Long Span structures are the structures with span larger than 15-20 meters are regarded to as

long span structures. For Such structures span is unable to be achieved with ordinary R.C.C.
construction. Generally long spans result in flexible, column-free internal spaces, reduces
substructure costs and time to erect the structure.

Long span beams- The use of long span beams results in a range of benefits, including flexible,
column-free internal spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced steel erection times. Many
long span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate the integration of services without
increasing the overall floor depth. Types of Long Span Beams • Parallel Beam Approach •
Composite Beams with Web Openings • Cellular Composite Beams • Tapered Girders •
Haunched Composite Beams

Parallel Beam Approach -The parallel beam approach is effective for spans up to around 20 m.
Floor grids comprise two layers of fully continuous beams running in orthogonal directions.
Services running in either direction can be integrated within these two layers, so that services
passing in any direction can be accommodated within the structural floor depth. A further benefit
is that, being fully continuous, the depth of the beams themselves is reduced without incurring
the expense and complexity of rigid, full strength connections.

Composite Beams with Web Openings- Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow
services to pass through the beam. This enables the structural and service zones to occupy the
same space, thereby reducing the effective overall depth of floor construction for a given
spanning capability. Openings may also be formed for aesthetic reasons, for instance with
cambered beams used to support a roof. Composite beams with web openings have been shown
to be a cost effective solution for spans in the range 15-30m.
Cellular Composite Beams-Cellular beams are a form of beam with multiple regular web
openings , formed by splitting two rolled sections longitudinally, to form two Tee sections. The
two Tees, which may not come from the same donor section are then welded together to form an
I-section with web openings which have a characteristic shape (normally, but not necessarily,
circular).

Tapered Girders- Tapered girders can be a cost effective solution in the span range 15 m to 25
m. They are another solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural floor
zone. The depth of the girder increases towards mid-span, where applied moments are greatest,
and thereby facilitating hanging services under the shallower regions near the beam supports. It
is also possible to form web openings in tapered girders in regions of low shear, towards mid-
span. These provide more options for service integration.
Haunched composite beams - Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to
provide moment continuity. The stiffness and strength of the connections mean that the rest of
the span can be shallower (the bending moment diagram is 'lifted' and the effective stiffness of
the beam substantially increased), and services passed under it. In buildings where the services
are likely to need frequent replacement (for example in hospitals), hanging the services under the
beams rather than passing them through holes in the webs, or through a truss, can be
advantageous. Spans in excess of 20-30 m can readily be achieved.

Applications of long span beams-The use of long span beams results in a range of benefits,
which includes flexibility, column-free internal spaces, reduced foundation costs, and
reduced steel erection times. Many long span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate
the integration of services without increasing the overall floor depth.

Long span trusses- A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected

structural elements. The most common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the
floors and internal loading such as services and suspended ceilings, are readily provided. The
main reasons for using trusses are: • Long span • Lightweight • Reduced deflection (compared to
plain members) • Opportunity to support considerable loads. Types of Long Span Trusses: • Pratt
Truss • Warren Truss • North Light Truss • Saw Tooth Truss • Fink Truss

