BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology

Module 2: “Water”

Week 5:
5 Internal measures for oligotrophication -
Technical measures for P retention

5 Internal technical measures for oligotrophication..............................................................1

5.1 Background: P-Diagenesis ........................................................................................1
5.2 Technical measures to increase P retention..............................................................1
5.2.1 Forced circulation ...............................................................................................1
5.2.2 Hypolimnetic aeration .........................................................................................3
5.2.3 Sediment-oxidation with nitrate (Riplox) .............................................................5
5.2.4 Precipitation with Fe-, Al- and Ca-compounds ...................................................7
5.2.5 Bottom covering (chemical/physical) ................................................................10
5.3 Technical measures to increase P export................................................................13
5.3.1 Sediment dredging............................................................................................13
5.3.2 Hypolimnetic withdrawal ...................................................................................15
5.3.3 Dilution and flushing .........................................................................................18
5.4 Summary..................................................................................................................20
5.5 References...............................................................................................................22
5.6 Recommended additional reading: ..........................................................................23
BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Background: P-Diagenesis

5 Internal technical measures for

oligotrophication

5.1 Background: P-Diagenesis

Goal of restoration measures is the reduction of the primary production. Technical internal
measures aim at it directly or indirectly by disruption of the internal P cycle by chemical
and/or physical methods. The internal P cycle can be disrupted by increasing the P export
out of the lake or the net sedimentation, which can be influenced by an increase of the
sedimentation and/or the decrease of the release. Primary production can be reduced by
limiting P or light availability, or by biological measures (see chapter 6), i.e. changing the
food web and increasing the grazing pressure on phytoplankton. Additionally, to combat
phytoplankton and macrophyte growth also symptomatic measures, such as herbicides or
plant removal, are used.

Permanent and temporary bound P

To understand the technical internal measures aiming at disrupting the internal P cycle, it is
necessary to understand the processes in the sediment leading to retention or release
of P. The P-cycle, already discussed in chapter 2.1.1, is now continued.
Sediment diagenesis names all biological, chemical and physical processes leading to
changes in sediment properties after deposition. Early diagenesis takes place in the top
millimeters and centimeters of sediments straight after settling of the material. Sedimentation
of organic matter is the premises of diagenesis. Settling of new material leads to burial of old
sediments. The top millimeter and centimeter of sediments are the location of most intensive
transformation and mobilization processes. In principal, P can only be bound to organic
matter or to iron, aluminum, or calcium compounds.
Part of the P in the sediment is permanently bound, another part is potentially releasable
or temporary bound. P is potentially releasable, when bound to non-refractory organic
matter and to minerals, which can be transformed during diagenesis. The retention capacity
of a sediment depends on its composition, e.g. humic acids, free iron or aluminum sites, and
the redox, pH and temperature conditions at the sediment water interface as well as in the
sediment. It is useful to differentiate between an aerobic and an anaerobic retention capacity.
The anaerobic retention capacity determines the long-term P retention or P net
sedimentation. Aerobic conditions indicate the availability of oxygen or nitrate-oxygen.
A high release rate or a high pool of phosphorus in the sediment does not necessarily
indicate a long lasting P release after external load reduction. On the one hand, sediment
with a high P content can possess a high anaerobic retention capacity, so most of the total P
pool of the sediment is permanently bound P which will not be released unless the conditions
in the sediment change. On the other hand, a fast diagenesis can be accompanied with high
P release rates and low temporary bound P (Fig 5-1). If the temporary P pool of the
sediment is low, the effect of internal measures to decrease the release rate will be low also

week 5: Internal technical measures 1

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Background: P-Diagenesis

(e.g. sediment removal, sediment covering). To distinguish between the P binding forms in
the sediment and to judge the velocity of diagenesis, sediment investigations are necessary
(see chapter 2.2.2). It is also necessary to understand that the P pool in the sediment is
the product of settling, burial and release. To interrupt successfully the internal P cycle,
restoration measures must reduce the amount of settling organic matter and the creation of a
new, active sediment layer. This implies that the P concentration in the lake must be reduced
and therefore, in most cases, also the external load must be reduced.
P-mass [mg g-1 dw]
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

1 1
depth [m] or time interval [yr]
2 2
permanent bound P 3 3
4 4
temporary bound P 5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12

Diagenesis velocity Slow Fast

potentially mobile P-mass High Low
reaction to external load reduction Slow Fast
Fig 5-1 Schematic result of diagenesis on P mass (permanent or temporary bound) in sediment
depending on velocity of diagenesis.

P mobilization and P release mechanisms

The most important phosphorus (P) mobilization processes in sediments are mineralization
of organically bound P and desorption/dissolution of redox-sensitively bound P. While
mineralization is a temperature-controlled process, desorption of iron-bound P is mainly
redox-controlled. P bound to aluminum or calcium compounds can be mobilized by changes
in the pH-value. Mobilization is followed by diffusive or advective transport of dissolved P out
of the sediment. Molecular diffusion follows the concentration gradient, whereas advection is
due to a current, e.g. groundwater flow. Bioturbation, i.e. mixing of solid mass inside the
sediment, and bioirrigation, i.e. mixing of porewater and lake water, due to the movements of
benthic animals influence the transport of P out of the sediment. Bioirrigation can lead also to
the pumping of oxygen or dissolved nitrate into the sediment. Another transport process is
resuspension by waves, currents, or biological activities, leading to a mixing of settled, solid
material into the water of the lake. Ebullition is caused by the rise of anaerobic gases (CH4,
H2S, N2) out of the sediment. This process also mixes the sediment and leads to transport of
solid and dissolved material from the sediment into the lake water.

