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Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBS) based Geopolymer concrete - Review

Concrete - Review

Article · August 2018

DOI: 10.29294/IJASE.5.1.2018.789-885

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Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBS) based Geopolymer

Concrete - Review
Shabarish V. Patil1, Veeresh B. Karikatti1, Manojkumar Chitawadagi2
1Department of Civil Engineering, KLE Institute of Technology, Hubballi,opposite to Airport, Gokul Road,
Hubballi – 580 030, Karnataka
2School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, KLE Technological University (BVBCET), Vidyanagar,

Hubballi – 580 031, Karnataka

ABSTRACT: The geopolymer concrete has stepped in the construction industry as an alternate to the cement based
concrete. Many of the research about geopolymer concrete states that it has potential to replace the cement based concrete
in many countries depending on the locally available resources. The present review deals with the study of constituents of
geopolymer concrete. Attempt has been made to collect information about the locally available constituents of geopolymer
concrete and the ongoing research and few mechanical properties with and without fibres in concrete were discussed. The
geopolymer concrete chosen is based on 100% ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) cured in laboratory in typical
tropical ambient environmental conditions.

KEYWORDS: Geopolymer Concrete, Bond strength, Durability, ambient curing, Fibres in Concrete.

https://doi.org/10.29294/IJASE.5.1.2018.789-885 © 2018 Mahendrapublications.com, All rights reserved

1. INTRODUCTION
the other properties like strength, elastic modulus and
Geopolymer concrete is produced by the alkali activation
durability [3].
of fly ash or ground granulated slag combining with
aggregates. The progress in the field of geopolymer
concrete up to present time has been the fruit of an 2. GEOPOLYMERIZATION MECHANISM
empirical approach, rather than the fundamental and Similar to conventional organic polymerization, this
scientific one. And because of empirical approach, the process involves forming monomers in solution, then
results from different studies cannot be related to one activating them to polymerize to form a solid polymer.
another. Geopolymers are a group of inorganic polymer This geopolymerisation process involves three separate
produced by the result of reaction between an alkaline but interrelated stages [4, 5]:
solution and an aluminosilicate as a source. The  Dissolution-During initial mixing the alkaline solution
microstructure of hardened geopolymer material has an dissolves silicon and aluminium ions from the
amorphous, three-dimensional structure similar to that of amorphous phases of the binder like fly ash or GGBS.
an aluminosilicate glass. However unlike a glass, these  Condensation- In this solution, neighboring silicon or
hardened geopolymer materials are produced at low aluminium hydroxide molecules undergo a
temperature and as a result can integrate an aggregate condensation reaction where adjacent hydroxyl ions
skeleton and a reinforcing system, if required, during the from these nearest molecules condense to form an
forming process. The reactants needed to form a oxygen bond connecting these molecules, and a free
geopolymer are an alkali hydroxide, alkali silicate solution molecule of water.
and an aluminosilicate fine binder. The binder needs to  Polymerisation-Monomers and other silicon and
have a significant proportion of silicon and aluminium aluminium hydroxide molecules condense to form
ions held in amorphous phases. Commonly used binders rigid chains or nets of oxygen bonded tetrahedral
include class-F fly ash, ground granulated slag and with application of mild temperatures or even at
metakaolin, but any fine amorphous aluminosilicate ambient temperatures. All the three process of
material can be used [1]. geopolymerisation [6] are shown in Figure 1.
All types of concrete fail under compression when tested
[2]. But compression strength itself is not the property of 3. GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE CONSTITUENT
concrete to explain the performance of concrete. Concrete MATERIALS AND CASTING TECHNIQUE
failure will always develop in weakest part of one of these 3.1. Source Materials-Binder
three phases namely: aggregate zone, transition zone and Any material that contains mostly Silicon (Si) and
hydrated cement paste. Thus, in order to increase the Aluminium (Al) in amorphous form is a possible source
compressive strength of concrete, great care must be material or binding material for the manufacture of
taken to strengthen all these three phases. It also depends geopolymer. Several minerals and industrial by-product
on the microstructural features of concrete which govern materials have been investigated in the past and

