Welcome to a Course On

Fundamentals and Interpretation of Geometric Dimensioning

and Tolerancing (GD&T) Based on ASME Y14.5M-1994 with
Introduction to Dimension Management / Engineering
For

Ashley Design & Engineering Services, Chennai,

INDIA.
Aug 27,28,29 2008

1 i2
 About iSquare …

iSquare
(InterOperability & InterChangeability Solutions)
Pune, INDIA

2 i2
 Focus Areas …

l CAD Data InterOperability : Consistent representation of 3D

CAD data in variety of CAD/CAM/CAE applications and platforms.

l InterChangeability: Predicting Dimensional Variations, its impact

and causes at the product and assembly level at early design
stage.

3 i2
 Relationships …

l InterOperability:
– With International TechneGroup Incorporated, USA having more than
20 years of Experience in CAD Data InterOperability technology,
solutions and services.

[email protected]

4 i2
 Relationships …

• InterChangeability:
• With Dimensional Control Systems Inc., USA having more than 15
years of experience in Dimensional Control Techniques, Solutions
and Services.

[email protected]

5 i2
 Our Offerings …

•CAD Data InterOperability:

•Focused & Customized Training Programs on:
•CAD/CAM/CAE Data Exchange : Problems and Solutions from CAD, CAE, CAM Perspective.
•CAD Model Quality Assessment : CAD Model Quality evaluation from downstream application
perspective

•Software Solutions For:

•Effective Data exchange between heterogeneous CAD/CAM systems: Regardless of source,
target application, standard and formats !! Solutions Include CADfix, IGES/Works,CAD/IQ.
•Model Quality Assessment from Downstream application perspective

•Quality Services for:

•Data Exchange, Data Migration, Lower version to higher or vice-a-versa
•‘Vendor – Supplier’ data integration : ensuring effective data exchange with minimal / NO
rework at either ends.

6 i2
 Our Offerings …

•InterChangeability:
•Focused & Customized Training Programs on:
•Dimensional Management : Understanding and appreciation of computer aided tools for.
Takes participants thru evolution, various approaches and real life problems from their
application areas.

•Software Solutions For:

•Dimensional Management / Stack Analysis: Solutions embedded in CATIA V5 as Gold
Partner and also Stand Alone solutions for data coming from other CAD platforms !! Solutions
Include 1-DCS, DCS-DFC, 3DCS-SA, 3DCS-CAA V5 Designer, 3DCS-CAA V5 Analyst,
GDM3D

•Quality Services for:

•Dimensional Engineering / Management : Base Line tolerance model creation, reporting with
suggestions and recommendations. Follow-on consulting
•Per requirement, includes 1D, 1D with GD&T, Full 3D simulations, Piece – part variations,
assembly variation prediction against desired objectives.

7 i2
 Training Programs in Dimensional Management
/ Engineering

Courses from iSquare, Pune in the domain of Dimensional Variation Management

Sr# Course Title Duration Pre-requisite

Fundamentals and Interpretation of Geometric Dimensioning 24hrs

1 None
and Tolerancing (GD&T) as per ASME Y14.5M:1994 (3 days)

Advanced Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing (GD&T): 24hrs Basic knowledge of

2
Concepts & Applications as per ASME Y14.5M:1994 (3 days) GD&T

Tolerance Stack-up Analysis using Co-ordinate System of

24hrs Basic knowledge of
3 Dimensioning and GD&T : A practical Approach to Solve
(3 days) GD&T
Assembly Build Problems

CATIA V5 Based GD&T/Tolerance Stack-up Analysis using DCS

32hrs Basic knowledge of
4 (Dimensional Control Systems Inc., USA) Software Solutions.
(4 days) GD&T preferred
(Covers exposure to 1DCS,DCS-DFC and 3DCS-CAAV5 Analyst)

GD&T and Tolerance Stack-up Analysis for an Automobile: A

32hrs Basic knowledge of
5 Practical Approach to Control and Calculate Dimensional
(4 days) GD&T
Variations

Introduction to Dimensioning and Tolerancing Principles for 24hrs Basic knowledge of

6
Gages and Fixtures Based on ASME Y14.43:2003 (3 days) GD&T

Engineering Limits & Fits with introduction to ANSI B4.2-1978 8hrs

7 and ISO-286 Standards (1 day)
None

Introduction to Digital Product Definition Data Practices (Solid 24hrs Basic knowledge of
8
8 Model Tolerancing) per ASME Y14.41:2003 (3 days) GD&T
i2
 That’s about iSquare

10 i2
 How is this course organized?

l Total 10 Sessions; 3days

l Pre-defined objectives at the beginning of each session
l Classroom exercises at the end of each session
l Homework
l Extended hours as necessary
l Assumption : Understanding of GD&T controls
l Feel free to interrupt and ask Questions

11 i2
 GD&T
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing

61 i2
 History

l In practice, the parts are produced with some variation to

accommodate process capabilities and interchangeability – called
tolerances

l Generally, tolerances are specified in plus/minus

l Plus/minus system worked quite well and even today used in

many applications.

62 i2
 l Later, the idea of locating round features such as pins/holes etc, with
round tolerance zone rather than traditional square tolerance zone
introduced which later caught up and adopted by military standards and
late became unified ANSI standard

63 i2
 Introduction to GD&T

l Simple part for own use… No need for drawings when designer, inspector and
manufacturer are same!
l Designer often creates an assembly, parts fit together with optimal clearances, He
conveys ideal size (nominal dimensions) and shapes to each manufacturer.

l Volume production?:
– Impossible to make every part identical
– Every manufacturing process has unavoidable variations that cause variations
in manufactured parts.
– Designer,with due consideration must analyze how much variation may be
allowed in size, form, orientation and location.
– Then along with nominal dimensions, he must communicate magnitude of
such variations or TOLERANCE each characteristics can have and still
contribute to functional assembly.

64 i2
 How to Communicate such Variation?

l Often words are inadequate; eg. A note “Make this surface a real flat”
only has meaning where all concerned parties can do following:

– Understand English
– Understand to which surface the note applies and extent of the surface
– Agree on what “Flat” means
– Agree on exactly how flat is “Real Flat”!!

l To overcome miscommunication, throughout 20th century a specialized

language based on graphical representations and math has evolved to
improve communication. Such language is currently recognized as
“Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)”

65 i2
 So, what is GD&T?

l It’s a language for communicating Engineering Design Specifications;

approved by ANSI, ASME and United States Department of Defense
(DoD)

l GD&T Includes all symbols, definitions, mathematical formulae and

application rules critical to embody a viable engineering language.

l It conveys both: ie. Nominal (or ideal) dimensions and variations (or
tolerances allowed for that dimension.

l It enhances co-ordinate system dimensioning and describes designers

intent

l Designer’s requirements can be completely specified using GD&T

symbols thus eliminating/reducing foot notes on drawings.

66 i2
 What GD&T is NOT …

l Its not a creative design tool; it can’t suggest how certain part surfaces should be
controlled (methods …)

l It does not convey parts’ intended function. Eg. Designer created a bore to
function as hydraulic cylinder to withstand 15kg/cm2 pressure; however GD&T
can’t convey the purpose (intended function) of part.

l GD&T specifications can address size, form, orientation, location and/or

smoothness of bore based upon stress/fit considerations of design by designers’
experience.

l Its incapable of specifying manufacturing processes to achieve desired

tolerances/variations

l Its not a replacement to co-ordinate dimensioning system.

l To summarize, GD&T is a language that designers use to translate design

requirements into measurable specifications.

67 i2
 Where does GD&T come from? (references…)

l GD&T vocabulary and grammatical rules are provided in:

– ASME Y14.5M-1994 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
– ASME Y14.5.1M-1994 Mathematical Definition of Dimensioning and
Tolerancing Principals

l To avoid confusion, hereafter we will call first standard as “Y14.5” and

the later as “Math Standard”

l Later, we will see differences between other International Standard (more

followed in Europe) “ISO GD&T” and the US dialect.

l ASME offers no .800. number for help on technical issues and

interpretations. At times interpretation could be dispute, so users are
advised to refer to text / reference books and your organization’s internal
staff.

68 i2
 Why do we use GD&T?

•Designer specifies distance to holes’ ideal

location
•Manufacturer measures this distance and
marks a “x” spot and drills a hole.
•The Inspector then measures the actual
distance to that hole.
•ALL THREE PARTIES MUST BE IN
PERFECT AGREEMENT ABOUT THREE
THINGS:
•From where to start the
measurement?
•What direction to go?
•And where measurement ends?

69 i2
 So,

l When measurements are precise to two digits, the slightest difference in

interpretation (origin / direction /end )can lead to a usable part or
expensive paperweight!!

l Even if everyone agrees to measure to holes’ center, a egg shaped hole

presents a variety of “centers” and each center is defensible based on
different design considerations

You may find claims that GD&T affords more tolerance for manufacturing, but by
itself, it doesn't. GD&T affords however much or little tolerance the designer
specifies. Just as a common claim that using GD&T saves money, but hardly
such claims are accompanied with cost or ROI analyses.

70 i2
 Yet another example …

• Drawing of an Automobile Wheel Rotor

• Has neat and uniform appearance
•…. But leaves many features totally out of control!!

71 i2
 From Rotor Drawing;

l What if it were important that the n 139.7 bore to be perpendicular to

mounting face?

l What if it was critical that n 139.7 bore and OD n279.4 be on the same
axis?

Nothing on the drawing addresses it!

Next slide shows the part that can be built and still meet specifications…
however the part may not function in an assembly and therefore lead to
assembly rejection…

72 i2
 The “no-sense” Wheel Rotor … dimensionally in
spec!

68.94

178.08 20.60

279.24 152.55
139.59 78.79

68.78

20.80

Manufactured part that conforms to the drawing without GD&T

73 i2
 Shortcomings of Co-ordinate System of
Dimensioning …

Coordinate Dimension Usage

Application Correct / Incorrect Use
Overall Size of
component

Chamfers and Radii

Locating Part Features

Controlling angular
relationships
Defining the Form of
part feature

Co-ordinate tolerancing is a dimensioning system where a part features are

defined by means of rectangular dimensions with given tolerances.
Such system has three shortcomings:
× Square or Rectangular Tolerance Zones
× Fixed Size Tolerance Zones
× Ambiguous instructions for Inspection
74 i2
 Wheel Rotor in ‘Control’ with GD&T

• Mounting face being important for the function of the rotor; has been made flat within 0.1.
• Later Mounting face assigned as Datum A (foundation for drawing..)
• Another critical face of Rotor has been made parallel to Datum A within 0.16
• The Dia 139 bore has been made Perpendicular to mounting face; therefore directly controlled to our foundation (ie. Datum A) and
labeled as Datum B

75 • Together Datum A and B form a sturdy reference from which dia. 10 bolt holes and other round features can be derived/ located
i2
 Contd …

l Datum features A and B provide a very uniform and well aligned

framework from which a variety of relationships and fits can be precisely
controlled.

l Thus, GD&T provides unique, unambiguous meaning for each control.

GD&T then, is simply means of controlling surfaces more precisely and
unambiguously.

l This is fundamental reason for using GD&T. Clear communication

assures that manufactured parts will function and that those functional
parts will not be rejected later due to misunderstanding /
miscommunication.

l So, fewer arguments … Less Scrap.