week 5: Internal technical measures 2

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Background: P-Diagenesis

Mineralization
Mineralization of organic bound material is the motor of sediment diagenesis. Mineralization
changes the redox potential, the pH value and the composition of the sediment. The intensity
of mineralization is influenced by temperature and the degradability of the organic matter:
Easily degraded organic matter will be degraded equally fast under aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. Difficult to degrade material will be mineralized faster under aerobic than under
anaerobic conditions. Refractory organic matter will be buried.
The combination of the sedimentation of fresh organic matter and high temperatures leads to
the highest mineralization intensities at the end of summer/ early autumn in European lakes,
which are the times of highest P release. P mobilized by mineralization can be adsorbed to
Fe, Al or Ca compounds dependent on the sorption capacity of the sediment. Mineralization
is accompanied by reduction of – in this sequence – oxygen, nitrate (to ammonium and
nitrogen), manganese oxide, iron(III) (to soluble iron(II)), sulfate (to hydrogensulfide), and
lastly a production of methane (Canfield 1993). Thus, mineralization results both in direct P
mobilization and further to an indirect mobilization in consequence of increased desorption
due to the decreased redox potential. Mineralization can be accompanied by bacterial uptake
of P, resulting in a delayed P release during subsequent collapse of the bacterial population
under changed conditions (Jensen & Andersen 1992).
(Gibbs free
energy change)

~ Eh7 ∆G
Biogenic redox reactions [mV] [kJ/mol
CH2O]
1. aerobic respiration CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O > 450 -493

2. denitrification 5CH2O + 4NO3- 2N2 + 4HCO3- + CO2 + 3H2O < 450-550 -472

3. Mn-reduction 5CH2O +3CO2 + 3H2O + 2MnO2 2Mn2+ +4HCO3- < 350-450 -348

4. Nitrate reduction 3CH2O + 4H+ + 2N2 + 3H2O 3CO2 + 4NH4+ -125

5. Fe-reduction CH2O + 7CO2 +4 Fe(OH)3 4Fe2+ + 8HCO3- +3H2O < 150-200 -103

6. sulfate reduction 2CH2O + SO42- H2S + 2HCO3- < -50 -99

7. fermentation 2CH2O CH4 + CO2 < -150 -88

Fig 5-2 Biogenic redox reactions and corresponding redox potential values (Eh) and energy
gain of the reactions (Gibbs free energy change).

Desorption of redox-sensitive bound P

In general, redox-sensitively bound P is mainly bound to iron(III) oxyhydroxides.
Usually, as long as the presence of oxygen or nitrate-oxygen keeps sediment aerobic and
enough aerobic sorption capacity is provided, P release is prevented or reduced
(Søndergaard et al. 2000). The theoretical molar ratio of Fe: P is close to 1.
When iron(III) is reduced, the iron compounds are dissolved, and P is released. Both
mobilized species, iron(II) and P, diffuse – corresponding to their concentration gradients – or
are transported by an advective flow into the lake water or the groundwater. When they come
into contact with oxygen or nitrate, iron is re-oxidized, precipitates as iron-oxyhydroxide, and

week 5: Internal technical measures 3

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Background: P-Diagenesis

dissolved P precipitates, co-precipitates or adsorbs with/at the iron(III) compounds. Often this
Fe/P cycle occurs at the sediment-water interface, and iron accumulates at the aerobic
sediment surface. In case of an intensive mineralization in the sediment and absence of
oxygen, nitrate, oxidized manganese and oxidised iron, sulphate may be reduced to
hydrogen sulphide. Subsequently, iron sulphide (FeS) may precipitate due to its low solubility
product. Thus, the Fe/P cycle is interrupted, and the P release increases (Roden & Edmonds
1997).
aerob anaerob
External
Plake H2 S External
Plake H2S
load load
O2 /NO-3 O2 /NO3-

PO3-
4 PO3-
4 + Fe
2+
FeOOH~P PO3-
4 PO3-
4 + Fe
2+
FeOOH~P
mineralization

mineralization
dissolution
desorption,

dissolution
desorptin,
T Eh T Eh
Water Water
Sediment Sediment
PPool PPool
FeS FeS
Fig 5-3 Aerob and anaerob iron-phosphorus cycle at the sediment water interface (T=
temperature, Eh = redox potential, modified from Schauser et al. 2006)

Desorption of pH-sensitive bound P

A change in pH affects the P bound to Fe-, Al- and Ca-components. A rise in pH will lead to
ligand exchange of PO43- against OH- ions and a mobilization of P. The sorption capacity of
Ca-compounds is small in comparison to Fe- and Al-compounds. Calcium binds P mainly
during precipitation of calcite in the water phase at pH levels above 9 (co-precipitation). In
the sediment and in the hypolimnion with a reduced pH level, calcite dissolves partly and
releases the co-precipitated P. Al-hydroxides are the main Al-compounds to sorb P. Below a
pH of 4-5, Al compounds will dissolve as toxic Al3+; above a pH of 8, Al-hydroxides will
dissolve as aluminate (Al(OH)4) and release P.
Most sediments are buffered against pH changes, thus pH-sensitive compounds are more
stabile than redox-sensitive connections. However, in the tropogenic zone the pH value of a
lake might rise to about 8. Thus, in the epilimnetic sediments especially of productive,
shallow lakes, due to intensive resuspension or in badly buffered reservoirs with strong water
level changes, the high pH of the trophogenic zone can cause P re-mobilization.

Effects of anaerobia
Due to intensive sedimentation and mineralization of organic matter, anaerobic conditions
can occur in the hypolimnion leading to the accumulation of:
- nutrients (PO43-),
- toxic metabolic products (NO2-, NH3, H2S), and
- reduced substances (Fe2+, Mn2+).
Also in productive shallow lakes, warm and calm nights or weather periods can lead to short
term stratification and oxygen depletion in the lower water body.

week 5: Internal technical measures 4

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Forced circulation

5.2 Technical measures to increase P retention

5.2.1 Forced circulation
Short description
During the forced circulation or artificial destratification, air is fed into a water body to prevent
the formation of a thermal stratification or to eliminate an existing one.

Fig 5-4 Hypolimnion aeration with destratification

The air addition can be permanently or intermittent supporting the oxygen supply of the
water. The turbulence renders the upper mixed water zone much deeper than the euphotic
depth. The minimum mixing depth of turbid lakes should be 5-6 m and of clear lakes 8-10 m
to achieve effects on the phytoplankton. As a result of mixing, the phytoplankton is
temporarily pushed to a depth where the reduced availability of light restricts growth. Under
this condition, primary production is limited because respiration is greater than
photosynthesis. Through intermittent circulation, the water in the mixed zone is only
temporarily mixed in order to prevent algae from adapting to the periodic changes in the
amount of light available. Especially cyanobacteria are not able to adapt to irregular light
conditions.
A side effect of forced circulation is the aeration of the water volume leading to similar effects
than hypolimnetic aeration in the deep water and increased P retention (see below).

