Chapter 4 – Railway Track Structure

CENG 5271 - Railway Engineering

Mequanent Mulugeta
AAiT ([email protected])
 The Railway Track
The railway system is a complex system: it is often a mixture of
components of different age and status that have to work together in a
system.
• The railway track has to guide the trains in a safe and economic
manner.
Track as a System

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Components of Track Structure

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 Function of Track Structure

The railway track has to fulfil two main functions:

 To guide the train directionally with safety
 To carry and distribute the train load to the subgrade

Requirements of track:
 guide vehicles without risk of derailment
 take up vertical and horizontal/lateral vehicle forces
 Support off-load forces via the track grid and ballast bed into
the subsoil
 ensure high passenger comfort and
 high availability for train traffic.
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 Train Guidance Function
• The two wheels of a wheel set are rigidly connected to the wheel
axle.
• The wheel profiles are conical in order to steer the wheel set.
• Normally, the wheel set has eccentricity and due to Conicity of
the wheel set, wheel have different rolling radius to the other.

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 Guidance Function
The rolling radius difference with respect to the wheel conicity.

Case A: The wheel set Case C: The wheel set on

exactly at the centerline. a left curve

Case B: The wheel set

on a right curve

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 Wheel-Rail Contact

• When two bodies (wheel and rail) comes into

contact stresses and deformations develop
• A large force from the first body (wheel) is
transferred to the second body (rail) through
a small contact region about 1sq.cm

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 Phenomena in the wheel-rail interface

• High vertical, lateral and longitudinal contact forces, induce

stresses that may cause material yielding and fatigue
• Rolling contact forces combined with friction induce wear
• Traction and braking may lead to wheel sliding leading to
• rail burns and wheel flats
• unfavorable material phase transformation
• thermal cracks

These phenomena may cause irregularities;

→ poor vehicle dynamics
→ further increase in contact forces
→ increase in vibration and noise
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 Contact types
1. Conformal Contacts
 the two bodies fit closely together without deformation
 The contact area is larger
 In wheel-rail application the two bodies could have a
conformal contact if they both have similar profile at the
contact area (ex. contact between the gauge corner of Conforming
the rail with the wheel throat)

2. Non-conforming Contacts
 Non-conformal: contact between two dissimilar profiles
 The contact is a point/a line contact without deformation
 The contact area is generally small compared to the
dimension of the bodies in contact
 The stress/deformation is locally at the contact region
 In wheel-rail application the two bodies often have a
non-conformal contact (ex. contact between the rail head
and wheel tread) Non-Conforming
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 Wheel – rail interaction

 Loads are transferred from the wheel into the rail

− The area of contact (about 0.5 sq. inch) is called the “contact patch”
− The contact geometry is Ellipsoidal area with Ellipsoidal contact
stress distribution
 Patch size related to wheel diameter
− Larger wheels have a bigger patch
− Reduction in contact stress with larger patch
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 Wheel – rail interaction
Factors which determine the contact phenomenon;

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 The wheel – rail contact

Region A:
– wheel tread-rail head contact,
– most common contact region,
– lower contact stress

Region B:
• wheel flange-rail gauge corner,
• much smaller contact area and more severe,
• higher contact stresses and wear rates Wheel-rail contact zones
(Tournay, 2001)
Region C:
• wheel and rail field sides contact,
• Least likely contact region,
• High contact stress,
• Undesirable wear lead to incorrect steering of wheelset.
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 Wheel – Rail contact
→ In wheel-rail interaction, the two bodies generally have a non-conformal
contact.

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The wheel-rail contact problems

1) The Contact geometry -The

location of the contact point
depend on the relative position of
the wheelset with respect to the rail
and the two bodies profile and
contact angle.

2) The Contact forces - normal and

tangential contact forces (stresses)
from the wheel load are
transferred at a small contact
patch, in one or several contact
locations.

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 Normal Contact
• The contact patch between a wheel and a rail is typically the size of
a small coin and its shape depends on the geometry of both bodies.
• The theory of Hertz can be used as an approximation.
• It gives an elliptical shape for the distribution of the normal force.

According to Hertz theory, the normal pressure is distributed as an

ellipsoid over the elliptic contact area with semi-axes a and b.

The equation of the ellipse

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 Normal contact
• The ratio of the semi-axes A = a/b depends on the curvature of
the wheel and the rail, and on the angle between the principal
axes irrespective of the wheel load.
• The contact area increases with the wheel load but the ratio a/b
remains constant.