 Pratt Truss-Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 75 m in
span. In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads. This type
of truss is used where gravity loads are predominant. An alternative Pratt truss is shown where
the diagonal members are in tension for uplift loads. This type of truss is used where uplift loads
are predominant, which may be the case in open buildings. It is possible to add secondary
members to: •Create intermediate support points for applied loads •Limit the buckling length of
members in compression. as Aircraft hangers.
Warren Truss- In this type of truss, diagonal members are alternatively in tension and in
compression. The Warren truss has equal length compression and tension web members, and
fewer members than a Pratt truss. A modified Warren truss may be adopted where additional
members are introduced to provide a node at (for example) purlin locations. Warren trusses are
commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in span. This type of truss is
also used for the horizontal truss of gantry/crane girders.
North Light Truss- North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in industrial
workshop-type buildings. They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the
use of glazing on the steeper pitch which generally faces north or north-east to reduce solar gain.
On the steeper sloping portion of the truss, it is typical to have a truss running perpendicular to
the plane of the North Light truss, to provide large column-free spaces. Fink Truss: The Fink
truss offers economy in terms of steel weight for short-span high-pitched roofs as the members
are subdivided into shorter elements. There are many ways of arranging and subdividing the
chords and internal members. This type of truss is commonly used to construct roofs in houses.
Fink Truss-The Fink truss offers economy in terms of steel weight for short-span high-pitched
roofs as the members are subdivided into shorter elements. There are many ways of arranging
and subdividing the chords and internal members. This type of truss is commonly used to
construct roofs in houses.
Applications of long span truss-The most common use of trusses is in buildings, where
support to roofs, the floors and internal loading such as services and suspended ceilings, are
readily provided. The main reasons for using trusses are:

 Long span
 Lightweight
 Reduced deflection (compared to plain members)
 Opportunity to support considerable loads.

Trusses are used in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a requirement for very long
spans, such as in airport terminals, aircraft hangers, sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and
other leisure buildings. Trusses are also used to carry heavy loads and are sometimes used as
transfer structures. This article focuses on typical single storey industrial buildings, where trusses
are widely used to serve two main functions:
 To carry the roof load
 To provide horizontal stability.
Two types of general arrangement of the structure of a typical single storey building are
shown in the figure below.

Lateral stability provided by portal trusses.

Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and vertical cross bracings (blue)
No longitudinal wind girder.

Building braced in both directions.

Lateral stability provided by longitudinal wind girder and vertical bracings in the gables (blue)
Longitudinal stability provided by transverse wind girder and vertical bracings (green)
In the first case (left) the lateral stability of the structure is provided by a series of portal trusses;
the connections between the truss and the columns provide resistance to a global bending
moment. Loads are applied to the portal structure by purlins and side rails.

In the second case, (right) each truss and the two columns between which it spans, constitute a
simple structure; the connection between the truss and a column does not resist the global
bending moment, and the two column bases are pinned. Bracing in both directions is necessary
at the top level of the simple structure; it is achieved by means of a longitudinal wind girder which
carries the transverse forces due to wind on the side walls to the vertical bracing in the gable
walls. Longitudinal stability is also provided by a wind girder in the roof and vertical bracing in the
elevations.

Portal Frames- A portal frame building comprises a series of transverse frames braced
longitudinally. The primary steelwork consists of columns and rafters, which form portal frames,
and bracing. The end frame (gable frame) can be either a portal frame or a braced arrangement
of columns and rafters. The light gauge secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and
purlins for the roof. The secondary steelwork supports the building envelope, but also plays an
important role in restraining the primary steelwork. Portal frames can span from 20-100m.

Types of portal frames

Many different forms of portal frames may be constructed. Frame types described below give an
overview of types of portal construction with typical features illustrated. This information only
provides typical details and is not meant to dictate any limits on the use of any particular
structural form.
Pitched roof symmetric portal frame
Generally fabricated from UB sections with a substantial eaves haunch section, which may be
cut from a rolled section or fabricated from plate. 25 to 35 m are the most efficient spans.

Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor

Office accommodation is often provided within a portal frame structure using a partial width
mezzanine floor.
The assessment of frame stability must include the effect of the mezzanine; guidance is given
in SCI P292.

Crane portal frame with column brackets

Where a travelling crane of relatively low capacity (up to say 20 tonnes) is required, brackets can
be fixed to the columns to support the crane rails. Use of a tie member or rigid column bases
may be necessary to reduce the eaves deflection.
The spread of the frame at crane rail level may be of critical importance to the functioning of the
crane; requirements should be agreed with the client and with the crane manufacturer.
Tied portal frame
In a tied portal frame the horizontal movement of the eaves and the bending moments in the
columns and rafters are reduced. A tie may be useful to limit spread in a crane-supporting
structure.
The high axial forces introduced in the frame when a tie is used necessitate the use of second-
order software when analysing this form of frame.

