Department of

Mathematics
University of Oslo

Chapter: 13
Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten
MEK4560
The Finite Element Method in
Solid Mechanics II Contents

(April 25, 2008)

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/ .
Torgeir Rusten
Page 1 of 31

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 Department of
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Contents
13 Plasticity 3
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
13.2 Stress-strain curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
13.3 One dimensional elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Subdomain boundary nodes

Subdomain interior nodes

Subdomain boundaries

13.4 One dimensional plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

13.5 Multiaxial plasticity, von Mises yield surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Mek 4560
13.6 Plastisk ledd i en rektangulær bjelke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Torgeir Rusten

A References 31

Contents

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 Department of
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13. Plasticity

The topic of the present chapter is elastic-plastic materials, and some comments on Finite
element analysis taking elastic-plastic effects into account. The focus is on the nonlinear effect
in the material law, the effects of large deformations and large strains are neglected. Subdomain boundary nodes

Subdomain interior nodes

Subdomain boundaries

As an introduction we introduce some topics related to nonlinear materials and nonlinear Mek 4560
analysis. Torgeir Rusten

In the textbook [Cook et al., 2002][2] a discussion of plasticity is in Chapter 17.3-17.6. The
book [Lemaitre and Chaboche, 1990][4] is good source for material models. A good exposition
of Finite Element methods for nonlinear structures are [Belytschko et al., 2000][1] . Nonlin-
ear solid mechanics is also discussed in [Holzapfel, 2000][3] , ([Simo and Hughes, 1998][6] and Contents
[Malvern, 1969][5] ).
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[2] R. D. Cook, D. S. Malkus, M. E. Plesha, and R. J. Witt. Concepts and Applications of Finite Element
Analysis. Number ISBN: 0-471-35605-0. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 4th edition, October 2002. / .
[4] J. Lemaitre and J.-L. Chaboche. Mechanics of solid materials. Cambridge university press, 1990.
[1] Ted Belytschko, Wing Kam Liu, and Brian Moran. Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures. Page 3 of 31
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2000.
[3] Herhard A. Holzapfel. Nonlinear Solid Mechanics. A Continuum Approach for Engineering. John Wiley & Go Back
Sons, 1st edition, March 2000.
[6] J.C. Simo and T.J.R. Hughes. Computational Inelasticity. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1998. Close
[5] L. E. Malvern. Introduction to the Mechanics of Continuous Medium. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1969. Quit
 Department of
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University of Oslo
13.1. Introduction

A material is nonlinear when the relation between stress, σ, and strains, ε, is expressed using
a strain dependent matrix, C(ε).
Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

In a mathematical model of a material the constitutive relations model the stress as a function Subdomain interior nodes

of the deformation history. This is a material specific part of the model, and different materials Mek 4560
have different constitutive relations. Torgeir Rusten

I one dimensional solid mechanics the constitutive equation is the stress-strain model for the
material.

A stress-strain relation approximate the observed physical behavior to a material, subject Contents
to certain assumptions. A phenomenological approach is used. The observed macroscopic
behavior is a result of microscopic interactions in the material. These interactions on the // ..
atomic or molecular level is not modeled, the effect on the macroscopic level is modeled by
fitting macroscopic functions to experimental data. / .

Page 4 of 31
In the sequel we concentrate on one dimensional models and briefly mention the extension to
three dimensions. Go Back

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 Department of
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The choice of the material model is crucial in an analysis, but the choice may not be obvious.
It is up to the user to:

• choose a suitable material law, or

Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

• develop/implement a suitable law (many commercial products allow the user to imple- Subdomain interior nodes

ment a user defied material law). Mek 4560

Torgeir Rusten
It is important to understand:

• the material model,

Contents
• the assumptions used in its derivation,
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• is it suitable for the material in the construction,

• is it suitable for the loads and deformations, / .

