2: Basic Concepts

Inclusive perspectives on management of spring water

In most areas in the HKH, communities manage the water from springs. But a community is not necessarily
homogenous. Within communities, there are people who by virtue of their gender, caste, wealth, or ethnicity have
more power and decision-making ability than others. For example, in some South Asian caste-based societies
with norms of purity and pollution, the lower castes (dalits) are often discriminated against when it comes to
collecting water from springs – they are either made to wait longer than others or are assigned to more remote
and marginal springs. Similarly, women are often discriminated against, and especially menstruating women
who are not allowed to touch water. Using a gendered and inclusive perspective in water management means
knowing about and understanding the differences in power and position of different members of the community.
In order to work towards an equitable spring water management system, we must recognize the societal inequities
and develop systems that work in favour of disadvantaged groups such as women, lower castes, and ethnic and
religious minorities.

Tools for participatory social science research

It is customary to use participatory rural appraisal (PRA) or rapid rural appraisal (RRA) tools to collect socio-
economic data in the field to ensure that the data are not extractive and that local people are able to voice their
opinions and describe the reality of their situation (Chambers, 1983). These tools generally yield qualitative data
which can be analysed to understand local practices and perceptions. At the same time, quantitative data amenable
to statistical analysis are needed to understand issues like quantum of water use and whether or not basic minimum
water needs are fulfilled. Ideally, a mixed method should be used that combines qualitative and quantitative tools
in order to understand the socio-economic and governance dimensions of a spring. The following tools are of
particular relevance to this handbook:

1. Transect walks are systematic walks along a defined path (transect) across a community/project area together
with local people to explore certain conditions. Transect walks should be carried out across the springshed and
local water tower noting down the locations of springs using Global Positioning System (GPS) and gathering
further information on each spring from the local community. Transect walks can also be used to understand the
overall layout of the springshed and presence of other water sources.

2. Focus group discussions (FGDs) are a form of qualitative research in which a small group of respondents (5-12
is often considered ideal) are asked about their perceptions on a certain set of issues. FGDs are a powerful tool
for eliciting a collective response on various aspects related to spring management. The format is often a free-
flowing discussion guided by some key questions. By conducting separate FGDs with different groups of people
(such as local leaders, women, men and women from marginalized communities), it is also possible to capture
differences in perception among different groups of stakeholders. The interviews are transcribed in detail and
can be analysed as qualitative data.

3. Key informant interviews (KIIs) are interviews conducted with individuals who are thought to be particularly
knowledgeable about the issue under discussion, and hence have to be chosen carefully. KIIs are also held, like
FGDs, as free-flowing discussions guided by a checklist or key questions, and the results once transcribed can
be analysed as qualitative data.

4. Questionnaire surveys are a research instrument comprising a series of questions designed to gather relevant
data from respondents. Questionnaires must be properly designed and pre-tested, and respondents must be
selected in such a way that they are representative of the population for which data is being collected. Data
collected using questionnaire surveys can be analysed quantitatively using statistical analysis.

11
 Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

3 The Six-step Protocol for Reviving

Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya
Following a broad consultation with wider stakeholders, Figure 21: The six-step protocol for spring revival
and building on earlier work by the Rural Management in the Hindu Kush Himalaya
and Development Department of the Government of
Sikkim (RM&DD, 2014), ICIMOD and ACWADAM STEPS
developed a comprehensive step-wise process for
studying, managing, and reviving springs in the Hindu
Kush Himalaya. The six-step protocol combines 1. Comprehensive mapping of springs and springsheds