Hertz Theory Assumptions:

- Frictionless surfaces
- Continuous and non-conformal surfaces
- Very small contact area as compared to bulk volume of two bodies
- High contact stress as compared to other stresses
- Small strain and displacement and elastic deformation
- Constant radii of curvature
- Homogeneous and isotropic material
- Each body regarded as elastic-half-space bounded by plane (z=0)-2D

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 Normal contact- Hertz
• For solving the ratio A the auxiliary quantity Θ
is equated with the complete elliptic integrals

The contact geometry is

defined by a parameter Θ

where: rx1, rx2 and ry1, ry2 are the principal radii of
curvature in the x- and y-directions of the first and
the second body. The angle between the principal
planes is denoted φ

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 Normal contact- Hertz
 The semi-axes of the contact area, a and b, and the elastic deformation at the center

Where, G is the shear modulus and υ is Poisson’s ratio

 According to Hertz, the normal contact pressure

distribution is:

 Integrating the normal pressure distribution to give the total normal force, N

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 Normal contact- Hertz
 The ellipsoidal Hertz normal stress distribution
at the surface Pz(x , y) is expressed by:

 The semi-axes of the contact area, a and b, and the

elastic deformation at the center (from the table)

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Elastic deformation at the center Table

𝐸 𝐸
G= K=
2(1 + 𝜈) 3(1 − 2𝜈)

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 Example 1:
The material parameters are E= 210 GPa and v =0.3, tangent track
with rx2= ∞.
Wheel radius is rx1 and radii of wheel and rail profile at the contact
are ry1 and ry2

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 Example 2: Given parameters
Wheel-rail conformal contact at rail edge; N = 110 kN
The material parameters are E= 210 GPa and v =0.3
Wheel radius rx1 = 460mm. rail radii rx2 = ∞; ry2 = 13 mm
The semi axes a and b, the maximum pressure and the maximum von
Mises stress and the location below the surface

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Normal Contact

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 Hertz Spring
 For dynamic analysis - Hertz Linearized about the static
constant (wheel-rail contact stiffness) condition with a Hertzian contact
is of Importance spring stiffness kH
 On account of the contact geometry,
the relationship between force and
deformation of the contact surface is
not linear Where;
 The force-deformation can be N 0 static force
described as corresponding indentation

Where;
CH is a constant depending on the contact
surfacesradii and the material properties

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 Hertz spring
 Assuming a circular contact area, with zero curvature of the
wheel profile, a simple formula can be used as Hertzian constant

Where:
E modulus of elasticity
v Poisson’s ration
N static wheel load
Rw, Rr wheel and rail head radii

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 Conicity
 The steering mechanism of the wheelset is due to the equivalent
Conicity (the rolling radius difference between the left and the right
wheels)

𝛥𝑟
Conicity, 𝜆 =
𝛥𝑦
𝑟𝑙 −𝑟𝑟
Equivalent Conicity, 𝜆𝑒𝑞 =
2𝛥𝑦

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Role of Conicity

Constant Angular Velocity

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 Perfect Curving
An idealized conical wheelset displaced laterally on cylindrical rails
If the flangeway clearance
is exceeded then perfect
curving cannot occur and
flange contact will take
place

For perfect curving:

Where;
• r0 = the radius when the wheelset is central
• b = half the gauge
• R = the radius of the curve
• 𝜆= the conicity of wheel tread (inclination)
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 Example
1. A wheel with straight cones will have a conicity the same as the cone inclination
tan 𝛌 = 𝛌. For the following data find the lateral displacement needed to achieve
a perfect radial steering: rolling radius r = 0.5, 𝛌=0.05 (inclination 1:20), b =0.75
and R = 500m
Solution; For a perfect curving;

→ 15 mm lateral displacement is needed to achieve perfect radial steering

2. The cone inclination, 𝛌=0.25 (inclination 1:4), find the lateral displacement
needed to achieve a perfect radial steering.
For a perfect curving

Only 3 mm lateral
displacement would
be sufficient to
achieve perfect A rolling radius difference of
radial steering 1.5mm needed.
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 Influences of Conicity
Conicity has important influence on;
1. Vehicle stability – high conicity give rise to wheelset/bogie
hunting instability
2. Curving behaviour – high conicity gives more steering of
wheelset in curves
3. Vehicle ride – high conicity makes the wheelset more
susceptible to lateral track geometric imperfections

The conicity can be increased by;

→ tightening of track gauge
→ flattening of rail and reducing rail inclination

→ increasing of wheel tread inclination, tread hollowness

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 "Hunting" Motion
• Speed, car body resonance, and suspension characteristics
contribute
– Loaded hunting attributable to high conicity conditions
– Threshold speed increases with worn wheels (less conicity)
• Rail wear is a factor of conicity (flattened rail leads to less
conicity)
• Sinusoidal path. Wheels have same velocity, but different radii.