Aims
• Reduction of primary production by light limitation;
• Suppression of cyanobacteria mass development;

week 5: Internal technical measures 1

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Forced circulation

• Destruction of meromixis (monimolimnion)

• Increase of P export through the surface outflow of the lake;
• Increased P retention because of the aeration of the sediment surface.

Problems
• Mixing of accumulated reduces and partly toxic substances (ammonia, nitrite,
hydrogen sulfide, manganese, iron) into the upper water body, followed by oxygen
reduction in the complete water body and fish kills;
• Mixing of accumulated nutrients into the upper water body, enhancing primary
production;
• Temperature increase at the lake bottom, increasing mineralization, oxygen uptake
and nutrient release;
• Temperature decrease in the epilimnion, limiting swimming,
• Increase of phytoplankton because of increased nutrient supply and failed light
limitation because of a too shallow mixed layer.

Experiences
In water bodies with small hypolimnions, destratification has yielded relatively good results,
as long as the upper mixed layer is deep enough for light limitation. The upper mixed layer
should be 5-6 m in turbid lakes, and 8-10 m in clear lakes. It is a very effective method to
destroy a biological monimolimnion. It was successfully applied in drinking water reservoirs
to prevent anoxia and to remove reduced substances (hydrogen sulfide, iron (II), manganese
(II)). However, unsatisfactory results have been obtained in deep water bodies with big
anaerobic hypolimnia because the high concentrations of oxygen consuming compounds
(iron, manganese, hydrogen sulfide) and nutrients in the hypolimnion. In deep lakes, the
measure can be used to prolong the spring circulation to suppress algae development. The
prevention of P-release from sediment by artificial circulation could not be proven.

Tab 5-1 Effects of forced circulation (Cooke et al. 1993).

N increase [%] no effect [%] decrease [%]

oxygen 41 80 5 1 ☺
SRP 17 18 41 29
NH4+ 20 15 15 65 ☺
Fe2+, Mn2+ 21 - 9 91 ☺
Chl a 23 22 26 26
cyanobacteria 25 20 20 52

References
Cooke, G.D., E.B. Welch, S. Peterson & S.A. Nichols, 2005, Restoration and management of
lakes and reservoirs. 3rd ed. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton/FL, 591 p.

week 5: Internal technical measures 2

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Hypolimnetic aeration

Scharf, B.W., Bernhardt, H., Ehlscheid, T., Lüsse, B. (1992) : Restoration. – In Scharf, Bw. &
Björk, S. (eds.): Limnology of Eifel maar lakes. Arch. Hydrobiol. Beih. Ergebn. Limnol. 38,
307-327.

5.2.2 Hypolimnetic aeration

Short description
Oxygen depletion is on of the most frequent negative consequences of eutrophication. Water
bodies, whose production and aerobic breakdown of organic substances are out of balance,
exhaust their supply of molecular oxygen. As a result, organic substances metabolize under
anaerobic conditions, which can lead to the release of phosphorus, toxic metabolic
substances (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and nitrite) and other reduced substances such as
iron and manganese. In deep lakes, the oxygen depletion will occur in the hypolimnion
starting from the lake bottom. In shallow lakes, oxygen depletion can occur during temporal
stratification and during the night.

Fig 5-5 Aerators at Lake Tegel (photos: H.-U. Wolf)

A number of technologies that combat oxygen deficits (e.g. aeration or pure oxygen infeed
systems) are available that increase hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations (Spieker 1995) with
or without destruction of the stratification (see 5.1.2 Forced circulation). These methods can
be used as stopgap measures to ameliorate the symptoms of eutrophication (until other anti-
eutrophication methods reduce the trophic level) and are also suitable for emergency use in
cases of acute oxygen deficit. However, such measures generally are only effective while
being applied.

week 5: Internal technical measures 3

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Hypolimnetic aeration

cover grid
outgassing
chamber
floating body

snorkel tube

mixing chambers
downpipe
riser

submerged
pump

ejector

Fig 5-6 Hypolimnion aeration with different aerators (left: Limnos, right: Tibean)

Aims
• Immediate increase of the oxic habitat for benthic invertebrates and fish;
• Oxidation of toxic substances (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrite) to prevent fish kills
or odor problems;
• Elimination of dissolved, reduced metals (iron, manganese) to prevent problems for
the drinking water supply (clogging of filters);
• Prevention of sapropel development due to increased mineralization of difficult
degradable organic matter;
• Reduction of P release through increase of the redox potential at the sediment-water
interface, aiming at increased P sorption to oxidized iron minerals;
• Increased net sedimentation leads to a shorter adaptation time after external load
reduction.

Problems
• Dimensioning of an aeration plant is difficult. The oxygen demand must be estimated
by laboratory studies or reduction rates in the hypolimnion;
• Aeration of the sediment surface is needed to reduce the P release. The huge
sediment oxygen demand might prevent the penetration of oxygen into the sediment;
• Iron concentration might be limited because of low natural iron content and/or iron
sulfide precipitation. Thus, also aerobic sorption capacity is too low to prevent P
release;
• Aerobic conditions might increase mineralization intensity, thus increasing P release;

week 5: Internal technical measures 4

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Sediment-oxidation with nitrate (Riplox)

• Additional P sorption will only happen when the aerobic sediment layer increases
and/or oxidized iron accumulate.

Experiences
In most cases, aeration led to the expected increase of the oxygen concentration and the
reduction of reduced substances. Aeration is helpful to reduce the symptoms of
eutrophication as long as the measure is applied.
In some lakes, also the P concentration in the hypolimnion was reduced, whereas in other
lakes P was released from the sediments also under aerobic conditions. Thus, it was
recommended to combine hypolimnion aeration with iron addition. Long time investigations in
Swiss lakes indicate that the aeration did not affect the P mass balance of these lakes
(Gächer & Wehrli 1998) because O2 demand of the sediment was high so that the O2
penetration depth was insufficient to have an effect on the P-release.