• numerical aspects. Page 5 of 31

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The Finite Element program use a set of stresses and strains. If the material data use a
Close
different par of stress and strain the material data must be converted, this is briefly discussed
in subsection 13.2. Quit
 Department of
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The numerical aspects of the material law are related to

• algorithms for stress updates,

• algorithms for the tangent stiffness matrix. (An exact Jacobi matrix is required to obtain Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

second oder rate of convergence in Newton’s method.) Subdomain interior nodes

Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten
13.2. Stress-strain curves

Stress-strain curves for one dimensional stress can be obtain from a tensile test. Constitutive
relations are derived partially based on these curves.
Contents

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/ .

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 Department of
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P P

δ
Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

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L0 A0 L A Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten

δ P
Contents

// ..
In the tensile test the force, P , and the elongation, δ is measured, and the force is plotted as a
function of the elongation. In order to extract meaningful information from the plot, the effect / .
of the geometry, i.e. (A, L), of the specimen must be removed. How? We have to make some
choices. Use the initial length L0 and area A0 , or the current L and A? I.e. which stress and Page 7 of 31

strain measure to use?

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If the change in area and length is small, the tensor for small strains used in linearized elasticity Close
is used. Otherwise, models incorporating large strains must be used.
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In any case, it is important to know the definitions of the stress and strains used in the model.
 Department of
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University of Oslo
One alternative is to define the strech as
L L0 + δ
λx = =
L0 L0
where L = L0 + δ. The nominal, or engineering, stress is given by:
Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

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P
τ=
A0 Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten
where A0 is the initial cross section area. The engineering strains are:
δ
ε = λx − 1 =
L0
Using this we can define the relation between nominal stress and engineering strains. Contents

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Example: Assume that the load-displacement relation is modeled using:
/ .
2
P (δ) = 1 − (δ − 1)
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 Department of
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P University of Oslo
1

0.8

0.6 Subdomain boundary nodes

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0.4 Mek 4560

Torgeir Rusten
0.2

δ
0.5 1 1.5 2

Contents

If the deformation is volume preserving, i.e. // ..

AL = A0 L0 , / .

the relations between stress and strain measures are summarized in the table below: Page 9 of 31

Strain Stress Go Back

P
Engineering strain, ε = λx − 1 Nominal stress, σ = A0 Close
λx P
Logarithmic strain, ε = ln(λx ) Cauchy (true) stress, σ = A0
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1 2 P
Green strains, ε = 2 (λx − 1) 2. Piola-Kirchhoff stress, σ = λx A 0
 Department of
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University of Oslo
The material law for different stress and strain measures are indicated below:
Cauchy spenning/logaritmisk toyning

σ Nominell spenning/ingeniortoyning

1.2 Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

2. Piola/Kirchhoff spenning/Green toyning

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1
Torgeir Rusten
0.8

0.6
Contents
0.4
// ..
0.2
/ .
ε
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Page 10 of 31

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Note that the material coefficients are different for the different stress-strain relations.
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 Department of
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13.3. One dimensional elasticity

A fundamental property of an elastic material is that the stress level only depend on the current
value. A consequence of this is that loading and unloading follow the same curve and that the
construction returns to its initial configuration after deformation. Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

Elastic materials has a one-to-one relation between stress and strains. Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten

13.4. One dimensional plasticity

Materials that exhibit permanent deformation after a complete unloading is called plastics
Contents
materials. Many materials show a linearly elastic behavior up to a level called the yield limit:
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• metals (steel),
/ .
• concrete,
Page 11 of 31

• earth
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If the material is loaded above the yield limit plastic behavior result, plastic strains.
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 Department of
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Elastic-plastic materials can be divided into two sub groups:

• materials independent of the velocity, or strain rates, and

• materials dependent of the velocity.
Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

A stress-strain curve for a typical elastic-plastic material is shown in the figure below.
Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten
σ

E tan
1 Contents
σ0 E
// ..

1 / .

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E
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1 Close

ε
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Figure 13.1: Stress-strain curve for a typical elastic-plastic material.