76 i2
 Hence, GD&T …

l Adds clarity over co-ordinate system of dimensioning

l Eliminates notes on the drawings

l Depicts designers intent and inspection criteria

l Most significant difference between GD&T and co-ordinate dimensioning

is location of round features. The co-ordinate system had square
tolerance zone that rejected some good parts!!

77 i2
 Hidden costs that GD&T reduces (Quick ROI)

l Designers / Manufacturers / Inspectors wasting time to interpret drawings and

questioning the designers
l Rework of manufactured parts due to misunderstanding
l Inspection deriving meaningless data from parts while failing to check critical
relationships.
l Handling and documentation of functional parts that are rejected!
l Sorting, reworking, filing, shimming of parts … often additional operation.
l Assemblies failing to operate, failure analysis, Quality problems, Customer
complaints, loss of market share, product recall, loss of customer loyalty.
l Meetings, corrective actions, debates, drawing changes and interdepartmental
vendettas resulted from failure!

ALL THE ADD UP TO AN ENORMOUS, YET UNACCOUNTED COST. BOTTOM

LINE? USE GD&T BECAUSE ITS RIGHT THING TO DO. IT’S ALL PEOPLE ALL
OVER THE WORLD UNDERSTAND AND IT SAVES MONEY

78 i2
 So, When do we use GD&T?

In absence of GD&T specifications, a parts’ ability to satisfy design requirements

depends largely upon four “laws”
l Workmanship Skills / Pride. Every industry has unwritten customary standards of product
quality and most workers strive to achieve them. But these standards are minimal requirements.
Further workmanship customs of precision aerospace machinists are rarely shared by
ironworkers.
l Common Sense. Experienced manufactures develop fairly reliable sense as what the part is
suppose to do. Even without inadequate specifications, he will try to make bore straight and
smooth if he suspects it’s a hydraulic cylinder.
l Probability. Today’s modern precision machine tools have accuracy / repeatability say upto
0.0002mm, therefore, it is assumed that part dimensions should never vary more than that.
Further there is no way to predict what process may be used, how many and in what sequence to
produce a part.
l Title Block, or contractual standards. Sometimes, these provide clarification. But often
they are very old and inadequate for modern high-precision tools. An example of a title block note
is “All surfaces to be flat within 0.005”

All above “laws” carries obvious risk. Where designer deems the high risk, GD&T
Specifications should be spelled out rigorously .

79 i2
 How Does GD&T Work? - Overview

In previous slides, we alluded to goal of GD&T: To guide all parties towards reckoning
part dimensions the same, including the origin, direction and destination for each
measurement. GD&T achieves this goal through four simple steps:

1. Identify part surfaces to serve as origins and provide specific rules explaining
how these surfaces establish the starting point and direction for measurement.

2. Convey the nominal (ideal) distances and orientations from origin to other
surfaces

3. Establish boundaries and / or tolerance zone for specific attributes of each

surface along with specific rules for conformance.

4. Allow dynamic interaction between tolerances (simulating actual assembly

possibilities) where appropriate to maximize tolerances.

80 i2
 Comparing Co-Ordinate System and Geometric
System of Dimensioning …

Method of Dimensioning and Tolerancing

Co-Ordinate Geometric
Tolerance zones are Tolerance zones may be
Tolerance Zone shape and rectangular or square. cylindrical and flexible (varying
Size They are also of fixed size)
size

Ambiguous. Without The datum reference frame helps

explicit references communicating correct sequence
Inspection Procedure (Datums), results of part orientation in gage. Thus
would vary depending repeatable inspection possible.
upon inspectors.

81 i2
 Effects of Square / Rectangular Tolerance
Zone

l Square or rectangular tolerance allows more variation along diagonal

direction. There is no such specific requirement from products’ function.

l Due to different tolerance in different direction, it rejected some good

functional parts (out side square tolerance zone but within round
tolerance zone)

l Inspectors do not know how to locate and orient the part in inspection
equipment, which leads to dispute on parts acceptance.

l Higher manufacturing cost (due to less tolerance zone)

82 i2
 Expressing Size Limits

83 i2
 Size Limits (Level 1 Control)

For every feature of size, the designer shall specify the largest and the smallest the feature can be.
Previously we discussed the exact requirements these size limits impose on the feature. The
standards provide three options for specifying size limits on the drawings.

– Symbols for Limits and fits

For example, n12.45LC5 or 30f7 (ANSI B4.1 (inch) or ANSI B4.2 (metric))

– Limit dimensioning
φ12.34 or φ12.45 −12.49
φ12.30
– Plus and Minus Tolerancing

φ 24.54+−0.35
0.25
or 11.65 ± 0.45

84 i2
 Millimeter values

• When a dimension is less than one mm, zero must precede the decimal point
ex. 0.4 NOT .4
• When a dimension is a whole number, neither a decimal point nor zero is used
ex. 45 NOT 45.00
• When a dimension is a whole number and decimal, zero does not follow decimal
number
ex. 47.5
• A dimension does not use a comma or space
ex 3450 NOT 3,450 or 3 450
• A tolerance for dimension can have more numbers of decimal places than
dimension itself.
ex. 47`0.34
+0.76
• When unilateral dimension is used, no sign be used with zero; ex. φ 450 or φ 340−0.45
• When a bilateral tolerance is used, both; the plus and minus tolerance must have
identical number of decimal places
ex. φ 45+−0.76
0.45 NOT φ 34 +−0.55
0.4

85 i2
 Millimeter values
54.15 53.15
• When a limit dimension is used, the decimal places must match. ex: NOT
54.00 53
• Basic dimension can have any number of decimal places in Feature Control Frame.

ex. 50 or 50.35 NOT 50.00

86 i2
 Few Examples

20.2 means 20.2000…

160 means 160.0000…

Interpreting 80.5 - 80.2 :

-If part measures 80.199… part is
rejected
- If part measures 80.499… part is
accepted

All dimensional limits are absolute. A dimension is considered to

be followed by zeros after the last significant digit.

87 i2
 Exercise 1

88 i2
 Part Features

89 i2
 Part Features

Up till now, we used term Surfaces and Features loosely and almost
interchangeably. To speak GD&T, we should begin to use terms as
defined in Y14.5

Feature is the general term applied to physical portion of a part such as

surfaces, pin, tab, hole or a slot.

Usually, part feature is a single surface (or a pair of opposed parallel plane
surfaces) having uniform shape. You can establish datums from, and
apply GD&T controls to features only.

There are two general types of features. Those that have built-in dimension
of “size” and those that don’t.

90 i2
 Non Size Features

A nonsize feature is a surface having no unique intrinsic size (diameter or

width) dimension to measure. It includes following:

l A nominally flat planer surface

l An irregular or ‘warped’ planer surface, such as face of windshield or
airfoil.
l A radius – a portion of cylindrical surface encompassing less than 180deg
of arc length.
l A spherical radius – a portion of a spherical surface encompassing less
than 180deg of arc length.
l A revolute – a surface such as cone, generated by revolving a line about
an axis.

91 i2
 Features of Size

A feature of size is one cylindrical or spherical surface or a set of two

opposed elements or opposed parallel surfaces, associated with size
dimension.

Holes are ‘internal’ features of size. Pins are ‘external’ features of size.
Features of size are subject to principals of material condition modifiers
(to be discussed later…)

‘Opposed parallel surfaces’ means the surfaces are designed to be parallel

to each other. To qualify as ‘opposed’, it must be possible to construct a
perpendicular line intersecting both surfaces. Only then, we can make a
meaningful measurements of size between them. From now on, we will
call this type of feature a width-type feature

92 i2
 Bounded Features (Partial Size Features)

This type of feature is neither a sphere, cylinder, nor

12`0.2
width type feature, yet has two opposed elements.

The “D” hole for example is called “irregular feature of

5`0.15
size” by some text books. Y14.5’s own coverage
for this type of feature is limited. Although feature
12`0.2 has obvious MMC and LMC boundaries, its
arguable whether feature is “associated with size
dimension”

11`0.15
For now, we’ll consider this type feature as bounded
feature of non size

4.9 4.95
5`0.1 5`0.1

20.2
20`0.2 5`0.1 =?? 5.1
5.05
5`0.1

95 i2
 Material Condition
Material condition is yet another way of thinking about the size of
an object considering object’s nature.
For example, nature of a pizza is base with
topping. If you have exxxtraa topping, its’
material condition increases and pizza gets
bigger and thicker.

The Nature of a cannon is that

its void, as erosion decreases
its material condition, cannon
gets bigger.

If a mating feature of size is as small as it can be, will it fit

tighter or sloppier? We can’t answer until we know
whether we’re talking of internal or external feature (hole /
pin), but when you know feature of size has less material,
it will fit loosely regardless of its type.

In layman’s term, Material Condition is features size in the

context of its intended function.

96 i2
 MMC & LMC

l Maximum Material Condition (MMC m) is the condition in which a feature of size

contains maximum amount of material within the stated limits of size.

One can think of MMC as the condition where the most part material is present at the surface of
feature, or where part weighs the most (everything else being same). This translates to smallest
allowable hole or the largest allowable pin, relative to specified size limits.

l Least Material Condition (LMC l) is the condition in which feature of size contains
minimum amount of material within stated limits of size.

One can think of LMC as the condition where the least part material is present at the surface of
feature, or where part weighs the least (everything else being same). This translates to largest
allowable hole or the smallest allowable pin, relative to specified size limits.

97 i2
 Basic Dimensions

Basic Dimension is a numerical value used to describe (1) the theoretically

exact size, true profile, orientation or (2) a location of feature or a gage
information (datum targets).

When a basic dimension is used to define part features, it provides nominal

location from which permissible variations are established by Geometric
Tolerances.

Basic dimensions are usually denoted by numerical value enclosed in a

rectangle or by addition a general note such as “un-toleranced dimensions
are basic”

Basic dimensions must be accompanied by geometric tolerance to specify

how much tolerance the part feature may have

99 i2
 Basic Dimension Example

Basic dimensions …
•Can be used to define
theoretically exact location,
orientation or true profile of part
features or gage information.
•That define part features must
be accompanied by a geometric
tolerance.
•That define gage information
do not have a tolerance shown
on the drawing.
•Are theoretically exact (but
gage makers’ tolerance do
apply)

100 i2
 Exercise 2

102 i2
 GD&T Symbols

103 i2
 GD&T Symbols
(An attempt to explain Wheel Rotor Drawing w/o GD&T Symbols)

Tedious to Explain requirements,

instead use symbols. They are better.
•Any one can read write symbols
•Symbols mean exactly same thing to
everyone.
•Symbols are compact and reduce
clutter
•Quicker to draw and CAD softwares
can draw them automatically.
•They can be easily spotted visually.
Compare this with GD&T’ed Drawing
and find all positional callouts… !!

104 i2
 Form and
Proportions of
GD&T Symbols

h = size of letter

105 i2
 Feature Control Frames (FCF)

106 i2
 Feature Control Frame (FCF)

Each geometric control for a feature is conveyed on a drawing by a rectangular box called feature
control frame. A typical FCF is divided in compartments expressing following sequentially left to
right.
Geometric
Secondary
Geometric Tolerance
Value Datum
Characteristic Tolerance
Symbol Modifying Datum Material
Symbol Primary Tertiary
Condition Modifiers Datum
Datum

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Compartments

•1st Compartment contains geometric characteristic symbol from 14 available

symbols.

107 i2
 A Typical ‘Feature Control Frame’

When designers apply GD&T, they use ‘feature control frames’ as shown
below describing tolerance values, datum planes etc.

