Concrete

Exterior of the Roman Pantheon, finished 128 AD, the

largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world.[1]
Interior of the Pantheon dome, seen from beneath.
The concrete for the coffered dome was laid on
moulds, mounted on temporary scaffolding.

Opus caementicium exposed in a characteristic

Roman arch. In contrast to modern concrete
structures, the concrete used in Roman buildings was
usually covered with brick or stone.
Concrete is a composite material
composed of fine and coarse aggregate
bonded together with a fluid cement
(cement paste) that hardens (cures) over
time. In the past limebased cement
binders were often used, such as lime
putty, but sometimes with other hydraulic
cements, such as a calcium aluminate
cement or with Portland cement to form
Portland cement concrete (named for its
visual resemblance to Portland stone).[2][3]
Many other non-cementitious types of
concrete exist with other methods of
binding aggregate together, including
asphalt concrete with a bitumen binder,
which is frequently used for road surfaces,
and polymer concretes that use polymers
as a binder.

When aggregate is mixed with dry

Portland cement and water, the mixture
forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured
and molded into shape. The cement reacts
with the water and other ingredients to
form a hard matrix that binds the materials
together into a durable stone-like material
that has many uses.[4] Often, additives
(such as pozzolans or superplasticizers)
are included in the mixture to improve the
physical properties of the wet mix or the
finished material. Most concrete is poured
with reinforcing materials (such as rebar)
embedded to provide tensile strength,
yielding reinforced concrete.

Because concrete cures (which is not the

same as drying such as with paint) how
concrete is handled after it is poured is
just as important as before.[5]

Concrete is one of the most frequently

used building materials. Its usage
worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of
steel, wood, plastics, and aluminum
combined.[6] Globally, the ready-mix
concrete industry, the largest segment of
the concrete market, is projected to
exceed $600 billion in revenue by 2025.[7]

Concrete is distinct from mortar. Whereas

concrete is itself a building material,
mortar is a bonding agent that typically
holds bricks, tiles and other masonry units
together.[8]

Etymology
The word concrete comes from the Latin
word "concretus" (meaning compact or
condensed),[9] the perfect passive
participle of "concrescere", from "con-"
(together) and "crescere" (to grow).
History

Ancient times …

Mayan concrete at the ruins of Uxmal is

referenced in Incidents of Travel in the
Yucatán by John L. Stephens. "The roof is
flat and had been covered with cement".
"The floors were cement, in some places
hard, but, by long exposure, broken, and
now crumbling under the feet." "But
throughout the wall was solid, and
consisting of large stones imbedded in
mortar, almost as hard as rock."

Small-scale production of concrete-like

materials was pioneered by the Nabatean
traders who occupied and controlled a
series of oases and developed a small
empire in the regions of southern Syria
and northern Jordan from the 4th century
BC. They discovered the advantages of
hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing
properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to
supply mortar for the construction of
rubble masonry houses, concrete floors,
and underground waterproof cisterns.
They kept the cisterns secret as these
enabled the Nabataeans to thrive in the
desert.[10] Some of these structures
survive to this day.[10]
Classical era …

In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman

eras, builders discovered that adding
volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set
underwater.

Concrete floors were found in the royal

palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates
roughly to 1400–1200 BC.[11][12] Lime
mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and
Cyprus in 800 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan
Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of
waterproof concrete.[13] Concrete was
used for construction in many ancient
structures.[14]
The Romans used concrete extensively
from 300 BC to 476 AD.[15] During the
Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus
caementicium) was made from quicklime,
pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its
widespread use in many Roman
structures, a key event in the history of
architecture termed the Roman
architectural revolution, freed Roman
construction from the restrictions of stone
and brick materials. It enabled
revolutionary new designs in terms of both
structural complexity and dimension.[16]
The Colosseum in Rome was built largely
of concrete, and the concrete dome of the
Pantheon is the world's largest
unreinforced concrete dome.[17]

Concrete, as the Romans knew

it, was a new and revolutionary
material. Laid in the shape of
arches, vaults and domes, it
quickly hardened into a rigid
mass, free from many of the
internal thrusts and strains that
troubled the builders of similar
structures in stone or brick.[18]

Modern tests show that opus

caementicium had as much compressive
strength as modern Portland-cement
concrete (ca. 200 kg/cm2 [20 MPa;
2,800 psi]).[19] However, due to the
absence of reinforcement, its tensile
strength was far lower than modern
reinforced concrete, and its mode of
application also differed:[20]

Modern structural concrete

differs from Roman concrete in
two important details. First, its
mix consistency is fluid and
homogeneous, allowing it to be
poured into forms rather than
requiring hand-layering
 together with the placement of
aggregate, which, in Roman
practice, often consisted of
rubble. Second, integral
reinforcing steel gives modern
concrete assemblies great
strength in tension, whereas
Roman concrete could depend
only upon the strength of the
concrete bonding to resist
tension.[21]

The long-term durability of Roman

concrete structures has been found to be
due to its use of pyroclastic (volcanic)
rock and ash, whereby crystallization of
strätlingite (a specific and complex
calcium aluminosilicate hydrate)[22] and
the coalescence of this and similar
calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate
cementing binders helped give the
concrete a greater degree of fracture
resistance even in seismically active
environments.[23] Roman concrete is
significantly more resistant to erosion by
seawater than modern concrete; it used
pyroclastic materials which react with
seawater to form Al-tobermorite crystals
over time.[24][25]
The widespread use of concrete in many
Roman structures ensured that many
survive to the present day. The Baths of
Caracalla in Rome are just one example.
Many Roman aqueducts and bridges, such
as the magnificent Pont du Gard in
southern France, have masonry cladding
on a concrete core, as does the dome of
the Pantheon.