 Department of
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The main steps in developing a model of plasticity are:

1. A decomposition of each increment of strains into an elastic, reversible part, dεe , and an
irreversible plastic part dεp :
dε = dεe + dεp Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

2. A yield function, f (σ, q), modeling the plastic deformation. q is a set of internal variables. Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten
3. A flow rule governing the plastic flow, i.e. determines the plastic strain increments, dεp .

4. Evolution equations for internal variables, including a stain-hardening model governing

the evolution of the yield function.

Contents
Elastic-plastic materials are path-Dependant and dissipative. A major part of the work used to
deform a plastic material is irreversible, i.e. transformed to other forms of energy, in particular // ..
heat. The stress depend on the deformation history and can not be written as a function of
the strain. It is specified as a relation between rates of stresses and strains. / .

Page 13 of 31
Figure 13.1 show a typical stress-strain curve for elastic-plastic materials, e.g. a metal under
one dimensional stress. Initially the material is (linearly) elastic until the initial yield stress, Go Back
denoted σ0 , is attained. Then, the elastic deformation is followed by an elastic-plastic de-
formation where permanent, irreversible plastic deformations are induced by further loading. Close
Reducing the stress is called unloading, and here it is assumed that the response is governed
by the elastic law. Quit
 Department of
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University of Oslo
Above we introduced the decomposition
dε = dεe + dεp
of the strain increments. Division of both sides with respect to a time increment dt, the rate
relation becomes:
ε̇ = ε˙e + ε˙p Subdomain boundary nodes

Subdomain interior nodes

Subdomain boundaries

The stress increment (rate) is related by the elastic modulus to the increment (rate) of the Mek 4560
elastic strain: Torgeir Rusten
dσ = Edεe , or σ̇ = E ε̇e
In the elastic-plastic, nonlinear, regime the relations are
dσ = Edεe = E tan dε, or σ̇ = E ε̇e = E tan ε̇
where E tan is the elastic-plastic tangent module, the slope of the stress-strain curve, see Fig- Contents
ure 13.1.
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The relations are homogeneous in strains and strain rates, i.e. if time is scaled by an arbitrary
/ .
factor, the constitutive relations remains unchanged. Thus the material response are rate
independent. In the sequel the rate form is used. Page 14 of 31

The plastic strain rate is given by a flow rule, often specified using a flow potential denoted Ψ: Go Back

∂Ψ
ε̇p = λ̇ Close
∂σ
where λ̇ is the plastic rate parameter. An example of a potential is: Quit

∂Ψ
Ψ = |σ| = σ̄ = σ sign(σ), = sign(σ)
∂σ
 Department of
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σ̄ is the effective stress.

Isotropic flow law: The yield condition is

f = σ̄ − σY (ε̄) (13.1) Subdomain boundary nodes

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Subdomain boundaries

where σY is the yield strength in one dimensional tension and ε̄ is the effective plastic strain. Mek 4560
Note that the yield strength depend on the effective plastic strain, this is called hardening. Torgeir Rusten

The history of the plastic deformation is characterized by the effective plastic strain, given by
Z √
ε̄ = ε̄˙ dt, ε̄˙ = ε̇p ε̇p
Contents

ε̄ is an example of an internal variable used to characterize the inelastic deformation.

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The yield behavior Equation 13.1 is called isotropic hardening: the yield strength in tension / .
and compression is equal and given by σY . A typical hardening curve is shown below:
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σY (ε̄)

H Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

1 Mek 4560
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Contents

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ε̄
/ .

dσY Page 16 of 31
The slope of the curve is the plastic module, H = dε̄ .
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For this model we have the relation
∂f Close
ε̇p = ε̄˙ sign(σ) = ε̄˙
∂σ
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Since ε̄˙ = λ̇
∂f ∂Ψ
=
∂σ ∂σ
 Department of
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University of Oslo
This is called an associative plastic model, the plastic flow is in the direction normal to the
yield surface. We do not go into details here, but this is important in multiaxial plasticity.