References
Beutel, M. W., Horn, A. J. (1999): A review of the effects of hypolimnetic oxygenation on
lakes and reservoir water quality. Journal of Lake and Reservoir Management 15 (4):285-
297.
Gächter, R., Wehrli, B. (1998): Ten years of artificial mixing and oxygenation: no effect on the
internal phosphorus loading of two eutrophic lakes. Environmental Science and
Technology 32, 3659-3665.

5.2.3 Sediment-oxidation with nitrate (Riplox)

Short description
The presence of nitrate-oxygen inhibits and retards iron and sulfate reduction, which in turn
reduces redox controlled phosphorus release. The advantage of oxidation with nitrate rather
than pure oxygen is the virtually unlimited solubility of NO3-. Nitrate can be put as fluid or as
granulate material directly into the sediment. It has been combined with calcium hydroxide to
buffer acidic reactions. The combination with a phosphorus precipitation with iron in the water
body is called RIPLOX-measure (Ripl 1976). However, nitrate addition is usually not
efficacious enough to meet sediment oxygen demands. In some situations, continuous
discharge of well treated wastewater, including phosphorus elimination, can result in
sediment oxidation due to continuous high NO3-concentrations.

week 5: Internal technical measures 5

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Sediment-oxidation with nitrate (Riplox)

Fig 5-7 Injection of Ca(NO3)2 und FeCl3 into sediment down to 20 cm depth with sediment rake
(6-10 m width)

Aims
• Using nitrate as oxygen supply to increase the redox potential at the sediment
surface, to support aerobic mineralization and to decrease P release;
• Nitrate addition and iron precipitation (RIPLOX) are combined to increase the aerobic
phosphorus sorption capacity in the sediment;
• Increased net sedimentation leads to a shorter adaptation time after external load
reduction.

Problems
• By a single nitrate addition, only little oxygen is supplied.
• Multiple nitrate addition is costly and also only of short term effect; the discharge of
nitrate rich waste water is prohibited in Europe.

Experiences
The results obtained with this method thus far have been uneven, the main problem here
being rapid nitrate consumption, which in some cases necessitates repetition of the
procedure at brief intervals. There are indices that the combination of nitrate and iron can
support the aerobic phosphorus sorption, also it is difficult to judge whether the nitrate
addition has been necessary in each single case. However, continuous discharges of nitrate
rich waters into shallow lakes have increased P retention.

References
Ripl, W. (1976) : Biochemical oxidation of polluted lake sediment with nitrate – a nwe
restoraiton method. Ambio 5, 132-135
Søndergaard, M., Jeppesen, E., Jensen, J. P. (2000): Hypolimnetic nitrate treatment to
reduce internal phosphorus loading in a stratified lake. Lake Reserv.Managem. 16(3),
195-204.

week 5: Internal technical measures 6

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Precipitation with Fe-, Al- and Ca-compounds

5.2.4 Precipitation with Fe-, Al- and Ca-compounds

Short description
The addition of aluminum salts, iron salts, and calcium compounds to a water body can
reduce phosphorus levels by (a) precipitating dissolved phosphorus as a sparingly soluble
salt; (b) allowing for the sorption of phosphorus on colloidal flocks; or (c) binding particulate
phosphorus (from phytoplankton or detritus) through coagulation, resulting in transport of the
phosphorus to the sediment.

Fig 5-8 left: Spreading of precipitants on a lake. Microscope picture of iron-hydroxide flocks in
a mining lake.

1. step: Al-addition to water, dissociation, hydrolysis to Al-Hydroxides

Al2(SO4)3 + 6 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 SO42- + 6H+
decrease of pH
depending on alkalinity
colloidal, amorphous floc increase of sulfate of water
with high coagulation and concentration in water
P-adsorption properties

2. step: binding of P
Al(OH)3 + PO43- → AlPO4 + 3OH- precipitation of variscite
Al(OH)3 + PO43- → Al(OH)3~PO43-aq. adsorption
Al(OH)3 + particulate P → Al~P flock coagulation

3. step: sedimentation, transport to sediment and deposition

Fig 5-9 Effects of the addition of Al-sulfate to the water

High doses of the iron and aluminum reduce the P concentration in the water phase and
also strengthen the phosphorus retention properties of the water body sediment, which in
turn prevents long term phosphorus remobilization.

week 5: Internal technical measures 7

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Precipitation with Fe-, Al- and Ca-compounds

Calcium binds P mainly during precipitation of calcite in the water phase at pH levels above
9 (co-precipitation). Calcium-catalyzed precipitation must be realized repeatedly in order to
achieve longer lasting results.
The use of precipitation agents in water bodies with relatively long retention times (> 5 yr) or
in which phosphorus is released continuously from the sediment can be efficacious on a
long term where external measures are ongoing or have recently been completed to shorten
the adaptation time. The improvement of the trophic state of water bodies with relatively short
retention times (<1 yr) and whose external phosphorus load was not sufficiently reduced has
only a transitory effect. In lakes with a long water retention time (> 10 yr), precipitation can
be useful even without external load reduction. However, then repeated internal measures
should be planned.

Fig 5-10 Fe-, Al- and Ca-compounds can be added to the lake using special boats.

Aim
• Short-term removal of P compounds in the water body by precipitation and
adsorption;
• Long-term decrease of P release from the sediment by increase of the P retention
capacity of the sediment;
• Reduction of the adaptation time after external load reduction due to increased net
sedimentation rate;
• Reduction of the in-lake P concentration due to increased net sedimentation rate
when measure regularly repeated.

Problems
• Precipitation with iron or aluminum salts (chlorids, sulfates) can lead to increased salt
concentrations in the water body;
• Iron and aluminum salts dissolve in water and are transformed to hydroxides. This
process is accompanied with H+ -release and pH decrease in bad buffered lakes with
low alkalinity; this can be prevented by the addition of calcium;
• At pH levels above 8, P will be released from metal hydroxides because of ligand
exchange mechanisms. Additionally Al-hydroxides will dissolve as aluminate

week 5: Internal technical measures 8

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Precipitation with Fe-, Al- and Ca-compounds

(Al(OH)4). This occurs mainly in highly productive, shallow lakes with resuspension of
the sediment;
• At pH below 4-5, aluminum turns to dissolved and toxic Al3+-compounds, thus
releasing P and causing fish kills at Al concentrations above 0.1-0.2 mg L-1. This is a
danger in soft water lakes with low alkalinity;
• Flocculation of aluminum hydroxides can be disturbed by high turbidity;
• Iron(III) hydroxides are reduced and precipitate as iron-sulfide (FeSx) in the anaerobic
sediment layers leading to P release;
• Addition of iron might increase primary production if iron is a limiting factor;
• Calcite (CaCO3) precipitation is affected by other substances in the water body such
as manganese, iron, humic matter;
• Ca-compounds can dissolve in the sediment because of the neutral pH value.