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 Klingel movement (Kinematic wheelset movement)
• Can lead to rail wear, wheel flange wear, and wide gauge
• Derailment risk

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2. Load carrying function of Track
Track Loads
The requirements for the bearing strength and quality of the
track depend to a large extent on the load parameters:
1. The static axle load level, to which the dynamic increment
is added, in principle determines the required strength of the
track.
2. The accumulated tonnage is a measure that determines the
deterioration of the track quality and as such provides an
indication of when maintenance and renewal are necessary.
3. The dynamic load component which depends on speed and
horizontal and vertical track geometry also plays an essential
part here.

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 Forces on the Track
Classification of Track Loads: • Irregularities of the track
1. Based on the application geometry
 Vertical loads • Discontinuities on the
 Lateral loads (transverse), and running surface
 Longitudinal loads (parallel) (switches, joints)
2. Depending on their nature • Wear of the running
a) Static loads (normally caused surface of the rails
by the vehicle body mass) • Wear of the wheels (out-
b) Quasi-static loads (or dynamic of-round wheels)
ride loads) • Vehicle suspension and
c) Dynamic (dynamic vehicle asymmetries
wheel/rail) loads, which are Dynamic wheel/rail forces
associated with significant are much higher in
track/vehicle irregularities magnitude than quasi-static
(dynamic ride) forces.
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 Vertical track forces
 The vertical load on the rail is made up of

 The maximum wheel load on the outer rail

is composed of the centering force, wind
force and additional dynamic contribution

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 Axle load
 the proportion of the static load of the vehicle supported by
one wheel-set
 The maximum axle load is dependent by the weight of the
rail, the number of sleepers per kilometer, and the thickness of
the ballast

 The largest axle loads on the freight railway in Australia. It has

been increased from 23 t to 37 t and will rise soon to 40 t or
perhaps to 45 t
 Axle is basis for railway classification.
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 Tonnage
• Daily tonnage is also used to express intensity or capacity of a
specific line
• The most heavily loaded sections have a daily load of 60,000 t
• On heavy haul lines, daily tonnage of 300,000 t can occur
• All types of track deteriorations features are expressed as
function of tonnages
– Increase in track geometric deviation such as track settlement
– Increase in rail fracture
– Rail wear and deformation
• Tonnage is often expressed as MGT = million gross tonnes
1 MGT (US) ≈ 9000 MN

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 Quasi-static (Dynamic Ride) Forces
 the sum of the static load and the effect of the static load at speed
 classified in the frequency range between 0.5 and 30 Hz.
 which are associated with reaction to geometrical irregularities in
the track; the centrifugal force and the centring force in curves, and
cross winds
 Typically between 1.4 and 1.6 times the static wheel load before
unbalanced superelevation effects are included.
 Due to the geometrical roughness of the track on vehicle response
and unbalanced superelevation (the effect of the train load not being
distributed evenly over both rails).

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 Dynamic Forces
The Dynamic vertical Wheel/Rail Forces:- P1 and P2 Forces

The P1 Force
 Classified in frequency range between
100 Hz and 2000 Hz duration (b/n ¼ -
½ ms).
 Correspond to surface irregularities
or defects in rails and wheels and
produce strong impact to rail and
wheel. These forces are also called P0 (static load)
impact forces.

 a very high frequency force

occurring after crossing the angular
discontinuity that occurs at the
bottom of the dip and has a very
short duration.
40
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 The Dynamic vertical Wheel/Rail Forces
(P1 and P2 Force)
Adopted by British Rail as design criterion

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 Dynamic force- The P1 Force
Effect of P1 forces
 Rail hammering just after the joint gap and produces high
stresses in the rail web.
 It contributes to bolt hole failures in bolted joints by increasing
the stress range.
 contribute to the cracking of concrete sleepers.
 Its effects are largely filtered out by the rail and sleepers,
 do not directly affect ballast or subgrade settlement.
 they have a great influence on wheel/rail contact behavior.