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Received: 11.06.2018 Accepted: 18.08.2018 Published on: 24.08.2018

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Int. J. Adv. Sci. Eng. Vol.5 No.1 879-885 (2018) 880 E-ISSN: 2349 5359; P-ISSN: 2454-9967

concluded that metakaolin or calcined kaolin, low-calcium materials like kaolin clay, mine tailings, and naturally
fly ash, combination of calcined mineral and non-calcined occurring minerals. According to Panagiotopoulou et al.
materials, combination of fly ash and metakaolin, and [9] the amount of dissolution of GGBS is more than the
combination of granulated blast furnace slag and amount of dissolution of fly ash as in Figure 2. Therefore,
metakaolin can be used as source materials [7]. in the present study GGBS is used as a source material
However, Hardjito and Rangan [8] claims that calcined which is rich in silica and alumina [10]. The typical
source materials like fly ash, slag (GGBS), calcined kaolin, chemical composition of fly ash and GGBS is shown in the
and demonstrates a higher final compressive strength Table 1.
when compared to those made using non-calcined

Figure 1. Typical geopolymerisation process on fly ash as binder reported by Abdullah et al[6]

Table 1 Typical Chemical composition of fly ash and GGBS (Sharma and Sivapullaiah [10])

Oxide Fly ash GGBS

SiO2 (%) 54.4 29.2
Al2O3 (%) 28.6 13.8
CaO (%) 1.6 44.9
MgO (%) 1.4 6.2
Fe2O3 (%) 3.2 5.5
Na2O (%) 0.3 0.3
K2O (%) 1.7 1.0
TiO2 (%) 1.8 2.1
LOI 5 -
CaO/SiO2 0.03 1.54