108 i2
 General Characteristics (Type wise) and
corresponding ASME sections

Geometric Tolerance Description Symbol ASME Section

Category Type
Straightness u 6.4.1
Flatness c 6.4.2
For Individual Form
Circularity e 6.4.3
Features
Cylindricity g 6.4.4
For Individual Line Profile k 6.5.2(b)
or Related Profile Surface Profile d 6.5.2(a)
Features
Angularity a 6.6.2
Orientation Perpendicularity b 6.6.4
Parallelism f 6.6.3

For Related Position j 5.2

Features Location Concentricity r 5.11.3
Symmetry i 5.13
Circular Runout h 6.7.1.2.1
Runout Total Runout t 6.7.1.2.2

110 i2
 Modifying / Modifier Symbols

111 i2
 Feature Control Frame Placement

Place the frame below or attached to a leader-directed callout or dimension pertaining to the
feature.

113 i2
 Feature Control Frame Placement

Run a leader from the frame to the feature.

114 i2
 Feature Control Frame Placement

Attach either side or either end of frame to an extension line from the feature, provided it is a plane
surface.

115 i2
 Feature Control Frame Placement

Attach either side or either end of the frame to an extension of the dimension line pertaining to a
feature of size.

116 i2
 Reading Feature Control Frame …

It is easy to translate FCF into English and read a loud from left to right. Previous tables (slide#
110,111) show equivalent English words to the left of each symbol. Then we just add the
following English language preface for each compartment:

1st Compartment: “The …”

2nd Compartment: “… of this feature shall be within …”
3rd Compartment: “… to primary datum …”
4th Compartment: “… and to secondary datum …”
5th Compartment: “… and to tertiary datum …”

With this, feature control frame shown above is reads as: “The Position of this feature shall be within
cylindrical tolerance zone of diameter 1 at maximum material condition to primary datum A and to
secondary datum B at maximum material condition and to tertiary datum C at maximum material
condition”

Isn’t it Easy?

117 i2
 Summarizing FCFs …

l FCF is specified to each feature or group of features

l FCF provides instructions form, orientation and position of features; thus

providing setup for mfg and inspection.

l FCF contain information for proper part orientation in relation to specified

Datums

118 i2
 Fundamental Rules

119 i2
 Fundamental Rules

Before we get in to detailed application and meaning of Geometric Tolerances, we need to

understand few common ground rules that apply to every engineering drawing regardless of
type of tolerances used.

1. Each dimension will have tolerance, except for those dimensions specifically identified as
reference, maximum, minimum, or stock. The tolerance may be applied directly to
dimension, indicated by general note, or located in supplementary block of drawing format
(Refer ANSI Y14.1)

2. Dimensioning and Tolerancing shall be complete so there is full understanding of the

characteristics of each feature. Neither scaling nor assumption of distance or size is
permitted.

3. Each necessary dimension of end product shall be shown. No more dimensions than those
necessary for complete definition shall be given. The use of reference dimensions should be
minimized.

4. Dimensions shall be selected and arranged to suit the function and mating relationship of a
part and shall not subject to more than one interpretation.

120 i2
 Fundamental Rules (contd …)

5. The drawing shall define part without specifying manufacturing methods. Thus only a
diameter of hole is given without indicating whether it is to be drilled, reamed, punched an so
on… However as an exception, where manufacturing, processing, quality assurance is
essential for the definition of engineering requirement, it may be specified on the drawing.

6. It is permissible to identify as non-mandatory certain processing dimensions that provide for

finish allowance, shrinkage allowance and other requirements provided final dimensions are
given on the drawing. For such non-mandatory dimensions; put a note such as
NONMANDATORY (MFG DATA)

7. Dimensions should be arranged for provide required information for easy readability.
Dimensions should be shown in true profile views and refer to visible outlines.

8. A 90 o angle applies where center lines and lines depicting features are shown on drawing at
right angle and no angle is specified.

121 i2
 Fundamental Rules (contd …)

9. A 90 o basic angle applies where centerline of features in a pattern or surfaces shown at right
angle on the drawing are located by basic dimensions and no angle is specified.

10. Unless otherwise specified, all dimensions are applicable at 20 o C. Compensation may be made
for measurements made at other temperatures.

11. All dimensions and tolerances apply in a free state condition. This principle does not apply to
non rigid parts.

12. Unless otherwise specified, all geometric tolerances apply for full depth, length and width of
feature.

13. Dimensions and Tolerances apply only at the drawing level where they are specified. A
dimension specified for a given feature on one level of drawing (eg. Detail drawing) is not
mandatory for that feature at any other level (eg. An assembly drawing)

122 i2
 Four Fundamental Levels of Control for FOS

128 i2
 Features of Size : Four fundamental Levels of Control

l Four different levels of GD&T control can apply to a feature of size.

l Each higher level control adds a degree of constraint demanded by
features functional requirement; however as we move up the level ladder,
the lower level control remain in effect.
l Thus a single feature may subject to many tolerance simultaneously!

ü Level 1: Controls size and (for cylinders and spheres) circularity at each
cross section only
ü Level 2: Adds overall Form Control
ü Level 3: Adds Orientation Control
ü Level 4: Adds Location Control

129 i2
 Level 1 : ‘Size’ Control

130 i2
 Math Standard : establishing size limit boundaries

•Start with geometric element: Spine

•The Spine for a cylindrical feature (such as pin /
hole) is a simple non-self-intersecting curve in
space.
•Spine could be straight or wavy
•Take a imaginary steel ball whose diameter =
small size limit of the cylindrical feature.
•Sweep balls’ center along the spine.
•This generates a “wormlike” 3D boundary for
the features’ smallest size
•Similarly,we take another spine and sweep
Generating a Size Limit Boundary another ball whose diameter = large size limit of
the cylindrical feature
•This generates second 3D boundary, this time
for the features’ largest size.

132 i2
 Math Standard : establishing size limit boundaries

lThis shows a cylindrical feature of size

conforms to its size limits when its surface
can contain the small boundary and be
contained within larger boundary.

lUnder Level 1 Control, the curvatures

and relative locations of each spine may
be adjusted as necessary to achieve the
hierarchy of containments as above;
except that the small size boundary shall
be entirely contained within large size limit
Conformance to limits of size for a cylindrical boundary
feature

133 i2
 Level 2 : ‘Form’ Control

140 i2
 Level 2 Control: Overall Feature Form

lAs shown in figure left, features of

size should achieve clearance fit in an
assembly

lDesigner calculates the size

tolerances based on assumption that
each feature, internal and external is
Straight. In this example, the designer
knows that n20.5 max pin will fit in a
n20.6 min hole if both are straight.

141 i2
 Level 2 Control : Overall Feature Form (contd …)

lIf pin is banana shaped and hole is

lazy “S” shaped, they usually won’t
go together, because Level 1’s size
limit boundaries can be curved, they
20.5 can’t assure assemblability.
lLevel 2 adds control of overall
geometric shape or “form” of a
feature of size by establishing a
perfectly formed boundary beyond
which feature’s surface(s) shall not
encroach.
20.6

142 i2
 Perfect Form at MMC Only (Rule #1)

l Y14.5 established a default rule for perfect form based upon assumption
that most features of size must achieve a clearance fit.

l Y14.5’s Rule #1 decrees that, unless otherwise specified or overridden by

another rule, a features MMC size limit spine shall be perfectly formed
(straight or flat depending upon type). This invokes a boundary of perfect
form at MMC (also called an envelope)

l Rule #1 does not require the LMC boundary to have a perfect form.

l This Rule #1 is also referred as ‘Taylor’s Envelope Principle’

145 i2
 Perfect Form at MMC Only (Rule #1)

lThe figure left shows how Rule

#1 establishes a n. .501
boundary of perfect form at
MMC (envelope) for pin.
Similarly, Rule #1 mandates a
n. .502 boundary of perfect
form at MMC (envelope) for the
19.5
20.5 hole.
20.5
lThe figure also shows how
matability is assured for any
21.4 pin that can fit inside its n.
.501 envelope and any hole
20.6 20.6 that can contain its n..502
envelope.
lThis simple hierarchy of
fits is called as the envelope
principle.

146 i2
 Rule #1 Example (External FOS)

Part shall be always

contained within MMC
Envelope

Every Cross-sectional
measurement must be
within limits of Size

147 i2
 Rule #1 Example (Internal FOS)

Every cross-
sectional
measurement must
be within limits of
size
Boundary of Perfect form
MMC Envelope
Hole shall be always outside
the MMC perfect form
148 Envelope i2
 Perfect Form at neither MMC nor LMC

Figure above is a drawing for electrical bus bar. Note that cross sectional dimensions have
relatively close tolerances, not because bar fits closely inside anything, but rather needed to
assure a minimum current carrying capacity without wasting expensive copper. Neither the MMC
nor the LMC boundary needed perfectly straight.

However, if bus bar is custom rolled, or machined from a plate, it won’t automatically be
exempted from Rule #1. In such a case, Rule #1 shall be explicitly nullified by adding a note as
shown.

152 i2
 Rule #1 Arguments …

Many experts argue that Rule #1 is actually the “exception” that fewer than half of all
features of size need any boundary of perfect form.

Which means, for majority of features of size, Rule #1’s perfect form at MMC
requirement accomplishes nothing except to drive up costs!!

The Solution is that Y14.5 prescribes the “perfect form not required” note and
engineers simply fail to add it more often. Interestingly, ISO defaults to “perfect
form not required” (sometimes called as independency principal) and requires
special symbol to invoke the “envelope” of perfect form at MMC. This is one of the
major differences between ISO and Y14.5

Every engineer should consider for every feature of size whether a boundary
of perfect form is a necessity or a waste?

153 i2
 Why Rule #1?

l Ensures assembleability through InterChangeability

l Automatically separates bad parts that encroach envelope of
perfect form at MMC
l For welded parts, rule #1 applies after welding operation is
performed (since one or more parts when welded become single
part)

154 i2
 Rule #2

l Rule #2 states that in absence of modifier (such as m or l) in

tolerance or datum compartment, the tolerance applies on RFS
(Regardless of Feature Size) basis. In short, modifier s is no
longer used.

φ15 ± 0.15 φ15 ± 0.15

0.25 0.25

155 i2
 Boundaries:

Virtual Condition (Fixed Size)

Inner & Outer (Variable Size)
Worst Case IB/OB (Fixed Size)

156 i2
 Virtual Condition Boundary for Overall Form

There are cases, where perfect

form boundary is needed, but at
different size than MMC or LMC.
Figure on left shows a slender pin
that will mate with very flexible
socket in a mating connector. Pin
being slender, its difficult to
manufacture pins satisfying Rule
#1’s boundary of perfect form at
MMC and LMC.

Moreover, since mating connector has

flared lead in, such near perfect
MMC virtual condition of a cylindrical straightness isn’t functionally
feature necessary.

157 i2
 Virtual Condition Boundary for Overall Form
(Contd …)

Another example shows a flat

washer to be stamped out of a
sheet.
Note that thickness has close
tolerance because excessive
variation may cause motor shaft
misalignment.
Here again, for the tolerance and
aspect ratio, Rule #1 would be
unnecessarily restrictive,
nevertheless, envelope is needed to
prevent badly warped washers
jamming in an automated assembly
equipment

MMC virtual condition of a width-type

feature

158 i2
 So, Virtual Condition Boundary is…

l Virtual Condition is NOT a Control

l It’s a condition of a feature established by collective efforts of Size,

Geometric Tolerances and Modifiers

Virtual Condition Boundaries can be established for Internal and External

Features of size.