After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of

concrete became rare until the technology
was redeveloped in the mid-18th century.
Worldwide, concrete has overtaken steel in
tonnage of material used.[26]
Middle Ages …

After the Roman Empire, the use of burned

lime and pozzolana was greatly reduced.
Low kiln temperatures in the burning of
lime, lack of pozzolana and poor mixing all
contributed to a decline in the quality of
concrete and mortar. From the 11th
century, the increased use of stone in
church and castle construction led to an
increased demand for mortar. Quality
began to improve in the 12th century
through better grinding and sieving.
Medieval lime mortars and concretes were
non-hydraulic and were used for binding
masonry, "hearting" (binding rubble
masonry cores) and foundations.
Bartholomaeus Anglicus in his De
proprietatibus rerum (1240) describes the
making of mortar. In an English translation
of 1397, it reads "lyme ... is a stone brent;
by medlynge thereof with sonde and water
sement is made". From the 14th century
the quality of mortar is again excellent, but
only from the 17th century is pozzolana
commonly added.[27]

The Canal du Midi was built using concrete

in 1670.[28]

Industrial era …
Smeaton's Tower

Perhaps the greatest step forward in the

modern use of concrete was Smeaton's
Tower, built by British engineer John
Smeaton in Devon, England, between 1756
and 1759. This third Eddystone Lighthouse
pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in
concrete, using pebbles and powdered
brick as aggregate.[29]
A method for producing Portland cement
was developed in England and patented by
Joseph Aspdin in 1824.[30] Aspdin chose
the name for its similarity to Portland
stone, which was quarried on the Isle of
Portland in Dorset, England. His son
William continued developments into the
1840s, earning him recognition for the
development of "modern" Portland
cement.[31]

Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849

by Joseph Monier.[32] and the first house
was built by François Coignet[33] in 1853.
The first concrete reinforced bridge was
designed and built by Joseph Monier in
1875.[34]

Composition
Concrete is a composite material,
comprising a matrix of aggregate (typically
a rocky material) and a binder (typically
Portland cement or asphalt), which holds
the matrix together. Many types of
concrete are available, determined by the
formulations of binders and the types of
aggregate used to suit the application for
the material. These variables determine
strength, density, as well as chemical and
thermal resistance of the finished product.
Aggregate consists of large chunks of
material in a concrete mix, generally a
coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as
limestone, or granite, along with finer
materials such as sand.

A cement, most commonly Portland

cement, is the most prevalent kind of
concrete binder. For cementitious binders,
water is mixed with the dry powder and
aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid
slurry that can be shaped, typically by
pouring it into a form. The concrete
solidifies and hardens through a chemical
process called hydration. The water reacts
with the cement, which bonds the other
components together, creating a robust
stone-like material. Other cementitious
materials, such as fly ash and slag
cement, are sometimes added—either pre-
blended with the cement or directly as a
concrete component—and become a part
of the binder for the aggregate.[35] Fly Ash
and Slag can enhance some properties of
concrete such as fresh properties and
durability.[35]

Admixtures are added to modify the cure

rate or properties of the material. Mineral
admixtures use recycled materials as
concrete ingredients. Conspicuous
materials include fly ash, a by-product of
coal-fired power plants; ground granulated
blast furnace slag, a byproduct of
steelmaking; and silica fume, a byproduct
of industrial electric arc furnaces.

Structures employing Portland cement

concrete usually include steel
reinforcement because this type of
concrete can be formulated with high
compressive strength, but always has
lower tensile strength. Therefore, it is
usually reinforced with materials that are
strong in tension, typically steel rebar.

Other materials can also be used as a

concrete binder, the most prevalent
alternative is asphalt, which is used as the
binder in asphalt concrete.

The mix design depends on the type of

structure being built, how the concrete is
mixed and delivered, and how it is placed
to form the structure.

Cement …

Several tons of bagged cement, about two minutes of

output from a 10,000 ton per day cement kiln
Portland cement is the most common type
of cement in general usage. It is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar and many
plasters. British masonry worker Joseph
Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824.
It was named because of the similarity of
its color to Portland limestone, quarried
from the English Isle of Portland and used
extensively in London architecture. It
consists of a mixture of calcium silicates
(alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites—
compounds which combine calcium,
silicon, aluminum and iron in forms which
will react with water. Portland cement and
similar materials are made by heating
limestone (a source of calcium) with clay
or shale (a source of silicon, aluminum
and iron) and grinding this product (called
clinker) with a source of sulfate (most
commonly gypsum).

In modern cement kilns many advanced

features are used to lower the fuel
consumption per ton of clinker produced.
Cement kilns are extremely large, complex,
and inherently dusty industrial
installations, and have emissions which
must be controlled. Of the various
ingredients used to produce a given
quantity of concrete, the cement is the
most energetically expensive. Even
complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to
3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton
of clinker and then grind it into cement.
Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-
dispose-of wastes, the most common
being used tires. The extremely high
temperatures and long periods of time at
those temperatures allows cement kilns to
efficiently and completely burn even
difficult-to-use fuels.[36]

Water …

Combining water with a cementitious

material forms a cement paste by the
process of hydration. The cement paste
glues the aggregate together, fills voids
within it, and makes it flow more freely.[37]

As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-

to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more
durable concrete, whereas more water
gives a freer-flowing concrete with a
higher slump.[38] Impure water used to
make concrete can cause problems when
setting or in causing premature failure of
the structure.[39] Hydration involves many
reactions, often occurring at the same
time. As the reactions proceed, the
products of the cement hydration process
gradually bond together the individual
sand and gravel particles and other
components of the concrete to form a
solid mass.[40]

Reaction:[40]

Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-

S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O →
(CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O →
3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2
(approximately; the exact ratios of the
CaO, SiO2 and H2O in C-S-H can vary)

Aggregates …
Crushed stone aggregate

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the

bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural
gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly
for this purpose. Recycled aggregates
(from construction, demolition, and
excavation waste) are increasingly used as
partial replacements for natural
aggregates, while a number of
manufactured aggregates, including air-
cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash
are also permitted.
The size distribution of the aggregate
determines how much binder is required.
Aggregate with a very even size
distribution has the biggest gaps whereas
adding aggregate with smaller particles
tends to fill these gaps. The binder must
fill the gaps between the aggregate as well
as paste the surfaces of the aggregate
together, and is typically the most
expensive component. Thus, variation in
sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of
concrete.[41] The aggregate is nearly
always stronger than the binder, so its use
does not negatively affect the strength of
the concrete.
Redistribution of aggregates after
compaction often creates inhomogeneity
due to the influence of vibration. This can
lead to strength gradients.[42]

Decorative stones such as quartzite, small

river stones or crushed glass are
sometimes added to the surface of
concrete for a decorative "exposed
aggregate" finish, popular among
landscape designers.