Fig 5-11 Dissociation diagram of Al-compounds depending on pH, broken lines indicate critical
pH-values.

Experiences
Precipitation of P with Al-salts has been widely and successfully applied in North America. In
many cases, the positive effect was longer than 5 years. The dosage of Al can be based on
the P-pool in the sediment to be inactivated. It is recommended to use 10 times more Al than
total P or 4 times more Al than temporary bound P in the sediment (Jensen 2007, Reitzel et
al. 2005). Alternatively, the dosage can be based on water alkalinity by titration with Al2(SO4)3
with the limit of 50 µg L-1 Al and a pH between 6 and 8 in the water (Cooke at al. 2005).
Long term successful measures with iron salts are less often described in the literature. Only
short term effects have been observed in lakes where the external load was not sufficiently
reduced. For the application of iron it is recommended to use above 30 times more iron than
the P content of the water body. Other dosage recommendations are 1 – 150 g Fe m-3 or 20
– 500 g Fe m-2. The surplus dosage shall increase the long-term effect by increasing the P
retention capacity of the sediment.
Precipitation with calcium did have only long-term effects after repeated treatment because
the precipitation products have not been stabile. Calcium application is only suitable in
slightly eutrophic hardwater lakes with natural Calcite precipitation. For an artificially induced
calcite precipitation, calcium-compounds can be added from a boat as slurry to the surface or

week 5: Internal technical measures 9

BTU Cottbus - Certificate Programme Restoration Ecology
Modul 2: “Water”

Technical measures to increase P retention

Bottom covering (chemical/physical)

directly injected into the hypolimnion in combination with aeration to spread the calcium. The
dosage should be 10 – 250 mg L-1 Ca.

References
Boers, P. C. M., van der Does, J., Quaak, M., van der Vlugt, J. (1994): Phosphorus fixation
with iron(III)chloride: A new method to combat internal phosphorus loading in shallow
lakes? Arch. Hydrobiol. 129 (3), 339-352.
Cooke, G.D., E.B. Welch, S. Peterson & S.A. Nichols, 2005, Restoration and management of
lakes and reservoirs. 3rd ed. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton/FL, 591 p.
Prepas, E. E., PinelAlloul, B., Chambers, P. A., Murphy, T. P., Reedyk,, S. Sandland, G.,
Serediak, M. (2001): Lime treatment and its effects on the chemistry and biota of
hardwater eutrophic lakes. Freshwater. Biol. 46(8), 1049-1060.
Reitzel, K. , J. Hansen, F. O. Andersen, K. S. Hansen, and H. S. Jensen. Lake restoration by
dosing aluminum relative to mobile phosphorus in the sediment. Environmental Science &
Technology 39 (11):4134-4140, 2005.

5.2.5 Bottom covering (chemical/physical)

Short description
Bottom covering entails installation of a barrier that reduces the transport of nutrients and
pollutants from the sediment or groundwater to the water body. This method has been tested
using perforated polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polypropylene (PP) films,
perforated fiberglass, finely granulated minerals (fly ash, sand, silt, and clay), and
endogenous water body material such as old sediment and autochthonous calcite deposits.
Research is going on with natural and synthetic calcites, zeolites and clay minerals. Solely
physical bottom coverings for purposes of treating eutrophic water bodies are generally
regarded as unlikely to succeed. Barriers made of materials which, in addition to physically
blocking the passage of phosphorus into the water body, also have the capacity to bind
phosphorus chemically, are regarded as a more promising solution.

Aims
• Reduction of P transport into the water layer because of P binding material and
reduced porosity at the sediment surface;
• Increased net sedimentation rate leads to a shorter adaptation time after external load
reduction;
• Physical stabilization of the sediment surface to reduce transport of material by
diffusion, resuspension, ebullition or bioturbation;
• Isolation of toxic sediments (sediment-capping);
• Prevention of macrophyte growth.

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Technical measures to increase P retention

Bottom covering (chemical/physical)

lake
marl

mixture

Sapropel

-1
total P [mg g dw]
Fig 5-12 Left: Spreading of autochthonous lake marl
as bottom cover in Lake Arendsee (Germany). Right:
sediment core afterwards showing about 9 cm of sediment cover over organic sediment.

Problems
• If most of the active P of the internal nutrient cycle is in the water body during
implementation of the measure, the covering layer will have little effect on the internal
P cycle;
• The covering layer gets buried by fresh sediments, thus reducing its impact on the
water phase. The fresh, nutrient rich sediment might keep the nutrient cycle going;
• The specific density of the covering layer should not be above the density of the
sediment (1,2-1,3 g cm-3 for organic rich sediments of eutrophic lakes) to prevent
sinking in;
• To cover the sediment entirely, the relief of the lake bottom as well as the intensities
of resuspension, ebullition and bioturbation must be known;
• A chemical binding layer face the same difficulties than the use of chemical
precipitators: the binding layer must provide enough anaerobic binding capacity.

Experiences
There are no positive experiences with sediment covering to reduce P release up to know.
Case studies with calcite and old sediments covers failed because the material had too little
binding capacity and was disturbed by bioturbation. Attempts to reduce makrophyte growths
with sediment covers failed.

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Bottom covering (chemical/physical)

References
Hupfer, M., Pöthig, R., Brüggemann, R., Geller, W. (2000): Mechanical resuspension of
autochthonous calcite (Seekreide) failed to control internal phosphorus cycle in a
eutrophic lake. Water Research 34 (3), 859-867.
Klapper, H. (1992): Calcite covering of sediments as a possible way of curbing blue-green
algae. – In: Sutcliffe, D.W., Jones, J.G. (eds.): Eutrophication: research and application to
water supply. Freshwater Biol. Ass., Ambleside, 107-111.

