DOCUMENT.

RESUME

ED 300 241 SE 049 756

TITLE Biological Science: An Ecological Approach. BSCS

Green Version. Teacher's Edition. Sixth Edition.
INSTITUTION Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Colorado
Springs.
REPORT NO ISBN-0-8403-4181-4
PUB DATE 87
NOTE 1,126p.; For Student Study Guide, see SE 049 755;
Teacher's Resource Book, see SE 049 757. Drawings,
colored print and photographs may not reproduce
well.
AVAILABLE FROM Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 2640 Kerper Blvd.,
Dubuque, IA 52001 ($25.90).
PUB TYPE Books (010) -- Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For
Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF08 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.

DESCRIPTORS *Biological Sciences; Hazardous Materials;
Instructional Materials; *Laboratory Procedures;
School Safety; *Science Activities; Science
Education; Science Experiments; Secondary Education;
*Secondary School Science; *Teaching Methods;
*Textbooks
IDENTIFIERS *Biological Sciences Curr Study Green Version

ABSTRACT
This book is the teacher's adition to the 1987
edition of the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study Green 7ersion
textbook. It contains directions for teaching with this version, a
description of the accompanying materials, teaching strategies by
chapters, lists of useful software, safety guidelines, a materials
list, chemical safety information, and the complete student edition
of the textbook with answers to the exercises. Annotations in the
margins of the text provide objectives, directions for preparation of
materials for activities, suggestions for discussion, and suggestions
for teacher questions. The 25 chapters of this curriculum are
organized into five major sections: (1) "The World of Life: The
Biosphere"; (2) "Continuity in the Biosphere"; (3) "Diversity and
Adaptation in the Biosphere"; (4) "Functioning Organisms in the
Biosphere"; and (5) "Patterns in the Biosphere." Appendices include
laboratory procedures, a list of additional activities, and a
taxonomy of the major groups of living things in the biosphere.
(CW)

***********************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
*************************************************1.*********************
 11

oakinaawr or IEDUCAT1ON-
and Improvernint,
Offfes of Educational Research
RESOURCES INFORMATION
E UCARONAL
-GENIE f FRIO
This document his been reproduced is
received from the person or organization'
rutting it
have been made to Improve
0 Minor changes
reproduction quality
in this door"
Pdirits of view or opinionsstated
represent officsal,
ment do not necessanly
OEM position or policy

::7)EFIMISSION To REPRODUCETHIS
4MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE- ONLY
"WAS BEEN GRANTED BY

4444rit 4/411,"'7_ AR.

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCE.

itiNFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." e.
 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE:

An Ecological
Approach
 '''","P"c1"* '" ''""
.1
re ,
^1'7
et,
 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE:

An Ecological
Approach
Sixth Edition

BSCS Green Version

BSCS
The Colorado College
Colorado Springs, Colorado 80903

1 TEACHER'S EDITION]

Revision Team
Jean P. Milani, BSCS, Revision Coordinator
Frank C. Erk, State University of New York at Stony Brook
Joseph D. McInerney, Director, BSCS
Paul D. McIver, Englewood High School, Eng!-,wood, Colorado
William V. Mayer, President Emeritus, BSCS
Fran Slowiczek, San Diego County Office of Education
Carol Leth Stone, Science Writer, Alameda, California
Gordon E. Uno, University of Oklahoma, Norman

It Indall/c1-hult Publishing Company

2460 Kerber Boulevard P.O. Box 539. Dubuque, Iowa 52001

1 "0
Cover photo by Ken DeQuaine, Middleton,
Wisconsin

Copyright 0 1987 by BSCS

ISBN 0-8403-4181-4
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of
the copyright owner.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contributors BSCS Production Staff
Charles R. Barman, Indiana University at Kokomo. Lynne A. Chase
Anthony A. Hank
Edward Drexler, Pius XI High School, Milwaukee
Thelma G. Hyson
Donald P. Kelley, South Burlington, Vermont Robin J. Miyahara
James L. Koevenig, University of Central Florida, Orlando Douglas J. Robert
William H. Leonrrd, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina Doug Sokell
Don E. Meyer, Boulder, Colorado Brenda L. Vance
Kenneth G. Rainis, Ward's Natural Science Establishment Katherine A. Winternitz
Richard R. Tolman, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
William L. Wissinger, Saint Bonaventure University, Saint
Bonaventure, New York Artists
David A. Zegers, Millersville University, Millersville, Pennsylvania
Carl J. Bandy
Bill Border
Randall E. Kochevar
Content Reviewers Marjorie C. Leggitt
Yates Malmin
Kenneth Andrews, The Colorado College, Colorado Springs Paula Nichols
Robert Blystone, Trinity University, San Antonio
William Cairney, United States Air Force Academy
Jack L Carter, The Colorado College, Colorado Springs
Garrett Hardin, University of California, Santa Barbara
Werner G. Heim, The Colorado College, Colorado Springs
BSCS Administrative Staff
Pat Huwa, Cherry Creek High School, Englewood, Colorado
James L Koevenig, University of Central Florida, Orlando Jane Butler Kahle, Chair, Board of Directors
ho Lindauer, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley Joseph D. McInerney, Director
Lynn Margu lis, Boston University
Raylene Owen, Cherry Creek High School, Englewood,
Colorado
R. Craig Postlewaite,United States Air Force Academy
'Richard S!orey, The Colorado College, Colorado Springs
Sally Swart.4, Cherry Creek High School, Englewood,
Colorado
Gordon E.:Uno, University of Oklahoma, Norman
E. Peter Volpe, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia
Barbara Winternitz, The Colorado College, Colorado Springs
 Acknowledgments

The following teachers contributed comments and suggestions for this edition: Richard Benz,
Wickliffe, OH; Richard Bergholz, Montesano, WA; R. W. Bolin, Wheatridge, CO; Donald
Burger, Shillington, PA; Charlotte Candelaria, Sitka, AK; Stuart M. Caudill, Gastonia, NC;
R. Chapel, San Diego, CA; Robert Cripps, Vicksburg, MS; Kermit J. Daum, Kerby, KS; Ray
Deiss, Bergenfield, NJ; Linda de Kort, Kalispell, MT; Matilda Dunn, Sewanee, TN; James
Enderson, Colorado springs, CO; Charlotte Freeman, Chattanooga, TN; Vernon L. Gilliland,
Liberal, KS; Margaret Graber, Sylvania, OH; Charles R. Gruentze!, Gillett, WI; Richard
Guckert, Marietta, GA; Susan Heberle, Lodi, CA; Orville Heitkamp, Belle Plaine, MN;
Douglass Herman, Sioux City, IA; Karl Hoffman, Rego Park, NY; Michael Hoffman, Colorado
Springs, CO; Patrick Hollis, New Braunfels, TX; Pat Huwa, Englewood, CO; William E.
Jurney, Roseville, MN; W. H. Leonard, Baton Rouge, LA; J. Kenneth Long, Jr., Shippensburg,
PA; Darrel IvIcClelland, Simla, CO; Paul McIver, Englewood, CO; Del McNally, Arvada, CO;
Richard Miller, Gardner, KS; Richard Myers, Portland, OR; Ron Nilson, Morton, WA; Jeffrey
Noblett, Colorado Springs, CO; Joseph Novak, Cornell, NY; Janet O'Leary, Silverton, CO;
Raylene Owen, Englewood, CO; Suresh Pathiki, Andhra Pradesh, India; James Petrait, Ogden,
UT; Roger Popple, Reedsburg, WI; Syed Razvi, Westland, MI; Melinda Reed, Arvada, CO;
Lou Rollenhagen, Palisade, CO; Eugene Schmidt, Fairbanks, AK; Wendy Senger, Kalispell,
MT; Fran Slowiczek, San Diego, CA: Glenn Snyder, Wheat Ridge, CO; M. Southall,
Scottsdale, AZ; Edgar Stuhr, Lexington, MA; Don Tatge, Bloomington, MN; Penny Teeters,
Grand Junction, CO; Frank Turner, Canton, OH; Jack Whitney, Littleton, CO; and Clark
Wilder, Colorado Springs, CO.
 Contents

Foreword xxiii
Preface to the Teacher xxiv
Teaching with the Green Version T1
Teaching Strategies by Chapters T13
Teacher Appendices T60

Section One THE WORLD OF LIFE: THE 14.10S1)11ERE 3

1. The Web of Life 5
2. Populations 29
3. Communities and Ecosystems 63
4. Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 95
.-;edior -No CONTINUITY IN TIIE BIOS1411-111* 125
5. Continuity in Cells 127
6. Continuity through Reproduction 165
7. Continuity through Development 193
8. Continuity through Heredity 223
9. Continuity through Evolution 267
section Three DIVERSIT'I AND AD .P I N-110\ 1% 1111. BIOSPHERE .4O9

'10. Ordering Life in the Biosphere 311

11. Prokaryotes and Viruses 357
12. Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 393
13. Eukaryotes: Plants 437
14. Eukaryotes: Animals 481
Section Four FUNCTIONING ORGANIS11s ftlE BIOSPHERE 531
15. The Human Animal: Food and Energy 533
16. The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 571
17. The Human Animal: Coordination 609
18. The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 645
19. The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 679
Section Five PATTERNS 'IN THE 1310SPHERE 713
20. Selection and Survival 715
21. Ecosystems of the Past 753
22. Biomes Around the World 803
23. Aquatic Ecosystems 853
24. Human-Shaped Ecosystems 893
25. Humankind in the Future 923
Appendix 1 Some General Procedures for the Laboratory 951
Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations 957
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 969

Glossary 995
Index 1015
ix
9
 Detailed Contents

Foreword xxiii Summary 26

Preface to the Teacher xxiv Application Questions 26
Teaching with the Green Version TI Problems 26
Teaching Strategies by Chapters TI3 Suggested Readings 26
',Teacher Appendices T60,
2. Populations 29
Introduction 29
Individuals and Populations 29
Guidepost: How do populations change?
2.1 Individuals are separate packages 29
2.2 Population size depends on interactions among
four factors 30
Investigation 2.1 Population Growth 32
2.3 The human population uses huge amounts of
resources 35
Self-Review 38
Investigation 2.2 Water-A Necessity of Life 39
The Environment and Populations 41
Guidepost: How do environmental factors affect
population size?
2.4 The environment is made up of biotic and
abiotic factors 41
Investigation 2.3 Study of a Population 42
2.5 Many abiotic facto make up the weather 46
2.6 Living things require space to live 46
Section One THE WORLD OF LIFE: THE 2.7 Humans use much farmland for other
BIOSPHERE 3 purposes 48
2.8 Water is a necessity of life 49
I. The Web of Life 5 2.9 Poor sanitation is responsible for the spread of
disease in man parts of the world 50
Introduction 5
2.10 Nutrients are used to make an organism's
Interactions 5 body 52
Guidepost: Why is it difficult to study an organism 2.11 Getting enough of the right kind of food is not
apart from its environment? easy 52
1.1 -Organisms interact with the organisms they Self-Review 55
cat 5
Investigation 1.1 The Powers of Observation 8 Interaction of Environmental Factors 55
Guidepost: What limits the size of a population?
1.2 Plants, animals, and other organisms make up a
food chain 9 2.12 A population is affected by many factors 55
2.13 Any space can support only a limited number of
1.3 The living world tends to be balanced 14
Self-Review 14
individuals 56
Self- Review 58
The Foundations of Life :4
Summary 59
Guidepost: Where do organisms obtain the matter and
energy they require?
Application Questions 59
Problems 59
1.4 All biological activity requires energy 14
Suggested Readings 60
Investigation 1.2 You and the Web of Life /5
1.5 Photosynthesis is a process that supplies food
energy 16
3. Communities and Ecosystems 63
1.6 Matter is used to build the bodies of living Introduction 63
thing 17 Life in a Community 63
Self- Review 19 Guidepost: How do different populations affect each
The Living World and How We Study It 19 other?
Guidepost: How do humans fit into the biosphere? 3.1 Many interactions are indirect 63
1.7 The biosphere is home to all living things 19 Investigation 3.1 Abiotic Environment: A
1.8 A hypothesis is an "educated gucss" that Comparative Study 64
explains an observation 21 3.2 The Florida river community has many
Self-Review 23 interacting populations 66
Investigation 1.3 How Do Flowers Attract Bees? A
Study of Experimental Variables 23

Xi

10
Xii Detailed Contents

3.3 A niche represents all the activities of an 4.8 Plants make and use carbon-containing
organism 68 sugars 107
3.4 Organisms can benefit from or be harmed by 4.9 Carbon cycles within an ecosystem 108
other organisms 68 Self-Review 109
Self-Review 71 Investigation 4.2 Compounds of Living Organisms
Investigation 3.2 Competition Among Species 72 109
4) Ecosystem Structure 75 The Molecules of Life 11I
Guidepost: How are biotic and abiotic znvironmental Guidepost: How arc carbon-containing moiecules
factors related to each other in an ecosystem? important to Hying things?
3.5 The boundaries of an ecosystem are difficult to 4.10 Carbohydrates are used for energy, storage and
determine 75 building Ill
3.6 A change in the abiotic environment causes 4.11 Lipids are efficient energy storage
many changes in the biotic community 76 compounds 113
Investigation 3.3 Effects of Acid Rain on Seed ,Muscles, enzymes and many cell parts are made
Germination 76 of Plefein 114
3.7 Within a community there are generally more 4.13 Enzyme) catalyze cell reactions 115
producers than consumers 78 Investigation 4 :3 A Study of Biochemical Reactions
Self-Review 80 117
Ecosystem Stability and Human Influences 80 4.14 Nucieic acids control the activities of the cell
Guidepost: How do the complex activities of humans
affect ecosystems? Self-Review 121
3.8 An ecosystem with many organisms is usually Summary 121
stable 80 Application Questions 122
3.9 Humans upset the stability of ecosystems 81 Problems 122
3.10 Human activity creates biocide-re.,:stant Suggested Readings 122
organisms 83
3.11 Humans cause the extinction of many
species 84
3.12 Humans can preserve natural areas for the
future 88
Self-Review 90
Summary 91
Application Questions 91
Problems 91
Suggzsted Readings 92

4. Matter and Energy

in the Web of Life 95
Introduction 95
Matter and Energy 95
Guidepost: How are matter and energy related in the
biosphere?
4.1 Atoms are the basic units of matter 95
4.2 Chemical reactions are essential to life 97
Investigation 4.1 Organisms and pH 99
4.3 Energy is used to do work and to make and
maintain order 101 Section Two CONTINUITY IN THE
Self-Review 102 BIOSPHERE 125
Energy for Life 103
Guidepost: What is the source of energy for living
5. Continuity in Cells 127
organisms and how is it used? Introduction 127
4.4 Photosynthesis is the source of you Cells 128
energy 103 Guidepost: How did scientists come to understand the
4.5 Energy is released as food is broken microscopic structure of organisms?
down 103 5.1 Cells are studied with special equipment 128
4.6 Energy is used in small packets 106 5.2 The cell theory unified information about
Self-Review 106 cells 129
Life Is Based on Carbon 107 Self-Review 131
Guidepost: What is the source of matter for living Cell Structure 131
things, and what happens to the matter? Guidepost: What main features do cells have in
4.7 Carbon is found in all living things 107 common?
5.3 Microscopes enable biologists to study cell
structure 131

, 1i
 0

Detailed Contents Xiii

5.4 Cells have both outer and inner 6.12 Mei,_%sis is interrupted in females 183
membranes 134 6.13 Hormones control reproductive cycles 181
5.5 Cells contain different kinds of crganelles 135 6.14 Only one sperm fertilizes an ovum 184
Seh RevieW 140 6.15 Sexual reproduction is similar in plants and
Investigation 5.1 Observing Cells 142 animals 188
Cell Functions 143 Self-Review 188
Guidepost: What principles from the physical sciences Summary
help explain the functions of organisms? Application Questions 189
5.6 Cell activities require energy 143 Problems 189
5.7 Substances move in and out of cells in several Suggested Readings 190
ways 144
5.8 Water follows the rule of diffusion 145 7. Continuity through Development 193
Self-Review 148 Introduction I93
Investigation 5.2 Diffusion through a
Development 193
Membrane 148
Guidepost: How does a zygote become a zany- celled,
Cell Reproduction ISO complex organism?
Guidepost: How do cells duplicate themselves? 7.1 A zygote gives rise to many cells 193
5,9 The rate of diffusion limits the size of cells 7.2 Cell movements help shape an embryo 194
ISO 7.3 The nervous system in animals develops from
Investigation:S.3 Cell Size and Diffusion 151 the outer germ layer 196
5.1C One cell divides into two cells 152 7.4 All tissues come from one of the three germ
5.11 Cell division is a continuous process 153 layers :97
Investigation 5.4 Mitosis and Cell Division in Plants Self-Review 198
158 Investigation 7.1 nevelopment in the Chick 198
5.12 Cells become specialized in development 159
Animal Development 204
5.13 Cell division is essential to life 160
Guidepost: Why is water important for development
Self- Review 160
in animal embryos?
Summary 160 7.5 Some animals develop independently of their
Application Questions 161 p.rents 204
Problems 161 7.6 I anmalian embryos develop within the
Suggested Readings 162 mother 206
7.7 Embryos arc affected by substances in the
6. Continuity through Repr,,duction 165 mother's blood 210
Introduction 165 7.8 The fetal period of development ends with
Reproduction 165 birth 211
Guidepost: Why is reproduction essential for all living Self-Review 214
beings? Control of Conception 214
6.1 Reproduction is essential to life 165 Guidepost: What are the methods used to prevent or
5.2 Reproduction may be sexual or asexual 167 int'rrupt a pregnancy?
Investigation 63 Vege, Jtive Reproduction 168 7.9 Birth control depends on preventing
6.3 Some animals sh,w both kinds of fertilization 214
reproduction 169 7.10 Pregnancy can be terminated 215
Self-Review 170 Self-Review 216
Sexual Reproduction 170 Cancer 216
Guidepost: How do gametes differ from other cells? Guidepost: How can cancer be viewed as a normal
6.4 Gametes are reproductive cells 170 developmental process gone wrong?
6.5 Gametes contain genetic information 172 7.11 Development is usually well controlled 216
6.6 Gametes are unusual kinds of cells 173 7.12 Cancer cells divide without limit 217
Self-Review 174 Self-Review 218
Meiosis 175 Summary 219
Guidepost: What are the Hain differences between Application Questions 219
mitosis and meiosis? Problems 219
6.7 Clmetes are produced in special organs 175 Suggested Readings 220
6.8 Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions 175
6.9 Chromosome number is reduced by half in 8. Continuity through Heredity 223
Meiosis I 175 Introduction 223
6.10 Chromatids separate in'Mciosis II 177
Heredity 223
S'1f-ll.cvical, 179
Guidepost: How does mathematics help us understand
-weestigatio,:o.2 A Model of Meiosis 180 the rules of heredity?
Won 181 3.1 Genes are the information bank of the
''post: What factors influence fertilization? cell 223
Millions of sperm cells are produced in
Ittes I