Reinforcement …
Constructing a rebar cage that will be permanently
embedded in a finished reinforced concrete structure

Concrete is strong in compression, as the

aggregate efficiently carries the
compression load. However, it is weak in
tension as the cement holding the
aggregate in place can crack, allowing the
structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds
either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers,
aramid fibers, carbon fibers, glass fibers,
or plastic fibers to carry tensile loads.
Admixtures …

Admixtures are materials in the form of

powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics
not obtainable with plain concrete mixes.
Admixtures are defined as additions
"made as the concrete mix is being
prepared".[43] The most common
admixtures are retarders and accelerators.
In normal use, admixture dosages are less
than 5% by mass of cement and are added
to the concrete at the time of
batching/mixing.[44] (See § Production
below.) The common types of
admixtures[45] are as follows:
Accelerators speed up the hydration
(hardening) of the concrete. Typical
materials used are calcium chloride,
calcium nitrate and sodium nitrate.
However, use of chlorides may cause
corrosion in steel reinforcing and is
prohibited in some countries, so that
nitrates may be favored, even though
they are less effective than the chloride
salt. Accelerating admixtures are
especially useful for modifying the
properties of concrete in cold weather.
Air entraining agents add and entrain
tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which
reduces damage during freeze-thaw
cycles, increasing durability. However,
entrained air entails a tradeoff with
strength, as each 1% of air may
decrease compressive strength by 5%. If
too much air becomes trapped in the
concrete as a result of the mixing
process, defoamers can be used to
encourage the air bubble to
agglomerate, rise to the surface of the
wet concrete and then disperse.
Bonding agents are used to create a
bond between old and new concrete
(typically a type of polymer) with wide
temperature tolerance and corrosion
resistance.
Corrosion inhibitors are used to
minimize the corrosion of steel and
steel bars in concrete.
Crystalline admixtures are typically
added during batching of the concrete
to lower permeability. The reaction takes
place when exposed to water and un-
hydrated cement particles to form
insoluble needle-shaped crystals, which
fill capillary pores and micro-cracks in
the concrete to block pathways for
water and waterborne contaminates.
Concrete with crystalline admixture can
expect to self-seal as constant exposure
to water will continuously initiate
crystallization to ensure permanent
waterproof protection.
Pigments can be used to change the
color of concrete, for aesthetics.
Plasticizers increase the workability of
plastic, or "fresh", concrete, allowing it to
be placed more easily, with less
consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer
is lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be
used to reduce the water content of a
concrete while maintaining workability
and are sometimes called water-
reducers due to this use. Such treatment
improves its strength and durability
characteristics.
Superplasticizers (also called high-range
water-reducers) are a class of
plasticizers that have fewer deleterious
effects and can be used to increase
workability more than is practical with
traditional plasticizers. Superplasticizers
are used to increase compressive
strength. It increases the workability of
the concrete and lowers the need for
water content by 15–30%.
Superplasticizers lead to retarding
effects.
Pumping aids improve pumpability,
thicken the paste and reduce separation
and bleeding.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete
and are used in large or difficult pours
where partial setting is undesirable
before completion of the pour. Typical
polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose,
sodium gluconate, glucose, citric acid,
and tartaric acid.

Mineral admixtures and blended

cements
…
Components of Cement:
Comparison of Chemical and Physical Characteristics[a][46][47][48]
Portland Siliceous[b] fly Calcareous[c]
Property Slag cement Silica fume
cement ash fly ash

SiO2 21.9 52 35 35 85–97

Al2O3 6.9 23 18 12 —
Content (%)

Fe2O3 3 11 6 1 —

CaO 63 5 21 40 <1

MgO 2.5 — — — —

SO3 1.7 — — — —

Specific
15,000–
surface[d] 370 420 420 400
30,000
(m2/kg)

Specific
3.15 2.38 2.65 2.94 2.22
gravity

General use in Primary Cement Cement Cement Property

concrete binder replacement replacement replacement enhancer

a. Values shown are approximate: those of a specific material may vary.

b. ASTM C618 Class F

c. ASTM C618 Class C

d. Specific surface measurements for silica fume by nitrogen adsorption (BET) method, others
by air permeability method (Blaine).

Inorganic materials that have pozzolanic

or latent hydraulic properties, these very
fine-grained materials are added to the
concrete mix to improve the properties of
concrete (mineral admixtures),[44] or as a
replacement for Portland cement (blended
cements).[49] Products which incorporate
limestone, fly ash, blast furnace slag, and
other useful materials with pozzolanic
properties into the mix, are being tested
and used. This development is due to
cement production being one of the
largest producers (at about 5 to 10%) of
global greenhouse gas emissions,[50] as
well as lowering costs, improving concrete
properties, and recycling wastes.

