has a very wide continuous
range of frequencies and therefore continuous range of wavelength
• List the components of EM spectrum and describe their uses
• State the laws of reflection and describe the image formation by a plane
and curved mirrors with the aid of a diagram
• List the nature of the image formed by a plane mirror convex mirror and
identify that the nature of the image by concave mirror depend on the
position of the object
• Use the mirror equation to determine the nature and position of the image
formed
• Describe the conditions in which refraction takes place and draw a
diagram representing the passage of light rays through a rectangular block
• State the laws of refraction
• Express Snell’s law in terms of the ration of refractive indices, wavelengths
and speeds
• Apply the law of refraction to determine the refractive index of the
medium through which light passes
• Explain why a pool looks shallower than it is
• Explain how total internal reflection occurs and describe its uses.
• Define the terms angle of deviations and refracting angle of a prism and
trace the ray through a prism
• Describe the nature of image formed by thin lenses using a ray diagram
• Use thin lens formula to determine the nature and position of the image
formed
• Apply the definition of magnification and power of a lens to determine
magnification and power of a lens
• Draw a ray diagram showing how images are formed by a combination of
lenses in a simple microscope and simple telescope
• Describe with the aid of a diagram how an image is formed in the retina of
human eye and identify the types of lenses used for correction of eye defects.
• Describe how dispersion of light occurs in a prism with the aid of a diagram
• Explain how colours can be mixed and objects obtain their colours
• Demonstrate scientific enquiry skills such as: observing, inferring,
classifying, comparing, interpreting illustrations, applying concepts,
problem solving, asking questions, measuring, making models,
experimenting, relating cause and effect

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General Objectives of Grade 10 physics

• Understand the motion of objects in horizontal, vertical, and inclined planes,
and with reference to the forces acting on the objects; the laws of conservation
of energy and of momentum for objects moving in one and two dimensions
• Develop basic manipulative skills in investigate motion in a plane, and solve
problems involving the forces acting on an object in linear, projectile, and
circular motion, with the aid of vectors, graphs, and free-body diagram.
• Understand the concepts of, electrical, gravitational, and magnetic fields;
electromagnetic radiation; electromagnetic induction, and the interface
between energy and matter, the common applications of electrical and
electronic circuits, and the function and configuration of the components
used in circuits
• Develop skills in using measuring instruments and familiar electrical
devices; constructing simple electrical circuits using common tools
appropriately and safely
• Appreciate the applications of electrical and electronic technologies to
the community.

Unit 1: Motion in two dimensions (22 periods)

Unit Outcomes: Students will be able to:
• Describe the motion of objects in horizontal, vertical, and inclined planes,
and predict and explain the motion with reference to the forces acting on the
objects;
• Investigate motion in a plane, through experiments and solve problems
involving the forces acting on an object in linear, projectile, and circular
motion, with the aid of vectors, graphs, and free-body diagrams;
• Analyse ways in which an understanding of the dynamics of motion relates
to the development and use of technological devices, including terrestrial
and space vehicles, and the enhancement of recreational activities and sports
equipment.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able 1. motion in two Demonstration:
to: dimension The “aluminium foil cannon ball”. It uses a rubber band to
• Define the term 1.1 Projectile motion shoot an aluminium cannon ball out of a paper tube.
projectile (5 periods) Inclined plane – hitting a target.
• Give examples of • Horizontal projection It shows independence of vertical and horizontal motions.
projectiles • Vertical projection Equipment: the same long “v” track from Newton’s First Law
• Distinguish between • Inclined projection demonstration. It should be at least a metre and a half long.
one dimensional and
• Centre of Mass Put a ball in motion down the track. Have a stop at the end.
two dimensional
• Definition of centre Use a short segment of track at a high angle; say 45 degrees,
motions
of mass to impart momentum. Measure the speed of the ball on the
• Identify that a track. Measure the height of the end of the track off the floor.
projectile motion is • Centre of mass
Calculate the time it takes to fall. Predict where the ball will
a two dimensional theorem
land if the stop is removed. Put a cup there to catch the ball.
motion • Application problems
Repeat the demonstration perhaps with the track running
• Define the term angle for CM
over student desks. Invite students to measure and place the
of projection (angle • Boat on a river with cup.
of elevation and occupant walking
Change the velocity of the ball. Re-measure with a different
depression) • Satellite separating launch angle. Invite a group of students to measure the
• Describe the effect of from an explosion or velocity and make a prediction about where to put the cup.
gravity in the motion a rocket
PEER INSTRUCTION on motion in 2 dimensions
of a projectile • uniform circular
Group lab – ACTIVE ASSESSMENT:
• Identify that the motion
horizontal motion Each row will have paper tube cannon.
part is motion with a They will calibrate the cannon’s initial velocity by measuring
1.2 Rotational
constant velocity and the force constant of the rubber band. Using the definition
kinematics
the vertical motion of work, and Favg they calculate the work done on the ball
(5 periods)
part is a uniformly by the elastic. This predicts the initial velocity and also the
• Rotational variables vertical height the ball should reach.
accelerated motion
• Angular and The launcher is placed in either the front desk or back desk.
• Write an expression
tangential
for the time required The instructor gives groups of 6-9 students a small basket
displacement
to reach the 10-20 cm in diameter. The lab challenges student groups to
maximum height of a • Angular and calculate the angle of the launcher so that a launch will hit
projectile projected tangential velocity the basket placed in the middle of their desks. Each group
at an angle θ to the • Angular and gets three tries. Each group must submit a report showing
horizontal tangential their calculations and measurements that achieved the result.
• Use an expression acceleration Individuals must write up the process and explain how to
to calculate the • Uniform circular calculate range of a projectile.
maximum height motion Activity: Independence of gravity and other forces
attained by a • Rotational motion Position a ruler or other stick on the edge of a table. place
projectile in an with constant a penny on one end of the ruler and place another penny
inclined projection angular acceleration on the edge of a table near the ruler. Quickly pivot the
• Write an expression • Equations of motion ruler about its other end and one penny will drop straight
for the total time of with constant down while the other will be hit by the ruler and move in a
flight of a projectile angular acceleration horizontal and vertical direction simultaneously. Listen for
projected at a given the clicks as each penny hits the floor.
angle Do they hit the floor at the same or at different times?
Repeat the activity using different sizes of coins and different
heights.
Does the motion in the vertical direction influence the motion
in the horizontal direction? Discuss.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able 1.3. Rotational Demonstration:
to: dynamics (7 periods) A 2 m plank with four low friction wheels such as from roller
• Derive an expression 1.3.1. Moment of bearings models a boat in water. The middle of the plank is
for the range R of a inertia and rotational marked on the plank and on the floor. A student, starting in
projectile projected kinetic energy the middle, walks four steps. The plank moves backwards.
at a given angle Marks are made of final positions. The instructor guides a
• Deduce the path calculation of the motion of the centre of mass.
1.3.2. Torque
(trajectory) of a Demonstration: two students on platforms with wheels
• Torque and angular
projectile is parabolic exchange a very heavy ball (sand filled basket ball). They
acceleration
• Show that the range analyse the event in Newtonian fashion. Now one platform
• Angular momentum has 2 or 3 students. Repeat the demonstration. Record
occurs at an angle of
45 degrees • Law of conservation backward motion of each sled.
of angular momentum Demonstration of centre of mass (CM) using a tennis racket.
• Solve problems
involving projectile • Conditions of Some lights form a band around part of the tennis racket.
motion equilibrium in Use one band at a time. The instructor throws it toward
rotational motion the back of the class. Lights on the ends make loops in the
• Define the term
centre of mass • Centre of gravity air. Lights placed at one spot make a perfect parabola. The
• Determine the centre instructor investigates what properties this point has. He
of mass of regular 1.4 Newton’s law of suspends the racket by a string at that point. It balances.
and irregular bodies universal gravitation This demonstration gives support to the CM theorem. The
(5 periods) instructor tries again with a stick weighted heavily at one
• Explain the force end. The CM is closer to the heavy end.
needed to keep an • Variation of g with
object moving in altitude Activity: centre of mass of an irregular object
a horizontal circle • Kepler’s law of How can we find the centre of mass of an irregularly shaped
(centripetal force) planetary motion object?
• Identify that a radial • Motion of artificial Use a nail or pencil to punch three holes in the perimeter of
acceleration of a satellites(orbital and a cardboard. Slightly enlarge these holes so the cardboard
body in a uniform escape velocities) can rotate freely. Place a nail or pencil in one hole and hang
circular motion arises a weighted piece of string from it. Swing the cardboard and
• Geostationary
from a change in when it comes to rest, draw a line on the cardboard showing
satellites
the direction of a the position of the string.The cardboard swing back and forth
velocity as a pendulum until the centre of mass comes to rest directly
• Calculate the below the point of support. This position represents the state
magnitude of the of least energy for the body, and all bodies move toward
centripetal force that a position of minimal energy. Repeat the other two holes.
is needed to keep an Attempt to balance the cardboard at the intersection of the
object moving in a three lines.
horizontal circle Demonstration:
• Describe the The instructor swings a pail of water horizontally at sufficient
rotational motion of speed not to spill the water.
a body Draw out students’ ideas about circular motion.
• Describe angular What keeps the water from spilling?
displacement Use diagrams to pull apart ideas about forces on the water.
and tangential
Why does the instructor lean back a bit? (bring in centre of
displacement
mass arguments)
Bring in Newton’s laws. Why the water in the pail accelerated
but its speed is not changing?
Repeat the experiment with a vertical motion of the pail.
Begin with a pendulum like motion then move to full
rotation.