12
Xiy Detailed Contents

8.2 Genetic events are often unexpected 224 9. Continuity through Evolution 267
8.3 Probability measures the chance of certain Introduction 267
events 225
Self-Review 226 Diversity, Adaptation, and Evolution 267
Investigation 8.1 Probability 226 Guidepost: What do biologists mean by "unity in
diversity?"
Mendelian Genetics 228 9.1 Living organisms show a diversity of type and a
Guidepost: How did Mendel's experiments lay the unity of pattern 267
foundation for modern genetics? 9.2 The theory of evolution has a long
8.4 Mendel did experiments with garden history 269
peas 22:° Investigation 9.1 Variation in Size 271
8.5 Mendel explained his results 229 9.3 Darwin formulated the theory of natural
Investigation 8.2 Seedling Phenotypes 231 selection 273
8.6 The explanation depended on random Investigation 9.2 Natural Selection-
fertilization 233 A Simulation 277
8.7 Mendel also crossed plants that differed in two 9.4 Darwin's theory of natural selection provides an
traits 234 explanation for the origin of species 278
8.8 Mendel proposed three principles 236 Self-Review 279
8.9 Some traits are not inherited according to
Mendel's rules 236 Natural Variation and Natural Selection 281
Self-Review 238 Guidepost: What is the raw material for evolutionary
change?
Genes and Chromosomes 238 9.5 Mendel's work helped explain how
Guidepost: What is the relationship between genes characteristics are inherited 281
and chromosomes? 9.6 There are major common characteristics of the
8.10 Genes and chrtmtosomes show similar evolutionary process 281
behavior 238 9.7 Living material is able to change from one form
8.11 Chromosomes help explain sex to another 284
determination -238 Self-Review 285
8.12 Abnormal development may be due to
an unusual number or structure of The Forces of Evolutionary Change 285
chromosomes 239
Guidepost: What natural forces direct evolutionary
change?
Investigation 8.3 Karyotypes 243
9.8 Mutations and genetic recombination increase
8.13 X-linked traits show a modified pattern of
inheritance 245 variability 285
9.9 The size of a population affects its
8.14 Genes are arranged in single file 247
Self-Review 248
stability 287
9.10 Events in the natural world are not completely
Genes and DNA 248 random 288
Guidepost: How is genetic information used by cells? Investigation 9.3 Genetic Stability 289
8.15 Genes code for protein synthesis 248
9.11 Isolation is important for the formation of a
8.16 Genes consist of DNA 250
new species 291
8.17 Genes are long chains of nucleotides 252
Investigation 9.4 A Step in Speciation 296
8.18 RNA carries DNA instructions to the
9.12 An alternate hypothesis suggests that speciation
ribosomes 254
may occur in a relatively short period of
Investigation 8.4 Gene Mutation 258
time 299
8.19 In eukaryotic cells, genes occur in pieces 260
Self-Review 301
8.20 Protein molecules can be manufactured by
genetic engineering 260 Darwinism Extended 301
Self-Review 262 Guidepost: How has the theory of evolution by
Summary 262 natural selection been supported by modern research?
9.13 Origin of higher categories occurs by operation
Application Questions 263
of the same principles that create new
Problems 263
species 301
Suggested Readings 264
9.14 Research in biology and geology have added
support to the theory of evolution since
Darwin's time 302
Self-Review 304
Summary 304
Application Questions 305
Problems 305
Suggested Readings 306

1:3
Detailed Contents XV

10.12 The first cells were probably

heterotrophs 349
10.13 Autotrophic cells evolved several types of
photosynthesis 351
10.14 The organization of matter forms a
continuum 351
Self-Review 352
Summary 353
Application Questions 354
Problems 354
Suggested Readings 354

11. Prokaryotes and Viruses 357

Introduction 357
Prokaryotes 357
Guidepost: Where are prokaryotes found, and what
are Jheir roles in the biosphere?
11.1 Prokaryotes are found wherever there is
water 357
Investigation 11.1 Distribution of Microorganisms
Section Three DIVERSITY AND 360
ADAPTATION IN THE 11.2 Archaebacteria are different from &I other
BIOSPHERE 309 organisms 361
11.3 Methanogens produce methane gas 362
10. Ordering Life in the Biosphere 311 11.4 Eubacteria include major producers in the
Introduction 311 world 364
11.5 Soil bacteria make possible the cycling of
Biological Classification 311 nitrogen 367
Guidepost: What are the objectives of the modern Self-Review 371
biological classification system, and on what
characteristics is it based? Microorganisms and Disease 371
10.1 Classification is a way of creating order from Guidepost: What is the relationship between a
diversity 311 pathogen and a disease?
10.2 Biological classification begins with 11.6 All organisms can suffer from disease 371
species 313 11.7 Disease may be caused by a variety of
10.3 Classification is based on homologies 315 factors 373
Investigation 10.1 DNA Sequences and 11.8 Hosts spread pathogens directly or through
Classification 316 vectors to other hosts 375
10.4 Species are grouped into larger and more Investigation 11.2 Control of Bacteria 377
general categories 320 11.9 Not everyone is affected in the same way by the
Investigation 10.2 Levels of Classification 323 same pathogen 378
10.5 Biologists use a binomial system to name 11.10 Pathogens can be spread by nonliving
species 329 agents 381
Self-Review 331 Self-Review 382
The Kingdoms of Organisms 332 Viruses, Viroids and Prions 383
Guidepost: What characteristics determine how Guidepost: FILw are these agents of disease different
organisms are grouped into kingdoms? from other pathogens?
10.6 Biologists separate all organisms into two major 11.11 Viruses are protein-covered nucleic acids 383
groups on the basis of their cell structures Investigation 11.3 Screening for AIDS 386
332
11.12 Prions cause slow-infection diseases 388
10.7 Organisms are grouped into five Self-Review 388
kingdoms 335 Summary 388
10.8 Classifications can change 342 Application Questions 389
Self-Review 343 Problems 389
Suggested Readings 390
The Origin of Diversity 343
Guidepost: How did life originate and evolve into the 12. Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi
many forms found today?
393
10.9 All species may have come from a single Introduction 393
ancestral species 343 The Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 393
10.10 The o-igin of life must he investigated Guidepost: What is the evidence that some organelles
indirectly 345 originated as free-living prokaryotes?
10.11 Studies of present-day stars provide evidence 12.1 Orlanelles are efficient packages in which
for the formation and early history of the cl ;mical reactions take place 393
earth 347

14
XVI Detailed Contents

12.2 Mitochondria and chloroplasts may have 13.5 The life cycle of plants alternates between two
originated as free-living prokaryotes 394 generations 444
Self-Review 397 13.6 Flowering plants protect their spores and the
Hetcrotrophic Protists 398 egg-producing gametophyte 445
Guidepost: How are the heterotrophic protists Self-Review 449
distinguished? Investigation 13.1 Reproductive Structures and Life
12.3 Protists are a diverse group 398 Cycles 450
12.4 Slime molds have characteristics of both fungi Nonvascular Plants 454
and protozoa 398 Guidepost: Why are bryophytes mostly restricted to
12.5 Flagellates may be consumers or moist habitats?
producers 399 13.7 Bryophytes have no roots, stems, or
12.6 Many sarcodines use pseudopods to move and to leaves 454
obtain food 402 Self-Review 455
12.7 Sporozoans are all parasites of animals 403
Primitive Vascular Plants 455
12.8 Ciliates have two kinds of nuclei 403
Guidepost: How do groups of vascular plants differ in
Self-Review 405 structure and habitat?
Investigation 12.1 Life in a Single Cell 405 13.8 Club mosses and horsetails are primitive,
Autotrophic Protists 410 seedless, vascular plants 455
Guidepost: What characteristics distinguish the 13.9 Fern leaves grow from underground
various groups of algae? stems 457
12.9 Algae are photosynthetic protists 410 Self-Review 459
12.10 Diatoms are important golden algae 411 Investigation 13.2 Increasingly Complex
12.11 Certain green algae may be the ancestors of Characteristics 460
plants 412 Seed Plants 461
12.12 Brown and red algae are multicellular 414 Guidepost: What accounts for the great diversity of
Self-Review 416 flowers and fruits?
Investigation 12.2 Variety Among Algae 416 13.10 Many conifers are evergreens 461
Fungi 417 13.11 Flowering plants have coevolved with their
Guidepost: What are the characteristics of the fungi? pollinators 467
12.13 Fungi are important decomposers 417 13.12 Seeds develop within the ovaries of flowering
Investigation 12.3 Growth of Fungi 419 plants 470
12.14 Conjugating fungi may be destructive to foods Self-Review 475
and crops 421 Investigation 13.3 Seeds and Seed Dispersal 475
12.15 Humans use sac fungi in a variety of Summary 477
ways 422 Application Questions 478
12.16 Many club fungi are edible 424 Problems 478
12.17 Fungi with no known sexual reproductive Suggested Readings 478
structures are called imperfect fungi 426
Self-Review 426 14. Eukaryotes: Animals 481
Fungi in a Community 427 Introduction 481
Guidepost: What roles do fungi play in : community?
The Animal Way of Life 481
12.18 Many fungi in the soil are decomposers 427
Guidepost: What are the major problems of animal
12.19 Mycorrhizal fungi help many plants to
grow 429
life, and what are some of the solutions?
14.1 Bilateral symmetry adapts animals for
12.20 Lichens are mutualistic relationships between
movement 481
fungi and algae 431
14.2 An animal's environment imposes specific
Self-Review 432
demands 482
Summary 433 14.3 Increase in size leads to increased
Application Questions 433 complexity 483
Problems 433 Self-Review 484
Suggested Readings 434 Investigation 14.1 Animal Structure: The Fetal Pig
484
13. Eukaryotes: Plants 437
Diversity and Adaptation in Animals 489
Introduction 437 Guidepost: What major adaptations have evolved in
The Evolution of Land Plants 437 the animal groups, and how are animals
Guidepost: What adaptations allowed plants to complementary to their environment?
colonize land? 14.4 Sponges and coelenterates are adapted to a
13.1 Multicellular green algae probably were the sessile life-style 489
ancestors of plants 437 14.5 Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical and have
13.2 Two major groups of land plants evolved 439 three tissue layers 493
13.3 Land plants have adaptations that conserve 14.6 Roundworms and mollusks have a
water and permit gas exchange 440 one-way gut suspended in a body cavity 494
13.4 Primitive plants have swimming sperm 443 14.7 Annelids and arthropods have segmented
bodies 495

15 .-
4. ..
Detailed Contents xvii

14.8 Chordates have internal skeletons and well- 15.4 Absorption takes place in the small
developed brains 500 intestine 540
Self-Review 505 15.5 The large intestine absorbs water 540
Investigation 14.2 Diversity in Animals: A Self-Review 541
Comparative Study 505 Cellular Respiration 541
Life Functions in Animals 508 Guidepost: How do cells obtain energy from food
Guidepost° What adaptations enable animals to molecules?
perform the basic functions of life? 15.6 In cellular respiration, the energy from food
14.9 Digestion may be intracellular or molecules is released gradually 541
extracellular 508 Investigation 15.2 Food Energy 542
14.10 Animals use a variety of methods for gas 15.7 Glucose is the primary source of energy for
exchange and transport 509 cells 544
Investigation 14.3 Temperature and 15.8 Glycolysis begins the energy-yielding
Circulation 513 process 544
14.11 Excretory systems maintain water balance and 15.9 Intermediate reactions prepare pyruvic acid for
chemical composition of body fluids 514 the Krebs cycle 547
14.12 Nervous systems enable an animal to respond to 15.10 The Krebs citric acid cycle completes the
stimuli and to coordinate activities of the other breakdown of glucose 548
systems 517 15.11 Energy from glucose is packaged as ATP in the
14.13 Muscles and skeletons provide support and electron transport system 549
locomotion 519 15.12 The Krebs cycle plays a central role in cellular
14.14 Reproductive systems are adapted to animals' metabolism 551
environments 520 15.13 Energy releasing processes are essential to
14.15 An animal's behavior helps it adapt to its life 551
environment 523 Self-Review 553
Self-Review 526 Nutrition 555
Summary 527 Guidepost: What nutrients do humans need for
Application Questions 527 optimal growth and health?
Problems 527 15.14 Our digestive system is the result of
Suggested Readings 528 evolution 555
15.15 Human dietary habits are related to
health 555
15.16 Fats play important roles in the body 556
Investigation 15.3 Assessing Risk for Cardiovascular
Disease 559
15.17 Carbohydrates provide energy, nutrients, and
fiber 563
15.18 Protein provides your body framework 564
15.19 Eating disorders are widespread 565
15.20 Americans consume too many kcals and in the
wrong proportion 566
Self-Review 568
Summary 568
Application Questions 569
Problems 569
Suggested Readings 569

16. The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal

Environment 571
Introduction 571
Circulation 571
Section Four FUNCTIONING ORGANISMS Guidepost: flow does the circulatory system distribute
IN THE BIOSPHERE 531 materials to all functioning cells?
16.1 Pushed by the heart's pumping action, blood
15. The Human Animal: Food and Energy 533 circulates through a series of tubes 571
Introduction 533 16.2 Blood consists of cells suspended in a liquid
known as plasma 575
Ingestion and Digestion 533
16.3 Clotting is an interaction between platelets and
Guidepost: How is food prepared for absorption?
plasma proteins 577
15.1 Food must be reduced in size before chemical
16.4 Cells and materials move between blood vessels
processes can begin 533 and tissue 578
Investigation 15.1 Your Chemical Senses 534
Self-Review 579
15.2 Specific actions and reactions take place along
Investigation 16.1 Heart Rate in a Mammal 579
the digestive tract 537
15.3 Chemical digestion reduces large food
molecules into smaller absorbable
molecules 539

16 k
XVIII Detailed Contents

Immunity 580 17.7 Complex interactions prepare the body for

Guidepost: How does the immune system protect the muscular activity 620
body from invasion? Self-Review 622
16.5 The body has several defenses against foreign Investigation 17.2 Sensory Receptors 622
invaders 580 The Endocrine System 624
16.6 Protection by the immune system is very
Guidepost: How do chemical messengers influence
specific 580 internal and external events?
16.7 Many problems can arise with the immune
17.8 Hormones are chemical messengers 624
system 585 17.9 The hypothalamus and the pituitary control
Self-Review 587 many other endocrine glands 624
Investigation 16.2 Blood and Immunity 587 Investigation 17.3 Hormones and Stress 628
Gas Exchange and Excretion 590 17.10 Several hormones act together to control blood
Guidepost: What role do the respiratory and excretory glucose levels 630
systems play in maintenance of homeostasis? Self-Review 630
16.8 Cellular respiration and gas exchange are not
Human Behavior and the Nervous System 630
the same 590 Guidepost: What is the relationship between the
16.9 Air moves from the external environment into
mind, the brain, and human behavior?
the lungs-because of pressure differences 590 17.11 The mind is a major aspect of who we
16.10 Respiratory gases are transported in the blood are 630
592 17.12 The human brain and human behavior evolved
Investigation 16.3 Carbon Dioxide and You 594 together 631
16.11 The kidneys are major homeostatic 17.13 Other animals communicate and may have
organs 595 conscious thoughts 633
16.12 Nephrons filter the blood 597 17.14 Our slowly evolving control systems may not be
Self-Review 599 appropriate for modern living 635
Investigation 16.4 The Kidney and 17.15 Artificial intelligence is a possibility in the
Homeostasis 599 future 636
Temperature Regulation 601 Self-Review 637
Guidepost: How do humans maintain a constant Drugs and Behavior 637
internal body temperature? Guidepost: What are drugs and how do they affect the
16.13 The rate of chemical reactions is influenced by functions of the human body?
temperature 601
17.16 Drugs can be helpful or harmful 637
16.14 Major heat loss occurs through evaporation and
17.17 Psychoactive drugs affect the brain in three
radiation 602
general ways 640
16.15 Internal temperature is controlled by the
Self-Review 641
brain 603
Self-Review 605 Summary 641
Application Questions 642
Sum:nary 605
Problems 642
Application Questions 605
Suggested Readings 642
Problems 605
Suggested Readings 606 18. The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 645
17. The Human Animal: Coordination 609 Introduction 645
Introduction 609 Leaves and Photosynthesis 645
Guidepost: How are the parts of a leaf adapted for
Human Movement 609
photosynthesis?
Guidepost: How do muscles and bones enable humans
18.1 The arrangement of leaf cells allows for
to move?
movement of carbon dioxide 645
17.1 Muscle contraction depends on energy from
18.2 Guard cells control the rate of
ATP 609
transpiration 648
17.2 Interaction of bones and muscles produces
Self-Review 649
movement 611
Investigation 18.1 Water and Turgor Pressure 649
17.3 Cardiovascular fitness depends on regular
exercise 613 Stems and Conduction 652
Self-Review 615 Guidepost: How are stems adapted for conduction and
Investigation 17.1 Exercise, Energy, and support?
Muscles 615 18.3 Stems support the leaves and conduct water and
sugars 652
The Nervous System 617
18.4 Water and sugars move through different kinds
Guidepost: How does the brain coordinate body
of cells in the stem 654
movements and behavior?
18.5 Transpiration pulls water up through the xylem
17.4 Neurons transmit nerve impulses 617
of a plant 656
17.5 The central nervous system coordinates
18.6 Pressure within phloem cells helps move sugars
conscious functions 619
down a plant 657
17.6 The autonomic nervous system coordinates
Self-Review 657
unconscious functions 619
Investigation 18.2 Leaves, Stems and Roots:
Structural Adaptations 658
Detailed Contents XiX