Fly ash: A by-product of coal-fired

electric generating plants, it is used to
partially replace Portland cement (by up
to 60% by mass). The properties of fly
ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In
general, siliceous fly ash is pozzolanic,
while calcareous fly ash has latent
hydraulic properties.[51]
Ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product of steel
production is used to partially replace
Portland cement (by up to 80% by
mass). It has latent hydraulic
properties.[52]
Silica fume: A byproduct of the
production of silicon and ferrosilicon
alloys. Silica fume is similar to fly ash,
but has a particle size 100 times
smaller. This results in a higher surface-
to-volume ratio and a much faster
pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used
to increase strength and durability of
concrete, but generally requires the use
of superplasticizers for workability.[53]
High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM):
Metakaolin produces concrete with
strength and durability similar to
concrete made with silica fume. While
silica fume is usually dark gray or black
in color, high-reactivity metakaolin is
usually bright white in color, making it
the preferred choice for architectural
concrete where appearance is
important.
Carbon nanofibers can be added to
concrete to enhance compressive
strength and gain a higher Young’s
modulus, and also to improve the
electrical properties required for strain
monitoring, damage evaluation and self-
health monitoring of concrete. Carbon
fiber has many advantages in terms of
mechanical and electrical properties
(e.g., higher strength) and self-
monitoring behavior due to the high
tensile strength and high
conductivity.[54]
Carbon products have been added to
make concrete electrically conductive,
for deicing purposes.[55]
Production

Concrete plant showing a concrete mixer being filled

from ingredient silos

Concrete mixing plant in Birmingham, Alabama in

1936
Concrete production is the process of
mixing together the various ingredients—
water, aggregate, cement, and any
additives—to produce concrete. Concrete
production is time-sensitive. Once the
ingredients are mixed, workers must put
the concrete in place before it hardens. In
modern usage, most concrete production
takes place in a large type of industrial
facility called a concrete plant, or often a
batch plant.

In general usage, concrete plants come in

two main types, ready mix plants and
central mix plants. A ready-mix plant
mixes all the ingredients except water,
while a central mix plant mixes all the
ingredients including water. A central-mix
plant offers more accurate control of the
concrete quality through better
measurements of the amount of water
added, but must be placed closer to the
work site where the concrete will be used,
since hydration begins at the plant.

A concrete plant consists of large storage

hoppers for various reactive ingredients
like cement, storage for bulk ingredients
like aggregate and water, mechanisms for
the addition of various additives and
amendments, machinery to accurately
weigh, move, and mix some or all of those
ingredients, and facilities to dispense the
mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer
truck.

Modern concrete is usually prepared as a

viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into
forms, which are containers erected in the
field to give the concrete its desired shape.
Concrete formwork can be prepared in
several ways, such as slip forming and
steel plate construction. Alternatively,
concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid
forms and used in factory settings to
manufacture precast concrete products.
A wide variety of equipment is used for
processing concrete, from hand tools to
heavy industrial machinery. Whichever
equipment builders use, however, the
objective is to produce the desired building
material; ingredients must be properly
mixed, placed, shaped, and retained within
time constraints. Any interruption in
pouring the concrete can cause the initially
placed material to begin to set before the
next batch is added on top. This creates a
horizontal plane of weakness called a cold
joint between the two batches.[56] Once the
mix is where it should be, the curing
process must be controlled to ensure that
the concrete attains the desired attributes.
During concrete preparation, various
technical details may affect the quality
and nature of the product.

Mixing …

Thorough mixing is essential to produce

uniform, high-quality concrete.

Separate paste mixing has shown that the

mixing of cement and water into a paste
before combining these materials with
aggregates can increase the compressive
strength of the resulting concrete.[57] The
paste is generally mixed in a high-speed,
shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to
cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The
cement paste premix may include
admixtures such as accelerators or
retarders, superplasticizers, pigments, or
silica fume. The premixed paste is then
blended with aggregates and any
remaining batch water and final mixing is
completed in conventional concrete
mixing equipment.[58]

Mix Ratios …

Concrete Mixes are primarily divided into

two types, nominal mix and design mix:
Nominal Mix ratios are given in volume of
. Nominal
mixes are a simple, fast way of getting a
basic idea of the properties of the finished
concrete without having to perform testing
in advance.

Various governing bodies (such as British

Standards) define nominal mix ratios into
a number of grades, usually ranging from
lower compressive strength to higher
compressive strength. The grades usually
indicate the 28-day cube strength.[59] For
example, in Indian standards, the mixes of
grades M10, M15, M20 and M25
correspond approximately to the mix
proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and
(1:1:2) respectively.

Design mix ratios are decided by an

engineer after analyzing the properties of
the specific ingredients being used.
Instead of using a 'nominal mix' of 1 part
cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts
aggregate (the second example from
above), a civil engineer will custom-design
a concrete mix to exactly meet the
requirements of the site and conditions,
setting material ratios and often designing
an admixture package to fine-tune the
properties or increase the performance
envelope of the mix. Design-mix concrete
can have very broad specifications that
cannot be met with more basic nominal
mixes, but the involvement of the engineer
often increases the cost of the concrete
mix.

Workability …

Concrete floor of a parking garage being placed

Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades
Park in Washington, DC

Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic)

concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly
with the desired work (pouring, pumping,
spreading, tamping, vibration) and without
reducing the concrete's quality. Workability
depends on water content, aggregate
(shape and size distribution), cementitious
content and age (level of hydration) and
can be modified by adding chemical
admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising
the water content or adding chemical
admixtures increases concrete workability.
Excessive water leads to increased
bleeding or segregation of aggregates
(when the cement and aggregates start to
separate), with the resulting concrete
having reduced quality. The use of an
aggregate blend with an undesirable
gradation can result in a very harsh mix
design with a very low slump, which
cannot readily be made more workable by
addition of reasonable amounts of water.
An undesirable gradation can mean using
a large aggregate that is too large for the
size of the formwork, or which has too few
smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill
the gaps between the larger grades, or
using too little or too much sand for the
same reason, or using too little water, or
too much cement, or even using jagged
crushed stone instead of smoother round
aggregate such as pebbles. Any
combination of these factors and others
may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e.,
which does not flow or spread out
smoothly, is difficult to get into the
formwork, and which is difficult to surface
finish.[60]

Workability can be measured by the

concrete slump test, a simple measure of
the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete
following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2
test standards. Slump is normally
measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with
a sample from a fresh batch of concrete.
The cone is placed with the wide end
down onto a level, non-absorptive surface.
It is then filled in three layers of equal
volume, with each layer being tamped with
a steel rod to consolidate the layer. When
the cone is carefully lifted off, the
enclosed material slumps a certain
amount, owing to gravity. A relatively dry
sample slumps very little, having a slump
value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm)
out of one foot (305 mm). A relatively wet
concrete sample may slump as much as
eight inches. Workability can also be
measured by the flow table test.