Plastic deformations occur only when the yield condition f = 0 is met. During plastic loading,
the stress must remain on the yield surface f˙ = 0. Enforcement of this leads to the consistency
condition: Subdomain boundary nodes

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Subdomain boundaries

f˙ = σ̄˙ − σ̇Y (ε̄) = 0

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which gives Torgeir Rusten
dσY (ε̄) dσY
σ̄˙ = ε̄˙ = H ε̄,
˙ where H=
dε̄ dε̄
is the plastic modulus. The relations between stress and strain rates can be found:

σ̇ = E ε̇e = E tan ε̇ = H ε̇p

Contents
 
1 1 1 tan E
= + or E =E 1−
E tan E H E+H // ..
where we have used that
/ .
e σ̇ σ̇ p σ̇ e p
ε̇ = , ε̇ = tan , ε̇ = and ε̇ = ε̇ + ε̇ .
E E H Page 17 of 31

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The loading-unloading conditions can also be written
Close
λ̇ ≥ 0, f ≤ 0, λ̇f = 0

The first states that the plastic rate parameter is non-negative, the second that the stress must Quit

lie on or below the yield surface. The last condition states that the stress is on the yield surface
during plastic loading, λ̇ > 0 and that the rate parameter is zero when the loading is elastic.
 Department of
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Kinematic and isotropic flow model: In cyclic loading the isotropic flow law is a poor
model for many materials. The figure below show a phenomenon observed in cyclic plasticity
known as the Bauschinger effect.

σ π-rom Subdomain boundary nodes

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Subdomain boundaries

σy
Mek 4560
σ0 Torgeir Rusten
σy
2σy α

σ0
ε Contents

// ..

/ .

Figure 13.2: Combined isotropic-kinematic hardening. The Bauschinger effect is shown to the Page 18 of 31
left, the translation and expansion of the flow surface is to the right (multiaxial stress).
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Note that the yield strength in compression is reduced compared to tension and that the center
of the yield surface is moved in the direction of the plastic flow. The figure Figure 13.2 show Quit
a multiaxial stress state; the expansion of the circular yield surface is related to isotropic
hardening, while the translation is related to kinematic hardening.
 Department of
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University of Oslo
In order to model kinematic hardening a new variable α is introduced, it is called the backstress,
it is introduced both in the yield condition and the plastic flow relation. The plastic flow law
for this model is
∂Ψ
ε̇p = λ̇ , Ψ = |σ − α|
∂σ
and the yield criteria is Subdomain boundary nodes

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Subdomain boundaries

f = |σ − α| − σY (ε̄)
Mek 4560
Note that Torgeir Rusten
∂Ψ ∂f
= = sign(σ − α) and ε̄˙ = λ̇
∂σ ∂σ

In addition an equations modeling the evolution of α is required. A simple model is

α̇ = κε̇p Contents

Differentiating the yield criteria: // ..

1 / .
f˙ = (σ̇ − α̇) sign(σ − α) − H ε̄˙ = 0 thus ε̄˙ = (σ̇ − α̇) sign(σ − α)
H
Page 19 of 31
Furthermore
σ̇ = Eεe = E(ε̇ − ε̇p ) = E(ε̇ − ε̄˙ sign(σ − α)) Go Back

Subtracting the backstress we obtain Close

E ε̇
σ̇ − α̇ = E κ
Quit
1+ H + H
 Department of
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University of Oslo
giving the following formulas for the plastic strain

E ε̇ sign(σ − α)
ε̄˙ =
H +E+κ
and the tangent operator
Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

 
tan E
σ̇ = E ε̇ = E 1 − ε̇ Mek 4560
H +E+κ
Torgeir Rusten
Summary, one dimensional plasticity:
• Strain rate:
ε̇ = ε̇e + ε̇p
Contents
• Stress rate:
e p
σ̇ = Eε = E(ε̇ − ε̇ ) // ..

• Plastic flow rule: / .