161 i2
 VCB of Location for Internal FOS controlled at MMC

163 i2
 VCB of Location for Internal FOS controlled at MMC

Hole Size Position Tol Bonus Tol Total Tol VCB

29.85 (MMC) 0.1 0 0.1 29.75 VCB = Hole Size – Total Tolerance
29.95 0.1 0.1 0.2 29.75
OR
30 0.1 0.15 0.25 29.75
VCB = MMC Size limit – Geo Tol
30.1 0.1 0.25 0.35 29.75
30.15 0.1 0.3 0.4 29.75

30.25 (LMC) 0.1 0.4 0.5 29.75

164 i2
 VCB of Location for External FOS controlled at MMC

165 i2
 VCB of Location for External FOS controlled at MMC

Pin Size Position Tol Bonus Tol Total Tol VCB VCB = Pin Size + Total Tolerance
29.55 (MMC) 0.1 0 0.1 29.65
OR
29.5 0.1 0..05 0.15 29.65
VCB = MMC Size limit + Geo Tol
29.4 0.1 0.15 0.25 29.65

29.35 0.1 0.2 0.3 29.65

29.3 (LMC) 0.1 0.25 0.35 29.65

166 i2
 Geometric Tolerance modified to MMC

l The MMC virtual condition boundary represents a restricted air space reserved
for mating part feature. In such a mating interface, the internal features’ MMC
virtual condition must be at least as large as that for the external feature. MMC
virtual condition (the boundary’s fixed size) is determined by three factors:

1. Features type (internal or external)

2. Features MMC size limit
3. Specified geometric tolerance value.

For internal feature of size,

MMC virtual condition = MMC size limit – geometric tolerance value
For external feature of size,
MMC virtual condition = MMC size limit + geometric tolerance value

167 i2
 VCB of Orientation (controlled at MMC)

Tolerance Zone = n0.3 at MMC

Tolerance Zone = n0.3 at MMC
VCB = MMC - GTol
VCB = MMC + GTol
VCB = 13.2 - 0.3 = n12.9
VCB = 12.6 + 0.3 = n12.9
In this case VCB is same as Inner
In this case VCB is same as Outer
Boundary (worst case)
Boundary (worst case)
In either case, controlled feature never encroaches respective VCBs. VCBs lie
in air space.
168 i2
 Geometric Tolerance modified to LMC

l The LMC virtual condition boundary assures a protected core of part material
within a pin, boss or a tab or protected case of a part material around a hole or
slot.
l LMC virtual condition (boundary’s fixed size) is determined by three factors:

1. Features’ type (internal or external)

2. Features’ LMC size limit.
3. Specified geometric tolerance value.

For an internal feature of size,

LMC virtual condition = LMC size limit + geometric tolerance value
For external feature of size,
LMC virtual condition = LMC size limit – geometric tolerance value

169 i2
 LMC Virtual Condition Example

Figure at left shows a part where straightness of

datum feature A is necessary to protect wall
thickness.
Here, the straightness tolerance modified to LMC
supplants the boundary of perfect form at LMC.
The tolerance establishes a virtual condition
boundary embedded in a part material beyond
which feature surface shall not encroach.

LMC virtual condition of a cylindrical feature

For OD For datum feature (external) A, the diameter of

such virtual boundary equals to LMC size limit
minus the straightness tolerance value: n19.7-
n0.3=n19.4
Note the difficulty of verifying conformance where
the virtual condition boundary is embedded in part
material and can’t be simulated with hard gages.

170 i2
 VCB of Orientation (controlled at LMC)

Tolerance Zone = n0.3 at LMC

Tolerance Zone = n0.3 at LMC
VCB = LMC + GTol
VCB = LMC - GTol
VCB = 13.6 + 0.3 = n13.9
VCB = 12.3 - 0.3 = n12.0
In this case VCB is same as Outer
In this case VCB is same as Inner
Boundary (worst case)
Boundary (worst case)
In either case, controlled feature never encroaches respective VCBs. VCBs
171
are embedded in material.
i2
 Inner & Outer Boundaries

As per Y14.5,

l Inner Boundary is defined as:

– A Worst case Boundary (ie locus) generated by the smallest feature (MMC for Internal
Feature and LMC for External feature) minus the stated Geometric Tolerance Value and
any additional Geometric Tolerance (if applicable) from the features’ departure from its
specified material condition.

l Outer Boundary is defined as:

– A Worst case Boundary (ie locus) generated by the largest feature (LMC for Internal
Feature and MMC for External feature) plus the stated Geometric Tolerance Value and
any additional Geometric Tolerance (if applicable) from the features’ departure from its
specified material condition.

l Worst Case Boundary is defined as:

– It is a general term to refer to the extreme boundary of a FOS that is the worst case for
assembly. Depending upon dimensioning method, the WCB can be Inner or Outer or
Virtual Condition Boundary.

172 i2
 Inner & Outer Boundaries Example

OB = n20.15

OB = (n20.15+0.3) = n20.45 OB = n20.15

IB = (20 - 0.14)=19.86
173 i2
 RFS Case : Inner and Outer Boundaries

•When Geometric
tolerances are applied
on RFS Basis, i.e. there
is no modifier such as
m or l in tolerance
portion of FCF, the OBs
and IBs are calculated
as:

IB = n13.2 - 0.3 = n12.9

OB = n12.6 + 0.3 = n12.9 WCIB = MMC - GTol =
n12.9
WCOB = MMC + GTol =
n12.9
For External FOS:
WCOB = MMC + Geometric Tolerance
WCIB = LMC – Geometric Tolerance
For Internal FOS:
WCIB = MMC – Geometric Tolerance
WCOB = LMC + Geometric Tolerance
174 i2
 Summarizing Boundary Calculations …

Type of Control FOS Type Formula to calculate WCB

Internal IB = MMC
FOS with no GD&T External OB = MMC
Internal IB = MMC - GTol
FOS with GD&T at RFS External OB = MMC + GTol
Internal IB = VCB = MMC – GTol
FOS with GD&T at MMC OB = LMC + GTol + Bonus
External OB = VCB = MMC + GTol
IB = LMC – GTol - Bonus
Internal IB = MMC – GTol – Bonus
FOS with GD&T at LMC OB = VCB = LMC + GTol
External OB = MMC + GTol + Bonus
IB = VCB = LMC - GTol

GTol = Geometric Tolerance

175 i2
 Actual Mating Envelope/Size
Bonus Tolerance
Actual Minimum Material Envelope/Size

176 i2
 Actual Mating Envelope

The Actual Mating envelope is a surface, or a pair of parallel plane surfaces, of perfect form which
correspond to a part feature of size as follows:

l For External Feature: A similar perfect feature counterpart of smallest size, which can be
circumscribed about the feature so that it just contacts the feature surface(s). For examples a
smallest cylinder of perfect form or two parallel planes of perfect form at minimum separation
that just contacts the surface(s).

l For Internal Feature: A Similar perfect feature counterpart of largest size, which can be
inscribed within the feature so that it just contacts the feature surface(s). For example a largest
cylinder of perfect form or two parallel planes of perfect form at maximum separation that just
contact(s) the surface(s).

l In certain cases, the orientation, or the orientation and location of an actual mating envelope
shall be restrained to one or two datums (see next figure)

177 i2
 Actual Mating Envelope (contd…)

Example of restrained and unrestrained AMEs

178 i2
 Bonus Tolerance

Bonus Tolerance is an additional tolerance for geometric control.

Whenever a geometric tolerance is applied to FOS and it contains
an MMC (m) or LMC (l) modifier in the tolerance portion of
FCF, a bonus tolerance is permissible

When MMC modifier is used in tolerance portion of FCF, it means the

stated tolerance is applies when toleranced FOS is at its
maximum material condition. When the actual mating size of
feature departs from MMC (towards LMC), an increase in the
stated tolerance = amount of departure is permitted. Thus this
increase or extra tolerance is called as ‘Bonus Tolerance’

181 i2
 Bonus Tolerance Examples

Wide gage (2 plates)

• Bonus tolerance is an additional tolerance for a

geometric control. Specified
Plate Straightness Bonus Total
• Bonus tolerance is only permissible when an MMC (or Thickness Tol Tol Tol
LMC) modifier is shown in the tolerance portion of a 3.8(mmc) 0.4 0 0.4
feature control frame.
3.7 0.4 0.1 0.5
• Bonus tolerance comes from the FOS tolerance 3.6 0.4 0.2 0.6
•Bonus tolerance is the amount the actual mating size 3.5 (lmc) 0.4 0.3 0.7
departs from MMC (or LMC)

182 i2
 Bonus Tolerance Examples

Bonus tolerance comes from

Size (FOS) Tolerance. In this m denotes
case, Max bonus=0.4 Bonus
tolerance is
permissible

Bonus tolerance comes from

Size (FOS) Tolerance. In this
case, Max bonus=0.2

No Bonus applicable. Tolerance

applied to non FOS m denotes
Bonus
tolerance is
permissible
183 i2
 Level 3 : ‘Orientation’ Control

191 i2
 Level 3 Control: Virtual Condition Boundary for Orientation

l For two mating features of size, Level 2 control “overall perfect form boundary” can only
assure assemblability in absence of any orientation or location restraint between two features.
Ie. Features are “free floating” to each other.

In the example at left, pin fitting into a hole. We

added a large flange for each part. The requirement
is the both flanges shall bolt together and make full
contact.
This introduces an orientation restraint between two
mating features. When flange faces are bolter
together tightly, the pin and the hole must be
square to their respective flange faces. Though the
pin and the hole might each respect their MMC
boundaries of perfect form; nothing prevents from
boundaries being badly skewed to each other. (see
fig on next page)

192 i2
 Level 3 Control: Virtual Condition Boundary for Orientation

We can address the requirement by

VCB=(n21.5-0.5)=n21 taking the envelope principle one
step further to Level 3 Control.
n21 An orientation tolerance applied to a
feature of size, modified to MMC ot
LMC, establishes a virtual boundary
beyond which surface(s) of features shall
VCB=(n20.5+0.5)=n21 not encroach

In addition to Level 2 control of perfect form, this new boundary has perfect orientation in all
applicable degrees of freedom (360deg) relative to any datum features we select.
The shape and size of the virtual condition for orientation are governed by the same rules as for
form at Level 2. Again, a single feature of size can subject to multiple levels of control, thus
multiple virtual condition boundaries.
In figure above, we’ve restrained virtual condition boundary perpendicular to flange face and
shows how matability is assured for any part having a pin that can fit inside its n21 MMC virtual
condition boundary and any part having a hole that can contain its n21 MMC virtual condition
boundary.
193 i2
 Level 4 : ‘Position’ Control

194 i2
 Level 4 Control: Virtual Condition Boundary for Location

For two mating features of size, Level 3’s virtual condition

boundary for orientation can only assure assemblability in
absence of any location restraint between two features, for
example where no other mating features impede optimum
location alignment between or pin and hole.
In the figure left, we moved the pin and hole close to the
edges of flange and added a large boss and bore mating
interfaces at the center of the flanges.

When flange faces are tightened together with bots

and the boss and bore are fitted together, the pin
and the hole must each still be very square to their
respective flange faces.
However the parts can no longer slide freely to
optimize the location alignment between the pins
and the hole.
This necessitates the additional restraint that the
pins and holes must be accurately located relative to
its respective boss or bore.