Roots and Absorption 660 Biochemical and Environmental Control of Plant

Guidepost: How are roots adapted for absorption of Growth 697
water and minerals? Guidepost: How are chemicals involved in plant
18.7 Roots anchor the plant 660 growth and development, and what role does the
18.8 Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of a environment play?
root system 662 19.8 Plant hormones interact to regulate plant
18.9 Minerals move into a plant by active processes 697
transport 663 19.9 Auxins influence many aspects of plant
Self-Review 664 growth 698
Plant Growth 664 19.10 Other plant hormones also have diverse
Guidepost: What are the characteristics of growth in effects 699
plants? 19.11 Plants respond to environmental stimuli 702
18:10 A seed protects and nourishes the embryo 19.12 Tropisms are plant movements 702
inside 664 Investigation 19.4 Tropisms 704
Investigation 18.3 Seeds and Seedlings 665 19.13 Many plants respond to the length of day and
18.11 Primary growth increases the length of the night 706
plant 667 19.14 Knowledge of plant hormones is important in
Investigation 18.4 Root Growth 669 research 708
18.12 Secondary growth increases the diameter of a Self-Review 709
plant 670 Summary 710
Self-Review 672 Application Questions 710
Morphological Adaptations to Different Problems 710
Environments 672 Suggested Readings 710
Guidepost: In what ways are roots, stems, and leaves
adapted to special environments?
18.13 Spines reduce transpiration 672
18.14 Some leaves are involved in storage, support,
and nutrient collection 673
Self-Review 674
Summary 675
Application Questions 675 4
Problems 675
Suggested Readings 676

19. The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and

Coordination 679
Introduction 679
Photosynthesis 679
Guidepost: How is the sun's energy changed into
chemical energy in photosynthesis?
19.1 Photosynthesis takes place in t
chloroplasts 679
19.2 Light is used in photosynthesis 680
Investigation 19.1 Separation of Leaf
Pigments 684 Section Five PATTERNS IN THE
19.3 Photosynthesis involves many interdependent BIOSPHERE 713
reactions 685
19.4 Oxygen gas is a by-product of the light- 20. Selection and Survival 715
dependent reactions 686 Introduction 715
19.5 Sugars are formed in the Caivin cycle 688
Populations and Environments 715
Self-Review 690
Guidepost: What is the relationship between limiting
Investigation 19.2 Gas Exchange and factors and organismal tolerance?
Photosynthesis 690 20.1 Organisms must be able to tolerate conditions
Respiration in Plants 692 in their environments 715
Guidepost: How do plant cells obtain energy for 20.2 Organisms vary in their tolerance 716
cellular activities? 20.3 Organisms meet the environment as a whole,
19.6 Fermentation is less efficient than aerobic not as separate factors 717
respiration 692 Investigation 20.1 Environmental Tolerance 718
19.7 Many environmental factors affect 20.4 Human populations are limited by
photosynthesis and respiration 694 environmental factors 720
Self-Review 694 20.5 Limiting factors may act at different points in
Investigation 19.3 Photosynthetic Rate 694 the life cycle 722
 Detailed Contents

Self-Review 723 21.7 Continental drift helps explain ancient

Investigation 20.2 Population Changes: ecosystems 770
A Model 723 Self-Review 770
Changes in.Populations 726 A Series of Ecosystems 774
Guidepost: How do limiting factors determine the size Guidepost: What organisms dominated various
and geographic range of populations? ecosystems in the past?
20.6 Populations may be open or closed 726 21.8 Cambrian communities were aquatic 774
20.7 Population sizes fluctuate 727 21.9 Amphibians appeared in the Devonian 774
20.8 Some population changes occur in cycles 728 21.10 Giant forests grew during
Investigation 20.3 Population Changes: the Carboniferous 775
Field Data 729 21.11 Dinosaurs dominated Triassic ecosystems 776
20.9 Geographicsanges depend on several 21.12 Large mammals roamed North America in the
factors 732 Pleistocene 777
20.10 Populations disperse to new areas 733 Self-Review 779
20.11 Many kinds of barriers can prevent Investigation 21.2 Primate Brain Evolution 779
dispersal 734
Self-Review 735 The Emergence of Humans 782
Guidepost: How do humans differ from other
Succession and Evolution in Ecosystems 736 primates?
Guidepost: How does selection produce changing 21.13 Humans are classified in the order
patterns in ecosystems over years and over geologic Primates 782
eras? 21.14 Hominoids are more human-appearing than
20.12 Ecosystems are not permanent 736 other primates 784
20.13 Communities succeed each other over long 21.15 Hominoids that walk upright are
periods of time 737 hominids 784
20.14 The animals in a community depend on the Investigation 21.3 A Study of Skeletons 786
plants 740 21.16 The genus Homo includes "true"
Self-Review 741 humans 789
Investigation 20.4 Long-Term Changes in an 21.17 Homo sapiens has a large brain 791
Ecosystem 742 21.18 All living hominids are Homo sapiens 793
The Study of Populations 743 Investigation 21.4 Biological Distance 794
Guidepost: Why do ecologists use a wide variety of 21.19 Culture is a unique trait of humans 798
techniques and borrow the methods of other scientists? Self-Review 798
20.15 Early humans studied their environment 743 Summary 799
20.16 Ecologists study interaction: among organisms Application Questions 799
and environments 744 Problems 799
20.17 Population studies require special Suggested Readings 800
techniques 745
20.18 Human ecology r:..aches into many areas 747 22. Biomes Around the World 803
20.19 Ecology is still changing 747
Introduction 803
Self-Review 748
Climate and Biomes 803
Summary 748
Application Questions 749 Guidepost: What are the abiotic factors that influence
the climate of an ecosystem?
Problems 749
22.1 Climate determines the distribution of earth's
Suggested Readings 750
major biomes 803
21. Ecosystems of the Past 753 Self-Review 808
Investigation 22.1 Climatograms 808
Introduction 753
Biomes Determined by Radiant Energy Supply 810
Reconstructing the Past 753 Guidepost: How does the vegetation change from
Guidepost: What evidence do paleontologists stddy, north to south?
and how do they reach conclusions? 22.2 Tundra is characterized by low
21.1 Fossils are evidence of organisms in the vegetation 810
past 753 22.3 Taiga is a coniferous forest containing many
21.2 Faleontologists study the evidence 758 lakes 813
21.3 The evidence must be interpreted 759 22.4 Mid-latitude deciduous forest biomes have four
21.4 Interpretations are based on principles 761 distinct seasons 814
Self-Review 764 22.5 The tropical rain forest has a very uniform
. Investigation 21.1 Paleontologic Comparison 764 climate 819
The "Entangled Bank" of Life Today 768 Self-Review 823
Guidepost: What steps led to the broad array of Biomes with Decreasing Precipitation 823
organisms found on earth today? Guidepost: How does the vegetation change as the
21.5 All life has come from a simple precipitation decreases?
beginning 768 22.6 There are three distinct types of
21.6 Evolution has occurred on moving plates 769 grassland 823
Detailed Contents xxi

22.7 Mid-latitude deserts border the Self-Rev:,wi 866

grasslands 825 Investigation 23.2 Energy Flow in an Aquatic
22.8 Plants adapt to desert conditions in a variety of Ecosystem 866
ways 826 Ocean Ecosystems 869
Self-Review 829 Guidepost: What factors affect ocean ecosystems?
Biomes That Have Variable Precipitation 830 23.9 Many abiotic factors influence the ocean 869
Guidepost: What is the effect of variable rainfall and 23.10 Productivity is limited in the open ocean 872
uniform temperature on a biome? 23.11 Ocean depths support some forms of life 872
22.9 Tropical deciduous forests have distinct wet and 23.12 Coastal waters are the source of much food for
dry seasons 830 humans 875
22.10 Savannas are tall grasslands in tropical dry 23.13 Coral reefs support a great diversity of life
areas 830 forms 876
22.11 Chaparral covers dry areas that have thin 23.14 The littoral zone is a difficult place to
soil 832 live 876
Self-Review 832 Self-Review 878
Investigation 22.2 Effects of Fire on Biomes 833 Investigation 23.3 Effects of Salinity on Aquatic
Cool, Wet and Mountain Biomes 836 Organisms 878
Guidepost: How do mild climates, heavy precipitation, Human Influences on Aquatic Ecosystems 880
and high altitudes affect biome formation? Guidepost: How do human activities affect aquatic
22.12 The coastal coniferous forest has cool summers ecosystems?
and mild winters 836 23.15 Drainage of standing waters may have serious
22.13 Mountain biomes resemble biomes at higher consequences 880
latitudes 837 23.16 Artificial ponds and lakes are formed by
Self-Review 839 dams 880
Investigation 22.3 A Field Study of Animal 23.17 Sewage and industrial wastes affect river
Behavior 840 ecosystems 882
Human Influence on Biomes 841 23.18 Acid rain is toxic 884
Guidepost: How are human activities changing Investigation 23.4 Acid Rain m Local
biomes? Environments 885
22.14 The need for land has changed some 23.19 The oceans receive the major part or human
biomes 841 waste 888
22.15 Tropical rain forests will nearly be gone by the Self-Review 888
year 2000 842 Summary 889
22.16 Desertification is increasing rapidly 843 Application Questions 889
22.17 Acid rain is destroying forests 843 Problems 889
Self-Review 844 Suggested Readings 890
Investigation 22.4 A Field Study of a Piece of the
Biosphere 845 24. Human-Shaped Ecosystems 893
Summary 848 Introduction 893
Application Questions 849 The Built Environment 893
Problems 849 Guidepost: In what ways have humans changed
Suggested Readings 850 natural ecosystems?
24.1 Early humans worked together within
23. Aquatic Ecosystems 853 ecosystems 893
Introduction 853 24.2 The agricultural revolution increased the
Standing Fresh Waters 853 human impact on the biosphere 895
Guidepost: What are the characteristics of ponds and Investigation 24.1 Your Ecosystem 899
lakes? 24.3 The built environment helped shape human
23.1 Inland waters may be standing or flowing 853 culture 900
23.2 Ponds are shallow enough for rooted Self-Review 901
plaWs 855 Cities and Suburbs 901
23.3 Lakes are larger and deeper than ponds 857 Guidepost: What advantages and disadvantages do
23.4 A thermocline prevents circulation of oxygen urban environments have for humans?
and nutrients 859 24.4 Humans have created a new
Self-Review 861 "urban biome" 901
Investigation 23.1 Dissolved Oxygen 862 24.5 The quality of urban life has decreased 904
Flowing Waters 863 investigation 24.2 Evaluating Quality of Natural
Guidepost: How do flowing water ecosystems differ Water Sources 906
from those of standing water? 24.6 Similar cities are surrounded by similar
23.5 Plankton are usually absent from brooks 863 suburbs 908
23.6 Brooks join to form streams 863 Self-Review 909
23.7 Rivers carry large amounts of sediments 864
23.8 Flowing waters can serve as a laboratory 865

20
xxi :: Detailed Contents

Agriculture 909 Major Issues in Human Ecology 930

Guidepost: Compared with other human activities, Guidepost: What kinds of issues may affe A the
what is the relative impact of agriculture on natural environment?
biomes? 25.4 Social issues can affect the human
24.7 Agriculture has reduced the variety of plant environment 930
species 909 25.5 Americans are trying to protect the
24.8 Agriculture has affected United States environment 930
history 911 25.6 All environmental issues are connected to
Self-Review 913 population growth 932
Future Ecosystems 913 25.7 The environment dots not stop at political
Guidepost: What changes are desirable or possible in borders 933
human-dominated ecosystems? Self-Review 936
24.9 Planning can help determine the quality of life Human Technology in the Future 937
in cities 913 Guidepost: How will we change ourselves and our
24.10 Agriculture can be integrated with natural environment in the future?
ecosystems 916 25.8 Biotechnology will continue to advance 937
24.11 Humans must act to preserve the Investigation 25.2 A Bioethical Problem 938
biosphere 918 25.9 Genetic engineering will expand into new
Self-Review 919 areas 941
Summary 919 25.10 Knowledge will continue to expand 942
Application Questions 919 25.11 Individuals must participate in important
Problems 919 decisions about the environment 943
Suggested Readings 920 25.12 Decisions must be based on sound information
and must be reached logically 945
25. Humankind in the Future 923 Self-Review 946
Introduction 923 Summary 946
Human Biology and Behavior 924 Application Questions 946
Guidepost: Is our behavior a result of "nature" or Problems 946
"nurture?" Suggested Readings 948
25.1 Human social behavior may be innate 924
25.2 Human social behavior may be learned 925
Appendix 1 Some General Procedures for the
25.3 Human social behavior has important Laboratory 951
consequences 926
Self-Review 927 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations 957
Investigation 25.1 Views of Earth from Afar 927
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 969
Glossary 995
Index 1015

21.
 Foreword

This we know.
The earth does not belong to man;
man belongs to the earth . . .
All things are connected,
like the blood which unites one family .
Man did not weave the web of life;
he is merely a strand in it.
Whatever he does to the web,
he does to himself.
Chief Seattle 1854
Suquamish
Washington Territory

Chief Seattle's eloquent, farsighted statement, written almost i25 years before the publication of this book,
captures well the intent of the course you are about to begin. Like many people who have lived close to nature,
Chief Seattle understood that "all things are connected." The source and the implications of those connections
are the subject of this book.
Chief Seattle's closing statement is a warning: we humans do not stand apart from naturewe are part of it.
In 1854, the population of North America was approximately 50 million, and the total population of the wcrld
was 1.075 billion. Today, the population of North Americi is 260 million; the population of the world is 4.7
billion. By virtue of our numbers and our ever more powerful technology, we have the ability to disturb the
fragile strands of the web of life to an alarming degree.
The five major sections of Biological Science: An Ecological Approach are organized to provide you with
information about the structure of the web of lifeits sources of energy, its seemingly endless diversity, its
development through evolutionary processes, its elegant simplicity, and the often stunninb beauty of its
complexity.
We hope that the information you encounter in this book will help you understand more completely the
interrelationships among all living things, and the place of Homo sapiens in the web of life. Equally important,
we hope that this book will help you understand that science is a unique and powerful way of knowing about the
natural world. It relies on curiosity, creativity, observation, analysis, continuous questioning, and, perhaps most
important, critical thinking. Facts and information mean little if we cannot apply them to the solution of
personal or societal problems and to the improvement and protection of the web of life.
Chief Seattle knew quite well that each generation shoulders anew the responsibility for the quality of life on
this fragile planet. We hope this book will provide you with some of the knowledge and skills required to help
you with that important task.
Jean P. Milani
Coordinator, Green Version 6th Edition
Richard R. Tolman
Supervisor, Green Version 5th Edition
Gordon E. Uno
Supervisor, Green Version 4th Edition
Haven Kolb
Supervisor, Green Versions 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Editions
December 1986

XXIII
 Preface to the Teacher

In this, its sixth edition, the BSCS Green Version has Throughout all the revisions, the Green Version has de-
undergone a major reorganization that places greater em- veloped through the participation of many writers, who
phasis on the role of humans in the biosphere. Our future have been guided by the advice aid criticism of high-school
and the future of the earth depend on our understanding teachers, university professors, and school supervisors; by
of humans as participants in the biological community. We comments from students, and by many other persons con-
can no longer afford to regard ourselves as separate and cerned with the promotion of biological understanding.
distinct, We have a profound ability to affect the live., of The present edition owes much to the students and teachers
all organisms around us, and it is imperative that we un- who have used and commented on past editions.
derstand how our actions influence the biosphere. The content of the Green Version is structured around
Biology examines all aspects of life: structure, func- a series of major themes (listed on page T6). The orga-
tion, behavior, relationships to the environment, and evo- nization is both sequential and cumulative, but flexible
lutionary history. In trying to understand those aspects as enough to allow intelligent rearrangement and selective
they relate to humans, biologists must take note of social omission by the teacher, according to the local situation
systems as well. Technological solutions are available for and student backgrounds and interests. The wide variety
many of our biological problems, but often are not used of organisms included allows for a broad spectrum of bi
because the situation is complicated by social factors ological experience while emphasizing unity of pattern and
economic, political, psychological, religious, moral, or diversity of type. MI levels of biological organization are
ethical. A complete understanding of humans, therefore, depictedfrom the molecule through cells, tissues, or-
r 9. nnot be attained from the study of only a single subject. gans, individuals, populations, species, communities, and
The study of biology no longer can be restricted to bio- the world biomes.