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 Dynamic forces- P2 Force
 P2 forces are classified in lower frequency range (30 Hz and 100
Hz)
 have a lower-amplitude and longer-duration than the P1 forces.
 The peak force occurs in the area of the first running-off sleeper
after the joint.
 P2 forces therefore increase contact stresses, contribute to the total
stress range experienced by the rail web and at joint bolt holes
 Increase the loads on sleepers and ballast in the immediate
neighborhood of the joint.
 P2 forces are of great interest to the track design engineer.
 P2 forces contribute primarily to the degradation of track
geometry.

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 Static vs. Dynamic Loads
Dynamic loads higher:
→Acceleration from speed
→Downward rotation of wheel increase
→Wheel rotation increase (smaller vs larger wheels)
Example: Speed/wheel influence (AREMA),
Pv = P + θP
Where, Pv= Vertical Dynamic Load (lbs)
D = Wheel diameter (in)
V = Speed (MPH)
P = Static Load (lbs)
𝜃 = amplification factor
 Larger wheels impose less influence
 Additional dynamic loads from impacts such as caused by wheel flat spots,
rail discontinuities (e.g. frog flange ways of switches), track transitions (e.g.
bridge approaches), track condition, etc.
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 Force Limits
Railway organizations around the world have set limits on the
various forces at the wheel / rail contact area.
Vertical Force Limits
 In the vertical direction high forces can cause damage to the rails
and supporting structures and can cause rolling contact fatigue
when combined with high tangential forces such as occur during
traction, braking or curving.
 UIC limits (example)
– a maximum static load of 112.5 kN per wheel and
– a maximum dynamic vertical force per wheel of between 160 kN
and 200 kN, depending on maximum speed (provided this values
does not exceed the static wheel load plus 90 kN).
– In small radius curves (less than 600 m) a limit of 145 kN for the
quasi-static vertical force.
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 Lateral forces
• The total horizontal lateral force exerted by the wheel on the outer
rail is:

• Assuming that the centering and the wind forces act

entirely on the outer rail, the maximum lateral load on
outer rail is:

The total horizontal lateral force is assessed as

 The total lateral force on the track must be resisted by means of:
→ resistance to lateral displacement of the sleepers by the ballast bed
→ horizontal resistance of the track frame (5-10%)
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 Lateral Force Limits
→ In the lateral direction high forces can cause distortion of the track on
ballast-bed.
→ This is normally protected against by using the simple but widely
established PrudHomme limit for the track shifting force at one wheel
set, which can be calculated from the static load (Po force).

Where, Y and P0 are in kN.

Lateral forces of very short
duration are less likely to shift
the track and therefore only
forces that act for more than 2m
of track length are usually
counted. In small radius curves
(less than 600 m) UIC sets a
limit of 60 kN for the quasi-
static lateral force.
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 Y/Q for a wheel flange climbing

 With angle of attack, a lifting force arises

 The harder the flange is pressed against the The force can be divided in to Y-Q forces
rail the higher the lifting force for the flange or friction (lifting force) and normal forces
to climb up The flange starts to climb if the limit
 In many cases the increase in rolling radius 𝐹η = −𝜇𝑁 is reached
will steer the climbing wheel back to radial
and lower lifting force

Higher coefficient of
friction and lower
flange angle increases
the risk of flange
climbing
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 Derailment
 Possibility of wheel climb derailment is indicated by the ratio of the lateral
force Y to vertical force V
 Nadal theory is used to establish limits for the Υ/V derailment ratio with 0,8 as
the limiting value.

 Weinstock Criterion - Summing the absolute values of Y/Q of the two wheels
where the flanging wheel is evaluated by Nadal equation and the non-flanging
wheel represent the friction coefficient

Wheel Unloading:
→ Very low vertical forces at the contact patch can indicate that a vehicle is
tending to derailment by rolling over or by failing to follow twists in the track.
→ In the UK a lower limit of 60% of the static wheel load (i.e., unloading by over
40%) is set. Mequanent M. 49
 Longitudinal forces

• Longitudinal forces:
– May originate from changes in length of track due to
temperature changes – static load
– May originate from braking or acceleration of the rail
vehicle
– Shrinkage stress caused by rail welding
– Track creep
• Track creep:
– Gradual displacement of either rails relative to sleeper or
rail plus sleeper relative to ballast
– On gradients the track creeps downwards

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