Slump can be increased by addition of

chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or
superplasticizer without changing the
water-cement ratio.[61] Some other
admixtures, especially air-entraining
admixture, can increase the slump of a
mix.

High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating

concrete, is tested by other flow-
measuring methods. One of these
methods includes placing the cone on the
narrow end and observing how the mix
flows through the cone while it is gradually
lifted.

After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be

pumped to the location where needed.

Curing …

A concrete slab being kept hydrated during water

curing by submersion (ponding)
Concrete must be kept moist during curing
in order to achieve optimal strength and
durability.[62] During curing hydration
occurs, allowing calcium-silicate hydrate
(C-S-H) to form. Over 90% of a mix's final
strength is typically reached within four
weeks, with the remaining 10% achieved
over years or even decades.[63] The
conversion of calcium hydroxide in the
concrete into calcium carbonate from
absorption of CO2 over several decades
further strengthens the concrete and
makes it more resistant to damage. This
carbonation reaction, however, lowers the
pH of the cement pore solution and can
corrode the reinforcement bars.
Hydration and hardening of concrete
during the first three days is critical.
Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due
to factors such as evaporation from wind
during placement may lead to increased
tensile stresses at a time when it has not
yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in
greater shrinkage cracking. The early
strength of the concrete can be increased
if it is kept damp during the curing
process. Minimizing stress prior to curing
minimizes cracking. High-early-strength
concrete is designed to hydrate faster,
often by increased use of cement that
increases shrinkage and cracking. The
strength of concrete changes (increases)
for up to three years. It depends on cross-
section dimension of elements and
conditions of structure exploitation.[64]
Addition of short-cut polymer fibers can
improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced
stresses during curing and increase early
and ultimate compression strength.[65]

Properly curing concrete leads to

increased strength and lower permeability
and avoids cracking where the surface
dries out prematurely. Care must also be
taken to avoid freezing or overheating due
to the exothermic setting of cement.
Improper curing can cause scaling,
reduced strength, poor abrasion resistance
and cracking.

Techniques …

During the curing period, concrete is

ideally maintained at controlled
temperature and humidity. To ensure full
hydration during curing, concrete slabs are
often sprayed with "curing compounds"
that create a water-retaining film over the
concrete. Typical films are made of wax or
related hydrophobic compounds. After the
concrete is sufficiently cured, the film is
allowed to abrade from the concrete
through normal use.[66]
Traditional conditions for curing involve by
spraying or ponding the concrete surface
with water. The adjacent picture shows
one of many ways to achieve this, ponding
—submerging setting concrete in water
and wrapping in plastic to prevent
dehydration. Additional common curing
methods include wet burlap and plastic
sheeting covering the fresh concrete.

For higher-strength applications,

accelerated curing techniques may be
applied to the concrete. A common
technique involves heating the poured
concrete with steam, which serves to both
keep it damp and raise the temperature, so
that the hydration process proceeds more
quickly and more thoroughly.

Alternative types

Asphalt …

Asphalt concrete (commonly called

asphalt,[67] blacktop, or pavement in North
America, and tarmac, bitumen macadam,
or rolled asphalt in the United Kingdom and
the Republic of Ireland) is a composite
material commonly used to surface roads,
parking lots, airports, as well as the core of
embankment dams.[68] Asphalt mixtures
have been used in pavement construction
since the beginning of the twentieth
century.[69] It consists of mineral
aggregate bound together with asphalt,
laid in layers, and compacted. The process
was refined and enhanced by Belgian
inventor and U.S. immigrant Edward De
Smedt.[70]

The terms asphalt (or asphaltic) concrete,

bituminous asphalt concrete, and
bituminous mixture are typically used only
in engineering and construction
documents, which define concrete as any
composite material composed of mineral
aggregate adhered with a binder. The
abbreviation, AC, is sometimes used for
asphalt concrete but can also denote
asphalt content or asphalt cement, referring
to the liquid asphalt portion of the
composite material.

Pervious …

Pervious concrete is a mix of specially

graded coarse aggregate, cement, water
and little-to-no fine aggregates. This
concrete is also known as "no-fines" or
porous concrete. Mixing the ingredients in
a carefully controlled process creates a
paste that coats and bonds the aggregate
particles. The hardened concrete contains
interconnected air voids totaling
approximately 15 to 25 percent. Water
runs through the voids in the pavement to
the soil underneath. Air entrainment
admixtures are often used in freeze–thaw
climates to minimize the possibility of
frost damage. Pervious concrete also
permits rainwater to filter through roads
and parking lots, to recharge aquifers,
instead of contributing to runoff and
flooding.[71][72]

Nanoconcrete …
Decorative plate made of Nano concrete with High-
Energy Mixing (HEM)

Nanoconcrete (also spelled "nano

concrete"' or "nano-concrete") is a class of
materials that contains Portland cement
particles that are no greater than 100
μm[73] and particles of silica no greater
than 500 μm, which fill voids that would
otherwise occur in normal concrete,
thereby substantially increasing the
material's strength.[74] It is widely used in
foot and highway bridges where high
flexural and compressive strength are
indicated.[75]

