Asso. Prof.Dr.

Mahdi Hatf Kadhum

Note that – A function F( t ) has a limit at point C if and only if the right
hand and the left hand limits at C exist and equal . In symbols :
lim F ( t ) L lim F ( t ) L and lim F ( t ) L
t C t C t C

The limit combinations theorems :

1 ) lim F1 ( t ) F2 ( t ) lim F1 ( t ) lim F2 ( t )
2 ) lim F1 ( t ) * F2 ( t ) lim F1 ( t ) * lim F2 ( t )
F ( t ) lim F1 ( t )
3 ) lim 1 where lim F2 ( t ) 0
F2 ( t ) lim F2 ( t )
4 ) lim k * F1 ( t ) k * lim F1 ( t ) k
Sin
5 ) lim 1
0

provided that is measured in radius

The limits ( in 1 – 4 ) are all to be taken as t and F1( t ) and F2( t ) are
to be real functions .
Thm. -1 : The sandwich theorem : Suppose that f ( t ) g ( t ) h( t ) for all
t C in some interval about C and that f( t ) and h( t ) approaches the
same limit L as t , then :
lim g( t ) L
t C
Infinity as a limit :
1.The limit of the function f( x ) as x approaches infinity is the number L:
lim f ( x ) L . If , given any there exists a number M such that
x

for all x : M x f(x) L .

2. The limit of f( x ) as x approaches negative infinity is the number L :
lim f ( x ) L . If , given any there exists a number N such that
x

for all x : x N f(x) L .

The following facts are some times abbreviated by saying :
a) As x approaches 0 from the right , 1/x tends to .
b) As x approaches 0 from the left , 1/x tends to - .
c) As x tends to , 1/x approaches 0 .
d) As x tends to - , 1/x approaches 0 .
Continuity :
Continuity at an interior point : A function y = f( x ) is continuous at an
interior point C of its domain if : lim f ( x ) f ( C ) .
x C
Continuity at an endpoint : A function y = f( x ) is continuous at a left
endpoint a of its domain if : lim f ( x ) f ( a ) .
x a
A function y = f( x ) is continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain
if: lim f ( x ) f ( b ) .
t b
 Continuous function : A function is continuous if it is continuous at
each point of its domain .
Discontinuity at a point : If a function f is not continuous at a point C ,
we say that f is discontinuous at C , and call C a point of
discontinuity of f .
The continuity test : The function y = f ( x ) is continuous at x = C if
and only if all three of the following statements are true :
1) f ( C ) exist ( C is in the domain of f ) .
2) lim f ( x ) exists ( f has a limit as x ).
x C
3) lim f ( x ) f ( C ) ( the limit equals the function value ) .
x C
Thm.-2 : The limit combination theorem for continuous function :
If the function f and g are continuous at x = C , then all of the
following combinations are continuous at x = C :
1) f g 2 ) f .g 3 ) k .g k 4 ) go f , f o g 5 ) f / g

provided g ( C ) 0
Thm.-3 : A function is continuous at every point at which it has a
derivative . That is , if y = f ( x ) has a derivative f ' ( C ) at x = C ,
then f is continuous at x = C .
EX-12 – Find :
5x3 8x2 x3 a3
1) lim 4 , 2 ) lim 4
x 0 3x 16 x 2 x a x a4
Sin5 x tan 2 y
3) lim , 4 ) lim
x 0 Sin 3 x y 0 3y
Sin 2 x 1
5) lim 2 , 6 ) lim 1 Cos
x 0 2x x x x
3 2
3x 5 x 7 3y 7
7 ) lim 3
, 8 ) lim 2
x 10 x 11 x 5 y y 2
3
x 1 1
9) lim 2 , 10 ) lim
x 2x 7 x 5 x 1 x 1
Sinx
11 ) lim Cos 1 , 12 ) lim Sin Cos(tan x )
x 0 x x 0 2
S0l.-
5x3 8x2 5x 8 0 8 1
1 ) lim 4 2
lim 2
x 0 3x 16 x x 0 3x 16 0 16 2
3 3 2 2
x a ( x a )( x ax a ) a2 a2 a2 3
2 ) lim 4 4
lim 2 2 2 2
x a x a x a( x a )( x a )( x a ) ( a a )( a a ) 4a
Sin5 x Sin5 x
5 lim
5x 5 5x 0 5x 5
3 ) lim .
x 0 Sin 3 x 3 Sin 3 x 3
3 lim
3x 3x 0 3x
 tan 2 y 2 Sin 2 y 1 2
4 ) lim . lim .lim
y 0 3y 3 2 y 0 2 y y 0 Cos 2 y 3
Sin 2 x Sin 2 x 1
5 ) lim 2
2 lim . lim 2
x 0 2x x 2x 0 2x x 0 2x 1
1
6 ) lim 1 Cos 1 Cos0 2
x x
5 7
3 2 3
3x 5x 7 x x3 3
7 ) lim 3
lim
x 10 x 11 x 5 x 11 5 10
10 2 3
x x
3 7
3y 7 y y2 0
8 ) lim 2 lim 0
y y 2 y 2 1
1
y2
1
3 1
x 1 x3 1
9 ) lim 2
lim
x 2x 7x 5 x 2 7 5 0
2 3
x x x
1 1
10 ) lim
x 1
x 1 1 1
Sinx
11 ) lim Cos 1 Cos 1 lim Sinx Cos0 1
x 0 x x 0 x