195 i2
 Level 4 Control: Virtual Condition Boundary for Location (contd …)

A Positional tolerance applied to a feature of

size, modified to MMC or LMC, takes the
virtual condition one step ahead: Level 4.
In addition to perfect form and perfect
n20.7 n35 orientation, the new boundary shall have
VCB VCB perfect location in all applicable degrees of
freedom relative to any datum features we
select.
The shape and size of virtual boundary for
location is governed by the same rules as for
50 form at Level 2 and for orientation at Level 3
with one addition.

For spherical feature, the tolerance is preceded by the ‘Sn’ symbol and specifies a virtual
condition boundary that is sphere.
A single feature of size may be subjected to multiple levels of control thus multiple virtual
condition boundaries … one for each form, orientation, location tolerance applied

196 i2
 Level 4 Control: Virtual Condition Boundary for Location (contd …)

In the example above, we identified two datums for each part and added dimensions and
tolerances for our understanding of assembly.

The center boss has MMC size limit of n34.5 and perpendicularity tolerance of n0.5 at MMC.
Since its external feature of size, its virtual condition is
n34.5+n0.5=n35.

The bore has an MMC limit of n35.5 and perpendicularity tolerance of n0.5 at MMC.
Since its internal feature of size, its virtual condition is
n35.5-n0.5=n35

Note that for each perpendicularity tolerance, the datum feature is the flange face

Each virtual condition boundary for orientation is restrained perfectly perpendicular to its
referenced datum, derived from flange face.

197 i2
 Level 4 Control: Virtual Condition Boundary for Location (contd …)

Next, The pin and hole combination requires MMC virtual condition boundaries with location restraint
added. Note that each location tolerance, the primary datum feature is the respective flange face and
secondary datum feature is center boss or bore.

Each virtual condition boundary for location is restrained perfectly perpendicular to its referenced primary
datum, derived from flange face. Each boundary is additionally restrained perfectly located relative to
its referenced secondary datum, derived from boss or bore.

This restraint of both orientation and location on each part is crucial for perfect alignment between
boundaries on both parts, thus assemblability.

The pin has MMC size limit of n20.4 and a positional tolerance of n0.3 at MMC. Since its external feature
of size, its virtual condition is n20.4+n0.3=n20.7

The hole has an MMC size limit of n21 and a positional tolerance of n0.3 at MMC. Since its internal
feature of size, its virtual condition is n21-n0.3=n20.7

Any pin contained within its n20.7 boundary can assemble with any hole containing its n20.7 boundary.

Try this without GD&T!!

198 i2
 Derived Elements

210 i2
 Derived Elements

Many Geometric Elements can be derived from any feature. A Geometric tolerance RFS applied to
a feature of size controls’ one of the following:

1. Derived median line(from a cylindrical feature)

2. Derived median plane (from a width type of feature)
3. Feature center Point (from a spherical feature)
4. Feature Axis (from a cylindrical feature)
5. Feature center plane (from a width type feature)

A Level2 (straightness or Flatness) tolerance nullifies Rule #1’s boundary of perfect form at MMC.
Instead, a separate tolerance controls overall feature form by constraining a derived median
line or derived median plane (according to type of feature)

211 i2
 Derived Elements (Contd…)

As shown in figure left, in absence of

material condition modifier means that
straightness tolerance applies RFS by
default. This specifies a tolerance zone
bounded by a cylinder having a diameter
equal to the tolerance value, within which
the derived median line shall be
contained.

Tolerance zone for straightness control at RFS

213 i2
 Derived Elements (Contd…)

Tolerance zone for Flatness control at

RFS

In above figure, the flatness tolerance applies RFS by default.This specifies a tolerance zone
bounded by two parallel planes, separated by a distance equal to tolerance value, within which
the entire derived median plane shall be contained.
Both size limits are still in force, but neither the spine for the MMC size boundary nor the spine
for LMC size boundary need to be perfectly formed.
As you will note, it’s a difficult deriving a median plane, But where its’ necessary to control
overall form within a tolerance that remains constant, regardless of feature size, there is no
simpler options.

214 i2
 When to Use MMC / LMC / RFS ?

215 i2
 Use MMC for clearance fits…

l Use MMC for any feature of size that assembles with another feature of
size on a mating part and foremost concern is that the two mating
features clear (not interfere with) each other.

l Use MMC on any datum reference were the datum feature of size itself
makes a clearance fit, and the features controlled to it likewise make
clearance fits.

l Because clearance fits are so common and permits functional gaging,

many designers have wisely adopted MMC as a default (previously Y14.5
made it the default, now its RFS).

l Where a screw thread must be controlled with GD&T or referred as

datum, try to use MMC

217 i2
 Use LMC for Minimum stock protection

l Use LMC where you must guarantee a minimum ‘shell” of material all over a surface of any
feature of size, for example:

– For a cast, forged or rough machined feature to assure stock for cleanup in a subsequent
cleanup operation.
– For a non mating bore, fluid passes etc to protect minimum wall thickness for strength.
– For a non mating boss around a hole, to protect minimum wall thickness for strength
– For a gaging features of a functional gage to assure the gage won’t clear a non
conforming part
– …..

We don’t often see LMC applied to datum features, but consider an assembly where datum
features of size pilot two mating parts that must be well centered to each other. LMC applied to
both datum features guarantee a minimal offset between the two parts regardless of how the
loose the fit. This is a valuable technique for protecting other mating interfaces in the assembly.

LMC is an excellent choice for datum references on functional gages.

218 i2
 Use RFS for Centering

l RFS is obsessed with a feature’s center to the point of ignorance of features’ actual size. In fact, RFS
does not allow dynamic interaction between size and location or between size and orientation of
feature.
l However, this apparent limitation of RFS actually makes it an excellent choice for self centering
mating interfaces where the mating features always fit together snugly and center on each other
regardless of their actual mating size. For example:

– Press fits
– Tapers such as Morse Tapers and countersinks for flat headed screws.
– Elastic parts, or elastic intermediate parts such as “O” rings
– An adjustable interface where an adjusting screw, shim, sleeve etc will be used on assembly to
center a mating part.

Certain geometric characteristics, such as run out and concentricity where MMC or LMC are so
inappropriate that the rule prohibit material condition modifiers. For these type of tolerances, RFS
always applies.

RFS principal now apply by default in absence of any material condition modifier.

RFS is a poor choice for in clearance fit mating interfaces because it does not allow dynamic tolerance
interaction. That means smaller tolerance, usable parts are rejected and higher scarp and costs

219 i2
 Exercise 3

220 i2
 Form Tolerances

Straightness
Flatness
Circularity
Cylindricity

221 i2
 Straightness Tolerance for Line (Surface)
Elements

When straightness tolerance FCF is specified as shown in figure above, the tolerance controls only line elements of
that feature. The FCF may only appear in a view where the controlled surfaces is represented by a straight line.
Tolerance specifies a tolerance zone plane containing a tolerance zone bounded by two parallel lines separated by
distance equal to tolerance value. As the tolerance zone plane sweeps the entire feature surface, the surface’s
intersection with plane shall anywhere be contained within the tolerance zone (between two lines). Within the plane,
the location and orientation of tolerance zone may adjust continuously to part surface while sweeping.

223 i2
 Straightness Control Applied to Line (Surface)
Element

When straightness control is applied to surface

elements,

– The tolerance zone applies to surface element

– The tolerance zone is two parallel lines
– Rule#1 applies
– The Outer/Inner Boundary is not affected
– No tolerance modifiers may be specified
– The straightness tolerance value specified must be less
than the size tolerance.
– No Datum reference required in FCF
– The control must be directed to surface elements
– The straightness control must be applied in the view
where the controlled elements are shown as a line

224 i2
 Straightness Tolerance Applied to a Cylindrical
FOS

A straightness tolerance control frame placed according to option a or d specified in

slide #108 replaces Rule #1’s requirement of perfect form at MMC with a separate
tolerance controlling the overall straightness of the cylindrical feature. Where the
tolerance is modified to MMC or LMC, it establishes a Level 2 virtual condition
boundary as described earlier.

Unmodified, the tolerance applies RFS and establishes a central tolerance zone as
described earlier within which the features’ derived median line shall be contained.

Straightness Applied on MMC Basis Straightness Applied on RFS Basis

225 i2
 Straightness Control Applied to a Cylindrical
FOS

When straightness control is applied to a FOS,

– The tolerance zone applies to the axis or centerplane of
the FOS
– Rule#1 is overridden
– The Virtual condition or Outer/Inner Boundary of the FOS
is affected
– The MMC Modifiers may be specified in the tolerance
portion of the control
– If tolerance modifiers are specified (MMC), the bonus
tolerance applies
– The straightness tolerance value specified may be greater
than the size tolerance.
– A fixed gage may be used to inspect straightness.
– No Datum references can be specified in the FCF
– The control must be associated with a FOS dimension
– If applied to cylindrical FOS, a diameter symbol n
should be specified in the tolerance portion of FCF

226 i2
 Flatness Tolerance Applied to a Planer Surface

When a Flatness FCF is placed according to options b or c as

in slide #78, the tolerance applies to single nominal flat
feature. The flatness FCF may be applied only in a view
where the element to be controlled is represented by a
straight line.
This specifies a tolerance zone bounded by two parallel
planes separated by distance equal to the tolerance value,
within which the entire feature surface shall be contained. The
orientation and location of tolerance zone may adjust to the
part surface.
A flatness tolerance cannot control whether the surface is
fundamentally concave, convex or stepped, just the maximum
range between its highest and lowest undulations.

For a width type of feature of size, Rule #1 automatically limits the flatness deviation of each surface.
Thus to have any meaning, a separate flatness tolerance applied to either single surface must be less
than the total size tolerance.
The specified tolerance in the FCF is implied as RFS. MMC/LMC does not apply to flatness control
because only surface area is controlled and area have no size

227 i2
 Flatness Control Applied to a Planar Surface

l When Flatness control is applied to Planar Surface:

– No Datum references can be specified in the FCF
– The control must be applied to a planar surface
– No tolerance Modifiers can be specified in the FCF
– The tolerance value specified must be less than any other geometric controls that limit the
flatness of the surface.
– The tolerance value specified must be less than the size tolerance.

l Typical Flatness Control Application:

– For a Gasket or a Seal
– To attach a mating part
– For better contact of datum feature with datum plane.

228 i2
 Circularity Tolerance

A circularity tolerance controls a

features’ circularity (roundness) at
individual cross section. So, a circularity
tolerance may be applied to any type of
feature having uniformly circular cross
sections, including sphere, cylinders,
revolute (cones), tubular shapes, rods,
torus shapes.
When applied to non-spherical feature,
the tolerance specifies a tolerance zone
plane containing an annular tolerance
zone (ring shaped) bounded by two
concentric circles whose radii differ by
an amount equal to tolerance value.

230 i2
 Circularity Tolerance (contd…)

The tolerance zone plane shall be swept along a simple non-self-intersecting tangent continuous
curve (spine). At each point on the spine, the tolerance zone plane shall be perpendicular to
the spine and tolerance zone centered on the spine.

As the tolerance zone sweeps the entire feature surface, the surfaces’ intersection with the plane
shall anywhere be contained within an annular tolerance zone (ie. Between two circles). While
sweeping, the tolerance zone may continually adjust in overall size, but shall maintain the
specified radial width.