Microbial …

Bacteria such as Bacillus pasteurii, Bacillus

pseudofirmus, Bacillus cohnii, Sporosarcina
pasteuri, and Arthrobacter crystallopoietes
increase the compression strength of
concrete through their biomass. Not all
bacteria increase the strength of concrete
significantly with their biomass. Bacillus
sp. CT-5. can reduce corrosion of
reinforcement in reinforced concrete by up
to four times. Sporosarcina pasteurii
reduces water and chloride permeability.
B. pasteurii increases resistance to acid.
Bacillus pasteurii and B. sphaericuscan
induce calcium carbonate precipitation in
the surface of cracks, adding compression
strength.[76]

Polymer …

Polymer concretes are mixtures of

aggregate and any of various polymers
and may be reinforced. The cement is
costlier than lime-based cements, but
polymer concretes nevertheless have
advantages; they have significant tensile
strength even without reinforcement, and
they are largely impervious to water.
Polymer concretes are frequently used for
repair and construction of other
applications, such as drains.

Safety
Grinding of concrete can produce
hazardous dust. Exposure to cement dust
can lead to issues such as silicosis, kidney
disease, skin irritation and similar effects.
The U.S. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health in the
United States recommends attaching local
exhaust ventilation shrouds to electric
concrete grinders to control the spread of
this dust.[77] In addition, the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
has placed more stringent regulations on
companies whose workers regularly come
into contact with silica dust. An updated
silica rule,[78] which OSHA put into effect
23 September 2017 for construction
companies, restricted the amount of
respirable crystalline silica workers could
legally come into contact with to 50
micrograms per cubic meter of air per 8-
hour workday. That same rule went into
effect 23 June 2018 for general industry,
hydraulic fracturing and maritime. That the
deadline was extended to 23 June 2021
for engineering controls in the hydraulic
fracturing industry. Companies which fail
to meet the tightened safety regulations
can face financial charges and extensive
penalties.

Properties
Concrete has relatively high compressive
strength, but much lower tensile
strength.[79] Therefore, it is usually
reinforced with materials that are strong in
tension (often steel). The elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low
stress levels but starts decreasing at
higher stress levels as matrix cracking
develops. Concrete has a very low
coefficient of thermal expansion and
shrinks as it matures. All concrete
structures crack to some extent, due to
shrinkage and tension. Concrete that is
subjected to long-duration forces is prone
to creep.

Tests can be performed to ensure that the

properties of concrete correspond to
specifications for the application.

Compression testing of a concrete cylinder

The ingredients affect the strengths of the
material. Concrete strength values are
usually specified as the lower-bound
compressive strength of either a
cylindrical or cubic specimen as
determined by standard test procedures.

The strengths of concrete is dictated by its

function. Very low-strength—14 MPa
(2,000 psi) or less—concrete may be used
when the concrete must be lightweight.[80]
Lightweight concrete is often achieved by
adding air, foams, or lightweight
aggregates, with the side effect that the
strength is reduced. For most routine uses,
20 MPa (2,900 psi) to 32 MPa (4,600 psi)
concrete is often used. 40 MPa (5,800 psi)
concrete is readily commercially available
as a more durable, although more
expensive, option. Higher-strength
concrete is often used for larger civil
projects.[81] Strengths above 40 MPa
(5,800 psi) are often used for specific
building elements. For example, the lower
floor columns of high-rise concrete
buildings may use concrete of 80 MPa
(11,600 psi) or more, to keep the size of
the columns small. Bridges may use long
beams of high-strength concrete to lower
the number of spans required.[82][83]
Occasionally, other structural needs may
require high-strength concrete. If a
structure must be very rigid, concrete of
very high strength may be specified, even
much stronger than is required to bear the
service loads. Strengths as high as
130 MPa (18,900 psi) have been used
commercially for these reasons.[82]

In construction

The City Court Building in Buffalo, New York

Concrete is one of the most durable
building materials. It provides superior fire
resistance compared with wooden
construction and gains strength over time.
Structures made of concrete can have a
long service life. Concrete is used more
than any other artificial material in the
world.[84] As of 2006, about 7.5 billion
cubic meters of concrete are made each
year, more than one cubic meter for every
person on Earth.[85]

Mass structures …
Aerial photo of reconstruction at Taum Sauk

(Missouri) pumped storage facility in late November

2009. After the original reservoir failed, the new
reservoir was made of roller-compacted concrete.

Due to cement's exothermic chemical

reaction while setting up, large concrete
structures such as dams, navigation locks,
large mat foundations, and large
breakwaters generate excessive heat
during hydration and associated
expansion. To mitigate these effects, post-
cooling[86] is commonly applied during
construction. An early example at Hoover
Dam used a network of pipes between
vertical concrete placements to circulate
cooling water during the curing process to
avoid damaging overheating. Similar
systems are still used; depending on
volume of the pour, the concrete mix used,
and ambient air temperature, the cooling
process may last for many months after
the concrete is placed. Various methods
also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix
in mass concrete structures.[86]

Another approach to mass concrete

structures that minimizes cement's
thermal byproduct is the use of roller-
compacted concrete, which uses a dry mix
which has a much lower cooling
requirement than conventional wet
placement. It is deposited in thick layers
as a semi-dry material then roller
compacted into a dense, strong mass.

Surface finishes …

Advantage and Disadvantage of Concrete

Black basalt polished concrete floor

Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous
and have a relatively uninteresting
appearance. Many finishes can be applied
to improve the appearance and preserve
the surface against staining, water
penetration, and freezing.

Examples of improved appearance include

stamped concrete where the wet concrete
has a pattern impressed on the surface, to
give a paved, cobbled or brick-like effect,
and may be accompanied with coloration.
Another popular effect for flooring and
table tops is polished concrete where the
concrete is polished optically flat with
diamond abrasives and sealed with
polymers or other sealants.