12 ) lim Sin Cos(tan x ) Sin Cos(tan 0 ) Sin Cos0 Sin 1

x 0
2 2 2 2

EX-13- Test continuity for the following function :

x2 1 1 x 0
2x 0 x 1
f(x) 1 x 1
2x 4 1 x 2
0 2 x 3
Sol.- We test the continuity at midpoints x = 0 , 1 , 2 and endpoints x = -1 , 3 .
At x 0 f ( 0 ) 2* 0 0
lim f ( x ) lim( x 2 1 ) 1
x
0 x 0
lim f ( x ) lim 2 x 0 lim f ( x )
x 0 x 0 x 0
Since lim f ( x ) doesn' t exist
x 0
Hence the function discontinuous at x 0
At x 1 f (1) 1
lim f ( x ) lim 2 x 2
x 1 x 1
lim f ( x ) lim ( 2 x 4) 2 lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
Since lim f ( x ) f (1)
x 1

Hence the function is discontinuous at x 1

At x 2 f(2) 2* 2 4 0
lim f ( x ) lim( 2 x 4 ) 0
x 2 x 2
lim f ( x ) lim 0 0 lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
Since lim f ( x ) f(2) 0
x 2

Hence the function is continuous at x 2

At x 1 f ( 1 ) ( 1 )2 1 0
lim f ( x ) lim ( x 2 1 ) 0 f ( 1)
x 1 x 1

Hence the function is continuous at x 1

At x 3 f(3) 0
lim f ( x ) lim 0 0 f(3)
x 3 x 3

Hence the function is continuous at x 3

EX-14- What value should be assigned to a to make the function :

x2 1 x 3
f(x) continuous at x = 3 ?
2 ax x 3
Sol. –
4
lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) lim ( x 2 1) lim 2ax 8 6a a
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 3
 Problems – 1

1. The steel in railroad track expands when heated . For the track
temperature encountered in normal outdoor use , the length S of a piece
of track is related to its temperature t by a linear equation . An
experiment with a piece of track gave the following measurements :
t 1 65 o F , S 1 35 ft
t 2 135 o F , S 2 35.16 ft
Write a linear equation for the relation between S and t .
(ans.: S=0.0023t+34.85)

2. Three of the following four points lie on a circle center the origin . Which
are they , and what is the radius of the circle ?
A(-1.7) , B(5,-5) , C(-7,5) and D(7,-

3. A and B are the points (3,4) and (7,1) respectively . Use Pythagoras
theorem to prove that OA is perpendicular to AB . Calculate the slopes of
OA and AB , and find their product . (ans.: 4/3, - -1)

4. P(-2,-4) , Q(-5,-2) , R(2,1) and S are the vertices of a parallelogram . Find

the coordinates of M , the point of intersection of the diagonals and of S.
(ans.: M(0,-3/2) , S(5,-1))
5. Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the line 3x-7y+4 =0 , and the
axes . (ans.: 8/21)