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Technical measures to increase P export

Sediment dredging

5.3 Technical measures to increase P export

5.3.1 Sediment dredging
Short description
The removal of nutrient rich and often oxygen depleting sediments via dredging can
increase water body depth and thus prevent silting. A special case of dredging to increase
the water depth is the decomposition of organic material through sediment mixing and
concurrent addition of oxygen. Dredging can bring about long-term improvement in the
trophic status of smaller water bodies, providing that nutrients are removed and external
measures are realized simultaneously that prevent re-sedimentation. However, dredging also
presents problems when it comes to removal of the uppermost sediment layer (which must
be done since this layer has the most important impact on nutrient balance and the highest
amount of mobile P), as well as the disposal of the sludge and the discharged water. The
nutrients, heavy metals and other toxic substances in the dredged material should be
assayed, and should not be discharged into receiving watercourses, ground water, or the
water body itself.
Prior to dredging (with the aim to reduce the sediment phosphorus load), a determination
should be made whether the nutrient concentration in the sediment layers exposed by
dredging is less than the nutrient concentration of the uppermost layer. Also the
release potential of P or the temporary bound P (see chapter 2 attachment 2-2) should be
checked, because a lot of the P stored in the sediment is permanently bound. Especially in
sediments with a fast diagenesis and high P release rates, the mass of temporary bound P of
the sediment can be low and so the efficiency of sediment removal is low.
P-mass [mg g-1 dw]
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

1 1
depth [m] or time interval [yr]

2 2
permanent bound P 3 3
4 4
temporary bound P 5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12

Diagenesis velocity Slow Fast

potentially mobile P-mass High Low
reaction to external load reduction Slow Fast
Efficiency of sediment removal High Low
Fig 5-13 Connection between diagenese velocity, release potential of P, reaction to external
load reduction and efficiency of sediment removal.

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Sediment dredging

Dredging can also be done to change the water body morphology. In the presence of the
same level of nutrient load, a higher trophic level occurs in shallow water bodies than in
deeper waters with a pronounced hypolimnion that acts as a phosphorus sink. Therefore,
increasing a water body depth can reduce a water body’s trophic level. This can be done
through the use of various dredging methods. Moreover, leveling underwater slopes, as well
as extending the shoreline and concurrently planting reed beds can also create nutrient
sinks. Water body banks containing reed beds constitute buffer zones that protect water
bodies against eutrophication (Kohl and Kuehl 2001). It is particularly important to do this for
freshly created water bodies such as flooded gravel pits. However, no concrete examples are
available regarding the impact such measures have on the trophic level of a water body. In
any case, other goals such as habitat improvement and the attendant optimization of
ecological quality have a higher priority when decisions are made on such measures,
particularly when they concern efforts to modify shore morphology.
The available mechanical dredging methods include suction flushing and dredging (using
chain and bucket dredgers or excavators); and dredging drainable water bodies, preferably
at subfreezing temperatures (Fig 5-14).

Fig 5-14 Sediment dredging technologies (from Holdren et al. 2001)

Aims
• Prevention of siltation and decreased resuspension and turbidity;
• Increased thermal stratification stability to improve trophic condition and to reduce
intrusion of deep water into the trophogenic zone in summer;

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Technical measures to increase P export

Hypolimnetic withdrawal

• Creation of nutrient sinks at the shoreline or in sediment traps;

• Extraction of nutrients and contaminants to prevent recycling to the water;
• Decreased P release leads to a shorter adaptation time after external load reduction;
• Improved oxygen condition at the lake bottom in summer and winter;
• Re-establishment or maintenance of current water body functions, e.g. flood control,
boating.

Problems
• Resuspension of nutrients, reduced substances and pollutants, e.g. heavy metals
bound anaerobic to sulfides, during the measure might lead to oxygen depletion and
poisoning of aquatic life;
• Resuspended sediment, slipping materials from the slope and new settling material
may form a new sediment which re-establishes the internal P cycle;
• The old sediment, after becoming the new sediment surface, might be activated and
release as much P than the extracted layer;
• Sludge and seepage must be treated and deposited outside of the lake;
• Very expensive restoration method.

Experiences
There are no experiences about effects of morphological changes on the lake trophy.
Dredging for maintenance or construction of the water body has been successful. However,
the expectations of improved trophy or decreased P concentration have often been
disappointed. Only for few lakes, e.g. Lake Trumen (Sweden), positive results of a dredging
have been reported in literature.

References
Björk, S. (1994): Sediment removal. In: IWRB Publication 32, IWRB Publication, p. 82.
Peterson, S.A. (1982): Lake restoration by sediment removal. Water Resources Bulletin 18
(3), 423-435.
Van der Does, J., Verstraelen, P., Boers, P. C. M., Van Roestel, J., Roijackers, R., Moser, G.
(1992): Lake restoration with and without dredging of phosphorus-enriched upper
sediment layers. Hydrobiologia 233, 197-210.

5.3.2 Hypolimnetic withdrawal

Short description
In the summer months, phosphorus compounds and reduced substances accumulate in the
hypolimnion of stably stratified water bodies. With hypolimnetic withdrawal, nutrient rich and
low-oxygen or oxygen-free hypolimnetic water is drained from a stratified water body, thus
reducing nutrient concentration. Instead of the normal outflow, hypolimnetic water is taken by
a pipe from the deepest point to the outlet (named “Olszewski tube” after its original user) by
pumping or using the natural slope. In reservoirs, the bottom outlet can be used.

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Technical measures to increase P export

Hypolimnetic withdrawal

A comprehensive investigation should be realized to determine whether this high nutrient,

strong smelling, and oxygen free water can be channeled into downstream flowing water
without prior treatment, or whether the water should perhaps be added to farmland instead.
Moreover, when this method is realized in water bodies with relatively small hypolimnia, it
should be borne in mind that the removal of hypolimnetic water catalyzes the early onset of
comprehensive circulation with negative impacts on the nutrient availability in the trophogenic
zone.

pump

inflow control weir

aerator

epilimnion

hypolimnion
,Olszewski tube'
NH4+, PO43-, H2S

Fig 5-15 Schematic picture of the Olszewski tube

recharge of
treated carrying buoy carrying buoy
P-Elimination water and outlet and pump

inflow of P-rich
hypolimnetic water

source: Hupfer & Scharf (2002)

Fig 5-16 Hypolimnetic withdrawal with external treatment and recharging (modified from Hupfer
& Scharf 2002).