Other finishes can be achieved with

chiseling, or more conventional techniques
such as painting or covering it with other
materials.

The proper treatment of the surface of

concrete, and therefore its characteristics,
is an important stage in the construction
and renovation of architectural
structures.[87]

Prestressed structures …
Stylized cacti decorate a sound/retaining wall in
Scottsdale, Arizona

Prestressed concrete is a form of

reinforced concrete that builds in
compressive stresses during construction
to oppose tensile stresses experienced in
use. This can greatly reduce the weight of
beams or slabs, by better distributing the
stresses in the structure to make optimal
use of the reinforcement. For example, a
horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed
reinforcement along the bottom of the
beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned
concrete, the prestressing is achieved by
using steel or polymer tendons or bars
that are subjected to a tensile force prior
to casting, or for post-tensioned concrete,
after casting.

More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of

highways in the United States are paved
with this material. Reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete and precast
concrete are the most widely used types
of concrete functional extensions in
modern days. See Brutalism.

Cold weather placement …

Extreme weather conditions (extreme heat
or cold; windy condition, and humidity
variations) can significantly alter the
quality of concrete. Many precautions are
observed in cold weather placement.[88]
Low temperatures significantly slow the
chemical reactions involved in hydration of
cement, thus affecting the strength
development. Preventing freezing is the
most important precaution, as formation
of ice crystals can cause damage to the
crystalline structure of the hydrated
cement paste. If the surface of the
concrete pour is insulated from the
outside temperatures, the heat of
hydration will prevent freezing.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI)
definition of cold weather placement, ACI
306,[89] is:

A period when for more than three

successive days the average daily air
temperature drops below 40 ˚F (~
4.5 °C), and
Temperature stays below 50 ˚F (10 °C)
for more than one-half of any 24-hour
period.

In Canada, where temperatures tend to be

much lower during the cold season, the
following criteria are used by CSA A23.1:

When the air temperature is ≤ 5 °C, and

 When there is a probability that the
temperature may fall below 5 °C within
24 hours of placing the concrete.

The minimum strength before exposing

concrete to extreme cold is 500 psi (3.5
MPa). CSA A 23.1 specified a compressive
strength of 7.0 MPa to be considered safe
for exposure to freezing.

Roads …

Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to

drive on,[90] more reflective and last
significantly longer than other paving
surfaces, yet have a much smaller market
share than other paving solutions. Modern-
paving methods and design practices have
changed the economics of concrete
paving, so that a well-designed and placed
concrete pavement will be less expensive
on initial costs and significantly less
expensive over the life cycle. Another
major benefit is that pervious concrete can
be used, which eliminates the need to
place storm drains near the road, and
reducing the need for slightly sloped
roadway to help rainwater to run off. No
longer requiring discarding rainwater
through use of drains also means that less
electricity is needed (more pumping is
otherwise needed in the water-distribution
system), and no rainwater gets polluted as
it no longer mixes with polluted water.
Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the
ground.

Energy efficiency …

Energy requirements for transportation of

concrete are low because it is produced
locally from local resources, typically
manufactured within 100 kilometers of the
job site. Similarly, relatively little energy is
used in producing and combining the raw
materials (although large amounts of CO2
are produced by the chemical reactions in
cement manufacture).[91] The overall
embodied energy of concrete at roughly 1
to 1.5 megajoules per kilogram is
therefore lower than for most structural
and construction materials.[92]

Once in place, concrete offers great energy

efficiency over the lifetime of a building.[93]
Concrete walls leak air far less than those
made of wood frames.[94] Air leakage
accounts for a large percentage of energy
loss from a home. The thermal mass
properties of concrete increase the
efficiency of both residential and
commercial buildings. By storing and
releasing the energy needed for heating or
cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers
year-round benefits by reducing
temperature swings inside and minimizing
heating and cooling costs.[95] While
insulation reduces energy loss through the
building envelope, thermal mass uses
walls to store and release energy. Modern
concrete wall systems use both external
insulation and thermal mass to create an
energy-efficient building. Insulating
concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or
panels made of either insulating foam or
rastra that are stacked to form the shape
of the walls of a building and then filled
with reinforced concrete to create the
structure.
Fire safety …

Boston City Hall (1968) is a Brutalist design

constructed largely of precast and poured in place
concrete.

Concrete buildings are more resistant to

fire than those constructed using steel
frames, since concrete has lower heat
conductivity than steel and can thus last
longer under the same fire conditions.
Concrete is sometimes used as a fire
protection for steel frames, for the same
effect as above. Concrete as a fire shield,
for example Fondu fyre, can also be used
in extreme environments like a missile
launch pad.

Options for non-combustible construction

include floors, ceilings and roofs made of
cast-in-place and hollow-core precast
concrete. For walls, concrete masonry
technology and Insulating Concrete Forms
(ICFs) are additional options. ICFs are
hollow blocks or panels made of fireproof
insulating foam that are stacked to form
the shape of the walls of a building and
then filled with reinforced concrete to
create the structure.
Concrete also provides good resistance
against externally applied forces such as
high winds, hurricanes, and tornadoes
owing to its lateral stiffness, which results
in minimal horizontal movement. However,
this stiffness can work against certain
types of concrete structures, particularly
where a relatively higher flexing structure
is required to resist more extreme forces.

Earthquake safety …

As discussed above, concrete is very

strong in compression, but weak in
tension. Larger earthquakes can generate
very large shear loads on structures.
These shear loads subject the structure to
both tensile and compressional loads.
Concrete structures without
reinforcement, like other unreinforced
masonry structures, can fail during severe
earthquake shaking. Unreinforced
masonry structures constitute one of the
largest earthquake risks globally.[96] These
risks can be reduced through seismic
retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school
buildings in Istanbul, Turkey[97]).