text.
.
logical knowledge; it must be interpreted in a social con- In addition to the Green Version, the BSCS has pro-
duced a wide variety of materials that supplement, com-
Since its founding in 1958, the BSCS has been dedi- plement, and augment the capacity of the teacher and the
cated to the improvement of biological education. As one individual student to vary the educational process. Each
of the first BSCS projects, the Green Version owes its suc- BSCS program includes materials selected for their
cess and its original structure primarily to the late Dr. applicability in the latter half of the twentieth century and
Marston Bates of the University of Michigan, who con- for their ability to illuminate the principles and concepts
ceptualized and supervised the experimental edition. For that underlie biological science. Used in concert, these
that edition, Bates wrote: materials offer the teacher great flexibility in program.
The word "ecology" was proposed by Ernst Haeckel in 1870 ming; they provide the student optimal use of his or her
to cover what he called "outer physiology?' It is the point of talents.
view in biology that takes the individual organism as the primal y The BSCS actively solicits the opinions of teachers and
unit of study, and is concerned with how these individuals are
students who have used its materials; those opinions aid
organized into populations, species, and communities, with what
organisms do and how they do it. in the realization of our goal to improve biological edu-
This contrasts with "inner physiology, the study of how the cation at all levels. Please forward comments to the di-
individual is constructed and how the parts work. Obviously the rector at the address below.
inside and outside of the organism are completely interdepen-
dent, and one cannot be understood without constant refer- Jane Butler Kahle, Chair
ence to the other. The division is arbitrary, but so are all of the BSCS Board of Directors
ways in which biological subject matter might be split. We stress University of Northern Colorado
the outside rather than the inside on the assumption that this Greeley, Colorado 80639
is more familiar and more easily understood. We believe, too,
that it is more important for the citizen, who must participate in Joseph D. Mdnerney, Director
decisions about urban development, flood control, public health, BSCS
conservationalways as a voter and sometimes as a member
of the town council or state legislature. The Colorado College
Colorado Springs, Colorado 80903
 Teaching with the
Green Version

THE STUDENT BOOK terest and curiosity, and to help students identify the
most important ideas in the chapter.
A high-school biology course should encourage a scientific
Minor headings are numbered and each develops a spe-
viewpoint in the students; it should provide each with a
cific idea within the major heading.
background in biology that is as advanced as he or she is
Self-Review pestions provide a quick review of key ideas
able to assimilate. Subject matter should be :elected to
within each major heading. They are primarily recall
increase the effectiveness of our future citizens as well as
questions and allow for quick checking of student un-
to help them assert themselves in our society.
derstanding.
For this edition, the Green Version has undergone a
Illustrations help explain concepts and processes, and em-
major reorganization based on input from students,
phasize specific points in the text. They also p" rtray
teachers, and scientists. The book is divided into five major
some of the diversity and wonder of life. Figure legends
sections. It begins, as before, with organisms and their in-
tic in with the text and often extend it. In some cases,
teractions, but greater emphasis is placed on the role of
illustrations are used to provide more information than
humans in the biosphere. The section on continuity is in-
could be included in the text.
troduced early because it presents concepts central to an
Important terms are printed in boldface and pronounced
understanding of biology and because those concepts are
in parentheses; they are defined directly v:ithin the text,
relevant to our lives. The section on diversity is expanded
usually with examples.
to emphasize evolutionary relationships and adaptations,
Investigations are integrated into the chapter where they
and is based on the five-kingdom classification scheme that
serve to illuminate and extend the text material being
represents the most current understanding of those rela-
studied. They arc designed to allow students to form
tionships. Humans and flowering plants are selected as ex-
and test hypotheses without just being given the an-
amples of functioning organisms, and their physiology is
swers to questions. In so far as possible, they are in-
explored in depth. Patterns in the Biosphere, the fifth'sec-
quiry oriented.
tioli, focuses on environmental stresses and how those
Biology Today features careers in biology and research in
stresses determine structural, physiological, and behav-
biology and technology.
ioral adaptations. A chapter is devoted to human ecosys-
Chapter summaries review the major ideas of the chapter
tem, both urban and agricultural, and the closing chapter
and look ahead to the next chapters.
exalAines-humans in the future.
Application Questions test students' ability to synthesize
A major goal of this revision has been to make the text
knowledge they have gained in the chapter.
easier for students to read and understand. The structure
Problems offer opportunities for research or independent
of the book has been made much more apparent; its fea-
study and are intended as extensions beyond a chapter.
tures are listed below.
Suggested Readings provide readily available references
The table of contents provides an overview of the orga- for further study of topics in each chapter. Classroom
nization of the book. collections are highly recommended; all students should
The detailed contents provide quick reference to all topics be encouraged to read further.
presented in the book. A glossary provides a convenient source of definitions of
Section openers include a list of the chapters and a brief all boldfaced terms used in the book.
overview of the Section that sets the stage for what is Appendix I includes safety guidelines and general labo-
to follow. ratory procedures, as well as information about the
Chapter introductions preview the contents of each chapter metric system.
and relate them to the other chapters. Appendix 2 includes investigations on laboratory safety
Major headings divide chapters into parts, each of which and the use of the microscope.
deals with a major topic. Appendix 3, A Catalog of Living Things, provides a con-
Guideposts accompany each major heading. They are venient means of identifying many organisms.
written in the form of questions to arouse student in- The index is a guide to all the information in the book.

T1
 T2 Teaching with the Green Version

THE STUDENT STUDY GUIDE brief background on the I3SCS approach to biology edu-
A new addition to the Green Version is the Student Study cation, as well as suggestions fur how to handle contro-
Guide. This has been designed to enhance students' abil- versial issues in the classroom, hot to teach content-area
ities in three specific areas: communication skills, science reading skills, and how to use concept mapping with the
skills, and general cognitive skills. Activities for each Green Version. Further information on those topics can
chapter use information related to the chapter to develop be found in the references listed on page T5.
those skills. Teacher Annotations provide background and contain
answers to questions in figure legends. They are printed
Communication skills include the following: in green, adjacent to the corresponding student material.
giving instructions (write directions for a procedure) The answers to Self-Ret sett questions are indicated by the
outlining some writing number of the question printed next to the answer in the
frcewriting to begin discussion student material.
editing a given paragraph for syntax and clarity Teacher Annotations for the investigations follow the
rewriting a given passage sequence of each investigation. Answers are given to ques-
using the SQ3R method tions where they seem useful. Many answers depend, of
reading topic sentences course, on the results obtained.
skimming for main points Teaching Strategies by Chapter are divided into the
identifying the main idea in a paragraph following headings:
using two-column note-taking
Planning Ahead is crucial to teaching biology, and plan-
Science skills include the following: ning must be done on many levelsfor tomorrow, for
predicting and inferring ne,0 week, ror the more distant future. For example,
classifying in most parts of the country an investigation requiring
distinguishing fact from opinion young tomato plants is impossible to carry out in De-
identifying variables cember unless the seeds were planted in October. The
interpreting and making graphs and maps seeds may be difficult to obtain in October, they should
observing be bought in the spring or early summer. Therefore,
describing properties and changes assistance with th, Task of planning ahead is provided
formulating, testing, and refuting hypotheses in each chapter.
forming and using models Guidelines establish orientation for the chapter and in-
using data tables dicate any pedagogical peculiarities.
interpreting data in charts and graphs Objectives consist of a set of generalizations listed in the
General cognition skills (mixed communication and sci- sequence in which they de% clop in the chapter. The ob-
ence): jectives for each generalization inelnde a set of specific
defending a thesis with evidence statements concerning what students may be expected
using the library to extend text ideas to be able to do. No set should restrict your own in-
refuting an argument by showing illogic genuity.
focusing on schema Tactics are mostly concerned tt ith trays in which a chapter
making flash cards based on skimming a chapter may best be subdivided.
metacognition. planning how to approach studying a Supplementary Materials lists resources related to each
chapter or book chapter. Included arc Invitations to Enquiry, AV Ma-
visualizing spatial orientation of 3-D figure terials, Software, Teacher's References. and, as needed,
analyzing new vocabulary (using prefixes and suffixes, additional information N-taining to investigations. The
using contextual clues, using vocabulary in writing) suggestions are only a sampling.
making up questions and answers about the text The course is desighed to build up ideas from begin-
generalizing text information to new instances; linking ning to end. Ceryvliett. an (Alit IS made to relate what
abstract and concrete is immediately in front of the student with what has pre-
ceded. At the end, the course returns to the beginning and
relates all aspects of the course to a biological .vorld view.
THE TEACHER'S EDITION If you follow the git en organization, vocabulary and
The Teacher's Edition includes all of the student material concepts will be sequential and cunmlatitc. You can put
plus materials developed for your assistance. Several short more time into the tasks of actual teaching, especially into
introductory chapters have been developed to provide a the time-consuming organization of laboratory work.
Other sequences are possible, or you may wish to omit or
treat lightly certain portions of the course. In those eases,
take care that sequences of thought are not interrupted.

25
 Teaching with-iiie,Green Version T3,

A problem in the organization of a biology course is function laboratory wort` require. an approach dif-
the seasonal availability of materials. 1:sc of greenhouses, ff at from, but oinplcinentary to, the illustrative rum.-
aquariums, and refrigerators can do much to circumvent Both functio.is are represented among the imcs-
this problem but cannot entirely eliminate it. Locale, tigations in the Green Version student book.
weather, class schedules, and other factors may create the Format. .111 investigations begin with an Introduction
need fcr a change in chapter sequence. that stares the purpose of the activity. Almost every in-
No matter where the class may be in the course, no vestigatiu. ha:. a Materials list. The Procedure section
matter what the route through the course may have been, contains explicit directions that may include arranging
do not neglect the last chapter. Here an attempt is made data into tabular or graphic form. The meaning of data
to bring the whole course into focus. Here are discussed is elicited by suitable questions in the Discussion section.
those biologit...11 problems humans must face if %se arc to Questions are inserted wherever they seem appropriate.
continut.our existence on this planet. most occur in the Discussion sections. For Further
tigation contains materials that can be explored by indi-
vidual students who have extra energy and drive. Some
TEACHER'S APPENDICES call for fairly simple extensions of the protsclures in the
main investigation; some entail original thought and de-
Appendix TI includes_a listing of classroom utility pro-
grams and software suppliers.
sign. In most cases, specific directions are 'qcking; stu-
dents must work out their own procedures.
Appendix T2 includes safety guidelines, with a sample
contract for students and their parents to sign; a complete Data books: Experience has shown that the most con-
materials list by investigation as well as lists of expend- venient way to handle the recording of ii,lf<1 is by means
able and nonexpendable materials, recipes for solutiot, of a bound notebook. The use of such a data book is ex-
and media; and a table of chemical safety information for plained to the students in Appendix 1, p. 953. En..nurage
any hazardous materials used in the investigations.
students to regard their data book as a place ui-primary
record. As such, it mus' meet the hazards of t1:1 labora-
tory table and will receive records hurriedly made. Under
such circumstances a data book is not likely to be a thing
TESTS
of beauty.
No matter what the stated aims of a course may be, no Modifications. In almost every investigation several
matter how diligently you may bend your efforts toward variations are possible. Some of those are noted in the ae-
them, all is in vain unless the tests you administer to st. Lompanying materials for leaches... Others will be dic-
O
dents reflec these aims. Tests based on(1 on recall or rote tated by necessity. Stick as closely to the printed form of
memorization will not suffice. the investigations as your local situation will permit. Then
The BSCS Biology Teacher's Handbook (cited p. T12) the ,onnection between variations in procedure and vari-
discusses on pp. 198 255 all the considerations you should ations in results will be established more readily. Teach
have in mind for your evaluation and testing of stt dents. students to follow procedures carefully, the fewer changes
The Resource Book of Test Items for the sixth edition of they have to cope with, the better.
the Green Version provides a pool of items fron, which Initiating the work. If laboratory work is to be mean-
you can build your tests except for items you wish to dc- ingful to students, some ground rules must be laid down.
vise in accordance with local or endemic classroom con- Among the matters to be considered arc.
ditions. It is available in print and on disk as part of the
Teacher's Resource Book. I. location of work stations and regulation of :.,udent
mobility during laboratory work
2. a scheme for distributing and collecting materials
3. principles of teamwork leadership, acceptance of
INVESTIGATIONS: SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
responsibility, and coordination of efforts
The investigations are integral parts of the course. Con- 4. methods of evaluating laboratory work, the impor-
siderable class time should be centered on them: planning, tance of discussion.
performing, observing, recording data, interpreting data,
drawing conclusions, and relating the work to other sources
MI students must assume responsibility for under-
of information. standing the procedure of each investigation and, espe-
Purposes: An important function of a teaching labo- cially, their own parts in it. All required materials and
ratory is to present from nature some of the evidence for equipment must be on hand when work begins. You arc
basic biological concepts. Active participation in scientific wholly responsible for the provision of the materials and
investigatiOn is desirable if learners are to glimpse the true equipment, though you may be able to delegate such re-
nature and meaning of science and to appreciate the forces sponsibility to assistantsstudents or laboratory aides. In
that motivate and activate scientists. This investigative

26
T4 Teaching with the Green Version

almost every class some students will 4, a n t to help in lab- number of periods per week, length of st,hoo' year, stu-
oratory preparations. Students should be selected on an dent,' prt-vious science experienLes, your interests and
informal basis and never to the exchir:on of others who teaching style, availability of facilities and equipment, and
may later become interested in helping. Although their local biological resources. Use this schedule to lay out your
assistance may be greatest in routine work, they should own master plan one that serves as a measuring stick as
be given instruction in some laboratory skills partly in the school year progresses. A weekly layout is as essential
return for their aid and,in et ..uragement of their con- as a detailed daily plan if you are to use student time most
tinued effot, partly in hopes of discovering a few who may efficiently.
be interested in careers in science or laboratory tech- In this schedule, there are three important things to
nology. remember. First, the time allocated is not a direct indi-
Finding time: If your school has more than one biology cation of the importance of the topics or concepts in-
teacher, you may want to share preparatory tasks to save cluded, but merely an estimate of the time required for
time and labor. You can minimize vast: motion by keeping their consideration. Second, laboratory work is cssentA
an organized stockroom or preparation room where all to the course and must not be sacrificed merely to main-
items have assigned places. tain a time schedule. Third, each teacher will need to
Checking the work: Every investigation should be fol- modify the schedule in order to meet the needs and inter-
lowed by class discussion. When an investigation is ob- ests of students.
servational, guide students to relate observations to the
purpose of the investigation. When the investigation is ex- Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere
perimental, illuminate the course of the-reasoning, from
61/2 weeks
hypothesis through experimental design and data to con-
clusions. In any case, class discussion following laboratory Section One is indispensable to the philosophy of the Green
work is the most effective means of placing before stu- Version. Chapter 1 lays the groundwork and establishes
dents the rationale of science, the difficulties of research, the direction of the course. Here, you develop with stu-
and the uncertainties of knowledge. dents your basic procedures for laboratory work, class-
A written report for each investigation is neither nec- room discussions, home assignmentsin effect, your
essary nor feasible. Which investigations to select for modus operandi. Chapter 4 provides the basic under-
written reports is a matter of personal choice. It seems standing of chemistry needed for biology.
more reasonable to require such a report for an experi- Chapter 1 The Web of Life
mental rather than an observational investigation. In P/2 weeks
general, a written report might consist of (1) a title, Chapter 2 Populations
(2) relevant data worked up from the data book, 11/2 weeks
(3) answers to questions in the investigation, and (4) a
brief conclusion that relates the results to the initial hy- Chapter 3 Communities and Ecosystems
11/2 weeks
pothesis. Prompt evaluation and return of the report to
the student make a worthwhile follow-up discussion pos- Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Biosphere
sible. 2 weeks

Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

THE TEACHER'S RESOURCE BOOK 8 weeks
Another new addition to the Green Version is the Teach- The concepts presented in this section are basic to an un-
er's Resource Book. It consists of four general sections. derstanding of biology, and thus require sufficient invest-
additional laboratory investigations; black-line masters for ment of time so that students dev clop a solid foundation
classroom use; additional background material related to on which to build the remainder of the course.
certain of the investigations in the student book; and a Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells
test-item bank. The test-item bank will consist of the Re- 1 week
source Book of Test Item. both in print and on disk. The
test items have been revised for this edition of the Green Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction
1 week
Version and many new items have been added.
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development
1 week
TEACHING SCHEDULE Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity
21/2 weeks
The following general schedule is based on a school year
of 36 weeks. You may need to modify it to fit your par- Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution
tic-ular circumstances with respect to length of periods, 21/2 weeks
Teaching with the Green Version T5

Section Three Diversity and Adaptation Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World
in the Biosphere 2 weeks
61/2 weeks Chapter 23 Aquatic, ecosystems
Remember, the emphasis in Section Three is on diversity 1 week
and adaptation of organisms and concepts of classification Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems
and nomenclature. Beware of getting in a cul-de-sac by 1 week
attempting a "type study" of living things. Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 1 week
1 week
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses
1 week I. BSCS IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
Chapter 12 Eukaryotes. Protists and Fungi The BSCS was established to improve biological educa-
weeks tion. Among its early concerns was the formulation of goals
for those who, under the BSCS aegis, would be developing
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants
11/2 weeks
new educational programs and for the teachers and stu-
dents who wou:d be using the new materials. Those goals,
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals which are still valid, are to develop an understanding and
11/2 weeks appreciation of:

Section Four Functioning Organisms the nature of scientific inquiry. Science is an open-ended,
in the Biosphere intellectual activity, and what is presently "known" or
believed is subject to change at any time.
71/2 weeks
the limitations of science and of the scientific method.
Because this section focuses on humans and flowering Some problems of great importance cannot be dealt with
plants, it should be of particular interest to students. On scientifically.
the other hand, some of the topics might already have been the diversity of life and the interrelations among or-
taught in other courses, and you can adjust your schedule ganisms.
accordingly. the biological bases of problems in medicine, public
Chapter 15 The Human Animal. Food and Energy health, agriculture, and conservation.
11/2 weeks the historical development of biological concepts and
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of In- the relationship of those concepts to the society and
technology of each age.
ternal Environment
11/2 weeks
the beauty and drama of the living world.
our place in nature. We arc living organisms and we
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination have much in common with other organisms. We in-
2 weeks teract with all organisms in the biological system of the
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant. Form and Function earth and we must share the earth «ith them.
1 week
BSCS biology provides an alternative to the presen-
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and tation of vocabulary and isolated facts. BSCS programs
Coordination attempt to present biology as an experimental science, to
11/2 weeks demonstrate the status of biology in the 20th century, and
to illustrate its usefulness for students who will live the
Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere majority of their years in the 21st century. The BSCS staff
71/2 weeks believe that you, the teachers of the BSCS material, are
Section Five returns to the biological world view and the a special breed teachers who are not satisfied with
role of humans in the biosphere, and is important to mean- teaching biology as a taxonomic exercise in rote memory.
ingful completion of the course. Field study, so essential Accordingly, BSCS materials move beyond the two levels
to the ecological approa a, is included in chapter 22, and of the whole organism and its organs and tissues. Students
requires the extra time allotted to that chapter. are exposed to all seven levels of biological organization,
from the molecular to the world biome.
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival The Green Version focuses on the content of biology at
11/2 weeks the levels of organization of populations, communities and
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past the world biome. In so doing, the Green Version aspires
1 week to provide students with an insight into the biosphere, an
insight that will enrich their lives and their ability to be-
come responsible citizens.