hydrogeology with social sciences and community

action and can be used both as a research tool for
2. Setting up a data monitoring system
generating basic knowledge and to prepare detailed local
implementation plans for spring revival. The step-by-step
approach can be followed relatively easily by a diverse
3. Understanding social and governance systems of spring
range of stakeholders after some basic training. Figure 21
shows the main steps in the protocol; the following
chapters describe the individual steps in detail. 4. Hydrogeological mapping, development of conceptual layout
and identification of recharge area
Implementing the protocol requires an interdisciplinary
team. The skills needed for each of the steps are given at
the end of the individual steps. Overall, the team should
include geologists and hydrogeologists (for Steps 1, 2, 4b. Creating a
4c. Classification
of spring types,
4, and 6); individuals with a basic knowledge of plant 4a. Hydrogeological conceptual
identifying mountain
mapping hydrogelogical
types and species, such as foresters or botanists (for aquifer and recharge
layout of springshed
area
Step 1, especially for identifying broad forest and land
use types); social scientists such as human geographers,
socio-economists, sociologists, or anthropologists (for
5. Developing springshed management and governance
Steps 1, 3, and 6); and watershed experts with expertise
protocols
in implementing physical recharge structures (Step 5).

6. Measuring the impacts of spring revival activities

12
 2: Basic Concepts

4 Step 1: Comprehensive Mapping

of Springs and Springsheds
Objective: To generate comprehensive information about the springshed – including web-based maps, GPS
locations of springs, and basic socio-economic information.

Output: A comprehensive spring database with the GPS location of all springs, one-time discharge and water
quality values, and basic socio-economic data, and a field report that documents these findings

Background Information on the Study Site from Secondary Data

The first step in a spring-related investigation is to Figure 22: A topographical sheet to understand the
delineate the study area. For example, the area of topography, drainage patterns, and
investigation may be demand driven following the water sources
requirements of a local community, or it may be
defined by a research or implementing agency based
on previous data.

Once the area of interest has been clearly defined,

secondary data for the area should be collected Pond

in order to obtain an initial understanding in terms

Village
of land use, settlements, distribution of springs,
geology, and so on. Data that could be collected to Roa
d

understand the local geography and culture might

include topographic (Figure 22) and geological s
am
Stre
maps, census and survey data from government
sources, local survey data by NGOs or communities,
and data derived from remote sensing and
geographic information system (GIS).

Reconnaissance Survey
A reconnaissance field survey should be organized in the study area together with local people after the secondary
data and information has been obtained. During the reconnaissance walks, the team should use primary field
observation to familiarize themselves with the pattern of spring distribution, land use, forest, and vegetation patterns,
the local socio-economic situation, local road distribution, and others. This reconnaissance will help in planning the
fieldwork for comprehensive mapping of springs and data collection and in designing the socio-economic survey. It
is important to involve local people in these survey walks and brief them about the objectives of the spring mapping
and revival work.

Spring Mapping and Preliminary Data Collection

A detailed field survey is carried out following the reconnaissance survey using a transect walk approach that covers
the entire area systematically and includes local people. All springs and any other water sources (ponds, dug wells,
bore wells, hand pumps, and others) should be mapped using a GPS device to provide an inventory. One-time
measurements should be made of spring discharge and water quality (salinity, total dissolved solids, electrical
conductivity, pH, temperature, and biological contaminants like E. coli) for all springs in the study area. Some
preliminary socio-economic information should be collected, in particular data on the households that depend on
each spring, including those from marginalized communities, the nature of the distribution system (piped vs. non-
piped), the purposes for which water is collected, people’s perceptions of present water quantity and quality and any
changes over the last decade, and whether there are any major conflicts related to water use.

13
 Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

The data should be tabulated in an Excel datasheet (Annex 1). The water sources should be marked on a base
map, whether a topographical sheet (Figure 22) or Google Earth image (Figure 23) using the latitude, longitude,
and elevation for each spring location obtained in the GPS survey to give a comprehensive map of all springs in the
study area. In some cases, the data may already be available – for example, Water Use Master Plan (WUMP) data
collected by Helvetas in Nepal – and these data should be used instead of conducting a new survey.

Figure 23: Google Earth image showing distribution of springs within a watershed

Delineation of Springshed
The next step after comprehensive mapping of the springs in the area of interest is to identify smaller sub-sets of
springs located within a water tower for long-term monitoring. A water tower is chosen as the working unit for spring
mapping and monitoring. It contains a number of springsheds as it extends across a valley-ridge-valley system
located in two or more adjacent watersheds.