Figure 2 Dissolution of alumina from different sources in alkaline media (Panagiotopoulou et al [9])
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3.2. Binding Solution: Alkaline Solution improvement in the workability of concrete and hence
Binding solution used in geopolymerization process is an they are adopted in the present research.
alkaline solution comprising of mixture of NaOH and
Na2SiO3 in varying proportions. As explained in the 3.4. Aggregates
mechanism this alkaline solution dissolves the binder to It may be noted that any concrete requires fine aggregates
get alumino-silicate products which have the cementing and coarse aggregates so that a packing of these two inert
property. According to Petermen [11] the activation of filler materials creates minimum space for binder paste in
the selected pozzolanic material is the most significant the concrete mix and this is required from economic point
factor in producing a mechanically-sound cementitious of view also since binder portion is generally the most
material via the geopolymerization process. The initial expensive in any concrete mix. Locally available crushed
mechanism of reaction is driven by the ability of the sand and crushed granite coarse aggregates are used at
alkaline solution to dissolve the pozzolanic material and the saturated surface dry condition for geopolymer
release reactive silicon and aluminum into solution. The concrete mixes.
activators prompt the precipitation and crystallization of
the siliceous and aluminous species present in the 3.5 Mixing of Geopolymer Concrete
solution. OH- acts as a catalyst for reactivity, and the metal According to Nuruddin et al. [15] mixing process can be
cation serves to form a structural element and balance the divided into two stages, dry mix and wet mix. Initially
negative framework carried by the tetrahedral aluminum. coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and GGBS will be mixed
Palomo et al. [4] concluded that the type of alkaline liquid together in rotating pan mixer for 3 to 5 minutes. The
as a precursor plays an important role in the alkaline solution is prepared by mixing sodium hydroxide
polymerisation process. Reactions occur at a high rate solution with sodium silicate solution one day before
when the alkaline liquid contains soluble silicate of making the geopolymer concrete to get the desired
sodium or potassium, in comparison with the use of only alkaline solution. The liquid part of the mixture, i.e., the
alkaline hydroxides. Xu and Van Deventer [5] confirmed alkaline solution, extra water and the superplasticizer,
that the addition of sodium silicate solution(Na2SiO3) to should be premixed thoroughly and then added to the dry
the sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as the alkaline mixture. The wet mixing can be done for 1.5 to 3 minutes.
liquid improved the reaction between the source The process of mixing is depicted in figure 3. Fresh
material and the solution. The most common alkaline geopolymer concrete is then hand mixed to ensure the
liquid used in geopolymerisation is a combination of mixture homogeneity. The aluminosilicate gel is highly
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) viscous and mixing agitation can easily encapsulate air
and sodium silicate or potassium silicate. Furthermore, into the matrix. Mechanical vibration of the formed molds
after a study of the geopolymerisation of natural Al-Si serves to reduce this potential and greatly improves the
minerals by Hardjito et al. [12] and Panagiotopoulou et al. overall strength of the hardened geopolymer concrete.
[9], found that generally the NaOH solution caused a
higher extent of dissolution of minerals than the KOH 3.6 Curing of Geopolymer Concrete
solution. Hence in the present work NaOH and Na2SiO3 are Curing is a main important process for both strength and
used as binding solution. The activator solution was durability of geopolymer concrete. Geopolymer concrete
prepared one day prior to its use in specimen casting. needs to be cured in a high temperature to accelerate a
reaction of geopolymerisation. Duration, temperature and
3.3. Admixtures type of curing have been investigated by various
Various superplasticizers can be used to substantially researchers like Olivia and Nikraz [16] and Mustafa et al.
improve the workability of fresh concrete without [17]. Curing process of geopolymer concrete can be
increasing the amount of water and hence reducing the achieved by: oven curing (30-90 °C), hot gunny curing
risk of segregation. In order to improve the workability of (33-38 ºC), ambient curing (27-32ºC), and external
fresh concrete, Raijiwala and Patil [13] used high-range exposure curing (39-44 ºC). Special curing techniques like
water-reducing naphthalene based superplasticizer with steam curing at temperature of 600C for 24 hours followed
the dosage from 0.6-2.0% of the weight of fly ash. Kumar by air curing in a control environment with a temperature
et al. [14] used polycarboxylate ether based high of 23-2 0C until testing can also be followed. There is an
performance superplasticizers in the concrete. The increase in compressive strength with the increase in age
utilization of viscosity modifying admixture gives more for ambient cured specimens. According to Vijai et al. [18],
possibilities of controlling segregation and homogeneity the increase in compressive strength with age is very less
of the mix. However, in some cases, the use of as compared to that of specimens subjected to ambient
superplasticiser may have an adverse effect on the curing for hot cured samples. The rate of increase in
strength of geopolymer. Therefore, the type and dosage of strength will be rapid up to 24 hours of curing time;
susperplastizer shall be used after trial mixes as the beyond 24 hours, the gain in strength is only moderate.
preliminary experiment. Though the previous works Therefore, heat-curing time need not be more than 24
quote about the use of naphthalene based super hours in practical applications. Heat-curing can be
plasticizer, in the present study such admixtures did not achieved by either steam-curing or dry-curing. According
show any effect on the fresh concrete. But admixtures to Rangan [19], 25-35°C range of temperature can be
based on the polycarboxylate ethers showed the provided by the ambient curing conditions in tropical
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climates. So, in the present study the adopted curing the following thumb rules like density of concrete as
regime is only restricted to ambient curing. 2400kg/m3, quantity of total aggregates as 80% of the
As there are no standard codes established for the mix total constituents, coarse aggregate content as 70-75% of
design of geopolymer concrete in any part of the world, so total aggregates. A typical mix proportion as per Singh et
for the mix design process is carried on basis of some of al [20] is given in Table No.2.

Figure 3 Mixing Process of Geopolymer Concrete

Table 2 Typical mix proportion of combination of fly ash and slag geopolymer concrete (Singh et al.) [20]

Constituent Mix 1 Mix 2

Fly Ash (kg/m3) 343.00 300.00
Slag (kg/m3) 172.00 150.00
Coarse aggregate 10mm (kg/m3) 503.30 516.40
Coarse aggregate 20mm (kg/m3) 528.00 541.80
Fine Aggregate (kg/m3) 723.80 742.70
Activator Solution (kg/m3) 180.20 180.00
Superplastcizer (kg/m3) 7.70 6.70
water-geopolymer solids ratio 0.19 0.21
activator-binder ratio 0.35 0.40
Method of curing Ambient Ambient
Compressive Strength 30.26 35.38

4. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER strength at early ages. On the contrary, the splitting tensile
CONCRETE: strength, the flexural strength and the toughness increase
The mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete are significantly. According to Susan et al. [22], the strengths
dependent upon many variables like binder content, type and the toughness of Ordinary Portland Cement Concretes
of alkaline solution, molarity of alkaline solution, with the same proportion of binder and fibers were lesser
aggregate size distribution, and type of mixing and curing than the Geo-concretes reinforced with steel fibers.
conditions. Generally, more than 75- 80% volume in According to Sivakumar and Srinivasan [23], the
geopolymer concrete is occupied by the aggregates. The mechanical properties like compressive, split tensile and
aggregates are normally taken as inert materials flexural strength will be improved with added of
dispersed throughout the matrix. Similar to the polypropylene fibre. Test results of Srinivasan [23]
conventional concrete, geopolymer concrete can also be showed that 100% GGBS binder composition with 0.25%
reinforced for improving its mechanical properties with polypropylene fibres has shown better performance.
different kinds of fibres and additives. With the present
literature, it is being observed that geopolymer concrete 5. DURABILITY ASPECTS OF GEOPOLYMER
upto M100 grade is possible with different mixing CONCRETE
procedures. When compared to conventional concrete systems,
Li and Liu [21] found that the incorporation of slag could geopolymers are new materials which completely lack the
significantly increase the compressive strength of the long service and durability issues history that would
geopolymer at 30°C ambient curing. The incorporation of enable an accurate prediction and control of structural
steel fibers in Geo-Concretes reduces the compressive deterioration. Performance requirements, drivers for