23
T6 Teaching with the Green Version

Woven through each BSCS text are nine basic biolog- 8. Science as inquiry. High school texts organized around
ical themes. They form the framework for the subject a series of unqualified, positive st.,,,:ments give stu-
matter. The themes are as follows. dents the impression that science consists of unalter-
1. Change of living things through time: evolution. The
able, fixed truths, and that all is known. On the
contrary, the advent of new technological capabilities
theory of evolution is basic to biology. The study of
in the last twenty years has accelerated the pace of
evolution permits biologists to make order out of the
research and has made it clear that science is contin-
similarities and differences among living things. The
theory of evolution is, like other theories, a body of
ually restructured as new data are related to old.
The aim of an inquiry approach is to show some of
interrelated facts. As new facts are discovered, inter-
the conclusions of science within the context in which
pretations may change, but that does not mean that
the basic organization is unsound.
they arise and are tested. The inquiry approach also
2. Diversity of type and unity of pattern in living things. includes a fair treatment of the doubts and incom-
The diversity of living forms and their adaptation to pleteness of science and indicates the possibility that
widely differing environmental conditions are due to with further inquiry, scientific knowledge can change.
evolution and natural selection. Unity is represented Laboratory teaching allows students some insight into
by_ the role of ATP as a vehicle of energy transfer the real world of biologists. It reflects the investiga-
among all living things and of DNA and RNA as the tive, experimental approach of scientific enterprise.
molecules of information storage and transfer. Because the essen.. of BSCS biology teaching is the
3. The genetic continuity of life. This theme emphasizes spirit of inquiry, BSCS emphasizes investigative lab-
life as a continuing stream of genetic information oratory work.
passed from generation to generation. The properties 9. The history of biological concepts. The investigation
of the genetic mechanisms not only bring about du- of the history of scientific concepts can play a useful
plication of living forms, but provide variations role in helping students to acquire a realistic and un-
through genetic recombinations and through errors of derstandable view of science and scientists. By un-
genetic replication that create the new material for derstanding history, students can add to their
natural selection. knowledge of the scientific process and learn that sci-
4. The complementarity of organism and environment. entific research does not invariably have a formal plan
Organisms and environment interact at all levels of and clear purposethat chance, intuition, and ser-
biological organization, from genes and cell organ- endipity sometimes intervene. The history of scien-
elles to populations and their biomes. There is a re- tific concepts underlies much of our changing
ciprocal relationship between organisms and technology, agriculture, medicine, and management
environment. Organisms, by their very existence, of natural resources, as well as our changing body of
modify their environment and exploit it; humans are scientific knowledge.
the foremost example. Interaction between organ- The BSCS position on biolcgical education began with
isms and the environment is an integral theme of the a clear statement of rationale for teaching and learning
living world. biology. The following is a summary of that position.
5. The biological roots of behavior. The biology of or-
The BSCS and its parent organization, the American Institute
ganisms imposes limits on what they can do. Organ- of Biological Sciences, are concerned not only with improving
isms are limited by specific environmental conditions the ..itiact matter be.ng presented under tne title biology but
as well as by their particular heredity. also with the manner of presentation, the emphasis and the
6. The complementarity of structure and function. What focus. . . .
As the BSCS works on the high school biology program, we
an organ does depends on its structure. Conversely,
hope that biologyand indeed all sciencewill be presented
function can be inferred from a given structure. Com- as an unending search for meaning, rather than as a body of
plementarity of structure and function apply to all dogma. . Our ;lain objective islo'iead each student to
levels of biological organization. conceive of biology as a science, and of the process of science
7. Regulation and homeostasis: preservation of life in the as a reliable method of t, arcing objective knowledge.
To a very great extent the key to this understanding lies in
face of change. Organisms have the capacity to adjust
meaningful laboratory and field study which incorwates honest
to change. Such adjustments are related to homeo- investigation of real scientific problems.
stasis and regulation. Homeostasis is the mainte- The aim of the BSCS is to place biological knowledge in its
nance of a stable internal environment. Regulation fullest modern perspective. If we are successful, students of the
pertains to the long-term and large-scale variations in new biology should acquire nc' -ly an intellectual and esthetic
appreciation for the complexitic.. of living things and their in-
structure as well as in function. The overall organi-
terrelationships in nature, but also for the ways in which new
zation of the body is maintained by such variations knowledge is gained anu tested, old errors eliminated, and an
despite external and internal change. ever closer approximation to truth attained.
(H. Bentley Glass, 1960)

29
 Teaching with the Green Version T7

This text reflects that rationale and is constructed upon over whether A. africanus is ancestral to A. afarensis or
the premises presented in the themes. The emphasis in the vice versa. Neither debate calls into question the validity
content is on those areas encuaipassing the study of of evolution theory. The former is an argument about the
ecology Along with evolution, the two form the main pace of evolutionary change, the latter a disagrzement over
threads into which the other content areas are woven. The the sequence in which our hominid ancestors diverged.
Green Version is aimed at the general student of biology, Each debate has a healthy effect on evolutionary biology
not just college-bound individuals. The intention of the because the scientists involved must work harder and be
writers and of the BSCS is to present to students a method more creative and insightful to establish the rigor of their
for investigating and testing their own environment in a arguments. Such debates demonstrate that dogma and re-
future culture dominated by technology. As participants vealed knowledge are antithetical to the growth of .,ci-
in a dcmocratic society, these young adults will be re- ence, or any other scholarly discipline, for that matter.
sponsible for the maintenance of their country, and pos- Although debates within the scientific community
sibly the world, in a condition that pros ides a healthy and might or might not attract public attention, other issues
viable environment for themselt es and future generations. that derive from biological progress are certain to do so.
It is to those ends that this text is dedicated. Your students will encounter a number of these issues in
Green Versionfor example, reproductive biology, con-
traception, abortion, prenatal diagnosis, and genetic
II. SOME THOUGHTS ON CONTROVERSIAL screening. These issues call into question the validity of
ISSUES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION many long-standing values and moral traditions. That does
Progress in science and technology invites controversy al- not mean that those values and traditions will necessarily
most as a matter of coursi:. Whether the issue is research be found wanting. It does mean that new knowledge and
in astrophysics that affirms an ancient age for the uni- new techniques raise what once were intellectual abstrac-
verse, or the development of chorionic villus sampling, tions to the level of hard, often painful, reality for indi-
which allows first-trimester detection of certain birth de- viduals, families, and policy makers.
fects, science and technology challenge traditional values We believe students have a right tote exposed to so-
and traditional views of the world. The incredible rate of cietal issues that grow naturally out of science, because it
progress in science and technology ensures that there will is within the societal contextnot the scientific that the
always be great disparity between what is possible and average student will grapple with these problems. In-
what people may find acceptable. formed citizenship requires that students understand the
Although an introductory course in biology should not parameters of such issues, and we know quite well that if
make controversial issues its central thesis, neither should your students are not exposed to these issues in your course,
it evade such issues when they arise naturally from the they are unlikely to encounter a dispassionate analysis
scientific content. Ours is a society rooted in science. and anywhere else in the educational process.
technology; they derive from and help shape societal We have not gone out of our way purposely to create
values. Indeed, many of the important decisions today's controversy where none exists naturally, but we have not
students will face as individuals and as members of the avoided it when the biology compelled it. You will find in
voting electorate will have their roots in science and tech- this teacher's edition suggestions for dealing with poten-
nology. The proper use of gene therapy, the disposal of tially controversial issues in the sections where they arise.
nuclear waste, and the management of water resources in We hope you find these suggestions helpful and hope also
the rapidly-growing American Southwest are but a few that you will cline with the BSCS any comments you
examples. might have on these matters.
In Green Version, your students will confront two major
categories,of scientific controversy: debates within the sci-
entific community, and debates about the use of science III. TEACHING CONTEHT-AREA READING SKILLS
and technology that extend into the community at large. For many years, educational methods were based on the
Students must understand that debates between scientists assumption that students were empty receptacles to be
must occur, or there will be no science. Science is a dy- filled with appropriate knowledge by the teacher. Em-
namic, self-correcting enterprise that continually tests new phasis was placed on the teaching methods and students
information and ideas in the marketplace of open, even were assigned a passive role. In the last decade research
confrontational, debate. Debates within the scientific in cognitive psychology has shown that students must ac-
community do not demonstrate that the concepts under tively participate in the learning process.
scrutiny are intellectually bankrupt; rather, thcy are in- The object of content-area reading instruction is to
dications of community health. teach students reading and study skills that will help them
The current debate between those evolutionary biolo- understand the concepts, ideas, and factual information
gists who believe in gradualism and those who believe in contained in subject-matter textbooks. This chapter in-
punctuated equilibrium is a case in point, as is the dispute cludes suggestions for preparing and presenting material

0
T8 Teaching with the Green Version

to help students actively participate in their learning. Be- the residing. Ask how they would modify their original
cause this material can be used in a non-threatening (non- ideas. Usually, students will be impressed by the amount
graded) manner, it can provide motivation by increasing of knowledge they possessed and the reading tasks will not
students' chances of success. seem as formidable.
To prepare students for content reading, the teacher
2. Previewing the vocabulary
should ascertain what prior experiences and knowledge the
Students are often overcome by the new terms in a bi-
students possess and link these to the topic to be assigned.
ology text. They have few skills for pre-learning vocabu-
One way of doing this is through concept mapping, which
lary and may attempt to learn the terms in the context of
is described in the next chapter. Such links tend to im-
reading. This often results in imprecise knowledge of the
prove students' comprehension of the reading assignment.
meaning of a word and places a limit on the opportunity
Studies to determine how human knowledge is structured
to learn the information contained in the text. Many stu-
and used have shown that the reader's existing knowledge
dents, especially those with marginal or poor reading skills,
and experiences directly influence the content and form
are intimidated by the sight of unfamiliar words. They
of new knowledge. How can teachers organize instruction
tend to skip over phrases or even sentences that contain
to accommodate the wide range of background knowledge
new terms and therefore lose a great deal of the continuity
and experience that exists in the average classroom? Sev-
of the material.
eral suggestions are given below. In addition, the Student
Teachers cannot review every word that might be trou-
Study Guide that accompanies this book provides a wealth
blesome to some student. They can select those they be-
of activities that provide practice in communications skills,
lieve will be necessary to understand the reading
science skills, and general cognitive skills.
assignment and the concepts contained therein. The fol-
1. Prereading activity lowing suggestions for activities to pre-teach vocabulary
This example is from chapter 3, Communities and Eco- terms provide a structure students can use with subse-
systems. Have students work in groups of three, selecting quent reading assignments.
one spokesperson for each group. (Smooth functioning of These examples use the vocabulary of chapter 4, Matter
groups requires careful selection and continuity so that and Energy in the Web of Life. Have the students read
trust can build.) Place the word "community" on the the introduction to chapter 4, orally or silently.
chalkboard or overhead and have the groups respond to (a) Use of the contrast clue or specification of term:
the following questions: In the second sentence the terms matter and energy are
contrasted in a specific example: "Producer organisms such
What is a community? Each group should reach con-
as green plants make their own food, using energy from
sensus on a single definition. (Students will need guid-
the sun and absorbing matter from the surrounding soil
ance on this at first.)
and air."
Give some examples of a community.
(b) Use of a summary clue: In the third sentence, the
Allow 5 or 10 minutes, then ask each spokesperson to give definitions are reinforced by summarizing ". . . must ob-
the group's definition and the examples. Write these on tain their energy and matter from other organisms."
the chalkboard or overhead without comment. Ask the (c) Use of the synonym or near-5y non) m. "This food
class to choose those that are similar and condense them is made up of the biological molecules the molecules of
into one or possibly as many as three definitions. Retain lifefound in all living things."
these definitions. Relate each example to a specific defi- (d) Structural analysis. Because many scientific terms
nition. have a Latin or Greek origin it is helpful if students can
Ask the students whether they think the example com- learn number of prefixes, suffixes, and roots. In
munities have always been the same and will remain un- this chapter the prefixes mono-, di-, and poly- are used
changed. After they have expressed their opinions, ask with the roots saceharide and peptide. Often-used roots
each group to suggest one or two factors that might cause include carbo-, hydra/hydro-, and nucico-.
these communities to change. Again, record these on the (e) Prereading student activity (this works well in
chalkboard. groups of three): Prepare a worksheet for the students that
Assign chapter 3, Introduction through section 3.2, as includes terms you think the students should have in their
a reading assignment. Ask the students to determine working vocabulary. Provide a column for their predicted
through their reading which definition is most accurate. meaning, confirmed meaning, and clues. Ha% c them pre-
Also have them write a list of new information they have dict the meaning prior to reading, then confirm it from
gleaned from their reading and a list of new vocabulary their reading, adding clues to help them remember ths.:
terms. Present the original definitions to the class after meaning. Examples below:

3.1
Teaching with the Green Version T9

Word Predicted After Reading Clue Words IV. CONCEPT MAPPING FOR BSCS
Meaning GREEN VERSION
atoms small pieces of made up of small, particles All teachers know that success in learning depends on the
something protons, neutrons motivation and effort of each individual student. No
and electrons
method or process can guarantee meaningful learning, be-
molecules small pieces of food
cause the students themselves must make the effort. Con-
matter, made of cept mapping is a tool that can help students learn by
atoms. building on what they already know.
In their book Learning How to Learn. Joseph D. Novak
chemical and D. Bob Gowin define a concept map as 'meaningful
bonds relationships between concepts in the form of proposi-
chemical tions." A concept is a mental image, such as "plant,"
reactions "photosynthesis," or "solar energy." A proposition is two
or more concepts linked by words in a phrase or thought.
3. Reviewing the vocabulary The linking words show how the concepts are related.
Reinforcement exercises in the form of crossword puz- In developing a concept map, the idea is to link con-
zles, fill-in-the-blanks, word searches, and other games are cepts and propositions in a hierarchy, progressing from the
valuable tools to encourage vocabulary retention. Com- more general and inclusive concepts at the top to the more
puter programs arc available that will generate many of specific at the bottorli. The three concepts mentioned above
these activities given the input of a number of vocabulary could be linked in several ways. For example.
terms.
4. Two-columa note-taking
This icchnique helps students identify the main ideas
in a reading. They list the ideas on the left and then add
details on the right. To begin with, students can work in
groups of three to develop the main ideas or to exchange
information. Ultimately, students should find the tech-
nique useful in independent study.
The example below is from chapter 5, Continuity in
Cells, section 5.7, Substances Move In and Out of Cells photosynthesis .....$)
in Several Ways.
takes place in requires
Main Ideas Details
transport of materials in and cells abide by rules of
plants
out of cell physics and chemistry
diffusion random movement of
molecules and small
particles; distributes
materials throughout cell
is necessary for
active transport method by which substances
enter or leave cell Jainst
diffusion gradient; requires
use of energy
takes place in
5. Recognizing and using the structure of the book
The Green Version has been extensively reorganized
and its structure and organization made more evident in
accordance with research in content reading and cognitive
psychology. If students become familiar with that struc- As much as possible, links should be functional rather than
ture, it will be easier for them to understand the text ma- descriptive.
terial. However, they will need aelp to recognize the Beginning with those three concepts, it is possible to
organization and to discover how it works for them. The construct a simple concept map with the addition of a few
main features of the book are listed on page TI with a related concepts such as leaves, chlorophyll, water, air,
brief explanatory comment about each. carbon dioxide, roots, soil, and veins. For example:
T10 Teaching with the Green Version

photosynthesis

requires requires takes requires

place
in

used by

used by

excites
comes from
comes from
grow in

contain contain is
transported
by

This is but one possibility. There is no single correct

way to develop a concept map. Maps are always relative,
not fixed, and the nature of the links changes depending
on the context. Notke that arrows, when they are used, and ask students hove they are related. Though it is dif-
indicate lateral or upward linkages. ficult to elicit responses at the beginning of the year, pos-
A good deal of leading and structuring may be re- itive results can be achieved if every response is accepted.
quired during the developmznt of the first feu maps, but Usually it is easiest for students to suggest examples of
students quickly learn to construct maps with little or no concepts, so you might expert numerous specific examples
guidance. It is important first to ascertain students' back- of liv ing things such as cat, rabbit, frog. bird, grass, flowers,
grounds and to establish in their minds that they do have and so on. Try to get students to see the larger categories
prior knowledge to contribute and to build on. For ex- of plants and animals. Examples of nonliving things also
ample, before beginning study of chapter 1, The Web of are likely to be 'very specific, but it should be possible to
Life, you might place on the chalkboard or overhead the lead them to the to major categories, matter and energy.
following: These could be put together something like this:

can be can be can be can be

33
Teaching with the Green Version Ti 1

Now ask students how these concepts are linked together. indicating, tu students litm much they already knuv, about
Try to elicit lateral relationships such as. some animals this term before beginning tu stud). The folio+. ing is an
eat plants, matter has energy, and so on. To summarize, example of huv, this concept map might look %%hen fin-
you could introduce the first vocabulary term, biosphere, ished.