Resources Needed
Table 2 gives a summary of the skills (human resources) and instruments (hardware, software) required to carry out
the tasks outlined in Step 1.

Table 2: Summary of requirements for Step 1

Types of skill needed Objective Time estimate

Capacity to carry out a socio-ecological survey including Delineate the area of interest 10 person-days for 100 ha
basic understanding of the landscape and topography; and develop an inventory of (may vary depending on the
mapping of spring locations, houses, and forest and information on springs and topography, access, and level of
vegetation types; and preliminary mapping of socio-economic associated elements within the field support)
dynamics (geologists, hydrogeologists, botanist/forester, area
socio-economists)
Instruments required GPS, field diary, container of known volume, water quality tester,
stopwatch, measuring tape

14
 5: Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring System

5 Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring

System
Objective: To collect long-term spring discharge data, water quality information, and rainfall data with the help of
the local community by setting up instruments and data monitoring systems.

Output: Data stored in an Excel spreadsheet (or similar data software) on daily rainfall, bi-monthly or monthly spring
discharge, and water quality. Rainfall and spring discharge hydrographs and water quality parameters should be
plotted as graphs.

Periodic (at least bi-monthly or monthly, but if feasible, weekly or daily) spring discharge, spring water quality, and
rainfall data can help in understanding of spring behaviour and aquifer characteristics. Rainfall data is important for
establishing relationships between recharge, spring discharge, and the characteristics of the aquifer that feeds the
springs. The variations observed through regular testing of water from an individual spring helps in understanding
rock-water interactions, travel and residence time of groundwater within the aquifer, and interrelationships between
rainfall, recharge, and spring discharge. The local community should be trained in the process of monitoring and
recording data as well as drawing simple inferences from the collected data. The following sections describe the
methodologies for monitoring different parameters.

Selection of Springs for Long-term Monitoring

The first step in setting up a monitoring system is to select the springs to be monitored in the long term. By long
term, we mean at least two years, and if resources allow, then longer. This selection is carried out at two levels. First,
a water tower is selected which encompasses a large number of springs from different springsheds and a spring
inventory is developed for all the springs in the water tower (Protocol Step 1 above). A number of these springs are
then selected for detailed and regular long-term monitoring using the criteria given below. The final number selected
will depend on the resources available and the variation. The selection criteria include the following:

• Springs that have recently shown a significant decrease in discharge.

• Springs with seasonal or perennial water quality issues.
• Springs on which a large number of households depend for drinking water throughout the year.
• Springs on which marginalized communities and disadvantaged groups depend.
• Springs with special cultural significance.
• Springs that contribute significantly to the local ecosystem.
• Springs that are shared and managed by the local community.
• Springs that can be measured with a high degree of accuracy (not just measuring the overflow, or what comes
out of a single tap) and which are physically accessible (does not unduly endanger the safety of the data
collector).

Springs are selected using the data collected in Step 1 and the above criteria. The list of criteria may be modified
based on the objective of the project and the resources available. Whatever the selection criteria used, they must be
systematically documented in the report.

Selection of Data Collector

Data collection is one of the most important parts of springshed management as the development of plans for
augmenting and managing the springs will be based upon the data collected in the initial phase. The community
members who will be responsible for collecting, maintaining, and transferring the data are thus very important, and
it is important to choose them wisely and train them well. Data collectors need to be trained at least twice and,
depending on their skill, it is desirable to re-train them twice a year to ensure that they are collecting data correctly.
The following points should be considered when selecting the data collector:

15
 Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

• Should be a local person well acquainted with the local terrain and well accepted by the local community.
• After training, should be able to measure discharge and rainfall accurately.
• After training, should be able to enter collected data properly and accurately in the data entry format provided.
• Wherever possible, preference should be given to women and to members of marginalized and vulnerable
communities.
• Should have adequate time available to collect data regularly.