∂Ψ
ε̇p = λ̇ , ε̄˙ = λ̇, σ 0 = σ − α, Ψ = |σ 0 | Page 20 of 31
∂σ
Go Back
• Evolution equation for backstress:
α̇ = κε̇p Close

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 Department of
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Summary, one dimensional plasticity:
• Yield condition:
f = |σ − α| − σy (ε̄) = 0

• Loading-unloading conditions: Subdomain boundary nodes

Subdomain interior nodes

Subdomain boundaries

λ̇ ≥ 0, f ≤ 0, λ̇f = 0 Mek 4560

Torgeir Rusten
• Consistency condition:

E ε̇ sign σ 0
f˙ = 0, =⇒ ε̄˙ = λ̇ =
E+H +κ
Contents
• Tangent modulus:
// ..
tan tan E2
σ̇ = E ε̇, E =E−β
E + (H + κ) / .

(β = 1 for plastic loading, β = 0 elastic loading or unloading.) Page 21 of 31

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13.5. Multiaxial plasticity, von Mises yield surface Close

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In multiaxial plasticity the one dimensional model is extended. One model is a formulation
called von Mises yield surface, or J2 plasticity (second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor)
 Department of
Mathematics
University of Oslo
The main assumption of the model is that the plastic flow of the material is unaffected by
pressure. This was shown experimentally by Bridgman in 1949. The yield condition and and
the plastic flow direction is based on the deviatoriske part of the stress tensor
1
σ dev = σ − trace(σ)I
3 Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

The yield condition is taken to be

Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten
r
3 dev
f (Σ, q) = σ̄ − σy (ε̄) = 0, Σ = σ − α, Σdev = σ dev − α, σ̄ = Σ : Σdev
2

Contents

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 Department of
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University of Oslo
13.6. Plastisk ledd i en rektangulær bjelke

Figuren under viser en bjelke utsatt for rent moment. Materialkurven viser et materiale som
er elasto-plastisk.
Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

y Subdomain interior nodes

Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten







































x











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Material egenskaper Geometri egenskaper Last Close

E = 30 × 106 b=1 M = 1.0Myp to 1.5Myp
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ν = 0.4 h=2 Myp = 2400
bh3
σyp = 36000 Iz = 12 = 0.6667
 Department of Mathematics
University of Oslo

2
Problem: Vis at bjelken er elastisk opp til M = Myp = σyp h6 og blir helt plastisk når
M = Mult = 1.5Myp .

Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Løsning: Subdomain interior nodes

Mek 4560
/VERIFY,VM24 Torgeir Rusten
/PREP7
/TITLE, VM24, PLASTIC HINGE IN A RECTANGULAR BEAM
C*** STR. OF MATLS., TIMOSHENKO, PART 2, 3RD ED., PG. 349, ART. 64
C*** USING BILINEAR KINEMATIC HARDENING PLASTICITY BEHAVIOR TO DESCRIBE
C*** THE MATERIAL NONLINEARITY
ANTYPE,STATIC
ET,1,BEAM23 Contents
R,1,2,(2/3),2 ! AREA = 2, IZZ = 2/3, H = 2
MP,EX,1,30E6
MP,NUXY,1,0.3 // ..
TB,BKIN,1,1 ! BILINEAR KINEMATIC HARDENING
TBTEMP,70
TBDATA,1,36000,0 ! YIELD POINT AND ZERO TANGENT MODULUS / .
N,1 ! DEFINE NODES
N,2,10
E,1,2 ! DEFINE ELEMENT Page 24 of 31
D,1,ALL ! BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND LOADS
SAVE ! SAVE DATABASE
FINISH Go Back
/SOLU
SOLCONTROL,0
NEQIT,5 ! MAXIMUM 5 EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS PER STEP Close
NCNV,0 ! DO NOT TERMINATE THE ANALYSIS IF THE SOLUTION FAILS
! TO CONVERGE
OUTRES,EPPL,1 ! STORE PLASTIC STRAINS FOR EVERY SUBSTEP Quit
CNVTOL,U ! CONVERGENCE CRITERION BASED UPON DISPLACEMENTS AND
CNVTOL,ROT ! ROTATIONS
 Department of Mathematics
University of Oslo