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Students will be able Do force diagrams at the top, bottom and side points.
to: Demo: Cut a piece of glass tubing about 15 cm in length.
• Express the measure Heat one end in a Bunsen burner flame until the walls of the
of an angle in terms tube are smoothly rounded. Hang one end of a one-metre
of revolutions, section of fishing line to two-holed rubber stopper and
degrees, and radian thread the other end through the tube. Tie approximately 50
• Define angular grams of metal washer from the line. These washers provide
velocity and the centripetal force that is exerted through the line to
tangential velocity keep the stopper rotating in a circle. Using a stopwatch or
other timing device, swing the stopper at a constant rate.
• Identify that the
Be certain to adjust the line so the distance from the top of
SI unit of angular
the tube to the stopper is equal to the chosen radius, and
velocity is rad/sec
attach a paperclip to the line above the weights to use as
• Define angular an indicator to check the circular motion is steady. If the
and tangential clip remains stationary, the radius and speed of rotation
acceleration. is constant. The velocity can be computed by dividing the
• Identify that the circumference of the circle by the period of rotation. It is
SI unit of angular easier to determine the period of rotation by measuring the
acceleration is rad/s2 time required for ten rotations and dividing by ten. Calculate
• Show the relationship the centripetal acceleration acting on the stopper. Repeat
between angular using a larger radius.
displacement Demonstration:
and tangential The tool is a bicycle wheel that is filled with sand, or better,
displacement some sand mixed with metal shot. The axels have handles to
• Show the relationship hold the wheel as it rotates. The instructor gets the wheel
between angular going as fast as possible. He invites students to come up and
velocity and hold the handles and attempt to twist the wheel in a vertical
tangential velocity. direction. They describe a resistance. He stops the wheel and
• Show the relationship invites others to twist in a vertical direction. Why is there no
between angular resistance when the wheel is stopped?
acceleration The instructor wraps more masses onto the wheel (bicycle
and tangential tire segments filled with sand, sealed at the ends.) These are
acceleration taped symmetrically on the wheel. He makes the wheel spin
• Use the relation again and invites students to try to twist it. Is it harder or
|a|=(a2 t +a2r)1/2 easier than before?
to calculate the Alternately, the understanding with a demonstration of
magnitude of the angular momentum using a weighted bicycle wheel. Have the
total acceleration wheel accelerated by spinning it.
of a body in circular Connect angular momentum with linear momentum by
motion accelerating the mounted wheel by having a weight drop and
• Solve problems exert a torque.
related to angular Demonstration: angular momentum, torque and stability
displacement,
Hold a coin horizontally, using thumb and first finger of one
angular velocity, and
hand. Slowly move your fingers apart until the object falls.
angular acceleration
Unless you are agile enough to release both fingers from
• Describe rotational the coin at precisely the same instant the coin will flip as it
motion with constant falls because the last finger touching the coin acts as pivot
angular acceleration and gravity acting at the coin’s centre of mass provides an
• State the equations external torque to rotate the coin about this axis. As the coin
of motion with falls it rotates around its centre of mass The demonstration
constant angular motivates a qualitative understanding of the moment of
acceleration inertia, a quantity a lot like mass but now only applicable
with rotation.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able Demonstration: To demonstrate distribution of mass and
to: rotational inertia.
• Show the analogous Tape cans of soup or other similar objects an equal and short
relation between distance from the centre of a metre stick, leaving room for
equations of your hand to grasp the stick at its centre. Apply torque to
uniformly accelerated the stick by twisting it back and forth and note the effort
rectilinear motion required. Move the objects to the ends of the metre stick and
and rotational motion tape them.
• Use equations of Is it easier or more difficult to rotate the stick?
motion with constant Activity: to demonstrate rotational inertia
angular acceleration
Place two different sized rolls of adding machine tape or
to solve simple
other rolled paper on the dowel. Attach heavy clips to the
related problems
rolls and hold so they cannot unwind .release the rolls at the
• Define the moment same time and note which unrolls most rapidly.
of inertia of a point
Which roll has the greatest rotational inertia?
mass
Define angular momentum using the right hand rule. Show
• Define rotational
its representation as an arrow from the centre of the axis.
kinetic energy of a
“reality of the unseen”. Angular momentum is real but it is
body
not, itself, visible. Trying to change the direction of rotation
• Solve simple meant applying forces to the angular momentum vector.
problems related to
Ask students how angular momentum helps riding a bicycle.
moment of inertia
and rotational kinetic Restate Newton’s 1st law for rotation.
energy Restate Newton’s 2nd law for rotation.
• Define the term Define torque. Inquire why there is a distance in the
torque definition?
• Identify the SI Define kinetic rotational energy. Show the correspondence of
unit of torque is terms.
Nm,which is not the KElinear =½ mv2=1/2 I 2 = KErot
same as Joule Demonstration:
• Express torque in Use a mounted, weighted bicycle wheel and a small, light
terms of moment of wooden pulley to supply torque to show conversion of
inertia and angular Potential Energy into rotational Kinetic Energy. A weight
acceleration suspended on a string attached to a pulley disk forces the
• Derive an expression weighted wheel to accelerate.
for the work done by Activity: Obtain three cans of similar size, one filled with a
the torque liquid, one filled with a solid or semi-solid, and an empty can
• Use the formula W=τθ with the ends cut out. Which can will reach the bottom first
to solve problems when released on a ramp at the same time? Last? Test your
related to work done predictions.
by torque PEER Instruction:
• Define the angular What happens if the mass of the wheel is increased? Why?
momentum of a
What happens if the mass is doubled?
particle of mass m
Increase the mass of the wheel by adding sand filled
• Write the SI unit of
segments taped on.
angular momentum
• State the law of
conservation of
angular momentum

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: Demonstration:
• Solve problems using Converting rotational kinetic energy into electrical energy:
the law of conservation Get the weighted wheels going to a good speed. Use a
of angular momentum small DC electric motor with a 5-10 cm disk attached to
• State the first and the shaft. Have a small mirror segment attached to the disk
second conditions of and a light shining on the mirror to make rotations visible.
equilibrium Demonstrate attaching a battery to the motor. Remove the
• Solve problems related battery; attach a bulb to the output of the motor. Bring
to conditions of the weighted wheel to maximum speed. Touch the motor’s
equilibrium wheel to the tyre. The light bulb will light for a while, as
the wheel slows down. When it runs in reverse way, a motor
• Define the term centre
is also a generators.
of mass (centre of
gravity) of a solid body PEER Instruction:
• Determine the centre What kinds of energy transformations are involved?
of gravity of a body If the light bulb were not screwed in, what would the
using a plumb–line interaction with the motor and tyre?
method Do the experiment.
• Define the terms: Collect literature about satellites from newspapers, libraries
stable, unstable and and catalogues. Ask students to write an essay about the
neutral equilibrium history of satellites, dates for the launching of the satellites
• State the Newton’s law into space and time spent in space.
of universal gravitation The Mousetrap car.
• Determine the Using power from one mousetrap students design a
magnitude of the force mousetrap car to go the furthest distance. They can choose
of attraction between any number of wheels and any size of the wheels. The world
two masses separated record is 180 m.
by a distance r
• Calculate the value
of g at any distance
above the surface of
the Earth
• State Kepler’s law of
planetary motion
• Use kepler’s law of
planetary motion to
determine the period
of any planet
• Differentiate between
orbital and escape
velocity of a satellite
• Determine the period
of a satellite around a
planet
• Calculate the orbital
and escape velocity of
a satellite
• Describe the period,
position and function
of a geostationary
satellite

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Assessment
The teacher should assess each student’s work continuously over the whole unit
and compare it with the following description, based on the competencies, to
determine whether the student has achieved the minimum required level.