includes includes

can be can be can be can be

made of

After establishing the collecthe background knowl- pruides a ++a) tu check that all maps shum, the correct
edge of the class, provide a baLkbune map on which they relationships, and to discuss ++h) some relationships are
can structure their new knowledge as they begin to read not correct.
the chapter. Write on the chalkboard or tnerhead the .ul- Make it clear to students that concept maps are meant
lowing relationship: to be rearranged and redrawn. As students work and learn,
they will envisage new or different relationships. Explain
that the first draft of a concept map almost certainly will
animals haN,e gaps or flaws and can be improved. One of the ad-
eat vantages of concept maps is that they can grow and change
as students learn, paralleling what is happening in their
You might also establish that both plants and animals need minds as they build new meanings. If concept maps be-
energy and that it is to be found in their food. come a regular part of the learning, students become more
skillful at the process.
Concept mapping works well in cooperative learning
situations or groups of three, ideally with students of
varying abilities. The media used should allow for flexi-
is needed by ,s needed by bility, negotiation, and changes, so that students can add,
remove, and rearrange their concepts and linking words.
Concept maps can be used in a number of ways. Used
eat produce to introduce a topic, a concept map will aid both students
and teacher in focusing on the small number of key ideas
they require for a specific learning task. It also shows the
At this point you might assign the students to complete
students what they already know about the material to be
the map, either in small groups or as a homework assign-
studied. Used again at the end of the topic, concept maps
ment. In either case a follow-up class discussion should be
can provide a graphic demonstration of how much the stu-
held to compare the completed maps Maps can be posted
dents have learned.
around the room. The variety should make it clear that
there are many correct ways to st-ucture a map. It also

34
T12 Teaching with the Green Version

In the process of learning the unit, concept maps can E. D. Gagne. 1985. Th e Cognitile l's),..holog) of St.hool
provide an opportunity to exchange views on why a par- Learning (Boston. Little. Bruw n and Cumpany).
ticular linkage is good or valid, or to recognize missing D Bob Gow in. "The Structure of Knowledge" Ethmational
Theory (Fall 1970): 319-28.
linkages between concepts. By working in small groups or
, 1982. "Philosophy of Science in Education." In H. E.
utilizing other cooperative learning strategies, students will Mitzel d.), Eno clopedui of ducalional Research, 5th ed.,
find that learning the meaning of a piece of knowledge Vol. 3. (New York. Free Press).
requires talking, exchange, sharing, and sometimes com- N L Liman and R E Mayer. "Signaling Techniques that In-
promise. In this way learning can serve a useful social crease the Understandability of Expository Pruse" Journal
of Educational Psychology (June 1983): 402-412.
function and Ind to lively classroom discussion.
R. F. Lorch and E. D. Loren, "Topic Structure Representation
Although learning is not a shared activity and is rather and Text Recall' Journal of Educational Psychology (April
,a matter of individual responsibility, the cooperative na- 1985): 137-148.
ture of these activities enhances the chances of learning. John Malone and Juhn Dekker,. "The Coru..ept Map as an Aid
In addition, it helps encourage students to try a new sub- to Instruction in Science and Mathematics" .5,11(101 Science
and Mathematics (March 1984).
ject, knowing that it is based on some old knowledge. Con- R E. Mayer. 1981, "Structural Analysis of Science Prose: Can
struction of concept maps acknowledges the contribution We Increase Problem-solving Performance?" in J. Black &
of all students. When asked what they learned in previous B. Britton (cds.) Expositor) Prose (Hillsdale, NJ. Erlbaum).
science classes, most students will immediately utter dis- R E Mayer. et al "Techniques that I kip Readers Budd Mental
claimers to any knowledge. On the other hand, when asked Models from Scientific Text Definitions, Pretraining. and
Signaling" Journal of Educational Psychology (December
to volunteer any, even trivial, knowledge on a broad gen- 1984): 1089-1105.
eral topic, a surprising amount of background will be re- Meyer. B. J. F.. 1977. "The Structure of Prose: Effects on
vealed. This process aids both students and teacher in Learning and Memur) and Implu.atiuns fur Education Prac-
recognizing the important of prior knowledge, whether tice" R C \nderson. et at (eds )&hooling and the
correct or incorrect, to the acquisition of new knowledge. shim: of Knowledge (Hillsdale. NJ Erlbaum).
Joseph D Novak, 1977. A Theory of Education (Ithaca and
Concept maps can help students extract meaning from London: Cornell University Press).
laboratory and field experiences. Often students have no . "An Alternative to Piagctian Psychology for Science
idea of what they are to observe, or of what relationships and Mathematics Edik.atiun- &mut, Ediatinun (October/
between concepts are important. The laboratory experi- December 1977): 453-77.
ence becomes a cookbook activity in which they manip- , ",kpplying Psychology and Philusophy to the Improve-
ment of Laboratory Teaching" American Biology Teacher
ulate apparatus and make records that have little meaning.
(November 1979): 466-70.
Concept maps can help students to identify key concepts "Learning Theory Applied to the Biology Classroom"
and relationships, which in turn will help them to inter- Anit.man Biology Teacher (Ma) 1980). 280-85.
pret their observations. In field work, concept maps can , "1pply ing Learning Psyaulugy and Philusuphy of Sci-
provide students with a framework of potential meaning ence to Biology Teaching" .-lincriLan Tea /ier (Jan-
uary 1981): 10-12.
within which to interpret their observations.
, "A Need for Caution in the Use of Research Claims to
Concept maps also can be used to plan written assign- Guidc Biology Teaching" American Biology Teacher (Oc-
ments. A brief concept map of the four or five most im- tober 1982): 393.
portant concepts to be included in the assignment can Joseph D Novak and D. Bob Gow in, 1984, Leaning Holt to
provide a framework within which to begin writing. Leant (Cambridge. Cambridge University Press,
Michael Pressley and Joel R. Levin, Editors, 1983, '.'.ognitive
Strategy Research (New York: Springer-Verlag).
R. P. Santeusanio, 1983, A Practical Approach to Content
REFERENCES Reading (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Com-
pany).
'J. R. Anderson, 1976, Language, Memory, and Thought (Hills-
dale, NJ: Erlbaum). Patricia N. Schwab and Charles R. Coble, "Reading, Thinking
David P. At:subel, 1963, The Psychology of Meaningful Learning
and Semantic Webbing" The Science Teacher (May 1985):
(New York: Grune and Stratton). 68-71.
David P. Ausubel, Joseph D. Novak, and Helen Hanesian, 1968, James Stewart, Judith VanKirk, and Richard Rowell, "Concept
Educational Psychology, A Cognitive View (New York: Holt, Maps: A Tool for Use in Biology Teaching" American Bi-
Rinehart and Winston). ology Teacher (March 1979): 171-5.
Benjamin S. Bloom, 1956, Taxonomy of Educational Objec- R J. Tierney, J E. Readence, and E K. Dishner, 1980, Reading
tives: The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Strategies and Practices. Guide for Improving Instruction
Cognitive Domain (New York: McGraw-Hill). (Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon).
BSCS, 1978, Biology Teacher's Handbook, 3rd ed. (New York: P T Vacca, 1981, Content Area Reading (Boston. Little, Brown
Macmillan Publishing Company). and Company).
 ,,,,1

Teaching Strategies
by Chapters

OBJECTIVES

CHAPTER 1 1. An understanding of the processes of scientific work

is basic to the study of any science.
Students should be able to
PLANNING AHEAD identify in an investigatory situation the elements of
scientific procedure;
The whole course lies ahead, but the requirements of the construct hypotheses appropriate to a given problem;
first week arc the most pressing. Ideally, planning and or- discuss the values of measurement in scientific inves-
dering should have been done in the spring. tigation;
If this has not been done, then record data obtained from a given procedure;
Collect organisms or organism parts for investigation
differentiate between data and interpretations or con-
1.1 (see lab for suggestions). Prepare growing plants to clusions;
demonstrate how plants need energy (light) to live. A plant
distinguish among the terms observation, hypothesis,
can be kept in the dark for several days (or weeks) and experiment, and verification.
an identical plant can be left in light for comparison. You
also can allow a plant to die in a closet. II. The interrelationships of organisms produce an intri-
Now, with the immediate needs attended to, check the cate and complex web of life.
lists.of.materials and equipment (pp. T64-73) against the Students should be able to
supplies in your laboratory. Order what is lacking or begin diagram 2 or more food chains;
to consider feasible substitutions. --distinguish between a food web and a food chain;
identify interrelationships among organisms personally
observed in nature.
GUIDELINES
III. Energy flows from the sun through the living system
Chapter 1 is designed chiefly to lay some groundwork. It and back into the nonliving world, from which it is irre-
covers the interdependence of organisms in the transfer of coverable.
energy and in the cycling of matter and the interaction of Students should be able to
the living system with the physiL.al emironnient. These eAplain simply the changing of light energy to chemical
ideas will never again be stated quite so explicitly, but they energy;
will persist throughout the course. discus; producers and consumers in terms of energy and
Although getting into laboratory work quickly is de- food;
sirable in any science course, this seldom happens un the describe ways in which energy is lust from the system
very first day. of living things.
Because the use of microscopes has increased in junior
IV. The matter in living things is the same matter that is
high and middle schools, investigations concerning micro-
found in nonliving things. It exists in a finite amount on
scope skills are not included in chapter 1. Nevertheless,
earth but (unlike energy) moves cyclically between the
some students may lack such skills or may need a review. living system and the nonliving wild.
Appendix 2 includes two investigations involving micro-
Students should be able to
scope techniques. If necessary, use these investigations name several of the most abundant chemical elements
sometime before chapter 2 is begun. found in :rig things;
Remember, this is an introductory chapter. Because
distinguish between energy and matter flo': in living
the major ideas will reappear continually during the rest things.
of the course, the depth of understanding achieved at this
point need not be great,

T13
T14 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 1

V. Earth's Irving system, together with the supporting SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

abiotic environment, may be conveniently conceptualized
in the term biosphere. INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
Students should be able to
discuss the relationships between balance and change The Invitations to Enquiry in the BSCS Biology Teach-
among living things;
er's Handbook, 3rd ed., 1978 (New York: Macmillan
construct a statement or concept map that includes the Publishing Company), arc valuable for emphasizing sci-
ence processes, and can be used at any time to supplement
principal attributes subsumed by the term biosphere.
an idea or topic or as lessons in themselves.
VI. Human beings are faced vv ith enormous biological The subject of each inv itation is used as a vehicle to
problems in the biosphere. teach the topic or main objective of the exercise. There-
Students should be able to fore, complete familiarity with the subject is not neces-
describe ways in which vve affect the state of the bio- sary in most invitations. Any invitation may be done at
sphere; any time, but the exercises suggested at the end of a
suggest several biologically Used current problems. chapter have subjects that pertain to that chapter. Be-
cause the written materials to be given students are brief,
the invitations are easy to present using transparencies on
TACTICS an overhead projector.
Short study assignments are preferable while you learn The following topics arc pertinent to chapter I:
the reading capabilities of your students. After the dis- Invitation I. Subject. The Cell Nucleus,
cussion of investigation 1.1, a reasonable division of the Topic. Interpretation of Simple Data
chapter is sections 1.2-1.3, section 1.4, section 1.5, sec- Invitation 2. Subject: The Cell Nucleus;
tion 1.6, and sections 1.7-1.8. Topic: Interpretation of Variable Deta
A terrarium can be established that caterpillars, frogs, Invitation 3. Subject. Seed Germination
grasshoppers, etc., can live in. Whole organisms are the Topic. Misinterpretation of Data
biological materials with which students have ha:: the most Imitation 4. Subject. Plant Physiology,
experience. Therefore, on the principle of from tit; Topic. Interpretation of Complex Data
more familiar to the less familiar, the course begins vv it Invitation 10. Subject. Environment and Disease;
whole living things. Have plenty of these in your clas3- Topic: The Idea of Hypothesis
room. Whether your room is large or small, vv !tether y Jll Invitation I I. Subject. Light and Plant Growth;
have the latest biological equipment or not, you can in.the. Topic. Construction of Hypotheses
it a home for at least a few living things that will bc con-
spicuous on the first day of school. With encourargrient, AV MATERIALS
students will quickly add to the array.
There is, of course, a danger in beginning with what is The Making o.1 a Natural History Film. 16 mm, 52 miry.
familiar. Because it isfa,aa;ar, it may mistakenly be taken Timc-;Life Films, New York. Most of the students have
for understood. You should, therefore, repeatedly empha- seen films on natural history on TV. These films often
size the complexities of interaction behind the surface follow food chains and sometimes discuss whole food
phenomena of the biosphere. You can best do this by webs, and the students actually see all the different an-
maintaining a questioning attitude yourself. The textbook imals hunting. In this particular film the students arc
assists you by providing questions in marginal notes and taken behind the scenes to see all the problems of the
captions. photographer and production crew in obtaining dra-
Section One not only begins with the familiar but it matic action shots of animals interacting in the wild.
also introduces students to some aspects of biology that The Nature of Science- Forming Hypotheses. I 6 mm, 16
are most socially useful. l'he level of discussion cannot be min Coronet Instructional Media, Chicago, IL. Sci-
profound at this stage in the course, but students should entists from four diverse fields discuss their respective
become aware of the importance of the matters studied. methods of forming hypotheses.
In Section Five, with some of this background achieved, Pond-Life Food Web. 16 mm, 10 min,. National Geo-
students will return to the initiatory topics to round out graphic Society, Washington, D.0 Beautiful photog-
the course. raphy of underwater food events.
Finally, throughout Section One, keep constantly be- The Waterhole 16 mm, 9 min. Educational Media Inter-
fore you the trio of ideas that underlie it: (I) individuals national, Haymarket, VA. A brief nature film de-
as biological units, (2) verifiable observations as the foun- picting the typical, biological events at a watcrhole in
dation of biological concepts, and (3) the flow of energy Central Australia.
as the core of ecosystem function.

37
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 1 T15

Adaptation to Emironment. 16 mm, 16 min. Lucerne The third category of recummcntied software is data-
Films, Inc., Morris Plains, NJ. This film explores the bases. Databases allow the user to recall and select infor
structure of a dune area in southwestern Spain, showing maliun un a given topic. Once selected, information may
the diversity of the animals living in the subdivisions be compared, and relationships explored. An example is
of the area. the Life Science Database. Using the Life Science Data-
Man and the Ent ironment. Slides. Crystal Productions. base, the user can compare anatomical systems among
Aspen, CO. This slide series fits nicely into Section One; animal species.
could serve as an introduction to the course in general. Tutorial and Drill programs, the fourth category.
The series includes. "Man and Biosphere. Energy present the user with explanations of key concepts. then
Uses and Reserves," "Man and His Island," "Man. A test his or her comprehension of those concepts vvith prob-
Changing Organism." "Man and the Environment. Past lems or quizzes. Geneth. Engineering is an example of a
and Present." tutorial and drill program. It explains recombinant DNA
techniques.
SOFTWARE The final category of software, classroom utilities, is
included in appendix T1. Classroom utilities help the stu-
There are a large number and variety of commercial soft-
dent or teacher organize or present information. They are
ware programs available to the high school biology teacher.
not in and of themselves instructive on a particular topic
We have reviewed over 150 of these commercial pro-
in biology, and therefore have not been associated with
grams along with the written materials that accompany
any one chapter in the text. Data Analysis is a classroom
them. The quality of these programs varies widely. Of the
utility that allows the user to create graphs of xy data.
150-plus programs, we have selected 52, roughly one-third,
A lisiing of software suppliers also is included in ap-
for recommended inclusion in the Biological Science: An
pendix T1, which follows the teaching strategies.
Ecological Approach curriculum. Our selection was based
on the following criteria: Baffles by Spain
Content. The content should be appropriate in both de- Publisher: Conduit
gree of sophistication and choice of topics for a study of Description. A simulation program in which the user
Biological Science. An Ewlugkal Approach. The pro- deduces the arrangement of "baffles" in a box, based on
grams should be accurate, free of spelling errors, and a laser beam's deflections. Reinforces deductiv c reasoning
without gender or race bias. and scientific inquiry.
Control. The user should control pace and sequence. Technical Data. Apple II. 48k. IBM PC. 128k. IBM
Directions should be easy to follow and the program should version is cup) protected and requires a colorl'graphics
provide the user with helpful feedback. card.
Graphics. The screens should be easy to read. Graphics
Discovery Lab by M ECC
should be used appropriately to explain concepts funda-
Publisher: MECC
mental to the topic.
Description: A simulation program in which the user
Approach. The program should be interesting, with a
determines the characteristics of an imaginary organism
novel approach to the topic. The program should offer a
by designing and conducting experiments. Excellent color
unique and positive learning experience to the user.
graphics. Similar to Discover but with more experiment
The recommended programs may be grouped into five
structure requiring leas input from the teacher.
categories according to their presentation format: simu-
Technical Data: Apple II. 48k. Copy protected.
lations, lab-interfacing programs, databases, tutorial and
drill,,and classroom utilities.
Discover by Herstein
Simulation programs, the first category, allow the com-
Publisher: Sunburst
puter user to simulate dangerous, lengthy, or otherwise
Description: A simulation program in which the user
difficult -to- reproduce events. Catgen is a simulation pro-
observes the behavior of space creatures then forms and
gram. It allows the user to study classical and modern ge-
tests hypotheses concerning their survival needs. Excel-
netics by simulating crosses among cats of variable
lent color graphics and documentation.
genotype.
Technical Data: Apple'', 48k. Copy protected.
Lab-interfacing programs. the second category, trans-
form the computer into a laboratory instrument with Tribbles by Von Blum and I lurst
computing capabilities. Experiments in Physiology, for Publisher: Conduit
example, includes a hcartrate sensor that inputs the user's Description. A simulation program in sv li;ch the user
heart rate into the computer. Once inputted, heartrate data observes the behavior Jf creatures called Tilbles. then
may be graphed, averaged, compared to previous data, ur forms and tests hypotheses explaining their behavior.
saved to disk. Technical Data: Apple II. 48k. Not copy protected.

