25-Feb-17

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Optical Fiber
“the communication channel”
[email protected]

Structure of Optical Fiber

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 25-Feb-17

Structure of Optical Fiber

Structure of Optical Fiber

Single-mode fiber

50/125 Graded-index fiber

250-µm plastic coating
125-µm cladding
250-µm plastic coating
9 µm Core
125-µm glass cladding

Core
Core Diameter =50 µm

140-µm cladding

Core Diameter = 100 µm

100/140 Step-index multimode

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Comparison of Fiber Structures

SM SI

MM SI

MM GI
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Light Guidance in Optical Fiber

 Bare glass rod or fiber in air

 Total internal reflection traps light in fiber

Critical angle

Bare glass fiber

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Laws of Reflection & Refraction

Angles measured w.r.t
the NORMAL to the Interface

Reflection law: angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Snell’s law of refraction:
n1 sin1  n2 sin 2
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Total internal reflection, Critical angle

Transmitted
(refracted) light
kt  2  90
2 n2 Evanescent wave
n 1 > n2
ki
1 kr c 1

Incident Reflected
light light Critical angle 1   c (TIR)
(a ) (b ) (c )

n2
sin  c 
n1

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Optical Waveguiding by TIR

n = 1, for Air

n1 > n2 > n

Propagation mechanism in an ideal

step-index optical waveguide

Launching optical rays to step-index fiber

n2
sin min  ; minimum angle that supports TIR
n1

Maximum entrance angle,  0 max is found from

the Snell’s relation written at the fiber end face

n sin  0 max  n1 cos c  n1  n2

2 2

Numerical aperture:
NA  n sin 0 max  n1  n2  n1 2
2 2

n1  n2 Derive ?
where,  
n1

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Two types of Rays

 Meridional Ray
 That contains the axis of symmetry of the fiber

 Bounded / Unbounded

 Skew Ray:
 Not confined to a single plane, but follow a

helical type path

 More difficult to track and its analysis is too

difficult, as they don’t lie in a single plane (may

be using the mode theory)

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Meridian Ray Representation

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Skew Rays

Many of the trapped skew rays are leaky rays

(partially reflected)

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Graded-Index Fibers

 Index profile  r 
n (r )  n1 1  2    , 0 r  a
 Refractive index   a  
grades from center α = Profile Parameter
of core to edge of
cladding
Step-index profile

Refractive
index Graded-index profile
0
Distance from fiber axis

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Graded-index fiber Characteristics

 Parabolic refractive index profile

 Shape of refractive-index profile important
 Index gradient compensates for modal dispersion,
as the rays go faster in lower index zones
 50/125 and 62.5/125 used up to 2 km
 50/125 has higher bandwidth
 Large core eases coupling into fiber

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Graded-Index Guiding

 Change in index refracts rays toward axis

 Rays go faster in lower index zones
Refractive
index

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Limits of graded-index fibers

 Ideal index profile hard to realize
 Dispersion higher than single-mode
 Modal noise with laser sources

Laser source generates

speckle pattern in
multimode fiber,
Random drift of
Speckle speckles within small
pattern fiber core generates
modal intensity noise

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Standard Single Mode Fiber

 Most common single mode optical fiber:
SMF28 from Corning
 Core diameter d core = 8.2 mm
 Outer cladding diameter: d clad = 125mm
 Step index
 Numerical Aperture NA = 0.14
 NA = sin ()
   = 8°
 l cutoff = 1260nm (single mode for l  l cutoff)
 Single mode for both l=1300nm and l=1550nm
standard telecommunications wavelengths

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Standard Multi-mode fiber

 Most common multimode optical fiber:
62.5/125 from Corning
 Core diameter d core = 62.5 mm
 Outer cladding diameter: d clad = 125mm
 Graded index
 Numerical Aperture NA = 0.275
 NA = sin (θ)

   = 16°
 Many modes

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MFD (Mode Field Diameter)

 Describes the geometric
distribution of light, in the
propagating mode
 All light is not confined to the
core
 Field distribution of LP01 mode
r2
E (r )  E0 exp( 2 ); MFD  2W0
W0
0<r<a

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Birefringence in single-mode fibers

 Because of asymmetries the refractive indices for the two
degenerate modes (vertical & horizontal polarizations) are
different. This difference is referred to as birefringence, Bm