Students at minimum requirement level

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: analyse and
predict, in quantitative terms, and explain the motion of objects in horizontal,
vertical, and inclined projections; analyse and predict, in quantitative terms,
and explain the motion of a projectile with respect to the horizontal and vertical
components of its motion; analyse and predict, in quantitative terms, and explain
uniform circular motion in the horizontal and vertical planes with reference
to the forces involved; describe Newton’s law of universal gravitation, apply it
quantitatively, and use it to explain planetary and satellite motion.

Students above minimum requirement level

Students working above the minimum requirement level should be praised and
their achievements recognised. They should be encouraged to continue working
hard and not become complacent.

Students below minimum requirement level

Students working below the minimum requirement level will require extra help if
they are to catch up with rest of the class. They should be given extra attention in
class and additional lesson time during breaks or at the end of the day.

Unit 2: Electrostatics (19 periods)

Unit outcomes: Students will be able to:
• Demonstrate the principles of static electricity;
• Gain knowledge and understandings in static electric charge, electric field and
force, electric potential capacitors and energy stored in capacitors
• Develop skills in performing electrostatic experiments, and solving problems
related to charges at rest
• Appreciate the workings of some equipments which operate on the basis of
electrostatic charges
• Describe and apply models of static electricity.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 2.Electrostatics Demonstration: Electrostatic Attraction of water
• State the law of 2.1 Electric charge Adjust the tap so it releases the smallest continuous
conservation of charge (6 periods) stream of water possible. Bring the charged comb near
• Describe and explain • electric charge and the stream and note that it shifts the flow by means of
the charging processes: law of conservation electrostatic attraction.
charging by rubbing, of charge ACTIVITY: Hanging balloons with electrostatic force
conduction, and induction • charging processes Inflate a balloon and then briskly rub one side of it
• Perform an experiment to (rubbing, conduction, on your hair. Place this surface of the balloon toward
charge an electroscope by and induction) a wall or door and release it when it appears to be
conduction, induction • charge distribution sticking. What can you conclude about the nature of
• Describe the distribution of on a conductor the surfaces to which the balloon sticks?
charge on a conductor of • lightning and Demonstration: Induction
variable shape lightning rod Tear a sheet of newspaper into small bits approximately
• Explain how lightning is • applications of 1.5 cm in diameter. Place the paper bits under a glass
formed electrostatics (paint, plate supported by two books. Rub the glass vigorously
• Describe the use of spray, electrostatic with silk and notice how the paper jumps up to the
lightning rod photocopier) glass.
• Describe the working • electrostatics danger What attracts the paper to the glass?
principle of some Why does not it stay attached to the glass?
equipments which operate Discuss with the group.
on the principles of
Demonstration: A typical 25 cm–diameter Van de
electrostatic charge
Graaf generator is capable of generating a 200,000-
• Describe the electrostatic volt potential difference that can cause gasses in a
hazards and useful fluorescent tube to glow. Darken the room, turn on the
application of electrostatics generator, and slowly move a fluorescent tube toward
• State coulomb’s law the generator and observe that it starts to glow.
• Compare coulomb’s law and Why does the portion between the tube and your hand
Newton‘s law of universal and the generator glow?
gravitation
• Compute the force acting
on a charge due to two
other charges placed on the
same plane (line of action)
• Calculate the force between
three charges placed
collinearly
• Define an electric field
• Represent diagrammatically
the electric field lines
around and between two
point charges
• Calculate the electric field
strength at a point due to
charges placed collinearly
and at right angles

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 2.2 Electric forces and
• Distinguish between fields (5 periods)
electric field between inside • Coulomb’s law
and outside a spherical • Force between
metallic conductor charges
• Define electric potential • Electric field strength
and it’s SI unit
• Electric field lines
• Distinguish between
• Electric field due to a
absolute potential and
point charge
potential difference
• Electric field inside
• Show that 1N/C=1V/m
and outside a
• Explain about equipotential spherical metallic
lines and surfaces conductor
• Draw equipotential lines
and surfaces in an electric
2.3. Electric potential
field
(4 periods)
• Define the term electric
• Absolute potential
potential energy
and potential
• Define what is meant by a difference
dielectric material
• Equipotential lines
• Describe the structure of a and surfaces
simple capacitor
• Electric potential
• Define the term capacitance energy
and it’s SI unit
• Conversion of
• Use the circuit symbol to mechanical to
represent a capacitor electrical and
• Apply the definition of electrical to
capacitance to solve mechanical
numerical problems
• Explain the charging and
discharging of capacitor
• Identify combination
of capacitors in series,
parallel, and series-parallel
• Define the term dielectric
• Explain the effect of
inserting dielectric in the
gap between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor
• Derive an expression for
the effective capacitance
of capacitors connected in
series and parallel

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 2.4. Capacitors and Demonstration:
• Compare the effective capacitances Obtain large capacitors 350+mf from dead TV power
capacitance of combination (4 periods) supplies. They look like small beer cans. Charge the
of capacitors in series and • Definition of a capacitor for a few minutes. Let it power a small light.
parallel capacitor Observe the behaviour of the light’s decay. Invite
• Solve problems on • Charging and student hypotheses about what happened.
combination of capacitors discharging processes What was stored?
• Define parallel plate • Combination of What drained?
capacitor capacitors in series If sufficient numbers of capacitors are available
• Describe the factors that • Combination of let student teams experiment with charging and
affect the capacitance of a capacitors in parallel discharging the capacitor. Invite them to make
parallel plate capacitor • Combination of drawings of light intensity vs. time graph as the
• Calculate the capacitance capacitors in series- capacitor decays.
of a parallel plate capacitor parallel Is the graph linear or not?
• Compare the capacitance • Parallel-plate Experiment with capacitors in series and parallel. Which
of a parallel plate capacitor capacitor takes longer to decay? Why? All done qualitatively.
with and without a • Capacitance of There should be much experimentation with capacitors
dielectric a parallel plate (big ones from dead TVs)
• Appreciate an expression capacitor with and They store enough energy to power a bulb for a short
for the electric potential without dielectric. time.
energy stored in a capacitor • Energy stored in a Capacitors build up the idea of electron flow and the
• Calculate the energy stored capacitor idea of transient currents.
in a capacitor using one of • Applications of This treatment is much too theoretical.
the three possible formulae capacitors
Get the big capacitors (like a beer can) or a film
• Draw electric circuit
canister and let students experiment with them.
diagram for a simple
capacitor, series and Less boardwork. Much more hands on. Put in a resistor.
parallel connections of two What happens to the discharge of the large capacitor?
or more capacitors using Put some in series, in parallel. What happens with the
symbols discharge?
• State some uses of
capacitors in everyday life

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Assessment
The teacher should assess each students work continuously over the whole unit
and compare it with the following description, based on the competencies, to
determine whether the student has achieved the minimum required level.

Students at minimum requirement level

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: demonstrate
an understanding of the concepts, principles, and laws related to electric forces
and fields, and explain them in qualitative and quantitative terms; state Coulomb’s
law and compare it with Newton’s law of universal gravitation; apply Coulomb’s
law quantitatively in specific contexts; compare the properties of electric and
gravitational fields by describing and illustrating the source and direction of the
field in each case; describe and explain, in qualitative terms, the electric field that
exists inside and on the surface of a charged conductor.

