MODELS

OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Objectives
At the end of this activity you should be able to:

o Explain what photons are, and be able to calculate their energies given either their
frequency or wavelength.

o Order the common kinds of radiation (UV, visible light, infrared) in the
electromagnetic spectrum according to their wavelengths or energy.

o Calculate the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation given its frequency or its
frequency given its wavelength.

o Be able to compare and contrast different models for the hydrogen atom.

o Distinguish between conceptual and physical models.

o Discuss how the emission spectrum of hydrogen gas was used to support (or
refute) a given atomic model.

o Explain how electronic transitions between quantized energy-levels are
responsible for the emission of photons of light with different energies.

o Collect emission data and apply atomic models to explain the electronic structure
of elements like hydrogen and helium.

These objectives may be assessed on Quiz 4 & 5, and the Final Exam.


INTRODUCTION
When light from the Sun or white light is passed through a prism it produces a
“rainbow” of different colors. This has been known for centuries, with Isaac Newton
making significant advances in the area of “Opticks” in the 1700’s by investigating how
light is reflected, refracted, dispersed, etc.




However, something very different occurs when light from a single element is emitted
and passed through a prism. In this case only a small number of discrete lines are
observed. Even more remarkably, the pattern of these lines is a defining characteristic
of each element. What happens when light is emitted from an element like hydrogen?
As you will see in this investigation, the answering of this question has led to profound
insights into the electronic structure of the atom and, in turn, our modern
understanding of chemistry.

The emission of photons (particles of light) from atoms is thought to occur in the
following way: First, the atom absorbs energy and an electron moves to a higher energy
level, or “excited state”. When the electron eventually returns to a lower energy state
energy is released. The specific amount of energy released corresponds to the difference
between the energy levels. When this energy difference corresponds to visible light then
our eyes can observe the photons. It is also possible the emitted photons will have
energies we cannot see, such as in the infrared or ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Atoms can absorb energy in various forms (heat, electrical,
radiant) and subsequently emit photons. In this investigation, you will complete
activities that involve radiant energy (photons of light).

SCIENTIFIC MODELS
What is a scientific model? Sometimes scientists construct physical models that
represent an object on a different scale. Models of an amoeba or bacterium (things very
small made larger) or the solar system (something very large made smaller) are
examples of physical models.
Scientists also devise conceptual models. A weather map is an example of a conceptual
model. The weather map communicates some aspects of the weather, e.g. the
temperature, areas of high and low pressure, precipitation, etc. It allows one to make
predictions (will in rain in Pasadena tomorrow?) and makes sense of a complex system.
It is not, however, a physical representation. Atomic models are conceptual. They
aim to communicate different characteristics and make predictions for something that
cannot be directly observed.

PhET SIMULATION: MODELS OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
One of the most tantalizing puzzles at the beginning of the 1900s was how to describe the
atom. Earlier you learned about sub-atomic particles like protons, neutrons and
electrons. With this activity you will continue your own exploration.

This begins by first observing a simulated light spectrum of hydrogen. You will then look
at spectra predicted by different models of the atom. The models you will test include:

• John Dalton’s Billiard Ball
model
• J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding
model
• Ernest Rutherford’s Classical
Solar System model
• Niels Bohr’s Shell model
• Louis deBroglie’s Electron
Wave model
• Erwin Schrodinger’s Quantum
Mechanical model

PROCEDURE AND QUESTIONS
Start the Models of the Hydrogen Atom simulation.
1. Turn on the White light gun. The white light is shining into a transparent box
containing hydrogen gas. This is the ?-box. The gas molecules have been
separated so hydrogen atoms are present, but the scientists cannot see
these individual atoms (hence the “?”). It is possible, however, to send
light into the box and record the light that is emitted from the box.
2. To record the photons of light emitted from the transparent box check the Show
Spectrometer box. Notice that the color of the photons being emitted from the box
corresponds to a wavelength of UV, visible, or IR radiation.
3. Select Monochromatic light and notice what changes about the incoming photons: they
are now all the same color. A spectrum slider appears that allows you to change the
energy of the incoming photons. What do you notice about the color of the lamp and
photos as you move the slider across the spectrum? How are UV photons represented?
How are IR photons represented? Make note of these representations for use
throughout the activity.