38
 T16 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 2

TEACHER'S REFERENCES M. Mick lin and IL M. Choldin, 1984 Sociological human

P. Cloud, "The Biosphere" Scientific American (September Ecology (Boulder. Cob.: Wcstvicw Press). Socral articles
1983). Comprehensive discussion of the biosphere, with em- address human influence on ecosystems.
phasis on its evolution. 0. B. Toon and S. Mon. "The Warm Earth" Science 85 (0c-
J. R. Jungck and R. W. Bybcc, "Rachcl Carson, Human Ecol- tobcr 1985) Explores the early history of earth during its
ogist" The American Biology Teacher (September 1984). evolution to the hospitable planet that it is today.
Short biographical skctch of this influential ecologist. J A Ward and H. R. Iletzcl, 1984, Biology Toth)) and To-
morrow (St Paul, Minn.: West). Rather advanced discussion
R. M. May and-J. Scgcr, "I dcas in Ecology" American Scientist
(May/Junc 1986). Thrcc complementary approachcs havc of ccosystcms and the physical environment.
shaped the scientific discipline of ecology in this century.

CHAPTER 2 (in the view of many students), mathematics. Yet, in our

view, a major portion of citizens mus!grasp these ideas at
some level if the human spccics is to solve its problems.
You must employ mathematics teaching methods to the
PLANNING AHEAD study of population density and of the interaction of rates;
examples must be worked through with the class, and stu-
Thcrc are many supplies that you will need for the next dr.its must practice with numerous problems. Som.., prac-
few chapters. This is a good time to take inv2ntor) and be tice problems are providcd, but you will have to devise
sure that you have enough materials for the number of man) of your own. Problems with a local flavor arc, of
students in your classroom. Check your cupboards for course, best. Review such problems occasionally during
so supplies nccdcd for future investigations. For immediate the munths after you leave chapter 2 behind.
use you will need to have the nutrient materials for in-
vestigation 2.3 and bean seeds for investigation 3.3. If these
are not readily available, you can order than from a supply OBJECTIVES
house.
I. The individual organism is a logical and convenient
It is not too early to check your supply of solutions
unit of biological study.
nccdcd for chapter 4. Bc sure that you have a big supply
of graph paper., Look through the text and your schedule Students should be able to
now, and plan to have films and filmloops available at the discuss difficulties in defining the term individual.
proper time. II. Aggregations of individuals that are similar in var-
For investigation 24.1 you will need magazine articles ious ways arc termed populations. Populations continu-
about local plants and animals. (Some suggestions are ously change in size.
given on page T55-57.) Start collecting them now, es- Students should be able to
pecially if you are teaching this course for the first time. define populations in terms of kind, place. and time;
.rolve simple probicms concerning rate of population
change;
GUIDELINES predict population size from given rates of the popu-
The concepts in chapter 2 of individual and population lation determiners:
form a foundation on which much of the remainder of the
solve simple problems concerning population density;
course rests. In chapter 3 communities are regarded as apply principles of changes in population size to cur-
rant statistics of human populations.
interacting populations. Continuity of individuals and
populations are considered in section 3.2. Section 3.3 treats III. Rates of change in population sizes and densities are
the diversity and adaptations of individuals and popula- affectcd by biotic and abiotic environmental factors that
tions. The individual as a unit of biological organization are continually interacting.
is emphasized in section 3.4. The patterns discussed in Students should be able to
section 3.5 are composed of individuals, selected and construct graphs from data of population changes,
grouped as spccics populations. The cffccts of human pop- interpret graphs of population data,
ulation growth are a major theme in this textbook, so apThin as in which environmental factors affect
thorough study of chapter 2 is essential. population determiners.
Students encounter many difficulties in this chapter.
The major oncs arc: abstract ideas; new -vocabulary IV. Despite continual change, natural populations are
(sometimes disguised as familiar words); and, worst of all usually maintained within limits by the operation of ho-
mcostatic controls.

.
39
 A

Teaching Strategies by Chapters Chapter 2 T17

Students should be able to Life in Lost Creek. Fresh Water Ecologt. 16 mm, 15 min.
describe population fluctuations; Coronet Instructional Media, Chicago, IL.
relate carrying capacity to limitations on population Red Grow( of Si.uthuid. Pupulauun Contra. rihnio
growth. Harper & Row, New York. Shows field work during
population research.
V. Bioogical investigation is assisted by mental tools.
Animal Populations: Nature's Checks and Balances. 16
Students ihould be able to
mm, 22 min. Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational
explain the use of a model in biological investigation;
Corp., Chicago, IL. Serves to inn nduce the concept of
distinguish between hypothesis and assumption;
animal populations; this ftiaii explains the interaction
distinguish between the terms generalization and
of populations to form a community. It also uses sev-
theory;
eral types of organisms to illustrate the relationship of
discuss the use of mathematics (including graphing) in
population and environments.
clarifying biological data.
SOFTWARE
TACTICS Scholastic pfs: Life Selena Data Base by NIeLcod and
Hunter
Begin with investigation 2.1, and move quickly through
Publisher: Scholastic
the reading and investigation 2.2.
Description: A database of information on bird migra-
Investigation 2.3 is a major undertaking, but cr:c of the
tion and animal anatomical systems, allows the usr to
most-important in the course. Its difficulties are b.:danced
compare animal species and uncover patterns existing
by the fact that 2.1 and 2.2 are paper investigations.
amen those species. Students may create their own Bi-
During the long period between setting up and con-
ology database using ids File.
cluding investigation 2.3, work can proceed on the rest of
Technical Data: Apple II, 64k; IBM PC. 128k. Not
the chapter.
copy protected. Requires Scholastic pfc

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
TEACHER'S REFERENCES
INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 1984, invest:gating the
Human Environment: Land (Dubuque. Iowa: Kendall/
These materials can be found in the Biulogi 7i.aLher's I hint). This inini..ours.. (136 Ng. ..0 us..s Audics and in-
Handbook (see Supplementary Materials, chapter 1). dependent in% estigations by stud...its to ..atiphasizu the t rans-
taseiplinary nature of land use questioni.
Invitation 8. Subject. PredatorPrey, Natural Popula- L. R. 13ro%%n, "t orld Population Growth. boil 1.rosion. and rood
tions; Security.' Science (27 November 1981). Pressures on the
Topic: Second-Best Data world's cropland base are intensifying every here -farmers
are adopting agricultural practices that lead to excessive rates
Invitation 9: Subject: Population Growth; of soil erosion and a loss of momentum in the growth of world
Topic: The Problem of Sampling food production.
J. D. Elset It and K. D. Baumgardner. 1980. Population Biology
AV MATERIALS (New York: D. Van Nostrand). An advanced text synthe-
sizing the concepts of population biology.
Population Ecology. 16 mm, 21 min. Encyclopaedia I3ri- .lincrhan (St.pt..niba 1974). Th.. ..ntir.. Wt1C; deals
tannica Educational Corp., Chicago, IL. ith carious aspet.ts of the human population of Earth.
Tragedy of the Commons. 16 mm, 20 nun. BFA Educa- It. L. Smith, 1980, Ecologt and Field lliologt 3rd ed. (New
York: !lamer and r- )w). Chapters 1 J and I I provide good
tional Media, Santa Monica, CA. An inquiry, film background for this chapter
asking questions about the effects of increased human United States Department of C.ommurtx. .tshington. OC,Sta-
population size on resources air, seater, shared tothal lh.strat fth. Lnaid .Stait a. Publi.Ld .stulud11). this
by all. is a very useful classroom reference book.

t,6 40
T18 Teaching Strateciies by ChaptersChapter 3

CHAPTER 3 define pollution in terms of human effects on abiotic en-

vironmental factors;
measure temperature and relative humidity.
III. An ecosystem is a complex of interactions among
PLANNING AHEAD biotic and abiotic factors within a unit of space and time.
Students should be able to
This is a good time to start planning for chapter 5. You
describe a familiar ecosystem in such a way that the
will need to obtain clodca and frog blood and to prepare
essential features of the ecosystem concept are in-
the necessary solutions. You also will need to arrange for cluded.
the plant and animal materials for the investigations in
sections 3.3 and 3.4. Be sure to continue checking your IV. Despite the comple ities of ecosystem study, ecolo-
supplies a few chapters ahead. Ideally, chemicals to be used gists have been able to construct some generalizations.
in solutions for the course should be ordered the spring Students should be able to
before classes begin. Because long-term preparation often -order with respect to degree of complexity the biolog-
is difficult, it is a good idea to verify the stock in advance. ical systems designated cos individual, population, com-
munity, ecosystem;
state the apparent relationship between community di-
GUIDELINES versity and community stability;
define ecological productivity in relation to energy flow
The break between chapters 2 and 3 is one of convenience. through ecosystems;
The sequence from individual through population and distinguish between niche and habitat;
community to ecosystem overarches both chapters.
explain the choice of boundaries fora familiar eco-
The investigations in chapter 3 provide firsthand ex- system.
periences with ecosystems. In addition to making use of
these local outdoor and indoor experiences, try to broaden V. The human species s not outside the biosphere, but
your students' knowledge of ecosystems with both still and modern technological people transcend individual ecosys-
motion pictures, though you may want to delay some of tems and greatly modify them.
these until section 3.5. During both real and vicarious ex- Students should be able to
periences, call attention to ecological relationship which distinguish between the roles of ancient or primitive
arc the essence of the ecosystem concept. people and the roles of modern people in ecosystems;
describe the features of cities that make them a unique
kind of ecosystem;
OBJECTIVES provide examples of ways humans have upset eco-
system stability.
I. Within a community, populations of different kinds
of organisms have many kinds ot\ecological relationships.
Evaluations of these relationships are best made by mea- TACTICS
suring their effects on population densities.
Students should be able to The first division, section 3.1, is relatively short; it might
name at least 4 kinds of ecological relationships when well be assigned along with sections 3.2 and 3.-J. Investi-
given descriptions of the relationships, gation 3.1 is an integral part of these sections.
identify several specified relationships within a familiar Investigation 3.2 focuses on interspecific competition.
community; If you wish students to collect data from local fast-food
eAplain the terms harmful, beneficial, and neutral with restaurants, Lave them do so during stud) of sections 3.2-
,respect to evaluation of ecological relationships. 3.4.
Investigation 3.3 extends for 10 days. The results might
H. Abiotic environmental factors affect organisms and not be obtained until after the chapter has been finished
organisms affect abiotic factors.
and can serve to focus on ecology in the midst of the
Students should be able to
chapter on chemistry, This should emphasize the lack of
list abiotic environmental factors that affect population
compartmentalization of the course. This investigation can
sizes of given familiar kinds of organisms, including hu-
be set up any time after the second reading assignment,
mans;
sections 15-3.7, is begun.
describe effects produced on abiotie factor(s) by the ac- The last assignment, sections 3.8-3.12, brings together
tivities of I or more kinds of organisms, othcr than hu-
the previous topics in the chapter and relates them to
mans;
human ecology.

41
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 4 T19

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS SOFTWARE

AV MATERIALS
Compete by Leveridge
Publisher: Conduit
Ecological Populations and Communities. Kodak Car- Description. A simulation program allows the user to
ousel cartridge. Inquiry Audio-Visuals, Chicago, IL. investigate competitive growth of single and mixed plant
This expository- -not inquiry set concerns effects of cultures, the effects of crowding, and plant interaction
changes in biotic and abiotic factors on ecological re- below the ground. The program plots changes in plant mass
lationships. over time.
The City as a Community. Filmstrip. McGraw -Hill Film- Technical Data. Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected.
sti:ps, New York. Useful to give ,city students some
ideas for conducting a community study.
Kingdom of Plants. Filmstrip. Human Relations Media, TEACHER'S REFERENCES
Pleasantville, NY. A three-part filmstrip that presents H. Curtis, 1983, Biology (New York: Worth). Includes a de-
"A Portrait of Plants," "An Operator's Manual," and tailed discussion of ecosystem structure.
"Reproduction and Genetics." D. Pimentel and C. A. Edwards, "Pesticides and Ecosystems"
The Community. 16 mm, 11 min. Encyclopaedia Bntan- BioScience (July/August 1982). Discusses thc various ways
nica Education Corp., Chicago, IL. Depict the inter- that pesticides reduce environmental quality and influence
essential ecosystem functioning.
relationships that comprise a community. Illustrates D. Plucknett and N. J. H. Smith, "Agricultural Research and
food webs of several communities. Third World Food Production" Science (16 July 1982). This
The Everglades Region- An Ecological Stud). 16 mm, article focuses on efforts by the International Agricultural
24 min. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Examines in- Research Centers to Inc/ease food production in the Third
terrelationships of biotic and abiotic factors in the World.
W. J. Schneider and J. H. Hartwell, "Troubled Waters of the
Everglades. Everglades" Natural History (November 1984). Discusscs
Vacant Lo'. 16 mm, 21 min. International Film Bureau, how thc construction of dams and canals over the past 100
Chicago, IL. Good illustrations of a small ecosystem in years have upset the fragile ecology of this South Florida re-
a city. gion.
A Swamp Ecosystem. 16 wm, 25 min. National Geo- -S. Wortman, "World Food and Nutrition: The Scientific and
Technological Base" Science (4 July 1980). Looks at the ad-
graphic Society Educational Services, Washington, DC. vancement of technologies necessary to alleviate food short-
An adventure into the Okefenokee Swamp habitat of ages in low-income countrics.
various flora and fauna.
The Community of the Skies. 16 mm, 55 min. Time-Life
Video, New York. This film's main purpose is to show
how living things survive in air and use the skies for
transportation.

CHAPTER 4 GUIDELINES
This chapter provides a basic explanation of the chemical
basis of life. Though most students study high school bi-
ology before high school chemistry, they need some un-
PLANNING AHEAD derstanding of chemistry to comprehend such topics as
cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and the structure of
For chapter 4 you will need to obtain fresh ri hydrogen nucleic acids. This chapter may be used both as back-
peroxide and fresh (not frozen) liver You can obtain fine ground for those topics and as a reference throughout the
sand for grinding from a supplier if you do not have any year.
immediately available. Washed builder's sand will do Living things are seen to be made up of molecules that
Prepare three 2-1 containers of hot water to be placed at react to carry out all body functions. The role of energy
convenient areas in the lab, ready to bring to boiling point in life also is emphasized.
as your students begin their work. You also will need to
get potatoes and cut them into small pieces.