Students above minimum requirement level

Students working above the minimum requirement level should be praised and
their achievements recognised. They should be encouraged to continue working
hard and not become complacent.

Students below minimum requirement level

Students working below the minimum requirement level will require extra help if
they are to catch up with rest of the class. They should be given extra attention in
class and additional lesson time during breaks or at the end of the day.

Unit 3: Current electricity (14 periods)

Unit outcomes: Students will be able to:
• Acquire knowledge and understanding in electric current, Ohm’s law,
combinations of resistors, measuring instruments, emf of a cell, electrical
energy and power.
• Conduct investigations and analyse and solve problems related to electric
charges, electric circuit.
• Evaluate and describe the social and economic impact of technological
developments related to the concept of electricity.
• Design and build electrical circuits that perform a specific function.
• Analyse the practical uses of electricity and its impact on everyday life.
• Design and conduct investigations into electrical circuits found in everyday
life and into the quantitative relationships among current, potential difference,
and resistance.
• Evaluate the social, economic, and environmental costs and benefits arising
from the methods of electrical energy production used in Ethiopia.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able 3. Current electricity Make it clear that most substances obey Ohm’s law but
to: 3.1 Electric current it is not a true universal law of physics. Many important
• Define electric (2 periods) substances, like semiconductors and transistors are not
current and it’s SI Ohmic.
• Flow of electric
unit charges in a metallic Demonstration:
• Explain the flow of conductor Use a compass needle to determine a magnetic north. Wrap
electric charges in a • Electric energy from approximately 30 turns of thin–gauge insulated copper wire
metallic conductor chemicals around this compass in a north/south direction, and connect
• Compute the number it to a 1.5v light bulb that is connected to a 1.5V battery.
• Electric energy from
of electrons that pass Note that when the circuit is closed, a current will flow,
heat
a point at a given the lamp will glow, and the needle will move. This simple
length of time when galvanoscope can be used whenever you want to detect the
the current in the presence of small currents.
wire is known Activity 1: Thermal and electrical conductivity both depend
upon the transport of energy by electrons. To test this
hypothesis, examine the electrical conductivity of copper,
steel, and plastic by observing the deflection of galvanoscope
needle when equal-sized pieces of copper, steel, or plastic are
substituted for the light bulb.
Rank the substances tested from high to low electrical
conductivity.
All electrochemical cells require two electrodes made of two
different conductors, an electrolyte solution (a solution that
conducts electricity) that reacts with the electrodes, and a
conductive wire through which electrons may flow.
Activity 2: Roll a lemon, orange, grapefruit, or other citrus
on a firm surface to break the internal membranes. Cut strips
(approximately 4 cm x 3 cm) of copper and zinc sheet metal
and insert these in the fruit so they are approximately 1 cm
apart. Attach the test wires of a volt-ohm-milliammter to the
strips and measure the electric potential and current.
Will the voltage of your wet cell change if you change the
size of the electrodes?
Try it.
Will the voltage change if you construct the cell using
different electrodes?
Demonstration: the transformation of heat energy directly
into electric energy.
Thermocouple (see beck effect) refers to the generation of
electricity in a circuit composed of two wires whose junctions
are at different temperatures. Create thermocouple junctions
at both ends of a section of iron wire by twisting the ends
together with copper wires. Place one copper/iron junction
in a beaker with ice water while leaving the other junction
outside. The two remaining ends of the copper wires should
be connected to a sensitive galvanometer. Heat the exposed
junction with a Bunsen burner or match and record the
current.
Does the current increase or decrease if the heat source is
removed?

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Is the change in current immediate? Discuss these
questions.
Activity 3: Cells in series and parallel.
Let the students do these activities in groups.
The citric acid in lemons or oranges provides an
excellent electrolyte solution for a simple wet cell.
After rolling the fruit firmly on a table to rupture
its internal membranes, insert two electrodes
made of two different metals, making certain the
electrodes do not touch. Nails may serve as iron
electrodes, stripped electrical wires may serve as
copper electrodes, silver jewelleries may serve as
silver electrodes. Add a second and then a third
similar ”fruit cell” in series with the first cell and
record the voltages. Continue adding cells until the
light is brightly lit.
Add a second and then a third similar “fruit cells” in
parallel with the first one and record the voltages.
What is the advantage of adding cells in series, in
parallel? Discuss.
Students will be able to: 3.2 Ohm’s law and Demonstration: Ohm’s law
• Describe factors affecting the electrical resistance A resistor is an electrical component that opposes
resistance of a conductor (3 periods) the flow of current in a circuit. Since pencil “lead’
• Write the relationship between • Resistivity and is made of carbon, an element frequently used in
resistance R, resistivity conductivity electric resistors, we can use it here. Connect a flash light
ρ,length l and cross-sectional circuit bulb (1 to 2 V) in series with a pencil lead and a 6V
area A of a conductor battery. Turn off the room lights and observe the
brightness of the bulb.
• Compute the resistance of a
conductor using the formula Move one wire contact along the length of the
R=ρl/A pencil lead and observe the changes in the
intensity of light.
• Find the relationship between
resistivity and conductivity Repeat the activities with a pencil lead of different
diameter.
• Construct and draw electric
circuit consisting of source, What influence does the diameter of the resistor
connecting wires, resistors, have upon the net resistance? What effect does the
switch, bulb, using their length of the resistive path have upon the total
symbols resistance? Discuss these questions.
• Explain why an ammeter should Use a board with 6-8 clips to make circuits.
be connected in series with a Include capacitors in some circuits. Use big ones.
resistor in a circuit Try to pick non-polar caps to avoid punch through.
• Explain why a voltmeter should When students connect them backwards and make a
be connected in parallel across hole in the dielectric film.
a resistor in a circuit The work need not have every student group with
• DO EXPERIMENTS (at least have a meter. Let them build a circuit and have the
students touch the equipment) instructor come over with the meter to measure
using an ammeter and a current and volt.
voltmeter to investigate the
relationship between current
and p.d for metallic conductors
at constant temperature

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 3.3 Combinations of
• Identify combinations of resistors (3 periods)
resistors in series, parallel, and • series combination
series- parallel connection • parallel combination
• Derive an expression for the • series-parallel
effective resistance of resistors combination
connected in series
• Derive an expression for the
effective resistance of resistors
connected in parallel
• Compute the effective
resistance of resistors
connected in series
• Compute the effective
resistance of resistors
connected in parallel
• Calculate the current through
each resistors in a simple
series, parallel, and series-
parallel combinations
• Calculate the voltage drop
across each resistor in a simple
series, parallel, and series-
parallel connection
• Define electromotive force of a 3.4 E.m.f. and Activity 4: series and parallel circuits.
cell internal resistance of Let the students do these activities in groups.
• Distinguish between e.m.f. and a cell Connect one bulb in series with a battery and note
terminal p.d of a cell (3 periods) its brightness. Now connect a second and third bulb
• Write the relationship between • combination of cells in series with the bulb.
emf, p.d, current, and internal in series and parallel Is there any change in the brightness of the first
resistance in a circuit bulb when the second and third bulbs are added?
• Use the equation V=ε-Ir to Once all bulbs are lit, remove one of the bulbs. What
solve problems in a circuit happens to the brightness of the others? Confirm
• Identify cells combinations in their understandings.
series and parallel Connect one bulb to a battery and note its
• Compare the emf of brightness. Now connect a second and third bulb in
parallel with this bulb.
combinations of cells in series
and parallel Is there any change in brightness of the first bulb
when the second or third ones are added?
Once all bulbs are lit, remove one. Is there any
change in the brightness of the remaining bulbs?
Confirm their understandings.
Demonstration: Measuring electromotive force and
terminal voltage of a source.
Set up a circuit consisting of a dry cell, a bulb, a
switch and a voltmeter.
Take the reading in the voltmeter while the switch
is on.
Then take another reading while the switch is off.
Compare the two readings.
Which one is larger? Which reading is the e.m.f?
Discuss with the group

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 3.5 Electric energy Activity 5: Which appliances in your home consume
• Define electrical energy and power (2 periods) the greatest amount of energy? Is it the refrigerator?
and power in an electrical • cost of electric The TV set? The electric stove? You can find out by
circuit energy inspecting appliances in your home and determining
the number of watts each consumes and multiplying
• Find the relationship
this by the number of hours operated. By law, each
between KWh and joule
electric device must specify power requirements, and
• Use P= VI=V2/R=I2R to these are generally recorded on a small tag located
solve problems in electric on the appliance or on the power cable connected to
circuits it. Inspect all the appliances in your home and record
power requirements in the table.
• Use W=VIt=I2Rt=V2t/R to 3.6 Electric New designs for cars employ hybrid motors. Cars use
compute electric energy installation and both electricity and petrol for power. When going down
dissipated in an electric safety rules (1 period) hill, instead of standard brakes which converts kinetic
circuit • Engineering project energy into heat, these cars capture energy by using
• Perform calculations on “electric brakes “that recharge the battery or convert
cost of electrical energy the energy into rotational energy in a massive fly wheel.
expressed in KWh Students design on paper a hybrid car that captures as
much energy as possible. Teams may wish to build a
model of their design, showing innovative ways to save
energy.