4. Return to White light and slow the incoming photons down as far as you can, so you
can observe them carefully.
5. Most of the light gun photons pass through the box of hydrogen unaffected.
Occasionally something happens in the ?-box and a photon is emitted. This emission is
recorded by the spectrometer.
6. Adjust the photon speed up as fast as it will go and Reset the Spectrometer. Let the
simulation run until the red column is near the top (it will take a couple of minutes).

Then, use the Spectrometer camera to take a snapshot of the Experiment. This is the
experimental emission spectrum for atomic hydrogen.
7. Describe or sketch (in the box below) the experimental emission spectrum for atomic
hydrogen. Include in your description the colors (regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum), estimated wavelengths, and relative numbers of stacked colored balls. These
colored balls correspond to photons emitted by the ?-box.





The emission spectrum for hydrogen is a very important experimental observation used
to support (or refute) different models of the hydrogen atom. Scientists cannot “look”
inside the ?-box of hydrogen and actually see an atom. Instead, they construct theories
and conceptual models to explain observations related to the atom. Models can be tested
with experiments to learn if the model is useful for predicting how nature behaves.

YOUR TASK in this simulation is to examine different models of the hydrogen atom.
You will 1) examine the model, 2) see how the model produces an emission
spectrum for hydrogen, and 3) decide which model agrees best with the
experimental data. It will be helpful to keep the experimental spectrum (the snapshot)
available for comparisons.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

DALTON’S BILLIARD BALL MODEL
8. Earlier you learned that John Dalton proposed that an atom was simply a very tiny
hard ball. To see this simulated, in the top left corner, switch from Experiment to
Prediction.
Use words or a drawing to
describe this model of the
hydrogen atom. What is
the atom like?
What happens when A) The photons are absorbed by the atom.
photons interact with the B) The photons are absorbed, and then other
atom in this model? photons are emitted.
C) The photons divide into smaller photons.
D) The photons deflect off of the atom.

For this model is there an
emission spectrum?



Why do you think the Dalton model does not include electrons?
(Circle all correct answers)
A) Dalton thought electrons were unimportant.
B) Dalton placed electrons in the nucleus.
C) The smallest particle in Dalton’s model is the atom, which is indivisible. It does
not include sub-atomic particles like electrons.
D) Electrons were discovered by J.J. Thomson 50 years after Dalton’s death.

THOMSON’S PLUM PUDDING MODEL
Use words or a drawing to
describe this model of the
hydrogen atom. What is the
atom like?

What happens when photons (Circle all correct answers)
interact with the atom in this A. The photon bounces off of the atom.
model? B. The electron changes position when
struck by the photon.
C. A photon is absorbed and a different
photon is emitted.
D. The positive-charged proton “glue”
interacts with the photon.
E. All emitted photons have the same energy.
Describe the resulting
emission spectrum. Is it
“right”?
(You should let the simulation
run for ~1 minute with white
light, then take a snapshot &
save it).



RUTHERFORD’S CLASSICAL SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
Describe this model of the (Circle all correct answers)
hydrogen atom. What is A. There is a nucleus containing a proton.
the atom like? B. There is an electron circling the nucleus, like a
planet around the Sun.
C. The electron looks like a wave.

The Classical Solar System Model has a significant shortcoming: The atom is not stable!
The electron loses energy, spirals into the nucleus and the atom is destroyed. In this
model, atoms should not exist.
BOHR’S MODEL
12. Switch to the Bohr model, click on Show electron energy level in the upper right
hand corner, and set the speed to Slow.
NOTE: The following questions are critical to you understanding the Bohr model.
Take your time, discuss them with classmates, and ask questions!
Describe this model of the (Circle all correct answers)
hydrogen atom. What is A) There is a nucleus where the proton resides.
the atom like? B) There is an electron in motion in a circular orbit.
C) There are several possible orbits the electron
may follow.
D) All of the above.
What happens when
photons interact with the
atom? Does the electron
move?


Describe the resulting
emission spectrum. Is it
“right”?

(You should let the
simulation run for ~5
minutes on fast to
compare with the
experimental spectrum,
then take a snapshot &
save it).


In the Bohr model, electrons can exist only at certain energy levels (also called shells), not at
any energy levels between them. Shells in this energy diagram go from 1 to 6. An increase
in energy level (say from 1 ! 6) can only occur if a photon of incoming light is absorbed. A
decrease in energy level (say from 2 ! 1) is accompanied by the emission of a photon
as the excited electron releases its excess energy.