In water bodies with long retention times and therefore longer reaction times to external load
reduction, bottom water withdrawal in combination with external treatment (precipitation,
adsorption or filtration in constructed wetlands) and recharge of the water can lead to faster
recovery of the trophic condition. The treatment can be carried out all year round and the
hypolimnetic water multiple times, without putting chemicals into the water body. However,
the efficiency of the treatment is reduced when the nutrient concentration of the extracted
water is low. The treatment requires a reduction of TP from 200 – 500 µg L-1 or more to < 10

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Technical measures to increase P export

Hypolimnetic withdrawal

µg L-1. The treated water should be recharged into the water body in such a way that the
stratification is not deranged. The various commercially available external phosphorus
elimination systems based on portable or stationary technology have yielded positive results
in small to medium sized water bodies (Andres and Scharf 2003; Guessbacher 1997; Scharf
1995).

Aims
• Reduction of the P in-lake concentration by extraction of P-rich deep water;
• Improvement of the oxygen conditions of the lake by removal of reduced substances
and particulate organic matter;
• Increase of the outflow factor and decrease of the water retention time (when water is
recharged) leads to decreased adaptation time after external load reduction;
• Abolishment of an undesired meromixis.

Problems
• Without external treatment and recharging, the amount of the extraction is limited by
the amount of the natural outflow, otherwise the lake level drops. Usually,
hypolimnetic withdrawal without recharge is efficient for lakes with retention time
below fife years.
• The extracted water can smell very badly and create oxygen depletion as well as
poisoning of aquatic life in the receiving stream due to accumulated reduced
substances, mainly hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, ammonium;
• Eutrophication of the receiving waters without external treatment of the extracted
water;
• Reduced stratification stability and early circulation leading increased nutrient
availability and phytoplankton mass development in late summer.
• High reduced iron and manganese concentrations might lead to clogging of the
treatment plant. This can also be caused by high hydrogen sulfide concentrations, if
iron is used in the treatment plant and precipitated to iron sulfide;
• When water is recharged into the hypolimnion, it dilutes the hypolimnion water and
creates a short-circuit;
• The hypolimnion withdrawal itself is a very cheap measure, but the external treatment
plant is expensive.

Experiences
Hypolimnetic withdrawal has been used the first time in Poland 1956. Since then it had been
applied with positive results in small to medium sized, deep lakes with strong stratification. In
big lakes, in lakes with a relative small hypolimnion or low nutrient accumulation and in lakes
with a long water retention time (> 5 yr), hypolimnetic withdrawal had only little effect. For
small lake with small hypolimnion or long water retention times, the external treatment can be
beneficial. Short term experiences exist already, but long time experiences are missing.

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Technical measures to increase P export

Dilution and flushing

References
Scharf, B.W., Bernhardt, H., Ehlscheid, T., Lüsse, B. (1992) : Restoration. – In Scharf, Bw. &
Björk, S. (eds.) : Limnology of Eifl maar lakes. Arch. Yhdrobiol. Beih. Ergebn. Limnol. 38,
307-327.
Nürnberg, G. K. (1987): Hypolimnetic withdrawal as lake restoration technique. Journal of
Environmental Engineering 113 (5), 1006-1017.
Nürnberg, G. K. (2007): Lake responses to long-term hypolimnetic withdrawals. Lake and
Reservoir Management. 23(4), 388-409.

5.3.3 Dilution and flushing

Short description
All water body inflows with lower phosphorus concentrations than the water in the water body
itself have a diluting effect. Adding supplementary low nutrient water (from groundwater or
water from other water bodies) into a water body increases the flow rate and reduces the
retention time, which in turn produces a flushing effect that promotes phytoplankton
elimination and nutrient concentration reduction. Below a water retention time of around 2
days, the loss rate of phytoplankton is higher than the growth rate (flushing), so that it cannot
accumulate. Although this method has yielded positive results, it can result in lower water
temperatures. Thus, if it is applied in a water body that is used for swimming, water
temperature must be monitored to ensure that swimmers are not unduly hindered.

Aims
• Dilution of the in-lake nutrient concentrations by importing low-nutrient water and
exporting nutrient-rich water;
• Reduction of phytoplankton growth by increase of water exchange rate and washout
of algal cells during flushing;
• Decreased water retention time leads to shorter adaptation time after external load
reduction.

Problems
• Availability of enough nutrient poor water;
• Short-circuit when epilimnetic water is washed out;
• Change of the hydrophysical dynamic will cause changes in biocenosis;
• Water level changes possible;
• P release from the sediment may delay effect of dilution.

Experiences
There is one positive example of in Germany: a eutrophic lake (Bleibtreusee) was nearly
completely emptied. The remaining water was treated with aluminum to precipitate the
remaining phosphorus. Afterwards the lake was flooded with nutrient poor groundwater and

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Technical measures to increase P export

Dilution and flushing

stabilized mesotrophic conditions developed. In the Netherlands, Lake Veluwe and Lake
Dronten have been diluted since 1979 with positive results. The algae could be removed >
95% due to a “washing out” in winter (November-February) with a flushing rate of >0.75 lake
volumes month-1.

References
Hosper, S. H., Meyer, M.L. (1986): Control of phosphorus loading and flushing as restoration
methods for Lake Veluwe. The Netherlands Hydrobiol. Bull. 20, 183-194.

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Summary
Dilution and flushing

5.4 Summary

Aims and premises Risks and problems

Forced circulation

• Aim: Reduced Phytoplankton mass by light • Risk of increased primary production

limitation, because of increased nutrient
availability in the tropogenic layer,
• Aim: Improved oxygen supply in the deep
water for biocenosis and for reduced P- • Risk of increase of reduced substances
release from the sediment and toxins in the tropogenic layer
followed by oxygen depletion and fish
• Aim: Increased P-export,
kill,
• Only for deep lakes with mean depth
• Reduced temperature in the top water
greater than euphotic depth.
layer,
• Only temporary effect on stratification
and reversible effect on P retention:
long-term application necessary,
• Low effect on the P-release, danger of
increased P-release because of
increased mineralization.