This effectively removes diametrical taper from circularity control. Additionally, the spines
orientation and curvature may be adjusted within aforesaid constraints. So, in addition this
effectively removes straightness from circularity control

A circularity tolerance greater than the total size tolerance has no effect. It is preferred that
circularity tolerance be less than half the size tolerance to limit multi-lobbed deviations (egg
shaped or tri-lobed).

231 i2
 Circularity Application

When Circularity is applied to circular elements:

– The diameter must be within its size tolerance

– The circularity control does not override Rule #1
– The circularity tolerance must be less than size tolerance
– The circularity control does not affect the Boundaries of the FOS
– No Datum references can be specified in the FCF
– No Tolerance modifiers can be specified in the FCF
– The control must be applied to diametrical feature

232 i2
 Cylindricity Tolerance

Drawing A Cylindricity tolerance is a composite control of

form that includes circularity, straightness, and
taper of a cylindrical feature.
A cylindricity tolerance specifies a tolerance
zone bounded by two concentric cylinders
whose radii differ by an amount equal to the
tolerance value. The entire feature surfaces
shall be contained within the tolerance zone
(between two cylinders). The tolerance zone
cylinders may adjust to any diameter, provided
their radial separation remains equal to the
tolerance value . This effectively removes
feature size from cylindricity control.

Part

As with the circularity tolerance, a cylindricity tolerance must be less than half the size tolerance
to limit multi-lobbed from deviations
Since neither circularity nor a cylindricity tolerance can nullify size limits for a feature, there is
nothing to be gained by modifying either tolerances to MMC or LMC

233 i2
 Cylindricity Tolerance over a Limited Length
or Area

Some designs require form control over a

limited length or area of the surface, rather
than the entire surface.
In such cases, as shown above, draw a thick
chain line adjacent to the surface, basically
dimensioned for length and location as
necessary. Form tolerance applies only within
the limits as indicated by chain line.

234 i2
 Cylindricity Application

When Cylindricity is applied to cylindrical surfaces:

– The diameter must be within its size tolerance

– The cylindricity control does not override Rule #1
– The Cylindricity tolerance must be less than size tolerance
– The Cylindricity control does not affect the OB of the FOS
– No Datum references can be specified in the FCF
– No Tolerance modifiers can be specified in the FCF
– The control must be applied to cylindrical feature

235 i2
 Straightness Tolerance on a Unit Basis

There are many features for which the

design could tolerate a generous
amount of form deviation, provided
the deviation is evenly distributed over
the total length and/or breadth of the
feature.

This is usually the case with parts that are long or broad in proportion to their cross sectional
areas.
From the above figure, 6’ piece of stock could be severely bowed after heat treatment, but if the
bar is then sawed into 6” length, we are concerned about how straight 6” units are?
The special form requirements can be addressed by specifying a form (only) tolerance on a unit
basis. The size of the unit length or area, for example 6.00 or 3.0x3.0, is specified to the right of
the form tolerance value, separated by slash ‘/’. This establishes a virtual condition boundary or
tolerance zone as usual, except limited in length or area to the specified dimension(s). As the
limited boundary or tolerance zone sweeps the entire length or area of the controlled feature, the
features’ surface or derived element (as applicable) shall conform at every location.

236 i2
 Flatness Tolerance on a Unit Basis

Since the bar in previous

example may be bowed no
more than .03 in every 6” units
length, it accumulated bow over
6’ can’t exceed 4.38” and
automatic saw can handle it.

However, a windshield in above figure may be warped as much as .05” in any 3”x3” area,
its maximum accumulated warp over 36” square is 6.83” a panel that won’t fit in to
assembly fixture, Thus for a windshield, a compound feature control frame is used,
containing a single flatness symbol with two stacked segments.
The upper segment specifies flatness tolerance of .25” applicable to entire surface.
The lower segment specifies flatness per unit area not to exceed .05” over a area 3”x3”.

237 i2
 Radius Tolerance

A radius is a portion of a cylindrical

surface encompassing less than 180o
arc length. A radius tolerance denoted
by R, establishes a zone bounded by a
minimum radius arc and maximum
radius arc, within which the entire
surface feature shall be contained. By
default, each arc shall be tangent to the
adjacent part surfaces.

238 i2
 Radius Tolerance (contd…)

Where a center is drawn, as shown in figure

left, two concentric arc of maximum and
minimum radius bound the tolerance zone.
Within the tolerance zone, the features’
contour may be further refined with a
“controlled radius” tolerance

239 i2
 Controlled Radius Tolerance

Where a symbol CR is applied to a radius, the

tolerance zone will be as described in previous
slide #176. But there are additional
requirements for the surface. The surface
contour shall be fair curve without any
reversals.
This means a tangent continuous curve that is
everywhere convex or concave.

240 i2
 When Do We use a Form Tolerance?

As a general rule, apply a form (only) tolerance to a non datum feature only where
there is some risk that the surface will be manufactured with form deviations
severe enough to cause problems in subsequent manufacturing operations,
inspection, assembly or function of the part.

For example,

l A flatness tolerance might be appropriate for a surface that seals with a gasket.
l A roller bearing might be controlled with a cylindricity tolerance
l A conical bearing race might have both a straightness of surface element tolerance
and a circularity tolerance

241 i2
 Form

Form Selection
Process Consider Limits of
Size (Para. 2.7)

Flatness Straightness Circularity Cylindricity

c (Para.6.4.2) (Para. 6.4.1) e (Para. 6.4.3) g (Para. 6.4.4)

Surface Axis or
Elements Center Plane

Consider
Material Conditions
(Para. 6.4.1.1.2)

RFS MMC
(Para. 2.8.1) (Para. 2.8.2)
Specify m
242
Implied Condition
i2
 Summarizing Form Tolerances

• Form Tolerances are Straightness, Flatness, Circularity, and Cylindricity

• Straightness tolerance zone for line elements - two parallel lines

• The straightness tolerance zone for a diametrical feature is a cylinder for the
derived axis of the feature

• Straightness can be applied to surfaces, line elements, and features of size

• When straightness is applied to a feature of size Rule #1 doesn’t apply

• Flatness tolerance zone - Two parallel planes

• Circularity tolerance zone - Two concentric circles: similar to straightness

control

• Cylindricity tolerance zone - two concentric cylinders: similar to flatness

control

243 i2
 Summarizing Form Tolerances

Geometric Correct to apply to ... Use of m Are Overrides Datums

Control
Surface? FOS? or l? boundaries Rule#1? referencing?
affected?

c Yes No No No No No
Yes Yes May* May* May* No
e Yes No No No No No
g Yes No No No No No
* When applied to FOS

244 i2
 Applicability Of Tolerance and Datum Modifiers for
various Geometric Tolerances

245 i2
 Exercise 4

246 i2
 Datums

247 i2
 What is Datum?

A Datum is a theoretically exact point, axis or plane derived

from the true geometric counterpart of a specified datum
feature.

A datum is an origin from which the location or geometric

characteristics of features of a part are established.

A datum feature is an actual feature of a part that is used to

establish a datum.

A datum reference is an alphabetic letter specified in a

compartment following a Geometric tolerance in a
feature control frame. It specifies a datum to which the
tolerance zone or acceptance boundary is basically
related.

A feature control frame may have zero, one,two or three

datum references.

248 i2
 Establishing Datum
Reference Frames from
Part Features

“Datum feature” begets “True

geometric counterpart” which
begets a “datum” which is
building block for “Datum
Reference Frame”, which is the
basis of establishing tolerance
zone for other features.

We shall refer to this figure often

249 i2
 Datum Feature

Recall our session #1, where we said:

The first step in GD&T is to “identify part surfaces to serve as origins and provide
specific rules explaining how these surfaces establish the starting point and
direction for measurements”

Such a part surface is called as “datum feature”

Builders understood the need for a consistent and uniform origin from which to base
their measurements. It was a patch of leveled ground once. For precision
manufacturing, it’s a flat surface or a straight and round diameter on a machine
part. Although any type of part feature can be a datum feature, selecting one is bit
like hiring a CEO who will provide strong moral center and direction for the entire
organization.

So, what qualifications of CEO should we look for…?

250 i2
 Datum Feature Selection

l The most important quality you want in CEO (datum

feature) is leadership. A good datum feature is a
surface that most strongly influences the origin
and/or location of parts in its assembly. We shall call
it a functional datum feature.

l Rather than a being a slender and small, a good

datum feature such as shown below, should have
“broad shoulders” able to take on the weight of the
part and provide overall stability. Avoid shaky and
unfinished surfaces with high and low spots.

l Just as you want your CEO highly visible, choose a

datum feature that is always accessible for fixturing
manufacturing, or at various stages of inspection
during stages of manufacturing

251 i2
 Functional Hierarchy

lIts tough to judge leadership from

void
lSpot it intuitively when you see
how a prospect (parts and
features) relates to each other
lIn the assembly figure left for a
car engine, consisting of three
parts : Engine block, Cylinder
Head and Rocker Arm cover, we
intuitively rank the dependencies
as:
Engine block makes a foundation, to
which we bolt on the cylinder head to
which in turn we bolt rocker arm
cover.

252 i2
 How to Identify Datum Features and Apply
Symbols?

256 i2
 Identifying Datum Features

Once the CEO (datum feature) has sworn in, he needs to

put a ‘badge’ to denote its’ authority. So, instead of a
star, we use the ‘datum feature’ symbol as shown
below.

The symbol consists of a capital letter enclosed in a square

compartment, a leader line extending from the frame to
datum feature and a terminating triangle. The triangle may
be solid filled, making it easier to spot on a drawing.

Each datum feature shall be identified with a different latter

of alphabet (except I, O, Q). When alphabets are exhausted,
double letters (AA through AZ, BA through BZ etc) are used
and compartment is stretched to fit.

257 i2
 Datum Feature Symbol Application

A Datum feature symbol is

applied to concerned feature
surface outline, extension line,
dimension line, or feature control
frame (FCF) as follows:

(a) Placed on the outline of a

feature surface, or on an extension
line of feature outline, clearly
separated from dimension line,
when the datum feature is surface
itself.

259 i2
 Datum Feature Symbol Application (contd…)

(b) Placed on an extension of a dimension line of a feature of size when datum is an axis or
center plane. If there is insufficient space for two arrows, one of the arrow may be replaced
with datum feature triangle

260 i2
 Datum Feature Symbol Application (contd…)

( c ) Placed on the outline of a cylindrical feature surface, or the extension of the the feature
outline, separated from the size dimension, when the datum is the axis. The triangle may be
drawing tangent to the feature

261 i2
 Datum Feature Symbol Application (contd…)

(d) Placed on a dimension leader line

to the feature size dimension, where
no geometric tolerance and feature
control frames are used.

(e) Placed above or below and attached to

the feature control frame when the feature
(or a group of features controlled is the
datum axis or datum center plane

262 i2
 Summarizing Datum Feature Symbol
Application ( for FOS datum features)

(a) Datum is axis (b) Datum is axis (c) Datum is common axis

(e) Datum is centerplane

263
(d) Datum is center plane
i2
 Introduction to True Geometric Counterpart (TGC)

264 i2
 Introduction to True Geometric Counterpart
(TGC)

l Assigning a part surface as a “datum feature” still doesn’t give uniform origin
necessary for precision measurements.

l Even a straight or round or a flat as the case may be, the feature still has small
irregularities in its shape that could cause difference in repeated measurements
from it.

l To avoid variation in measurements, we must to take it from a geometric shape

that is well perfect.

l Such a perfect shape is called a “True Geometric Counterpart” or simply TGC

265 i2
 Introduction to True Geometric Counterpart
(TGC) (contd…)

l Thus GD&T’s datum principals are based upon following assumptions:

– The foremost design criteria is matability

– High points adequately represent part feature’s matability

Thus, like it or not, all datum methods are based on surface high points.