13. In the Help menu, select Transition, then fill in the missing entries:

Transition between n levels Wavelength (nm) UV, visible, or IR?
(Look at the spectrometer)
1 ⇔ 2 122 UV

1 ⇔ 4 97 UV


2 ⇔ 3 655 Visible


2 ⇔ 6 410 Visible
3 ⇔ 4 1876 IR

3 ⇔ 6 1094

4 ⇔ 6 IR
5 ⇔ 6 IR

14. Click on Show electron energy level diagram. Sketch the electron energy levels,
paying attention to the spacing of the energy levels. Include the n-value for each
energy level. The “n” is the principal quantum number.















15. Set the Light Controls to Monochromatic and select a wavelength of 122 nm (it’s
easiest to type this into the box). This provides photons of just the right energy to
raise (excite) the electron from n=1 to n=2 shell (1! 2 transition).

What happens to the electron in the atom?


What happens to the energy level diagram?



What happens to the spectrometer? (You may need to reset the spectrometer).






16. Repeat this analysis with the light source set to 103 nm. This provides photons of just
the right energy to raise (excite) the electron from n=1 to n=3 shell (1! 3 transition).
What do you observe?






17. Just to make sure you understand this model, set the light source to 97 nm. This
provides photons of just the right energy to raise (excite) the electron from n=1 to
n=4 shell (1! 4 transition). Explain how the atom diagram, the energy level diagram,
and the spectrometer views are related.








18. Set the light source to 656 nm. This corresponds to a transition from 2!3. What
happens? Why?




THE DE BROGLIE MODEL
Louis de Broglie was the first atomic theorist to incorporate the ideas of Planck and Einstein
that electrons can exhibit properties of both waves & particles. The de Broglie hypothesis is
that any moving particle or object has an associated wave character. He created a new field
in physics called wave mechanics, uniting the physics of light and matter. For this he won
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929. Among the applications of this work has been the
development of electron microscopes.

19. Set the Light Controls back to White to investigate the de Broglie Electron Wave
model. Compare and contrast the de Broglie and Bohr models of the hydrogen atom;
Be able to discuss what is the same and different about them.

Describe this model of the (Circle all correct answers)
hydrogen atom. What is A. The proton (in the nucleus) is in the center of
the atom like? How does the atom.
it include waves? B. The electron is a particle.
(NOTE: there is a pull- C. The electron is a wave.
down menu to change D. The electron is in motion.
from the radial view)
What happens when
photons interact with the
atom?



Compare the energy-level
diagram with that of the
Bohr model.

Describe the resulting
emission spectrum. Is it
“right”?

(Let the simulation run
for a few minutes to
compare with the
experimental spectrum,
then take a snapshot
and save it).




THE SCHRÖDINGER MODEL
Erwin Schrödinger began working on wave mechanics in 1925. His interest was sparked by
a footnote in a paper by Albert Einstein. Like de Broglie, he began to think about explaining
the movement of an electron in an atom as a wave. In 1926 he published his work, providing
a theoretical basis for the atomic model that Bohr had proposed. The equation at the heart
of his publication became known as Schrödinger's wave equation.

Describe this model of the (Circle all correct answers)
hydrogen atom. What is A. There is a nucleus.
the atom like? B. The electron is a particle in a well-defined
orbit.
C. The position of the electron is represented in
an ambiguous manner. Different areas are
shaded.
What happens when
photons interact with the
atom?

Sketch the energy levels
Are the energy levels Bohr model Schrödinger Model
different when compared
with the Bohr model?






Describe the resulting
emission spectrum. Is it
“right”?

(Let the simulation run
for a few minutes to
compare with the
experimental spectrum,
then take a snapshot).

What atomic model best agrees with the experimental emission spectrum
for atomic hydrogen?


APPENDIX: ENERGY CALCULATIONS

Common calculations involve converting between energy, frequency, and
wavelength. The following are useful expressions:
E=hν Planck’s relationship for the energy of a photon where h = 6.63x10-34 J s.
c=λν The speed of a wave is equal to the product of the wavelength x frequency,
1 nm = 1x10-9 m
The speed of light c= 3.00x108 m/s in a vacuum.

If a photon of monochromatic
light has a wavelength of 94 nm,
what is its frequency (expressed
in units of s-1)?
What is the energy of this
photon (in joules)?


What is the energy of 1 mol of
these photons (in kJ/mol)?