Degradation
Concrete spalling caused by the corrosion of rebar

Concrete can be damaged by many

processes, such as the expansion of
corrosion products of the steel
reinforcement bars, freezing of trapped
water, fire or radiant heat, aggregate
expansion, sea water effects, bacterial
corrosion, leaching, erosion by fast-flowing
water, physical damage and chemical
damage (from carbonatation, chlorides,
sulfates and distillate water).[98] The micro
fungi Aspergillus Alternaria and
Cladosporium were able to grow on
samples of concrete used as a radioactive
waste barrier in the Chernobyl reactor;
leaching aluminum, iron, calcium, and
silicon.[99]

The Tunkhannock Viaduct in northeastern

Pennsylvania opened in 1915 and is still in regular use
today

Environmental and health

The manufacture and use of concrete
produce a wide range of environmental
and social consequences. Some are
harmful, some welcome, and some both,
depending on circumstances.

A major component of concrete is cement,

which similarly exerts environmental and
social effects. The cement industry is one
of the three primary producers of carbon
dioxide, a major greenhouse gas (the other
two being the energy production and
transportation industries). Every tonne of
cement produced releases one tonne of
CO2 into the atmosphere.[100] As of 2019,
the production of Portland cement
contributed eight percent to global
anthropogenic CO2 emissions, largely due
to the sintering of limestone and clay at
1,500 °C (2,730 °F).[100][101] Researchers
have suggested a number of approaches
to improving carbon sequestration
relevant to concrete production.[102] In
August 2019, a reduced CO2 cement was
announced which "reduces the overall
carbon footprint in precast concrete by
70%."[103]

Concrete is used to create hard surfaces

that contribute to surface runoff, which
can cause heavy soil erosion, water
pollution, and flooding, but conversely can
be used to divert, dam, and control
flooding. Concrete dust released by
building demolition and natural disasters
can be a major source of dangerous air
pollution.

Concrete is a contributor to the urban heat

island effect, though less so than
asphalt.[104]

Workers who cut, grind or polish concrete

are at risk of inhaling airborne silica, which
can lead to silicosis.[105] This includes
crew members who work in concrete
chipping. The presence of some
substances in concrete, including useful
and unwanted additives, can cause health
concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity.
Fresh concrete (before curing is complete)
is highly alkaline and must be handled with
proper protective equipment.

Recycled crushed concrete, to be reused as granular

fill, is loaded into a semi-dump truck

Recycling …
Concrete recycling is an increasingly
common method for disposing of
concrete structures. Concrete debris was
once routinely shipped to landfills for
disposal, but recycling is increasing due to
improved environmental awareness,
governmental laws and economic
benefits.

World records
The world record for the largest concrete
pour in a single project is the Three Gorges
Dam in Hubei Province, China by the Three
Gorges Corporation. The amount of
concrete used in the construction of the
dam is estimated at 16 million cubic
meters over 17 years. The previous record
was 12.3 million cubic meters held by
Itaipu hydropower station in
Brazil.[106][107][107][108]

The world record for concrete pumping

was set on 7 August 2009 during the
construction of the Parbati Hydroelectric
Project, near the village of Suind, Himachal
Pradesh, India, when the concrete mix was
pumped through a vertical height of 715 m
(2,346 ft).[109][110]

The Polavaram dam works in Andhra

Pradesh on 6 January 2019 entered the
Guinness World Records by pouring
32,100 cubic metres of concrete in 24
hours.[111] The world record for the largest
continuously poured concrete raft was
achieved in August 2007 in Abu Dhabi by
contracting firm Al Habtoor-CCC Joint
Venture and the concrete supplier is
Unibeton Ready Mix.[112][113] The pour (a
part of the foundation for the Abu Dhabi's
Landmark Tower) was 16,000 cubic
meters of concrete poured within a two-
day period.[114] The previous record,
13,200 cubic meters poured in 54 hours
despite a severe tropical storm requiring
the site to be covered with tarpaulins to
allow work to continue, was achieved in
1992 by joint Japanese and South Korean
consortiums Hazama Corporation and the
Samsung C&T Corporation for the
construction of the Petronas Towers in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.[115]

The world record for largest continuously

poured concrete floor was completed 8
November 1997, in Louisville, Kentucky by
design-build firm EXXCEL Project
Management. The monolithic placement
consisted of 225,000 square feet
(20,900 m2) of concrete placed in 30
hours, finished to a flatness tolerance of FF
54.60 and a levelness tolerance of FL
43.83. This surpassed the previous record
by 50% in total volume and 7.5% in total
area.[116][117]

The record for the largest continuously

placed underwater concrete pour was
completed 18 October 2010, in New
Orleans, Louisiana by contractor C. J.
Mahan Construction Company, LLC of
Grove City, Ohio. The placement consisted
of 10,251 cubic yards of concrete placed
in 58.5 hours using two concrete pumps
and two dedicated concrete batch plants.
Upon curing, this placement allows the
50,180-square-foot (4,662 m2) cofferdam
to be dewatered approximately 26 feet
(7.9 m) below sea level to allow the
construction of the Inner Harbor
Navigation Canal Sill & Monolith Project to
be completed in the dry.[118]

See also
Anthropic rock
Biorock
Brutalist architecture
Bunding
Cement accelerator
Cenocell
Concrete canoe
Concrete chipping
Concrete leveling
Concrete mixer
Concrete masonry unit
Concrete moisture meter
Concrete plant
Concrete recycling
Concrete step barrier
Concrete sealers
Construction
Diamond grinding of pavement
Efflorescence
Fireproofing
Foam Index
Form liner
High performance fiber reinforced
cementitious composites
Metakaolin
International Grooving & Grinding
Association
Lift Slab Construction
LiTraCon
Mortar
Plasticizer
Prefabrication
Pykrete
Rammed earth
Reinforced concrete structures
durability
 Rusticated concrete block
Shallow foundation
Silica fume
Translucent concrete
Whitetopping
World of Concrete

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