It is advisable to train two people for this task from the same household in order to avoid the chances of data
inconsistency and gaps in the event of an emergency. Eventually, the data collectors will also act as ambassadors for
the various activities under the programme within the community. Adequate precautions should be taken to ensure
the health and safety of the local data collectors. Annex 2 provides a sample Terms of Reference (TOR) for data
collectors.

Data Collection
The data collector will collect three types of data – rainfall, spring discharge, and spring water quality. Rainfall
should be recorded each day in all months of the year. Spring discharge data should be recorded at least once and
preferably twice each month, depending on the human and financial resources available. Water quality data should
be collected seasonally and at least three times during the year in the pre-monsoon, peak monsoon, and post
monsoon periods. The data collector should understand the process of monitoring the spring discharge and spring
water quality and rainfall in the field and should collect data in a timely fashion, store the data in the prescribed
format, and transfer the data to the appropriate office.

Setting up Rain Gauges and Measuring Rainfall

Rainfall can be measured using automatic or manual rain gauges. The gauge records rainfall in millimetres (mm)
over a selected unit of time. Rainfall should be monitored in every springshed and ideally at two positions – one
at the recharge site and one at the spring itself. If only one rain gauge can be installed, it should be set up at a
location between the recharge area and the spring. If
resources permit, an automated (self-recording) rain Figure 24: Rainfall measurement using a manual
gauge should be installed; if they are limited, then rain-gauge
a minimum of one standard calibrated manual rain
gauge should be installed. In addition, several simple,
1
home-made rain gauges (see below) can be installed A measuring
at a large number of sites within the springshed cylinder

to improve spatial coverage over the study area.

A rain
Normally, rainfall should be measured every day gauge
between 8.30 to 8.45 am.

A standard manual rain gauge consists of a collector

placed above a funnel that leads into a container 2
where the accumulated water is stored between
observations. If the container is a graduated cylinder
calibrated to reflect the funnel catchment area, then 3

the rainfall can be read directly in millimetres from

the level of water in the cylinder. If the container
4
is unmarked, the accumulated rainwater must be
poured into a measuring cylinder to measure the
volume, and the rainfall calculated as described Rainwater collected in the jar of rain gauge

below (Figure 24).

5 Rainfall in mm
A simple rain gauge can be constructed using a
one-litre mineral water bottle with a flat base. The
top of the bottle is cut off and a funnel inserted. The

16
 5: Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring System

bottle acts as the rain gauge and the rainfall volume is measured by pouring into a measuring cylinder. Such rain
gauges can be installed at a large number of sites and especially in schools and at other community locations. This
will enable collection of rainfall data over a much larger area than with the automated or calibrated manual rain
gauges alone.

The following method is used to convert volume measurements of rainwater to millimetres of rainfall.

• Measure the volume of rainwater collected in the bottle using a measuring cylinder (in ml)
• Measure the radius of the funnel opening where rain was collected (in mm)
• Calculate the rainfall collection area (funnel opening) A = 3.14* (Radius of funnel in mm)2
• The rainfall in mm is the total volume of rainwater collected divided by the area of collection of water
column in mm
Rainfall (mm) = volume (ml) *1000 / 3.14* (radius of funnel)2

Measuring Spring Discharge

Discharge (Q) is the volume of water flowing from a spring per unit time. It is measured in litres per minute (lpm) or
litres per second (lps). Discharge is one of the most important parameters for understanding the characteristics of an
aquifer. Long-term discharge data will provide information about both the nature of a spring (perennial or seasonal)
and the storage and transmission capacity of the aquifer that feeds it. There are various methods available for
measuring discharge; the most important are described in the following sections. The method chosen will depend
on the volume of flow, the type of spring, and the surrounding infrastructure. In general, measurements should be
repeated three times for every reading and averaged to reduce error.