In many cases, the TGC and the datum feature surface are concept ually brought
together in space to where they contact each other at one, two or three high points
on the datum feature surface.

In some cases TGC is custom fitted to datum features’ high points and some cases,
the TGC and datum feature surface are meant to clear each other.

267 i2
 Datum Features and their TGCs

Go Slide 300
Go Slide 301

268
Go Slide 302
i2
 Datum Reference Frame (DRF)

270 i2
 Datum Reference Frame (DRF) (contd…)

l Usually, it takes two or three

datums to build this complete
DRF.

l Since each type if datum has

different abilities, it is not vary
obvious which one can be
combined, nor it is obvious how
to build DRF needed for a
particular application.

Datum Reference Frame as Per ASME Y14.5

273 i2
 Datum Reference Frame (DRF) (contd…)

274 i2
 Degree of Freedom (DOF)

279 i2
 DRF Development Examples

294 i2
 DRF Development Example 1

With reference to this drawing, answer following

questions …

• How many datum features are there for this part?

• What are types of datum features and Datums?
• What are tolerance zone shapes and sizes for various
FCFs?
• How are tolerance zones orientated and/or located to
DRF?
• Are the tolerance zones fixed or flexible ? If flexible , how
)
much is maximum permissible bonus tolerance ?
• Write down your observation on selection of datum
features
• Does the DRF imply any sequence of operation?
• How many DOF each datum feature removes from part?
How many DOF available at the end?

295 i2
 DRF Development Example 2

With reference to this drawing, answer

following questions …

• How many datum features are there for this

part?
• What are types of datum features and
Datums?
• What are tolerance zone shapes and sizes
for various FCFs?
• How are tolerance zones orientated and/or
located to DRF?
• Are the tolerance zones fixed or flexible ? If
flexible , how much is maximum permissible
bonus tolerance ?
• Write down your observation on selection of
datum features
• Does the DRF imply any sequence of
operation?
• How many DOF each datum feature
removes from part? How many DOF available
at the end?

296 i2
 DRF Development Example 3

With reference to this drawing, answer

following questions …

• How many datum features are there for this

part?
• What are types of datum features and Datums?
• What are tolerance zone shapes and sizes for
various FCFs?
• How are tolerance zones orientated and/or
located to DRF?
• Are the tolerance zones fixed or flexible ? If
flexible , how much is maximum permissible
bonus tolerance ?
• Write down your observation on selection of
datum features
• Does the DRF imply any sequence of
operation?
• How many DOF each datum feature removes
from part? How many DOF available at the end?

297 i2
 Comparison of Datum Precedence

299 i2
 Comparison of Datum Precedence – Case B

• To simulate datum feature A, an adjustable gage/fixture is required.

•Once datum feature A is simulated, it decides orientation of part.
Case b
•The axis of two small holes shall be parallel to datum A, and
perpendicular to datum feature simulator for B
Ref Slide 268
•Note that small holes’ axis is not perpendicular to datum feature B
•No relative movement allowed between datum feature A and its
simulator.
300 i2
 Comparison of Datum Precedence – Case C

•Once datum feature B is simulated, it decides orientation of part.

•The axis of two small holes shall be perpendicular to datum feature B
Case c
•To simulate datum feature A, an adjustable gage/fixture is required.
•No relative movement allowed between datum feature A and its Ref Slide 268
simulator.

301 i2
 Comparison of Datum Precedence – Case D

•The axis of two small holes shall be perpendicular to datum feature B

•To simulate datum feature A, a fixed gage/fixture of dia 16.0 is required.
Case d
•relative movement allowed between datum feature A and its simulator.
Such relative movement could cause the two small holes to shift more wrt
to datum axis A Ref Slide 268

302 i2
 TGC Types

303 i2
 Adjustable Size TGC : Primary Datum (axis) at RFS

Adjustable Chuck
to Simulate datum
feature A

Datum Axis A.
Same as axis of
chuck

Stepped Shaft
Example

310 i2
 Adjustable Size TGC : Primary Datum (axis) at RFS

Expandable mandrel
used to simulate datum
feature B

311 i2
 Adjustable Size TGC : Primary Datum (centerplane) at RFS

Adjustable Vice to
Simulate datum feature
C

312 i2
 Adjustable Size TGC : Primary Datum (centerplane) at RFS

Expandable plates to
Simulate datum feature
D

313 i2
 Adjustable Size TGC : Secondary Datum (Axis) at RFS

Datum axis F

Expandable
mandrel to
Surface plate to simulate datum
Simulate datum feature F
feature E

314 i2
 Adjustable Size TGC : Secondary Datum (Axis) at RFS + Tertiary
Datum (Centerplane) at RFS Example

Datum axis F

Expandable mandrel
to simulate datum
feature F
Surface plate to
Simulate datum
feature E Expandable width to
simulate datum
feature G

Datum centerplane G
315 i2
 Adjustable Size TGC : Datum Axis from Co-Axial diameters RFS
Primary Example

317 i2
 Fixed Size TGC (contd…)

Dia 89.31 fixed size

opening in
gage/fixture to
simulate Hm

324 i2
 Fixed Size TGC (contd…)

Dia 89.61(=VCB size of H)

fixed size opening in
gage/fixture to simulate
Hm

325 i2
 DRF Displacement

(Also referred to as ‘Datum Shift’ or ‘Pattern Shift)

326 i2
 DRF Displacement Example 1

338 i2
 Effect of Datum Shift on hole location ..

• Datum shift can result in an additional tolerance for a

geometric control
• Datum shift is only permissible when a modifier is shown in
datum compartment of a feature control frame
• Datum shift results when the AME of the datum feature departs
from given material condition (in this case MMC
• The maximum allowable datum shift is the difference between
the gage size (for the datum feature) and LMC size of the datum
feature.

339 i2
 DRF Displacement Example 2

When a special-case FOS datum is

referenced at MMC, datum shift may be
possible when the datum feature is at
MMC

Datum Shift = Fixed gage size – AME of Datum feature

340 i2
 DRF Displacement Example 3 : Datum Axis MMC Primary

Fixed size opening = MMC

size of datum feature A
341 i2
 DRF Displacement Example 4 : Datum Axis MMC Primary

Fixed size mandrel = MMC

size of datum feature B
342 i2
 DRF Displacement Example 5 : Datum Centerplane MMC
Primary

Two plates
separated by dist =
MMC size of datum
feature C

343 i2
 DRF Displacement Example 5 : Datum Centerplane MMC
Primary

A gage block of
width = MMC size of
datum feature D

344 i2
 DRF Displacement Example 6 : Datum Axis MMC
Secondary, Datum Centerplane MMC Tertiary

A gage pin of dia = VCB of A gage block of width =

datum feature F = MMC- VCB of datum feature G =
GTol = (58.73 - 0.25) - 0.2 = MMC-GTol = (18.76 - 0.25) -
58.28 0.2 = 18.31

Both the simulators will be perpendicular to datum E.

345
Center plane of G will align with datum axis F
i2
 DRF Displacement Example 7 : Datum Axis from a
Pattern of Holes, MMC Secondary.

A
B

4 Pins of dia = VCB of one

small hole = 10.5 – 0.2 =
10.3

1 Pin of dia = VCB of

center hole = 18.3 – 0.15 =
18.15
346 i2
 Orientation Tolerance
Perpendicularity
Angularity
Parallelism

383 i2
 Orientation Tolerance (Level3 Control)

Orientation is feature’s angular relationship to a DRF. An Orientation tolerance

controls this relationship without meddling in location control.

Thus, an orientation tolerance is useful for relating one datum feature to another and
for refining the orientation of a feature already controlled with a positional
tolerance.

384 i2
 How to apply Orientation Tolerance?

An orientation tolerance is specified using a feature control frame one of the three orientation characteristic
symbols.
The symbol used depends on the basic orientation angle as follows:

0o or 180o – “parallelism” symbol

90o or 270o – “Perpendicularity” Symbol
Any other angle – “Angularity” Symbol

All three symbols work exactly same. The only difference is that where angularity symbol is used, basic angle
should be explicitly specified. Where the parallelism or perpendicularity is used, the basic angle is implied
by the drawing view that shows parallel or perpendicular relationship.
The feature control frame includes the orientation tolerance value followed by one or two datum references.
385 i2
 Datums for Orientation Control

Orientation control requires a DRF. A primary datum plane or axis always establishes
rotation about two axes of the DRF and usually the only reference needed for
orientation control.

However in some cases, rotation it may be necessary to restrain rotation about third
axis and in such case, secondary datum is needed to orient/locate tolerance zone
plane for controlling elements of feature

386 i2
 Angularity Tolerance applied to a Width-Type
FOS

When an orientation tolerance FCF is placed as

per options (a) or (d) in previous table (associated
with a diameter or width dimension), the tolerance
controls the orientation of the cylindrical or width
type of feature.
Where tolerance is modified to LMC/MMC, it
establishes a level3 virtual condition boundary as
described earlier. Alternatively the “center method”
discussed earlier may be applied to an orientation
tolerance at MMC/LMC.
Unmodified, tolerance zone applies RFS and
establishes a central tolerance zone as described
earlier within which the features axis or center
plane shall be contained
When applied to feature of size, orientation
tolerance provides no additional form control
beyond level2
In the figure at left, the center plane of the slot is
held within the central parallel plane tolerance zone

388 i2
 Angularity Tolerance applied to a Cylindrical
FOS

Y14.5 also allows orientation of axis to be

controlled within a parallel plane tolerance zone,
however this would not prevent axis from
revolving like a compass needle between two
parallel planes, such application usually
accompanies a larger positional tolerance.
In the figure left, a “diameter ” symbol precedes
the orientation tolerance value. Here the tolerance
zone is bounded by a cylinder having dia. equal to
tolerance value. This is more like a positional
tolerance except the orientation zone is not
basically located from the datums.
A positional tolerance also controls orientation for
a feature of size to the same degree as an equal
orientation tolerance. Thus for a feature of size, an
orientation tolerance equal to or greater than its
positional tolerance is meaningless.

Conversely, when engineer needs to maximize

positional tolerance while protecting
orientation, a generous positional tolerance can
be teamed up with more restrictive orientation
tolerance.
389 i2
 Perpendicularity Tolerance applied to a
Planar Feature (Two Datum References)

• The shape of the tolerance zone is two

parallel planes that are perpendicular to the
datum plane(s).
• The distance between the plane is equal to
the perpendicularity tolerance zone.
• All elements of the toleranced surface must
be within the tolerance zone
• The perpendicularity tolerance zone limits
the flatness of the toleranced feature.

390 i2
 Parallelism with Tangent Plane Modifier

396 i2
 Explanation of Position Tolerance at LMC

Figure at left illustrates a boss and a hole combination

located by basic dimensions. Wall thickness is
minimum where boss and hole are at their LMC sizes
and both features are displaced in opposite extremes.