Hypolimnetic aeration

• Aim: Immediate measure to increase • Oxygen supply not sufficient to oxidize

oxygen supply (aerobic environments and sediment surface,
oxidation of reduced substances to prevent
• No accumulation of Fe in an aerobic
fish kills),
sediment layer,
• Aim: Reduced P-release by increased P-
• Overestimation of aerobic P sorption
retention due to aerobic sediment surface
capacity,
and Fe accumulation,
• Only temporary and reversible effect on
• Only suitable for deep, stratified lakes,
P retention: long-term application
• Only suitable for sediments with high Fe- necessary,
and low S-content.
• Risk of increased P-release because of
increased mineralization.

Sediment-oxidation with nitrate (Riplox)

• Aim: Reduced P-release by increased P • Such as above (Hypolimnion aeration),

retention due to aerobic sediment surface,
• High water solubility and mobility of
• Only suitable for deep, stratified lakes, nitrate,
• Only suitable for sediments with high Fe- • Low temporary effects of a single
and low S-content. measure.

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Summary
Dilution and flushing

Precipitation with Fe-, Al- and Ca-compounds

• Aim: Short term increase of the • Fe and Al: risk of pH decrease during
sedimentation and long term increase of the application, leading to release of to
P retention in the sediment, toxic Al compounds, risk of
resuspension and P release due to
• Efficiency increases with increasing water
ligand exchange at pH above 8,
retention time, P concentration in the water,
temperature. • Al: toxic compounds below pH of 5,
dissolution of P-Al above pH of 8,
• Al: Only deep lakes with high alkalinity. Al-P
compounds are pH-sensitive. • Fe: precipitation of FeS under anaerobic
conditions, only temporary P binding
• Fe: Only lakes with aerobic sediment
under aerobic conditions in top sediment
surface, low S concentrations, and pH-
layer,
buffer. Fe-P compunds are redox-sensitive.
• Ca: dissolution of Ca-compounds in the
• Ca: Only hard water lakes with natural
sediment and release of co-precipated
calcite precipitation. Ca-P compounds are
P.
stabile at pH> 8.

Bottom covering (chemical/physical)

• Aim: Reduced P release by reduced • Physical covering: danger of destruction

transport (passive or physical) out of and/or of layer by resuspension, bioturbation,
increased fixation (active or chemical) of P burial or sinking into the sediment,
in the sediment,
• Chemical: only Fe, Al, or Ca have a
• Only for lakes with a mean depth greater sufficiently high P sorption capacity (see
than resuspension depth. P precipitation)

Sediment dredging

• Aim: reduction of P release, elimination of • Sediment resuspension and re-location,

macrophytes or contaminates, increased pore water release instead of removal.
lake depth,
• Dumping of sediment and pore water,
• Reduced P release only when there is a
• Overestimation of P release and
great temporary P pool in the sediment and
underestimation of external P load
a high P release rate,
impact on P lake concentration,
• Expensive measure.
• Disruption of the ecological balance.

Hypolimnetic withdrawal

• Aim: increased export of nutrient and • Water retention time and hypolimnion
reduced substances volume limits water withdrawal,
• Only in stratified lakes with hypolimnetic P • Reduced substances and nutrients in
accumulation, the outflow.
• Efficiency dependent on concentration
difference between hypo – and epilimnion,
size of hypolimnion (amount of withdrawn

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References
Dilution and flushing

water), low water retention time (without

treatment) ,
• Simple and cheap measure.

Hypolimnetic withdrawal with external treatment

• Such as above, but efficiency increases with • External treatment sensitive to

high water retention time, disturbances by reduced substances,
pH, etc.;
• Elaborated and expensive measure.
• P release behavior difficult to predict.
• Only suitable for small lakes because
expensive measure.

Dilution and flushing

• Dilution: reduction of the water retention • Sufficient nutrient poor water supply
time and inflow concentration, increased P needed,
export, thus reduces in-lake P
• Increased areal load of P,
concentration.
• Change in biocenosis difficult to predict,
• Flushing: reduction of water retention time
below 2 d, thus washing out of • Effect on P release and thus application
phytoplankton greater than their growth period difficult to predict.
rate.
• Only suitable for small lakes or lakes with
already short retention time because of
clean water availability.

5.5 References
Canfield, D.E.(1993): Organic matter oxidation in marine sediments. - In: R. Wollast, F. T.
Mackenzie, L. Chou (Eds.): Interactions of C, N, P and S biogeochemical cycles and
global change. Berlin, Springer, 333-363.
Jensen, H. S., Andersen, F. Ø. (1992): Importance of temperature, nitrate and pH for
phosphate release from aerobic sediments of four shallow, eutrophic lakes. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 37, 577-589.
Roden, E. E., Edmonds, J. W.(1997): Phosphate mobilization in iron-rich anaerobic
sediments: microbial Fe (II) oxide reduction versus iron-sulfide formation. Arch.Hydrobiol.
139 (3), 347-378.
Schauser, I., Chorus, I., Lewandowski, J. (2006): Effects of nitrate on phosphorus release:
comparison of two Berlin lakes. Acta hydrochimica et hydrobiologica 34 (4), 325-332.
Søndergaard, M., Jeppesen, E., Jensen, J. P.(2000): Hypolimnetic nitrate treatment to
reduce internal phosphorus loading in a stratified lake. Lake Reserv. Managem. 16 (3),
195-204.

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Recommended additional reading:

Dilution and flushing

Spieker, J. (1995): Die Sauerstoffanreichungsanlage im Isebekkanal (Hamburg): Auswirkung

des Betriebes auf das Gewässer. – In: Jaeger, D., Koschel, R. (eds.): Verfahren zur
Sanierung und Restaurierung stehender Gewässer, Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, 211-224.

5.6 Recommended additional reading:

Cooke, G.D., E.B. Welch, S. Peterson & S.A. Nichols, 2005, Restoration and management of
lakes and reservoirs. 3rd ed. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton/FL, 591 p.
Søndergaard, M., Wolter, K.-D., Ripl, W. (2002): Chemical treatments of water and
sediments with special reference to lakes. – In Perrow, M., Davis, J.A. (eds.): Handbook
of Ecological Restoration, Cambridge University Press, 184-205.

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