Container (or bucket and stopwatch) method Figure 25: Discharge measurement using bucket and
The simplest method is to hold a container of known stopwatch method
volume (bucket or large measuring cylinder) directly
under the spring so that all the water from the outlet
flows into the container, and to measure the time
taken to fill it. This method can be used when the
spring is free flowing with no infrastructure like tanks,
the spring discharge is significant, and the entire flow
can be channelled into the container as shown in
Figure 25. The size of the container depends on the
amount of discharge. In general, a larger container
will provide better accuracy, but it should still fill within
a few minutes. The steps are as follows:
• Hold a bucket of known volume under the spring
discharge point.
• Start a stopwatch as soon as the spring water starts falling into the bucket and stop as soon as the bucket is full.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min (lpm) by dividing the volume of the bucket (V) in litres by the
time taken to fill it (t) in seconds and multiplying by 60 (as there are 60 seconds in a minute):

v
Q = t * 60

• NOTE: The measurements should be repeated at least three times and the average value taken as the reading.

Example
A 5 litre bucket fills up in 45 seconds.

The spring discharge is 5/45 * 60 = 6.67 lpm. In other words, the spring would take one minute to fill a bucket of
6.67 litres.

17
 Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

Water level change method

Some springs occur in the form of seepage
Figure 26: Using the water level change method in a
and a storage tank is constructed to collect the rectangular spring water storage tank to
water. It is not possible to measure the discharge measure spring discharge
of these springs directly; the method of choice Spring water storage tank
is water level change with volume estimation. a
b

The discharge is calculated from the observed Spring

discharge
point
rise in water level in the tank over a set time; the h1

dimensions of the tank are used to calculate the

water volume (Figure 26).
Tap
(closed)
The steps are as follows:

• Close the outlet valve and start a stopwatch.

a) Initial water level (h1) measured when the outlet valve is closed
Measure the water level in the tank at
the instant of closure (h1) by dropping a Spring water storage tank

measuring tape or stick through the opening a

b
Spring
in the top of the tank (Figure 26a). discharge
point h
2

• Stop the stopwatch after a time interval

chosen based on the flow rate of the spring
and measure the new level of the water (h2)
Tap
in the same way as before (Figure 26b). (closed)

Choose the time interval such that there is

an appreciable (easily measurable) change b) Final water level (h2) measured at the end of a fixed time interval
in water level.
• Calculate the difference between h1 and h2
to give the net rise in water level (h) in metres.
• Calculate the water volume using the tank dimensions. For a rectangular tank with sides a, b (metres), the
accumulated volume (V) is given by V = a * b * h (m3). For a cylindrical tank, calculate the volume from the
diameter.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min (lpm) by dividing the accumulated volume with the number of
minutes taken (assuming it is 30 minutes in this case) and multiplying by 1,000 (as there are 1,000 litres in 1 m3)

a*b *h
Q= 1, 000
30 *
• NOTE: The measurement should be repeated three times and the average value taken as the reading.

Example
The initial water level in a rectangular tank 5m long (a) and 3 m wide (b) is 5 m (h1), the water level after 30
minutes is 4 m (h2).

The net rise in water level (h) is 5 – 4 = 1 m

The total volume of accumulated water is 5 * 3 * 1 = 15 m3

The spring discharge is 15 *1, 000 = 500 litres per minute (lpm)
30

Water level drop method

Some springs seep into a cavity that is not clearly defined and doesn’t have an outflow. Water is withdrawn using a
bucket, jug, or other container (Figure 27). The discharge of these springs can be measured by removing a known
volume of water and measuring the recovery time. (If resources permit, a pressure transducer can be installed in
the spring to accurately measure water level fluctuation, otherwise the manual measurement described here is
recommended.)

18
 5: Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring System

The steps are as follows: Figure 27: Discharge measurement of spring with no
• Note the depth of the water in the spring cavity outlet using water level drop method
using a ruler inserted at the centre and start a
stopwatch.
• Extract a known volume of water; the water level
will be lower.
• Observe the rise in water level at regular intervals
and stop the stopwatch when it reaches the
original level.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min
(lpm) by dividing the number of litres withdrawn
(V) by the time taken in minutes (t)
Q = V/t
• NOTE: The measurement should be repeated
three times and the average value taken as the
reading.