Since positional tolerance is specified on LMC

basis,as feature departs from LMC the wall thickness
increases and thus permits a corresponding increase
in positional tolerance thus maintaining minimum
material thickness between features

At LMC At MMC

417 i2
 Guide to Tolerance Modifier Usage …

Modifier Typical Applications Does Modifier Comparative cost

permit Bonus and of Production and
Datum Shift? Verification
-Clearancefits

m
-Assemblability is criteria Yes Least

-Functional gages
-Protection of wall Yes Higher than m but
thickness or assure lower than RFS
l minimum material around
feature
- Limit offset between
mating parts No Highest among
RFS -Centering modifiers
-Alignment

418 i2
 Concentricity
Symmetry

457 i2
 Concentricity Tolerance

Concentricity is that condition where median points

of all diametrically opposed elements of figure
of revolution (or correspondingly located
elements of two or more radially disposed
features) are congruent with the axis (or center
point) of a datum feature.
Concentricity tolerance is a cylindrical (or spherical)
tolerance zone whose axis (or center point)
coincides with the axis (or center point) of
datum feature(s)
The median points of all correspondingly located
feature(s) being controlled, regardless of
feature size, must lie within the cylindrical (pr
spherical) tolerance zone. The specified
tolerance and datum references can apply on
Irregularities in the form of a actual feature to be inspected may make it RFS basis only.
difficult to establish the location of that features’ median point. For
example a nominally cylindrical surface of revolution may be bowed or out Concentricity tolerance requires the establishment
of round in addition to being displaced from its datum axis, in such cases and verification of features’ median points
finding median point may be very time consuming. Therefore unless there
is definite need to establish median points, it is recommended to use
position or runout tolerance.

458 i2
 Difference between Coaxiality and
Concentricity Controls

Both parts are acceptable from coaxiality

control inspection.

459 i2
 Difference between Coaxiality and
Concentricity Controls

This is the one part configuration acceptable

under concentricity control.
While parts as shown in previous slide may
get rejected when inspected from
concentricity viewpoint, if their median points
do not lie in 0.4 central tolerance zone
cylinder. Note that there are no material
modifiers specified for tolerance value as
well as for datum feature reference.

460 i2
 Comparing Coaxiality, Concentricity and Runout
Controls

Geometric Control
r t j

Tolerance Zone Cylindrical Two Co-axial Cylindrical or two

cylinders parallel planes
Control Applies Derived Median Surface elements Axis / centerplane
to… Line of toleranced of AME of
feature toleranced feature
Cost of
Production
Cost of
Verification
Controls … Location and Location, Location and
Orientation Orientation and Orientation
Form

461 i2
 Symmetry Tolerance

Symmetry control is same as Concentricity control. The difference is that while

concentricity is used on surface of revolution, symmetry is used on planar feature of
462 Size
i2
 Runout Tolerance
Circular Runout
Total Runout

464 i2
 Runout Tolerance

l Runout is the oldest and simplest concepts used in GD&T

l Runout is a composite form, location and orientation control of

permissible error in the desired part surface during a complete revolution
of part around datum axis

465 i2
 Runout Tolerance – Why we use it?

In precision assemblies runout causes

misalignment and/or alignment problems.
As shown in figure at left, runout of ring groove
diameters relative to pistons’ diameter may
cause rings to squeeze unevenly around the
piston or force the piston off center in its bore.
A motor shaft that runs out relative to its bearing
journals will cause motor to run out of balance
shortening its working life.
A designer can control such wobble by
specifying runout control.
There are two levels of runout :
Circular Runout
Total Runout

466 i2
 Runout Tolerance – How does it work?

lSpun the shaft about its functional axis while probing the surface
with a dial indicator. As the indicators tip move up and down over the
undulating surface, its dial swings gently back and forth, visually
displaying the magnitude of runout.
lSo, measuring runout can be simple if we agree on three things:
lWhat surface(s) establish functional axis (datums) for spinning
lWhere the indicator to probe?
lHow much swing of the indicators dial is acceptable

lFor the indicator swing, Y14.5 adopted the international term: FIM (Full Indicator Movement) which sometimes
referred as FIR (Full Indicator reading) or TIR (Total Indicator Reading)
lFIM is the difference (in mm/in) between the indicators most positive and most negative excursions. So, if lowest (-
ve) reading is –0.001mm and the highest is +0.002mm, them FIM (or FIR or TIR) is 0.003mm
lJust because runout tolerance is defined and discussed in terms of FIM does not mean runout tolerance can only
be applied to parts that spin in assembly, neither does it require part to be rotated, nor use of dial indicator to verify
conformance. The “indicator swing” is the ideal meant for describing the requirements of surface. Conformance can
be verified using CMM, Optical Comparator, scanning, computer mo deling etc.

467 i2
 Datums for Runout Control

lA runout tolerance controls surface elements of a

round feature relative to a datum axis. Every runout
tolerance shall reference a datum axis.
lIn the figure above, since designer wish to control
the runout of surface as directly as possible, its
important to select the functional feature to establish
a datum axis.
lDuring inspection for the part shown above, the
datum feature might be placed on V block or fixtured
in a precision spindle so that the part can be rotated
about the axis of datum features’ TGC.
lThis requires datum feature be long enough and its
form be well controlled (by own size limits or separate
form tolerance (level2 control)). In addition datum
feature should be accessible for fixturing and probing.

469 i2
 Circular Runout Tolerance

lCircular runout tolerance can also be applied

to a face or a face groove that is
perpendicular to datum axis.Here, the surface
elements are circles of various diameters,
each concentric to the datum axis and each
evaluated separately from the others.

472 i2
 Total Runout Tolerance

Total runout is greater level of control. Its tolerance

applies to the FIM while the indicator sweeps over the
entire controlled surface. Rather than each circular
element being evaluated separately, the total runout
FIM encompasses the highest and lowest of all
readings obtained at all circles
For a nominal cylindrical feature, the indicators body
shall be swept parallel to the datum axis, covering the
entire length of controlled feature, as the part is rotated
360o about the datum axis. Any taper or hourglass
shape in the controlled feature will increase FIM
For a nominally flat surface perpendicular to datum
axis, the indicators body shall be swept in a line
perpendicular to the datum axis, covering entire
breadth of controlled feature, Any conicity, wobble in
the controlled feature will increase FIM. The control
imposed by this type of total runout control is identical to
that of an equal perpendicularity tolerance with a RFS
datum reference.
473 i2
 When do we use a Runout Tolerance?

l Runout tolerance is especially suited for parts that revolve about a datum axis in an assembly,
and where alignments and dynamic balances are critical.

l Circular runout tolerance is often ideal for O ring grooves, where cylinder bore is datum.
Remember that the datum feature and controlled feature should be accessible for
fixturing/inspection as the case is. For example, circular runout tolerance applied to internal
groove with internal bore as datum feature makes groove inaccessible for inspection!

l Following equations pertain to the controls imposed by circularity, cylindricity, concentricity,

circular runout and total runout when applied to a revolute or cylindrical feature.

Circularity + Concentricity = Circular Runout

Cylindricity + Concentricity = Total Runout

474 i2
 Profile Tolerance

491 i2
 Profile Control

What is Profile?

– A profile is outline of an object in a given plane (2D figure)

– Profiles are formed by projecting a 3D figure onto a plane or by taking cross sections
through the figure.

– Such profile can contains straight lines, arcs, curves.

– If the drawing specifies individual tolerances for elements or points of a profile, these
elements or points need individual verification

492 i2
 Profile Tolerancing

l The profile tolerance specifies a uniform boundary along

the true profile within which the elements of surface must
lie.
l It is used to control form or combination of size, form,
orientation or location. Where used as refinement of size,
the profile tolerance must be contained within the size
limits.
l Depending upon design requirements, the tolerance may
be divided bilaterally to both sides of true profile or
applied unilaterally to both sides of profile.
l When an equally disposed bilateral tolerance is needed,
its necessary to show only FCF with leader directed to
surface.
l For an unequally disposed or unilateral tolerance,
phantom lines are drawn parallel to true profile to indicate
tolerance zone boundary
l Phantom line should extend only a sufficient distance to
make its application clear.

493 i2
 Profile Tolerancing

Where a profile tolerance applies all

around the profile of a part, the symbol
used to designate “all around” is placed on
the leader from the FCF.

494 i2
 Profile Tolerancing

Where segments of profile have different

tolerances, the extent of each profile
tolerance may be indicated by the use of
reference letters to identify the extreme
positions or limits of each requirement.

If some segments of profile are controlled by

a profile tolerance and other segments by
individually toleranced dimensions, the
extend of profile tolerance must be indicated.

495 i2
 Application of Datums for Profile Tolerance

General:
Where a profile tolerance need only control a features shape, its unnecessary to relate the profile
tolerance to any DRF. There are many applications where a profile FCF should have no datum
references. Where the tolerance also must control the orientation, or orientation and location of
the considered feature, the tolerance zone shall be related to DRF. Depending upon design
requirements, the DRF may require one, two or three datum references in FCF.

Profile of Surface Tolerance:

A FCF bearing a profile of surface symbol specifies a 3D tolerance zone having total width equal
total tolerance value. The entire feature surface shall everywhere be contained within the
tolerance zone. If DRF is referenced, it restrains the orientation, or orientation and location of
the tolerance zone.

499 i2
 Combining Profile Tolerance with other
Controls

In this case, a part with profile of line

tolerance where size is controlled by a
separate tolerance. Line elements of
the surface along the profile must lie
within the profile tolerance zone and
within a size limiting zone.

503 i2
 Profile tolerance for Coplanar Surfaces

Coplanarity is the condition of two or more

surfaces having all elements in one
plane.

A profile of a surface tolerance may be used

where it is necessary to treat two or more
surfaces as a single interrupted or
noncontinuous surface. In this case, the
control provided is similar to that achieved
by flatness tolerance applied to a single
planar surface.

As shown in figure at left, the profile of a

surface tolerance establishes a tolerance
zone defined by two parallel planes within
which considered surfaces must lie. No
datums are specified as in case of flatness
as the considered surfaces themselves
establishes a plane

505 i2
 Profile tolerance for Coplanar Surfaces

Where two or more surfaces are involved, it may be

desirable to identify specific surface(s) to be used as
datum feature(s). Datum feature symbol is applied to
these surfaces with appropriate tolerance for their
relationship with each other.
Datum reference letters are added to the FCF for the
features being controlled. The tolerance zone thus
established applies to all coplanar surfaces including
datum surfaces

506 i2
 Profile tolerance for Plane Surfaces

Profile tolerance may be used to control form and

orientation of plane surfaces. In this case, profile of
surface is used to control a plane surface inclined to a
datum feature.

507 i2
 Exercise 10

512 i2
 Miscellaneous

513 i2
 GD&T for Head/Turn Lamp Mounting Bracket (sample only)

CAD Model is BASIC

i2
The Dimensioning and tolerancing is incomplete
514
 GD&T for Head/Turn Lamp (sample only)

CAD Model is BASIC

515
The Dimensioning and tolerancing is incomplete
i2
 GD&T Reference Chart

519 i2
 Dimensioning Habits (?)

520 i2
 Suggested Readings & References …

l ASME Y14.5M-1994 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing

l ASME Y14.5.1M-1994 Mathematical Definition of Dimensioning and Tolerancing Principals
l Geometrics IIIm - Lowell W. Foster
l Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques for Use in Design, Manufacturing, and
Inspection - James D. Meadows
l Tolerance Design: A Handbook for Developing Optimal Specifications – Clyde M. Creveling –
l CAD/CAM Theory and Practice : Ibrahim Zeid
l Interpretation of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing : Daniel Puncochar. Dimensioning & Tolerancing
Handbook : Paul Drake Jr.
l References from ETI Mailbag
l Fundamentals of GD&T : Alex Krulikowski

521 i2