*DO,I,1,4
F,2,MZ,(20000+(I*4000)) ! APPLY MOMENT LOAD
SOLVE
*ENDDO
FINISH
/POST26 Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

NSOL,2,2,U,Y,UY2 ! NODE 2 DISPLACEMENT

ESOL,3,1,,LEPPL,1,EPPLAXL ! AXIAL PLASTIC STRAIN
PRVAR,2,3 Mek 4560
FINISH Torgeir Rusten
/CLEAR, NOSTART ! CLEAR PREVIOUS DATABASE BEFORE STARTING PART2
/PREP7
C*** USING BILINEAR ISOTROPIC HARDENING PLASTICITY BEHAVIOR TO DESCRIBE
C*** THE MATERIAL NONLINEARITY
RESUME
TBDELE,BKIN,1 ! DELETE NONLINEAR MATERIAL TABLE BKIN
TB,BISO,1,1 ! BILINEAR ISOTROPIC HARDENING Contents
TBTEMP,70
TBDATA,1,36000,0 ! YIELD POINT AND ZERO TANGENT MODULUS
FINISH // ..
/SOLU
SOLCONTROL,0
NEQIT,5 ! MAXIMUM 5 EQUILIBRIUM ITERATIONS PER STEP / .
NCNV,0 ! DO NOT TERMINATE THE ANALYSIS IF THE SOLUTION FAILS
! TO CONVERGE
OUTRES,EPPL,1 ! STORE PLASTIC STRAINS FOR EVERY SUBSTEP Page 25 of 31
CNVTOL,U ! CONVERGENCE CRITERION BASED UPON DISPLACEMENTS AND
CNVTOL,ROT ! ROTATIONS
*DO,I,1,4 Go Back
F,2,MZ,(20000+(I*4000)) ! APPLY MOMENT LOAD
SOLVE
*ENDDO Close
FINISH
/POST26
NSOL,2,2,U,Y,UY2 ! NODE 2 DISPLACEMENT Quit
ESOL,3,1,,LEPPL,1,EPPLAXL ! AXIAL PLASTIC STRAIN
PRVAR,2,3
 Department of
Mathematics
University of Oslo
/OUT,VM24,VRT
/OUT
FINISH
*LIST,VM24,VRT

Subdomain boundary nodes Subdomain boundaries

Subdomain interior nodes

Mek 4560
Svar/kommentarer: Vi ser at bjelken kollapser ved M = 1.5 Myp . Den vil også gjøre det Torgeir Rusten
for verdier som er litt lavere enn M = 1.5 Myp . Det er fordi at spenningene evalueres i diskret
punkter (integrasjonspunkter) over bjelkens tverrsnitt.

Contents

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/ .

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 Department of
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A. References

[Belytschko et al., 2000] Belytschko, T., Liu, W. K., and Moran, B. (2000). Nonlinear Finite
Elements for Continua and Structures. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[Cook et al., 2002] Cook, R. D., Malkus, D. S., Plesha, M. E., and Witt, R. J. (2002). Concepts Subdomain boundary nodes

Subdomain interior nodes

Subdomain boundaries

and Applications of Finite Element Analysis. Number ISBN: 0-471-35605-0. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 4th edition. Mek 4560
Torgeir Rusten
[Holzapfel, 2000] Holzapfel, H. A. (2000). Nonlinear Solid Mechanics. A Continuum Approach
for Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, 1st edition.

[Lemaitre and Chaboche, 1990] Lemaitre, J. and Chaboche, J.-L. (1990). Mechanics of solid
materials. Cambridge university press.
Contents
[Malvern, 1969] Malvern, L. E. (1969). Introduction to the Mechanics of Continuous Medium.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. // ..

[Simo and Hughes, 1998] Simo, J. and Hughes, T. (1998). Computational Inelasticity. / .
Springer-Verlag, New York.
Page 27 of 31

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