6. Find the equation of the straight line through P(7,5) perpendicular to the
straight line AB whose equation is 3x + 4y -16 = 0 . Calculate the length of
the perpendicular from P and AB. (ans.: 3y-

7. L(-1,0) , M(3,7) and N(5,-2) are the mid-points of the sides BC , CA and AB
respectively of the triangle ABC. Find the equation of AB. (ans.:4y=7x-43)

8. The straight line x – y – 6 = 0 cuts the curve y2 = 8x at P and Q . Calculate

the length of PQ . (ans.:16

9. A line is drawn through the point (2,3) making an angle of 45o with the
positive direction of the x-axis and it meets the line x = 6 at P . Find the
distance of P from the origin O , and the equation of the line through P
perpendicular to OP. (ans.: -85=0)

10. The vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD are A(4,0) , B(14,11) , C(0,6) and
D(-10,-5) . Prove that the diagonals AC and BD bisect each other at right
angles , and that the length of BD is four times that of AC .
11. The coordinates of the vertices A, B and C of the triangle ABC are (-3,7)
, (2,19) and (10,7) respectively :
a) Prove that the triangle is isosceles.
b) Calculate the length of the perpendicular from B to AC , and use it to
find the area of the triangle . (ans.:12,78)

12. Find the equations of the lines which pass through the point of
intersection of the lines x - 3y = 4 and 3x + y = 2 and are respectively
parallel and perpendicular to the line 3x + 4y = 0 .
-4x+7=0)

13. Through the point A(1,5) is drawn a line parallel to the x-axis to meet at B
the line PQ whose equation is 3y = 2x - 5 . Find the length of AB and the
sine of the angle between PQ and AB ; hence show that the length of the
perpendicular from A to PQ is 18/ . Calculate the area of the triangle
formed by PQ and the axes . (ans.:9,2/

x2 2
14. Let y , express x in terms of y and find the values of y for
x2 1
y 2
which x is real . (ans.: x ;y 2 or y 1 )
y 1

15. Find the domain and range of each function :

1 1 1
a) y , b ) y , c ) y
1 x2 1 x 3 x
( ans . : a ) x ,0 y 1; b ) x 0 , y 0 ; c ) x 3, y 0 )

16. Find the points of intersection of x2 = 4y and y = 4x . (ans.:(0,0),(16,64))

17. Find the coordinates of the points at which the curves cut the axes :
a ) y x 3 9 x 2 , b ) y ( x 2 1 )( x 2 9 ) , c ) y ( x 1 )( x 5 ) 2
(ans.:a)(0, -1,0),(3,0),(- -1,0),(5,0))

18. Let f(x) = ax + b and g(x) = cx + d . What condition must be satisfied by

the constants a , b , c and d to make f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) identical ?
(ans.:ad+b=bc+d)
19. A particle moves in the plane from (-2,5) to the y-axis in such away that
= 3* . Find its new coordinates . (ans.:(0,11),(0,-1))

20. If f(x) = 1/x and g(x)=1/ , what are the domain of f , g , f+g , f-g , f.g ,
f/g , g/f , fog and gof ? What is the domain of h(x) = g(x+4) ?
( ans . : x 0 , x 0 , x 0 , x 0 , x 0 , x 0 , x 0 , x 0 , x 0 ; x 4)
21. Discuss the continuity of :
1
x for x 0
x
x3 for 0 x 1
f(x)
1 for 1 x 2
1 for x 2
0 for x 2

22. Evaluate the following limits :

x Sinx 1 Sinx
a ) lim b ) lim
x 2x 5 x x
x x .Sinx
c ) lim d ) lim
x 0 tan 3 x x ( x Sinx ) 2
1 x x 1 2x
e ) lim f ) lim
x 1 1 x x 1 x2 x
g ) lim ( n 2 1 n )
n
(ans.:a)1/2, b)0, c)1/3, d)0, e)1/2, f)-1/2 g)0)

f(x)
for x 3
23. Suppose that : f(x) = x – 3x -4x +12 and h( x )
3 2
x 3 .
k for x 3
Find : a) all zeros of f .
b) the value of k that makes h continuous at x=3 .
( ans . : a ) x 2 ,3 ; b )k 5)