Mono-pitch portal frame
A mono pitch portal frame is usually chosen for small spans or because of its proximity to other
buildings. It is a simple variation of the pitched roof portal frame, and tends to be used for smaller
buildings (up to 15 m span).

Propped portal frame
Where the span of a portal frame is large and there is no requirement to provide a clear span, a
propped portal frame can be used to reduce the rafter size and also the horizontal shear at the
foundations.

Mansard portal frame
A mansard portal frame may be used where a large clear height at mid-span is required but the
eaves height of the building has to be minimised.

Curved rafter portal frame

Portal frames may be constructed using curved rafters, mainly for architectural reasons. Because
of transport limitations rafters longer than 20 m may require splices, which should be carefully
detailed for architectural reasons.
The curved member is often modelled for analysis as a series of straight elements. Guidance on
the stability of curved rafters in portal frames is given in SCI P281.
Alternatively, the rafter can be fabricated as a series of straight elements. It will be necessary to
provide purlin cleats of varying height to achieve the curved external profile.
Cellular beam portal frame
Rafters may be fabricated from cellular beams for aesthetic reasons or when providing long
spans. Where transport limitations impose requirement for splices, they should be carefully
detailed, to preserve the architectural features.
The sections used cannot develop plastic hinges at a cross-section, so only elastic design is
used.

APPLICATIONS-
The main objective of this form of design is to reduce bending moment in the beam, which allows
the frame to act as one structural unit.
Portal Frames are generally used for single storey construction which require a large
unobstructed floor space i.e., A.Factories B.Shopping Centres C.Warehouses They are very
efficient for enclosing large volumes, therefore they are often used for industrial, storage, retail
and commercial applications as well as for agricultural purposes.

Advantages There are following advantages of portal frames.  Portal frames are easy to
construct than walls or any other structures. It require less time to construct the portal frames. 
They are economic in nature. The cost of maintenance is low.  They provide good floor to
ceiling heights.  Portal frames saves time and money.  Portal frames are easily available at all
the places.  It is easy to carry the Portal frame's equipment's from one place to another place.
The material is easy to carry from one place to another place.  Portal frame structures provide
good ventilation and lighting.

Disadvantages Following are some limitations of the portal frames.  It is not easy to build
the portal frame anywhere. They can be constructed only hill, valley, and sloppy areas. 
Sometime, they also depends on the type of structure. Building shape should be square,
rectangular only. Roof pitch should be shallow, steep, mono-pitch.  We cannot construct any
structure above the portal frames. It is very difficult to construct structure above the portal frame,
due to its sloppy head.  Only skilled workers are required to construct the portal frames.  The
strength of portal frame structure is less than RCC structure. It is very difficult to compare it with
the reinforcement structure.  More accuracy required to build these types of structures. The
portal frames are placed at regular intervals. A portal frame consists of vertical member called
Columns and top member which may be horizontal, curved or pitched. The vertical and top
members built monolithically are considered as rigidly connected. They are used in the
construction of large sheds, bridges and viaducts. The base of portal frame may be hinged or
fixed. The portal frames are spaced at suitable distance and it supports the slab above the top
members. Various forms of RCC portal frames used in practice is shown in Fig.6.1 a) For shed b)
For a Viaduct c) A Mill Bend d) A Two Storeyed Portal Fig. 6.1 The portal frames have high
stability against lateral forces such as wind and earthquake and the moments in the top beam
are also reduced. But at the same time, large moments are induced in the columns which
become more costly. A portal frame is a statically indeterminate structure. In the case of
buildings, the portal frames are generally spaced at intervals of 3 to 4m with a reinforced
concrete slab cast monolithically between the frames. Frames used for ware house sheds and
workshop structures are provided with sloping of purlins and asbestos sheet roofing between the
portal frames. The base of the columns of the portal frames are either fixed or hinged. Generally
the columns having raft or piles are considered as fixed for analysis purpose.