Example
5 litres of water is extracted from a cavity with initial water level 12 cm; it takes 10 minutes for the water level to
recover.

The spring discharge is 5/10 = 0.5 litres per minute (lpm).

Stream flow method

A few springs occur as seepages forming a stream. Direct measurement of the discharge is a challenge, but the
discharge can be calculated using the streamflow. The stream discharge is measured by installing a weir across the
stream to channel the flow. There are two types of weir: a V-notch weir for low flow and a rectangular weir for higher
flow.

V-notch method
A V-notch weir is used when the stream flow is low. It Figure 28: V-notch arrangement for measuring
is simply a ‘V notch’ in a plate that is placed so that it stream discharge
obstructs the open channel flow, causing all the water
to flow through the notch (Figure 28). The weir can be
constructed from a metal sheet (GI or hard-bound tin)
and should be installed at the narrowest part of the
stream close to the springhead. The flow head in the
notch is measured and the open flow rate (discharge)
H
calculated using a weir notch equation.

The steps are as follows:

• Construct a V-notch weir with a ‘V’ angle of 90°.
• Install the weir in the stream at the narrowest
accessible position below the springhead ensuring
H = Head of flow in cm
that all the water in the stream passes through the V.
• Measure the head of flowing water (H) in cm from the bottom of the V using a scale.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min (lpm) as the flow rate using Thompson’s equation:
Q = 0.8388 * H5/2 for a 90° notch

Example
The head measured in a V-notch is 1.5 cm

The spring discharge is 0.8388 (1.5)5/2 = 2.4 lpm.

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 Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual

Table 3 shows the discharge values for different values of H calculated for a 90° notch using Thompson’s equation.

Table 3: Spring discharge values calculated for different levels of head in a 90° V-notch using Thompson’s
equation

Head (H) in cms Flow in litres per min Head (H) in cms Flow in litres per min Head (H) in cms Flow in litres per min
  90° notch   90° notch   90° notch

1.0 0.88288 9.5 245.59000 18.0 1213.62060

1.5 2.43293 10.0 279.19117 18.5 1299.66373

2.0 4.99432 10.5 315.40961 19.0 1389.26687

2.5 8.72472 11.0 354.30998 19.5 1482.47783

3.0 13.76273 11.5 395.95540 20.0 1579.34375

3.5 20.23353 12.0 440.40758 20.5 1679.91122

4.0 28.28216 12.5 487.72690 21.0 1784.22621

4.5 37.92564 13.0 537.97247 21.5 1892.33415

5.0 49.35449 13.5 591.20227 22.0 2004.27994

5.5 62.63374 14.0 647.47315 22.5 2120.10794

6.0 77.85379 14.5 706.84092 23.0 2239.86203
6.5 95.10099 15.0 769.36039 23.5 2363.58559
7.0 114.45816 15.5 835.08546 24.0 2491.32154
7.5 136.00498 16.0 904.06912 24.5 2623.11233
8.0 159.81835 16.5 976.36350 25.0 2759.00000
8.5 185.97261 17.0 1052.01996    
9.0 214.53984 17.5 1131.08905    

Rectangular weir
A rectangular concrete weir can be used to measure stream discharge when stream flow is high. A rectangular weir
is similar to a V-notch weir but with a level rectangular opening to allow water to flow over the weir (Figures 29
and 30). The flow head in the opening is measured and the open flow rate (discharge) calculated from the length of
the opening and the flow head using a rectangular weir equation.

Figure 29: Rectangular weir arrangement for Figure 30: Discharge measurement using rectangular
measuring stream discharge weir arrangement and measuring the head
in the weir

L
H
WEIR BASE

L = Length of the weir in ft

H = Head of the weir in ft

20