Assessment
The teacher should assess each student’s work continuously over the whole unit
and compare it with the following description, based on the competencies, to
determine whether the student has achieved the minimum required level.

Students at minimum requirement level

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: define and
describe the concepts and units related to electrical systems(e.g., e.m.., electric
potential, resistance, power, energy); compare direct current and alternating
current in qualitative terms, and describe situations in which each is used; analyze,
in quantitative terms, circuit problems involving potential difference, current, and
resistance; use appropriate meters (analog or digital), to measure electric potential
difference, current, and resistance in electrical circuits; construct simple electrical
circuits using common tools appropriately and safely; draw, by hand schematic
diagrams to represent real circuits; analyse, in quantitative terms real circuits
using Ohm’s law; describe common applications of simple circuits, and identify
the energy transformations that occur (e.g., energy transformations in one of
the following appliances or devices: refrigerator, kettle, food mixer, amplifier,
television set, light bulb, oscillator, electromagnet, electric motor, garage door
opener); identify and describe proper safety procedures to be used when working
with electrical circuits, and identify electrical hazards that may occur in the
science classroom or at home.

Students above minimum requirement level

Students working above the minimum requirement level should be praised and
their achievements recognised. They should be encouraged to continue working
hard and not become complacent.

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Students below minimum requirement level

Students working below the minimum requirement level will require extra help if
they are to catch up with rest of the class. They should be given extra attention in
class and additional lesson time during breaks or at the end of the day.

Unit 4: Electromagnetism (20 periods)

Unit outcomes: Students will be able to:
• Demonstrate an understanding of the properties, physical quantities,
principles, and laws related to electricity, magnetic fields, and electromagnetic
induction;
• Carry out experiments or simulations, to demonstrate characteristic properties
of magnetic fields and electromagnetic induction;
• Identify and describe examples of domestic and industrial technologies that
were developed on the basis of the scientific understanding of magnetic fields.
(e.g. generator, motor, and transformer)
• Appreciate the link between electricity and magnetism, the contributions
electricity and magnetism to modern life.

Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able 4. Electromagnetism Activity 1: To investigate magnetic domains, magnetisation,
to: 4.1 Magnetism demagnetisation
• Investigate the (4 periods) Fill a test tube two thirds full with iron filings or shredded
domain theory of • Magnetic Domains steel wool and approach the north and then the south end of a
magnetism compass needle with the end of the tube.
• Magnetisation
Is one end of the needle more attracted than the other? Record
• Magnetic shielding
the maximum angle to which the needle is deflected. Repeat
• Geomagnetism these observations after stroking the tube 50 times with a
permanent magnet and after shaking the test tube vigorously
for one minute. In which situation was the test tube more
highly magnetised? Why? Let the students’ discuss in groups.
Demonstration: Magnetisation by heating and cooling within a
strong magnetic field
Use insulated tongs or pliers to heat a nail in the hottest part
of the flame until it glows. Remove the nail from the flame and
place it lengthwise on a permanent bar magnet. After the nail
has cooled, measure its magnetic strength by determining the
number of small paper clips that can be suspended in a chain
from one end. Compare the magnetic strength of this nail with
the strength of one that was not heated, but rested on the
permanent bar magnet for an equal length of time. Record your
findings in the table.
Demonstration: Magnetic shielding
Support a bar magnet using a stand on a table, and attach a
thread to a paper clip and suspend it below the magnet. Given
no disturbances, the paper clip will remain floating in space
indefinitely due to magnetic lines of force between the magnet
and the paper clip. Slide a small sheet of paper in to the gap
between the paper clip and the magnet, being careful not to
touch either.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Does paper interfere with the magnetic field?
Repeat the process using a sheet of plastic,
aluminium foil, and the lid of a “tin“ can.
Which, if any of the above, interfered with the
magnetic field and allowed the paper to fall?
Activity 2: Let students do these activities in groups
Cut the bottoms from two paper cups of different
sizes, two plastic cups of different sizes, two iron
(“tin”) cans of different sizes. Place a compass on
a table and record the direction of magnetic north.
Now place two bar magnets 7 cm to the east and
west of the compass so that the N-pole of one
magnet faces the S-pole of the other and record the
angle of deflection. Remove the magnets, place a
tin can over the compass, replace the magnets, and
again record the angle of needle deflection. Remove
the magnets, place a second can around the first,
replace the magnets, and again record the angle of
compass-needle deflection. Does the iron interfere
with the magnetic field? Repeat the process using
paper or plastic cups. Which of the substances
best protects or shields the compass from the
magnetic field of the bar magnets? Confirm their
understanding.
Students will be able to: 4.2 Concepts of Demonstration: Magnetic fields in two dimensions
• Describe magnetic field magnetic field Place a strong bar magnet under a clear sheet of
• Perform and describe an (3 periods) glass. Position the transparent sheet so it is level
experiment that demonstrate • Magnetic field around and then repeatedly tap a beaker filled with iron
the existence of magnetic field a straight current- filings so they fall evenly over the surface. The iron
around a current-carrying wire carrying wire filings should align themselves with the magnetic
lines of flux. The points where lines appear to
• Sketch the resulting magnetic • Magnetic field of a
converge represent locations of greatest magnetic
field lines pattern of a current- solenoid
flux density. Magnetic flux density is a measure
carrying wire
of magnetic force and is defined as the number of
• Apply the right–hand rule to flux lines per unit area. Place a number of small
tell the direction of magnetic compasses around a magnet and draw a diagram
field lines around a straight showing the orientation of the needles.
current-carrying wire
Demonstration: Magnetic fields in three dimensions
• Calculate the magnetic field
Place iron filings in the bottom of a glass jar and
strength at a point due to a
fill 90% of the remainder of the jar with salad oil.
straight current carrying wire
If you don’t have iron filings, you may create iron
• Sketch the magnetic field lines shreds by rubbing two pieces steel wool together
pattern of a current loop rapidly. Shake the container vigorously until the
• Sketch the magnetic field lines iron filings are evenly distributed throughout the
pattern of a solenoid container and then expose the jar to the magnetic
• Specify the polarity of a fields of bar magnets outside the jar. Allow time for
solenoid using a right–hand the iron filings to align with the magnetic field. Let
rule the students draw a diagram of the field lines when
• Compute the magnetic field the S-pole of one magnet is opposite the N-pole of
strength at the centre of a another.
solenoid
• Describe the factors on which
the force on a moving charge
in magnetic field depend

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 4.3 Magnetic force
• Demonstrate the relation B=mv/qR (6 periods)
from the fact that the centripetal • Magnetic force on a
force is provided by magnetic force moving charge
• Compute the magnitude of a force • Magnetic force on
acting on a moving charge in a a current-carrying
uniform magnetic field conductor
• Determine the direction of a force • Magnetic force
acting on a moving charge using between two parallel
right hand rule current-carrying
• Demonstrate the existence of a conductors
force on a straight current-carrying • Definition of ampere
conductor placed in a magnetic • Force on a
field rectangular current-
• Derive the expression F=BIlsinθ carrying wire
from F=qvB sinθ
• Apply right hand rule to tell
what will happen when current
flows perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field
• Describe the factors on which the
force of a moving charge in the
magnetic field depend
• Calculate the magnitude of a force
on a straight current-carrying wire
placed perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field
• Compute the magnitude and
direction of force between two
parallel current carrying conductors
in a uniform magnetic field
• Define the SI unit Ampere
• Draw a diagram to show the forces
acting on a rectangular current
carrying wire in a uniform magnetic
field
• Draw diagrams to show the action
of a force on a simple DC motor
and a moving coil galvanometer