Bm  ny  nx

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Fiber Beat Length

 In general, a linearly polarized mode is a combination of both
of the degenerate modes.
 As the modal wave travels along the fiber, the difference in the
refractive indices would change the phase difference between
these two components & thereby the state of the polarization
of the mode.
 However after certain length, its original state of polarization
is restored. This length is referred to as fiber beat length; LB
2
LB 
kBm

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Exercise – 3
1: Name the typical materials used in the
manufacturing of optical fiber and show the size
of different fiber sections.
2: A step index fiber has a solid acceptance angle
in air of 0.115 radians and a relative refractive
index difference of 0.9%. Estimate the speed of
light in the fiber core.
3: Describe the ray propagation in SM and MM
step-index fibers, with the aid of simple
diagrams. Also compare their advantages and
disadvantages

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Exercise – 3
4: Explain what is meant by a graded index optical fiber,
giving an expression for the possible refractive index
profile. Using simple ray theory concepts, discuss the
transmission of light through the fiber. Indicate the major
advantage of this type of fiber with regard to multimode
propagation.
5: Elaborate the light propagation mechanism in an ideal
step-index optical waveguide.
6: Explain the necessary condition to launch the optical
rays to step-index fiber
7: Define ‘Numerical Aperture’ and derive its expression in
terms of core & cladding refractive indices

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Exercise – 3
8: Briefly indicate with the aid of suitable diagrams the
difference between meridional and skew ray paths in
step index fibers.
9: Show the index profile of a graded index optical fiber
and define various parameters.
10: Explain the limits of graded-index fibers as compared to
step-index fibers
11: Define ‘hybrid fiber modes’. How these are related to
the ‘transverse modes’
12: Write the characteristics of most commonly used
standard SM and MM fibers
13: Determine the numerical aperture and the acceptance
angle of an optical fiber if the refractive index of the core
is nl = 1.46 and the cladding is replaced with air
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Exercise – 3
14: What is the critical angle for a silicon-air interface
around 1550 nm?
15: Using simple ray theory, describe the mechanism for
the transmission of light within an optical fiber. Briefly
discuss with the aid of a suitable diagram what is meant
by the acceptance angle for an optical fiber. Show how
this is related to the fiber numerical aperture and the
refractive indices for the fiber core and cladding.
16: An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.20 and a
cladding refractive index of 1.59. Determine (a) the
acceptance angle for the fiber in water (having refractive
index = 1.33) and (b) the critical angle at the core –
cladding interface. Comment on any assumptions made
about the fiber.

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Exercise – 3
17: The velocity of light in the core of a step index fiber is
2.01 × 108 m/s, and the critical angle at the core –
cladding interface is 80°. Determine the numerical
aperture and the acceptance angle for the fiber in air.
The velocity of light in a vacuum is 2.998 × 108 m/s.
18: Define the relative refractive index difference for an
optical fiber and show how it may be related to the
numerical aperture. A step index fiber with a large core
diameter compared with the wavelength of the
transmitted light has an acceptance angle of 22° in air
and a relative refractive index difference of 3%. Estimate
the numerical aperture and the critical angle at the core
– cladding interface for the fiber.

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Exercise – 3
19: Derive the approximation on the RHS of the following
equation:
 
NA  n sin 0, max  n12  n22  n1 2 
20: Calculate the NA of a SI fiber having n1 = 1.48 & n2 =
1.46. What is the maximum entrance angle θ0, max for this
fiber, if the outer medium is air?
21: Calculate the NA of: (a) a plastic-index fiber having n1 =
1.6 & n2 = 1.49; (b) a SI fiber having a silica core (n1 =
1.458) & a silicone resin cladding (n2 = 1.405).
22: Plot the refractive index profiles n1 to n2 as a function of
radial distance r < a, for GI fibers that have α values of 1,
2, 4, 8 & infinity (SI). Assume the fibers have 1 25 µm
core radius, n1 = 1.48 and Δ = 0.01

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Exercise – 3
23: Commonly available SM fibers have beat
lengths in the range 10 cm < Lb < 2 m. What
range of refractive index differences does this
correspond to, for λ = 1300 nm
24: A single-mode fiber has an index step n1 – n2 =
0.005. Calculate the core radius if the fiber has a
cutoff wavelength of 1 µm. Estimate the spot
size (FWHM) of the fiber mode and the fraction
of the mode power inside the core when this
fiber is used at 1.3 µm. Use n1 = 1.45.

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