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deterioration and means of predicting and characterizing strength. Therefore, the compactness of the
changes that will ultimately result in failure need to be microstructure indicates the proper dissolution of Si and
assessed. Geopolymer cements are inherently resistant to Al due to which good binding has been developed between
chemical attack and thermal loading due to their reduced binder and aggregates; resulting in higher strength of
porosity and thermal conductivity characteristics. Many of concrete. However, many of the works related to
the durability problems associated with plane cement microstructure are with geopolymer concrete with fly ash
concrete arise from its calcium content in the main phases. as binding material. Hence it is needed to understand the
The C3A reacts with sulfate ions in the presence of microstructural property of geopolymer concrete made
Ca(OH)2 to form ettringite and gypsum, which in turn with GGBS. Microstructure also helps to predict the reason
cause expansion and degradation of the cement into a for the failure of concrete with durability issues in
non-cohesive granular mass. It is the low calcium content different environments.
found within pozzolanic materials that prevents
geopolymers from experiencing such negative effects. 7. FIBER REINFORCED GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
Since no limestone is used as a material, geopolymer (FRGPC)
cement has excellent properties within both acid and salt Discrete discontinuous fibres are added to obtain fibre
environments. Chanh et al. [24] concludes that reinforced geopolymer concrete to bridge across the
geopolymer concrete is suitable for tough environmental cracks that provide some post-cracking “ductility”. The
conditions and seawater can be used for the blending of contribution of the fibres is to increase the toughness of
the geopolymer cement which can be useful in marine the concrete under any type of loading. That is, the fibres
environments and on islands short of fresh water. tend to increase the strain at peak load, and offer a great
From Hardjito et al. [12] works it is clear that geopolymer deal of energy absorption in post-peak portion of the load
concrete do not show any sign of sulfate attack or versus deflection curve. The presence of fibres in the body
degradation in compressive strength, the unit mass, the of the concrete can be expected to develop the higher
length change, and in visual appearance. The Geopolymers resistance of reinforced structural members against to
are resistant to the corrosion and do not exhibit any sign cracking, deflection and other serviceability conditions.
of deterioration for long periods of time when exposed to Bhalchandra and Bhosle [27] studied the effects of
environment of NaCl solution. However, geopolymer inclusion of glass fibres on density, compressive strength
concrete exhibits a decrease in residual compressive & flexural strength of hardened geopolymer concrete
strength when immersed in 10% Magnesium Sulphate composite (GPCC). Based on the test results it was
solution which may be attributed to occurrence of micro observed that the glass fibres reinforced geopolymer
cracks due to formation of gypsum and ettringite in the concrete have relatively higher strength in short curing
surface pores. According to Sanni and Khadirnaikar [25], time than geopolymer concrete & Ordinary Portland
the strength of GPC gradually decreases as the day of cement concrete. Ganesan et al. [28] showed from the
exposure to sulphuric acid increases. The degradation on experiments that addition of steel fibres improved the
strength is related to depolymerisation of aluminosilicate mechanical properties of GPC in the case of compressive
polymers in acidic media and the formation of zeolites. strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of rupture,
But in comparison with the different previous literatures modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio at 1% volume
many experiments and statements are contradictory fraction of fibres. Amuthakkannan et al. [29] showed the
about durability issues related to different exposure improvement in tensile, impact and flexural strength with
conditions of geopolymer concrete. Hence it is very much different fibre length and fibre content of basalt fibre. But
needed to study the durability issues related to it. still there is need to study the effect of fibres on
geopolymer concrete as many of the works concentrated
6. MICROSTRUCTURE OF GEOPOLYMER only on mechanical properties for fibre reinforced
CONCRETE geopolymer concrete.
While conventional cements are composed of portlandite
[Ca(OH)2] and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) phases, 8. FIELD APPLICATIONS
geopolymer cement is based on an aluminosilicate Geopolymer concrete and its technology have just begun
framework. The microstructure of geopolymer specimens to capture the imagination of the building industry.
may be viewed as composites comprising of Though the geopolymer concrete technology is in the
aluminosilicate gel phase and partially reacted binder developing stage, but presently it is being used already in
particles. According to Alehyen et al. [26] the some countries in the field application. It has also become
microstructure of geopolymer concrete shows a highly commercial in the construction industry. For example, the
complex product morphology that consists of British Company Banah UK sells its cement “Banah-cem”
unreacted, partially reacted, and completely reacted fly as geopolymer cement [32]. Zeobond, an Australian
ash spheres that are surrounded by a matrix which company markets its cement free binder concrete as ‘E-
also includes quartz crystals and mullite needles Crete’ which is a geopolymer concrete [33]. The world’s
originating from the fly ash. The bigger fly ash particles first building using Geopolymer concrete for structural
are almost dissolved or reduced to smaller size at higher purpose is being built by Bligh Tanner and Wagners,
silica content showing denser and finer microstructure as designed by Hassell which is University of Queensland’s
a result of geopolymerization, which indicates a higher Global Change Institute (GCI) in Australia [34].
degree of reaction resulting in increasing compressive
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9. CONCLUSION International Conference on Recent Trends in

Considerable progress has been made during the last two Concrete Technology and Structures, 10-11
decades in the investigation of geopolymer concrete and September, Coimbatore, India. pp. 1-12.
information available is summarized in this paper. [13]. Raijiwala, D.B., Patil, H. S., 2011. Geopolymer
Fundamental knowledge on compressive strength and Concrete: A Concrete of Next Decade. Journal of
microstructure of GPC has already been obtained by the Engineering Research and Studies.
research carried out so far. However, intensive research is [14]. Kumar, D. P, Krishnaraja, A. R., Sathishkumar, N. P.,
required to get optimum mix of geopolymer concrete with Sathish Kumar, T., 2014. Mechanical Behaviour of
and without fibers, durability and microstructure of Geopolymer Concrete under Ambient Curing.
geopolymer concrete. While a larger focus has been on International Journal of Scientific Engineering and
investigating mix design and workability of GPC mixes, Technology, 3 (2) 130 – 132.
studies are still required to get a good workable GPC, [15]. Nuruddin, M. F., Kusbiantoro, A., Qazi, S., Darnawan,
durability aspects and microstructure of GPC. Authors are M. S., Husin, N. A., 2011. Development of
pursuing the research in this subject area. Geopolymer Concrete with Different Curing
Conditions. IPTEK, The Journal for Technology and
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