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 4.4 Electromagnetic Demonstration:
• Define the magnetic flux and induction (7 periods) Use the weighted bicycle wheel’s rims as the object
its SI unit • Magnetic flux of the eddy current production. Bring the magnet
• State Faraday’s law of • Faraday’s law of close to the rim. It must be non-ferrous. The magnet
induction induction will slow the wheel’s spinning noticeably. If one
• Perform simple experiments has some background in magnetism and rotational
• Lenz’s law
that demonstrate an induced dynamics, one can calculate the deceleration from
• Inductance (self and the induced current.
e.m.f. caused by changing mutual inductances)
magnetic flux Have a metal disk rotating quickly. Make the disk out
• D.c. motor of a non-magnetic metal like aluminum (use thicker
• State Lenz’s law
• A.c. and d.c. metal like used for roofing). Bring a strong magnet
• Indicate the direction of generator near the disk. The magnet will induce a current in
induced currents, given the the metal by Faraday’s law. The magnetic field will
• Transformer (step up
direction of motion of a oppose that of the magnet. It will act as a break on
and step down)
conductor and the direction of the wheel; the spinning wheel slows down rapidly.
a magnetic field The disk cannot become magnetic - aluminum is not
• Describe the factors that structurally a magnet.
affect the magnitude of Demonstration: drop a strong small magnet through
induced e.m.f. in a conductor a non-ferrous tube (without any seams). A thicker
• Describe the link between copper pipe is fine and better. Make the tubes about
electricity and magnetism one metre long.
• Apply Faraday’s law to Have two tubes. Drop a rock through one and the
calculate the magnitude of magnet through the other. The magnet will induce
induced e.m.f. an electric current to oppose the motion of the
• Define inductance and it’s SI magnet. It will float down the tube quite slowly. If
unit you put a lot of windings around the tube at one
• Distinguish between self and point, say 1,000 turns or more. It will light up a
mutual inductance small bulb for a flash.
• Apply the definition of Demonstration:
inductance to solve simple Suspend a non-ferrous ring from two points. Let it
numerical problems swing freely and stop it. Put the magnet on a stick
• Explain the action of the and push it through the ring, then it will pump the
simple a.c. generator ring like a child pumps height on a swing.
• Build a simple AC motor Peer instruction on Faraday’s law
• Explain the action of the Let the students discuss in a group about the law.
simple AC generator Demonstration:
• Compare the actions of d.c. The instructor runs a current through two thin wires
and a.c. generators or pieces of very thin foil (from gum wrappers). The
• Draw a diagram of a wires or foil bend from the magnetic fields
transformer The instructor also uses the Fresnel overhead to
• Give a simple explanation of project images of iron filings sprinkled on top of a
the principles to operate a glass with a magnet beneath
transformer Classroom Demonstration: Stored energy in a
• Identify that for an ideal magnetic field.
transformer Pout=Pin Use a Fly back (step- up) transformer from an old TV.
• Show that for an ideal See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyback_
transformer; Vs/Vp=Ns/Np=Ip/ transformer
Is
• Apply the transformer formulas
to solve simple problems

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

These transformers step up voltage drastically. Connect
a small bulb in series with a 12 V source and a flyback
transformer. It will light for an instant then stop.
PEER INSTRUCTION:
Why does the bulb light and then stop?
Check for any heart problems. Invite students to make
a human wire complete loop in series with the flyback
connected to a 1.5 V battery (not the 12 V). Release the
connection. A small current will pass through. It will last
milliseconds. What is the source?
PEER INSTRUCTION
Inductance. Lenz and Faraday. Decaying fields.
The primary coil of a transformer is connected to a battery,
a resistor, and a switch. The secondary coil is connected to
an ammeter. When the switch is thrown closed, the ammeter
shows
Card 1-zero current
Card 2-a non zero current for a short instant
Card 3-a steady current
Let students discuss this question and confirm their
understanding
Decaying are transient currents. Some uses for transient
currents are:
Spark plugs in a car.
Heart starting paddles in the hospital.
Electric fences for animals.
Activity:
Make a high number of windings from a broken transformer’s
wires. Let the magnet fall through the coils. It will cause a
transient electric current that can light up a small bulb
Project work: Build an AC motor.
The cost of materials is very low, next to zero.
Build either the toothpick motor or the cork motor:
See:
http://www.ceressoft.org/Files/emotors.htm
This describes how to build an AC motor
Student groups build a motor at their desks.
They measure the rotation rate. The fastest rotators convert
the electrical energy to kinetic energy most efficiently. These
get higher grades.
Engineering Challenge:
Build an AC motor with any design you choose that has
the fastest rotation. The motor must have a small piece of
reflecting material that bounces back a flashlight beam. That
beam hits a simple photo transistor circuit connected to a
buzzer. Students count the buzzes in 2 minutes.

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Assessment
The teacher should assess each student’s work continuously over the whole unit
and compare it with the following description, based on the competencies, to
determine whether the student has achieved the minimum required level.

Students at minimum requirement level

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: describe
the terms magnetic domains, magnetisation, magnetic shielding; identify the
properties of magnetic field interpret and illustrate the magnetic field produced
by a current flowing in a long straight conductor and in a coil; identify the factors
that affect the magnitude and direction of the electric current induced by a
changing magnetic field; describe the properties, including the three-dimensional
nature, of magnetic fields; describe and illustrate the magnetic field produced
by an electric current in a long straight conductor and in a solenoid; analyse
and predict, by applying the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field
produced when electric current flows through a long straight conductor and
through a solenoid; state the motor principle, explain the factors that affect the
force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, and, using the right-
hand rule, illustrate the resulting motion of the conductor; analyse and describe
electromagnetic induction in qualitative terms, and apply Lenz’s law to explain,
predict, and illustrate the direction of the electric current induced by a changing
magnetic field, using the right-hand rule; compare direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC) in qualitative terms, and explain the importance of
alternating current in the transmission of electrical energy; explain, in terms of
the interaction of electricity and magnetism, and analyse in quantitative terms, the
operation of transformers (e.g., describe the basic parts and the operation of step-
up and step-down transformers; solve problems involving energy, power, potential
difference, current, and the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils of
a transformer).

Students above minimum requirement level

Students working above the minimum requirement level should be praised and
their achievements recognised. They should be encouraged to continue working
hard and not become complacent.

Students below minimum requirement level

Students working below the minimum requirement level will require extra help if
they are to catch up with rest of the class. They should be given extra attention in
class and additional lesson time during breaks or at the end of the day.

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Unit 5: Introduction to electronics (11 periods)

Unit outcomes: Students will be able to:
• Gain elementary knowledge and understandings in vacuum tubes devices,
thermionic emission, CRO, semiconductor diodes, and transistors
• Understand common applications of electrical and electronic circuits, and the
function and configuration of the components used
• Investigate the development and application of electrical technologies and
their impact on local and global economies and the environment.

Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 5. Introduction to Use a model of CRO if it is available or use a well
• Define the term electronics electronics labelled diagram of the cathode–ray oscilloscope for
• Mention the importance of 5.1 Vacuum tube your explanation of the structure and function of
electronics in their daily life devices (3 periods) the CRO
Concept map: all items in daily • Thermionic emission Don’t emphasise the CRO. It is a relatively
life that use electronics specialised piece of equipment that one doesn’t
• Cathode ray
• State what is meant by understand until one uses one. Deeper study of the
oscilloscope (CRO)
thermionic emission TV tube is more helpful.
• Using CRO
• Describe the behaviour of Use the Human Wire to explore semiconductors and
• Some uses of PN junctions.
vacuum tubes oscilloscope
• Describe the function of a Students modelling silicon have 4 electron rocks.
• TV picture tube Those modelling boron have 3 rocks and a basket.
cathode ray tube
• Describe the uses of a cathode It is important to model the 3 dimensional
5.2 Conductors, structure of the semiconductor. Use toothpicks and
ray tube
semi conductors and gummy candy to build a tetrahedral lattice (have
• Represent both d.cand a.c on insulators (1 periods) a marshmallow represent the hole) have an extra
current-time or voltage-time gummy piece represent the extra electron from the
5.3 Semiconductors
graphs
(impurities, doping) doped N material, like arsenic.
• Use the current-time or (4 periods) Discuss how a p-n junction can be formed using p-n
voltage-time graphs to find
• Semiconductor diode junction diagrams. Explain the apparent movement
the period and frequency of ‘hole’ and ‘electron’ movement and how a
(I-V characteristic)
of alternating currents or
voltages • P-n junction diode as potential barrier is set up in the depletion layer.
a rectifier (qualitative Demonstration: demonstrate the current–voltage
• Distinguish between characteristics of a semiconductor diode. If the
treatment)
conductors, semiconductors, materials are not available, discuss the current-
and insulators • LED
voltage characteristics of a semiconductor diode
• Give examples of semi- • LDR
using a typical characteristics curve for a silicon
conductor elements • Thermistor diode.
• Distinguish between intrinsic • Photodiode Using a circuit diagram of half wave rectifier
and extrinsic semiconductors circuit, explain the rectification of a diode when
• Describe a semi-conductor in an a.c. supply is used. Explain briefly how a bridge
terms of charge carriers and –rectifier gives a full wave rectification and further
resistance smoothing can be made by the use of a capacitor.
• Explain doping to produce the Demonstration: show the amplification action of a
two types of semi-conductors transistor
• Identify semi-conductors as Demonstrate the amplification action of a transistor
P-type and N-type using transistor amplifier circuit. Ask students to
calculate the current gain.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: Explain briefly how a voltage amplification can be
• Describe the mode of achieved using well drawn simple one transistor
conduction by the majority and amplifier circuit.The explanation should all be done
minority carriers qualitatively. The key is “why does the transistor
amplify current?”.
• Define the term diode and
show it’s circuit symbol Discuss about photo voltaic cells, making electricity
directly from the Sun.
• Draw a current vs voltage
characteristics (graph)to show Let the students identify a diode, an LED, a
the behaviour of p-n junction transistor, IC, a resistor, and a capacitor from a
mixed collection of such items.
• Describe how a semiconductor
diode can be used in a half Project work:
–wave rectification Students should know about photovoltaic cells.
• Sketch voltage time graphs Current efficiencies are about 7-9%. Higher cost
to compute the variation of cells produce efficiencies of about 30%.
voltage with time before and Calculate the number of meters of photovoltaic cells
after rectification needed to supply all of Ethiopia’s energy needs.
• Distinguish between direct Ethiopia has potential to generate 30,000MW of
current from batteries and power using hydro plants.
rectified alternating current by See http://www.capitalethiopia.com/archive/2007/
consideration of their voltage May/week2/feature.htm
time graphs Current installations are as large as 160Mwatts,
• Show the circuit symbols of equal to the largest hydro plant in Ethiopia.
semi conductor devices such Ethiopia does have significant hydroelectric
as thermistor, LED, LDR, and potential, unlike many African nations. But it is
transistors dependent on rainfall. Solar production is constant,
• Distinguish between p-n-p and though there must be storage at night.
n-p-n transistors
• Identify the base, emitter, and
collector of a transistor
• Use the following terms
correctly: forward biased and
reverse biased
• Describe the behaviour of
semi conductor devices such
as thermistor, LED, LDR,
photodiode, and transistors
(all qualitatively)
• Use the circuit symbols for the
gates
• Draw the truth tables for the
different logic gates and for a
combination of logic gates
• Explain the action of logic
gates: NOT, OR, AND, NOR,
NAND

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Assessment
The teacher should assess each student’s work continuously over the whole unit
and compare it with the following description, based on the competencies, to
determine whether the student has achieved the minimum required level.

Students at minimum requirement level

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: describe the
function of basic circuit components (e.g., power supplies, resistors, diodes, fuses,
circuit breakers, light-emitting diodes [LEDs], capacitors, and switching devices),
describe the characteristics of transistors, identify the logic gates and explain their
actions.

Students above minimum requirement level

Students working above the minimum requirement level should be praised and
their achievements recognised. They should be encouraged to continue working
hard and not become complacent.

Students below minimum requirement level

Students working below the minimum requirement level will require extra help if
they are to catch up with rest of the class. They should be given extra attention in
class and additional lesson time during breaks or at the end of the day.

Unit 6: E
 lectromagnetic waves and geometrical optics
(16 periods)
Unit outcomes: Students will be able to:
• Acquire knowledge and understanding of the properties of light and the
principles underlying the transmission of light through a medium and from
one medium to another;
• Investigate the properties of light through experimentation, and illustrate and
predict the behaviour of light through the use of ray diagrams and algebraic
equations;
• Evaluate the contributions to such areas as entertainment, communications,
and health made by the development of optical devices and other technologies
designed to make use of light.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 6. Electromagnetic Use the “human wave” for transverse forms.
• Explain how electromagnetic waves and In one row, one set of students uses hands to
waves are produced geometrical optics model the electric field. The student sitting beside
• Describe the nature of 6.1 Electromagnetic them models the magnetic field. The students apply
electromagnetic waves waves (3 periods) Faraday’s law that increasing E fields induce a B
• Compare mechanical and • Transverse nature field. Decreasing E fields induce a B field in the
electromagnetic waves of electromagnetic opposite direction. The rows of students hold a rope
waves to model the increasing and decreasing E and B
• Draw diagrams to represent fields.
transverse waves • Speed of
electromagnetic Or alternately,
• Use straight lines to represent
waves The instructor uses a large ball to model the motion
the direction of energy flow
(rays) • Electromagnetic of a charge. Its E field changes with motion. The
spectrum (elementary change in the E field propagates with the speed
• Identify that electromagnetic of light. Use just one wave length at first. Start
facts about their
waves emitted by the sun have with just the E field wiggle. Add the B field later
uses)
a very wide continuous range when the students understand the mechanics of the
of frequencies s (and wave emulation process.
lengths) 6.2. Reflection of
What is moving? Make it clear that it is the electric
• Explain some uses for light (6 periods)
field at that point in space, it is not a “thing” that
electromagnetic radiation • Laws of reflection is moving. Add in the B field at 90 degrees.
• Explain what is meant by the • Image formation by a Use cylindrical lenses if possible.
rectilinear propagation of light plane mirror
VERY IMPORTANT: use multiple rays. Do not rely on
• State the laws of reflection • Image formation by the 3 ray model. Students do not understand it.
• Perform experiments to test curved mirrors They think that the light is an arrow. The arrow only
these laws using a plane mirror • Mirror equation indicates direction, not the wave itself.
• Use the laws of reflection to Demonstration:
explain how images are formed Mirror lab. Student groups: flashlight, comb, paper
in a plane mirror and mirror.
• Find the position of a virtual Send light into a reflecting mirror using a comb.
image produced by a plane Send multiple rays in. Match to the paper it is on
mirror using a ray tracing the “say left edge” of the light passing through
method the comb and bouncing off the mirror. Construct
• Use the laws of reflection to the rays that appear to be coming from the virtual
solve problems image. Break every other tooth of the comb if the
• Give examples of the uses of image is too faint.
plane mirrors Do the experiments first before any equations.
• Distinguish between concave Concept first, equations later.
and convex mirrors Demonstration: Lens Lab
• Identify the meanings of Send light into a lens using a comb. Send in
terms in relation to concave multiple rays. Notice that one ray comes through
and convex mirrors: principal unchanged. Select a ray on the periphery. That
axis, principal focus, radius of one goes through the focus. Note traditional text
curvature, magnification drawings that show only 3 rays, there are countless
• Distinguish between real and numbers of them.
virtual image Do not use pins. This confuses students. What does
• Apply the appropriate sign a pin have to do with light? Use the light wave
convention when using mirror itself to investigate behaviour. On all experiments
equations use the comb to make multiple rays of light.
Repeat the Human Medium experiment with the
piece of wood “light wave” entering the student
body as the “medium”. It bends as it goes slower.

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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: 6.3 Refraction of light Use the “Human Optical Bench” and the Fresnel lens
• Find the position and nature of (7 periods) to perform investigations of Two slit diffraction:
the image formed by a concave • Laws of refraction You will need the Fresnel lens to make a simple
and a convex mirrors using (refractive index, real overhead projector to put the pattern on the
mirror equation and a ray and apparent depth) ceiling.
tracing method • Total internal The key to the optics experiments is a Fresnel Lens.
• Use the relation reflection and it’s Here is what it looks like in a diagram.
magnification=Si/So=hi/o to uses
solve problems • Refraction through
• Give examples of the uses of thin lenses Traditional convex lens
curved mirrors (concave and • Thin lens formula
convex mirrors)
• Magnification
• Define the term refraction Fresnel lens
• Power of a lens
• State the conditions in which
• Combination of thin
refraction occurs All the glass is sheared away with the lens replaced
lenses
• Perform experiments to test by concentric prisms.
• Optical instruments
the laws of refraction This is huge light gathering power. It works
(human eye,
• Draw a diagram representing microscope, in daylight easily. It will do great solar cooker
the passage of light rays telescope) experiments as well.
through a rectangular glass Activity: Light is not observed to diffract under
• Optics of the human
block normal circumstances because its wavelengths are
eye: far and near
• Give examples of observations sightedness and much smaller than openings of obstructions with
that indicate light can be corrections. which we are familiar. To observe the diffraction
refracted of light it is therefore necessary to create an
• Diffraction of light. opening with a diameter of approximately the same
• Identify that the passage
• Two slit diffraction dimension as wavelength of light. Use two pencils
of a ray of light through a
parallel–sided transparent • Diffraction by or other straight edges. Place a piece of tape or
medium result in the lateral reflection grating around the shaft of one pencil to provide a spacer
displacement of a ray • dispersion of light between them and then place them side by side.
Darken the room, peer through the slit between the
• Define the refractive index of a • Looking at spectra
pencils, and observe a candle flame at a distance
material using a spectroscope
of 2 m.The students should be able to observe
• Use Snell’s law to solve simple • refraction through a an interference pattern. Rotate the pencils and
problems prism describe the changes in the interference pattern.
• Use the formula refractive • dispersion of light Increase and decrease the pressure on the shafts to
index=real depth/apparent and colour mixing alter the width of the gap and describe the changes
depth to find the refractive in the interference pattern.
index of a liquid and a solid in Activity:
the form of rectangular glass
Model diffraction with a liquid in the Fresnel plate.
block
“Bound by clay dikes”. It will project on the ceiling.
• Define the critical angle θc Use coloured water to emphasise the pattern. Use a
• Explain with the aid of a small electric motor with an eccentric cam to make
diagram, what is meant by water waves to go through the double slit. Observe
critical angle and total internal the interference.
reflection Perform some experiments to model different ways
• Identify the conditions to correct human vision. Add a lens to increase
necessary for total internal the focal length. Add a lens to decrease the focal
reflection to occur length.

170 Grade 10
 Grade 10: Physics syllabus

Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able to: Fresnel lens. Put a paper over 1/2 of it. Does it
• Prform calculations involving make ½ an image?
critical angle and total internal Use the Fresnel lens to quantitatively explore the
reflection lens equations. Use the Human Optical bench model.
• Describe how total internal Have a bright source (one red flashlight, one green
reflection is used in optical or white one). Have students draw in the rays on a
fibres lab sheet.
• Distinguish between convex Demonstration: the visible spectrum, let the
and concave lenses students do it in groups.
• Identify the meaning of To disperse white light into the spectrum requires
the following terms in one prism, and to recombine the spectrum
relation to converging and requires a second prism. If there is no access
diverging lenses: principal to prisms students can make glass/water prisms
focus, principal; axis, focal with microscope slides, tape, and modelling clay.
point, radius of curvature After filling the triangular container with water,
magnification seal the other end with clay. Spectral displays are
best observed under very dark conditions. Place
• Apply the appropriate sign
cardboard or other material over the windows of
convention when using thin
your room. If light is shining upon a window, you
lens equations
may use it as a light source simply by cutting a
• Find the position nature of the hole in the cardboard on that window. Position the
image formed by a convex and prisms with respect to the light source. Adjust the
a concave lens using the thin positions of both prisms so the light dispersed from
lens formula and a ray tracing the first prism is recombined to produce white light
method by the second. Trace and identify the positions of
• Define the power of a lens the prisms and the positions of the various bands of
• Explain how image is formed colours on a piece of white paper.
due to combination of thin Activity: The CD spectroscope
lenses Students build a group spectroscope using a cracked
• Draw a ray diagram showing CD. They observe spectra of a flashlight, a regular
how images are formed by bulb, an infrared bulb, a flashlight with a coloured
lenses used in a simple filter, sunlight, a fluorescent bulb. Let them take
microscope and simple it home and look at other spectra such as a street
telescope light, or the moon.
• Compare and contrast the Students observe sunsets. They can see some
structure and functions the absorption lines with the instrument.
human eye and camera Why do the grooves of the CD function to break light
• Describe how human eye forms apart into colours? It is like a multiple double slit.
an image on the retina for The CD must be at an angle so that light bounces
different object distances off the reflective surface but each groove bounces
• Identify some defects of the light off a bit later than the neighbour slit. There is
eye and their corrections with interference which makes the light add along some
lenses angles and cancel along others.
• Explain what is meant by the Demonstration:
dispersion of white light to Measuring the solar constant.
produce a spectrum Use the Fresnel lens to measure the heat input
from the Sun. It should be about 1,366 watts
per square metre, but the atmosphere filters out
many wavelengths. The Fresnel will not pass IR
(infrared). They calculate the efficiency of the class
demonstration.

Grade 10 171
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Competencies Contents Suggested activities

Students will be able Project work:
to: Students design a collector that will concentrate and capture
• Identify that the the heat of the Sun the most effectively. One should be able
passage of a ray to get a kilowatt per square metre. The challenge is to find
of light through a the best design that will heat up 50cc of water to the highest
triangular transparent temperature in 10 minutes.
prism results in a Students may employ a Fresnel lens (borrowed from the class
deviation of a ray for their demo) or some other reflective surface, such as
mirrors or reflective aluminium. The limit is that the area of
the reflector must be less than 1 square metre.

Assessment
The teacher should assess each student’s work continuously over the whole unit
and compare it with the following description, based on the competencies, to
determine whether the student has achieved the minimum required level.

Students at minimum requirement level

A student working at the minimum requirement level will be able to: define
and explain the concepts and units related to communications technology (e.g.,
frequency, period, cycle, wavelength, amplitude, longitudinal and transverse
waves, electromagnetic waves, reflection, refraction, total internal reflection,
interference, transmission, absorption); describe the characteristics of waves,
and analyse, in quantitative terms, the relationships among velocity, frequency,
and wavelength to explain the behaviour of waves in different media; predict, in
qualitative and quantitative terms, the refraction of light as it passes from one
medium to another, using Snell’s law; explain the conditions required for total
internal reflection. using light-ray diagrams, and analyse and describe situations
in which these conditions occur; describe and explain, with the aid of light-
ray diagrams, the characteristics and positions of the images formed by lenses:
describe the effects of converging and diverging lenses on light, and explain why
each type of lens is used in specific optical devices; analyse, in quantitative terms,
the characteristics and positions of images formed by lenses; demonstrate and
illustrate, using light-ray diagrams, the refraction, partial refraction and reflection,
critical angle, and total internal reflection of light at the interface of a variety of
media; predict, using ray diagrams and algebraic equations, the image position
and characteristics of a converging lens.

Students above minimum requirement level

Students working above the minimum requirement level should be praised and
their achievements recognised. They should be encouraged to continue working
hard and not become complacent.

Students below minimum requirement level

Students working below the minimum requirement level will require extra help if
they are to catch up with rest of the class. They should be given extra attention in
class and additional lesson time during breaks or at the end of the day.

172 Grade 10