42
T20 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 4

OBJECTIVES SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

I. At the microscopic level, interacting molecules are
AV MATERIALS
- carrying out the reactions that can be observed at the
macroscopic level. ATPPacket of Energy. Filmstrip. Popular Science
Students should be able to Publishing Co., New York. Useful for reviewing aer-
distinguish between atoms and molecules; obic energy release.
demonstrate the formation and breaking of bonds in a Enzyn.,s. Spark Plugs of Life. Filmstrip. Popular Sci-
molecular model or chalkboard drawing; ence Publishing Co.. New lurk. The title analogy is
classify a given pH as alkaline, acid, or neutral. poor, but pictures, diagrams, and models are used cf-
H. Order in nature and life on the earth are maintained fectiv.tly to c' plain the structure and function of en-
by a constant input of energy released by our sun. Knowing zymes.
what the nature of energy is, how it is trapped by plants, Biochemistry and Molecular Structure. 16 mm. Dept. of
how it is transferred among organisms, and how organ- Visual Communication, University of California,
isms use it to build and maintain systems contributes to Berkeley. Excellent background film.
an understanding of life. Cell Biology: Life Functions. 16 mm, 19 min. Coronet In-
Students should be able to structional Media, Chicago, IL. Considers both phys-
define energy: ical and chemical functions. Animation helps to explain
name several forms that energy may take: some organic chemistry.
cite examples of complex molecules with stored energy: Enzymes for Industry. 16 mm, 5 min. Walt Disney Edu-
describe what happens to a living system when the input cational Media Co., Burbank, CA. Describes future
of energy stops. uses of enzymes for food, drug, and antibiotic produc-
tion.
HI. Bioenergetics is the stud} of energy transformations Pattern of Energy Transfer. 16 mm, 28 min. McGraw-
-in living systems. The chemical reactions in% oly ed in these Hill Films, New 'ork. Considers energy transfer from
transformations are controlled by enzymes. sunlight to utilization in cell metabolism.
Students should be able to The Cave Community. 16 mm, I min. Encyclopaedia
1

compare the release of energy by burning and the re- Britannica Educational Corp., Chicago, IL. Good ex-
lease of energy in cells: ample of energy flow through a community.
-name several characteristics and actions of enzymes, Energy in Ecosystems. Slides. Crystal Productions, Aspen,
define a calorie as a unit of energy. CO. This series contains the following topics: "Ideas
IV. Some of a cell's energy is used in synthesizing com- About Energy," "Green Plants: Food for Life," "Food
plex organic compounds. Most of these can be classified for Plants: A 2000-Year Inquiry" (discusscs historical
into 4 groups. course of photosynthesis research), "Energy Flow in
Students sho be able to Ecosystems."
identify caruohydrates, proteins, fats. and nucleic acids The Bio Sci Videodisc, A Visual Library for Biology
as the maim- groups of organic compounds: Study. Videodiscovery. Inc., Seattle. Applicable
name the building units in carbohydrates. proteins, fats, throughout the book.
and nucleic acids:
cite an example each of carbohydrates. fats, and pro- SOFTWARE
teins: Protein Synthesis by Klcinsmith
diagram the carbon cycle and relate it to the processes Publisher: Compress
of photosynthesis and respiration. Description. A tutorial and drill program explains pro-
tein synthesis using animation and text. A sequence game,
Codon. is included with the program.
TACTICS Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; IBM PC, 128k. Copy
Your students will probably have a difficult time with this protected.
chapter unless they are unusually well prepared in sci- Protein Synthesis by Malkin
ence. Give short assignments, as follows: sections 4.1-4.2. Publisher: Helix
4.3, 4.4- 4.6. 4.7 4.9, 4.10 4.13. and 4.14. A short un- Description. A tutorial and drill program covering the
graded quiz following each assignment ma} help them to topit.s of proteins and protein synthesis. The presentation
check their own understanding and to review especially is clear and accurate, with good user control.
difficult parts of the chapter. Use the investigations to Technical Data. Apple II, 48k. Not cop} protected.
break up the reading assignments and to illustrate the ideas
in the previous sections. Molex. Molecular Modeling by Currie and Owen
Publisher: Compress

. 43
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 5 T21

Description: A molecule CAD program allows the user TEACHER'S REFERENCES

to design 3-D images of molecules containing up to 64 B. Alberts. D. Bray, J. Lewis, M. Ralf, K. Roberts. and .1. D.
atoms. Once formed, the images may be rotated, reduced Watson, 1983, Molecular Brulugj of the Cell (i\o York.
in size, enlarged, or changed to stick, ball-and-stick, or Garland). A good ad% anced text refcrenLe.
space-fill models. Includes database of 20 preconstructed J S Rounick and M J Winterbourn. "Stabil_ Carbon Isotopes
Molecules. and Carbon Flow in Ecosystems" BioScience (March 1986).
Measuring '3C to '2C ratios can help trace carbon pathways.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
Scientific American (October 1985). This issue is entitled "The
Modeler: Molecular Design Editor by Wcinhold and Molecules of Life," and several articles address topics in-
cluded in this chapter.
Weinhold
Scientific American (September 1971). The entire issue deals
Publisher: Compress with various aspects of energy and power.
Description: A molecule CAD program allows the user N. Sharon, "Carbohydrates" St.itrayi. (NuNember
to create 3-D image: of molecules containing up to 50 1980) Fascinating article about the many important rules of
atoms. Atoms, may be numbered or cola. :oded. Mole- carbohydrates.
L. Strycr. 1981, Biochemistry (San Francisco: W. II. Freeman).
cules may be rotated, edited or displayed as wall- and -stick Includes discussions of all the topics of this chapter.
or stick models. A number of organic molecules may be
constructed by simply entering their Lewis structures.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.

grounds of your students and provide additional infor-

CHAPTER 5 mation if necessary.

The best summary of the work on mitosis is probably
by means of a motion picture. Avoid, however, films that
PLANNING AHEAD
combine mitosis and meiosis (or stop such a film before
meiosis appears). Meiosis is not relevant to chapter 5 and
Before doing the first investigation, you will hate col- can only confuse. If mitosis is thuroughl) understood row,
lected the necessary materials and prepared the onion. You mciosis will be relatively easy .or your students to under-
may need to help your students prepare the epidermis for stand when they encountzr it in chapter 6.
examination because the sample must be very small and
thin. You will need to prepare solutions for investigation
5.2 and purchase Clinitest® tablets from a local phar- OBJECTIVES
macy. Prepared slides of allium root tip should be avail-
able for investigation 5.4. If these are not on hand, they
`I. 'Observation and reasoning by persons of many na-
can be ordered from a local supplier. tions contributed to the development of the cell theory.
You may want to begin planning for the chapter on ge-
Students should be able to
netics. You will need to plant tomato seeds now in order order chronologically 2 or 3 principal events in the dis-
to have blossoms available for investigation 13.3. Allow covery of the ccllularity of organisms;
about 3 months. state the 3 principal parts of the cell theory.
II. Cells vary in structure, but a number of kinds of or-

GUIDELINES
ganelles occur in most cells
Students should be able to
Some students might find the material in this chapter dif- recall at least 7 structures observable in cells,
ficult, and they may need extra encouragement. However, identify, in material they prepared, nuclei, cell mem-
some knowledge of cellular structure and function is es- branes, cytoplasm, cell walls, and chloroplasts,
sential to students' understanding of biology. distinguish between plant and animal cells on the basis
The term cell is not new to most high school students, of their structures.
and some students may have had experience with cells.
However, even though they may have observed cells pre- In. Biologists explain cell functions on the basis of prin-
viously and may have learned some generalizations about ciples of physical science.
the ccllularity of organisms, probably very few have Students should be able to
grasped the full force of the cell theory. define metabolism;
Sections 5.6-5.9 deal with cell physiology and depend explain diffusion on the basis of the molecular theory;
heavily on an understanding of cell structure and some -demonstrate diffusion through a differentially perme-
acquaintance with the molecular theory. But the amount able membrane;
of understanding required for chapter 5 is neither broad describe evidence that supports the idea encompassed
nor profound. You should, however, check on the back- in the term active transport.

g.4
44
T22 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 5

IV. Among cells that have recognizable nuclei, the pro- The Living Cell. An Introduction. 16 mm. 20 min. En-
cess of cell division is remarkably uniform, inv olv ing a def- Ly clopaedia BritanniLa EduLational Corp., Chicago, IL.
inite sequence of nuclear events -mitosis. Examines structures and biochemical processes in cells.
Students should be able to Special attention to the nucleus and protein synthesis..
distinguish between cell division and mitosis, The Wonders of the Cell. .--1 Living Factor). Filmstrip.
order a set of 6 or more models or pictures of cells in Sunburst Communications, Inc., Pleasant% ille, NY. An
various stages of mitosis; introduction to the inner workings of the cell.
describe the apparent significance of mitosis. Cell Ditisiun and the Life Cycle. Filmstrip. Human Re-
lations Media, Pleasantville, NY. Provides a descrip-
V. Cell division results either in the production of new
tive introduction to cell division.
unicellular individuals or in the growth of multicelhtlar
The Importance of the Nucleus. (VDC: BSCS Classic In-
individuals.
quiry, 1986) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder,
Students should be able to
CO. Can an amoeba survive without a nucleus? Stu-
distinguish between the results of cell division in uni-
dents seek to answer this question through this inter-
cellular and multicellular organisms;
pretation of experimental results.
describe the paradox of differentiation;
Mitosis. (VDC: BSCS Classic Inquiry, 1986) Media De-
name some of the factors that bring about the aging of
cells.
sign Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. Students observe
the changes in the nucleus that occur during cell di-
vision and evaluate the possible significance of these
TACTICS
changes.
Sections 5.1-5.5, the first assignment, are essentially an The Cell Nucleus. Slide set. (BSCS Inquiry Slides) Har-
introduction to investigation 5.1, vs hich in turn is the ob- court Brace Juvanov ich, New York. Uses the cell nu-
servational background to the remaining material. You cleus to develop ideas about data interpretation.
might even begin the chapter vs ith the investigation. The Life and Death of a Cell. 16 mm, 26 min. Dept. of
Investigation 5.2 follows section 5.8 in the text mainly Visual Communisation, University of California,
for the sake of appearance. Sections 5.6-5.9 may be as- Berkeley. Significant content. the importance of the
signed as a group, with the two investigations carried out nucleus to the life of the cell, mitosis, effects of various
any time after section . .s completed. environmental factors on living cells.
Likewise, investigation 5.4 can be done whenever sec- Mitosis. !6 mm, 24 min. Encyclopaedia Britannica Ed-
tion 5.11 is finished; sections 5.10 5.13 can be assigned ucational Corp., Chicago, IL. Photomicrography shows
together. the process of cell division in a living cell. Discusses the
effects of chemicals and radiation on mitosis.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Tissues of the Human Body. 16 mm, 17 min. Churchill
Films, Los Angeles. CA. An excellent film about tis-
INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY sues.
What Is a Cell? 16 mm, 28 min. McGraw-Hill Films, New
The following invitations, found in the Biology Teacher's
York. Shows how research has developed information
Handbook (see Supplementary Materials, chapter 1),
pertain to this chapter. about the functions of organelles.
ATPPacket of Energy. Filmstrip. Popular Science
Invitation 1. Subject: f he Cell Nucleus; Publishing Co., New York. Useful for reviewing aer-
Topic: Interpretation of Simple Data obic energy release.
Invitation 2. Subject: The Cell Nucleus; The Cell Biology Videodisc. Motion and Function of the
Topic: Interpretation of Variable Data Living Cell. Videodiscovery, Inc., Seattle. Applies also
Invitation 26. Subject: Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in to section three.
Respiration;
Topic: Linear Relation SOFTWARE
Osmotic Pressure by Spain
AV MATERIALS
Publisher: Conduit
The Cell: A Functioning Structure. (Parts I & II) 16 mm, Description. A two-part simulation. Pa.t I simulates a
30 min. Biology Today Film Series, McGraw-Hill thistle tube experiment. The user observes the effects of
Films, New York. Detailed presentation of a living cell, varying solute concentrations un usinotiL pressure. Part II
cell nutrition, and reproduction. is a molecule animation in which a semipermeable
The Cell, Structural Unit of Life. 16 mm, 10 min. Co- membrance separates solvent and solution.
ronet Instructional Media, Chicago, IL. Short and Technical Data. Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected.
simple film, useful as an introduction.

45
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 6 723

TEACHER'S REFERENCES I.. Margulis. 1981. Symbiosis in Cell L'iohition (San Francisco:
J. Bennett, "Building a Cell" The American Biology Teacher W II. Freeman). Discusses the bacterial ancestry of modern
nucleated cells.
(December 1980). Discusses the interdependence of proteins
and nucleic acids in hereditary functions. J E. Roth"- an, "The Compartmental Organization of the Golgi
D. Black, "How- To- Do -it: cellular Thespians" The American Apparatus" Scientific American (September 1985). Recent
Biology Teacher (March 1985). The use of drama and role
work shows that the Golgi is divided into three compart-
ments, each specialized for a different type of modification.
playing in teaching cytology is explained by a teacher who
has successfully used these methods. R D. Sleboda. The Role of Microtubules in Cell Structure and
P. Dustin, "Microtubules" Scientific American (August 1980). Cel! Division" American Scientist (May /June 1980). The
Discusses the role of these scaffolding-like organelles in cell duties of Microtubule-Associated Proteins (MAPs) in the
division, cell movement, and the maintenance of cell shape. structural and motile roles of microtubules are discussed.

CHAPTER 6 Students should be able to

distinguish the role of reproduction in the existence of
a population from its role in the life of an individual.
explain the advantage to a population of reproducing
sexually.
PLANNING AHEAD
II. Asexual reproduction occurs in all three kingdoms: it
For investigation 6.1, you will need a healthy, mature co- is most common among protists and least common among
leus plant for each team. It should be large enough so that animals.
four cuttings can be taken. Other plants that can be used Students should be able to
arc listed in the annotations for the investigation. You will name 3 organisms in which vegetative reproduction oc=
need pipe cleaners and two colors of modeling clay for in- curs;
vestigation 6.2. It will be helpful to the discussions in the demonstrate vegetative reproduction in a selected plant;
chapter to have on hand as many live organisms as pas- relate the process of vegetative reproduction to the pro-
sible that show some form of reproduction. cess of regeneration;
You will need significant numbers of colored plastic relate cell division to reproduction by fission in unicel-
paper clips for investigation 10.1. These are available from lular organisms.
stationery stores, but it is advisable to begin collecting
them now. 111. Basically sexual reproduction involves the union of two
gametes, which are usually morphologically distinguish-
able.
GUIDELINES Students should be able to
distinguish between asexual and sexual methods of re-
This chapter continues developing the ideas introduced in
production;
chapter 5.
cite characteristics of sperm and of ova;
Provide an abundance of living materials to illustrate
relate the terms male and female to gametes;
reproductive processes. Strawberry plants, Sansevieria,
explain why meiosis is an essential process in a sexual
Kalanchoe, and potatoes, all of which are easy to obtain,
reproductive cycle;
demonstrate vegetative reproduction. It is somewhat more
construct graphic representations of mitosis and meiosis;
difficult to get budding yeasts, fissioning paramecia, and
contrast the outcome of meiosis with that of mitosis with
budding hydra at the right time. For animals, the problem
respect to chromosome number.
of timing is difficult to overcome; but guppies and preg-
nant rats or mice can usually be obtained. This chapter IV. The haploid/diploid cycle is completed when two ga-
may be undertaken at a season when frogs exhibiting am- metes unite at the moment of fertilization.
plexus can be secured. Any fertilized eggs obtained from Students should be able to
them can be used as a supplemental study of embryolog- ,ompare and Lontrast the process of gametugenesis in
ical development. human males and females;
describe the human female reproductive cycle (without
necessarily naming the hormones).
OBJECTIVES
I. Because individuals die, reproduction is a process es-
sential for survival of a population.

46
T24 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 7

TACTICS Regeneration of Acetabularia. (VDC: BSCS Classic In-

quiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO.
Begin by setting up investigation 6.1 if you have not al-
ready-.:one so.
This single-cell alga has the ability to grow a replace-
ment for a missing part. Students interpret experi-
A suggemd division of the chapter for assignments is:
ments desig.,ed to investigate the part of the cell that
sections 6.1-6.3, 6.4-6.6, 6.7-6.10, .:nd 6.11-6.15.
controls the ability to regenerate.
Investigation 6.2 will help your students greatly in un-
Plants that Grow from Leaves, Stems, and Roots. 16 mm,
derstanding the ideas in scctions 6.7-6.10; you might want
I1 min. Coronet Instructional Media, Chicago, IL.
them to carry out the investigation before completing the
Presents many examples of vegetative reproduction.
reading assignment.
Reproduction, Genetics, and Evolution. Slides. Crystal
Productions, Aspen, CO. This series will cover topics
included in chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9. The three sequences
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
are: "Patterns of Reproduction," "Genetic Implica-
Ay, MATERIALS
tions of Reproduction," "Natural Selection and Our
Changing World."
Asexual Reproduction. 16 mm, 10 min. Indiana Univer-
sity, Audio-Visual Ctr., Bloomington, IN. Includes
tithe-lapse photography of fission, budding, and spore TEACHER'S REFERENCES
formation. Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 1984, Biomedical Tech-
The Chick Embryo- -From Primitive Streak to Hatching. nology (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt). This module may
16 min, 13 min. Encyclinaedia Britannica Education be utilized at appropriate times throughout the course. Topics
Corp., Chicago, IL. Includes time-lapse photography include genetic screening, in titro fertilization, embryo
of formation and beating of the heart, and circulating transfer, prenatal diagnosis, recombinant DNA, and others.
A teacher's guide is available.
blood.
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 1984, Human Repro-
The Human Body: Reproductive System. 16 mm, 13.5 duction. Social and Technological Aspects (Dubuque, Iowa:
min. Coronet Instructional Media, Chicago, IL. Sim- Kendall, Hunt). This "minicourse" (60 pages) focuses on a
ilarities and differences in male and female reproduc- variety of topics related to the past, present, and future of
tive organs. Animation and photomicrography, human reproduction. Teacher's guide available.
D. Epel, "Th^ Program of Fertilization" Scientific American
including fertilization of the human ovum. (November 1977). Discusses the process of fertilization in sea
Flowers: Structure and Function. 16 mm. Coronet In- urchins.
structional Media, Chicago, IL. Macroscopic and mi- P. H. Klopfer, "Mating Types and Human Sexuality" Bio-
croscopic views of the stamens, anthers, pistils, fruit, Silence (November 1982). The e' elution of sexuality, sex-
etc. Pollination by insects and wind. Time-lapse se- related differences in humans; defining attributes of sex in
humans.
quence of pollen-tubes growing from pollen grains. D. Sagan and L. Margulis, "The Riddle of Sex" The Science
Mitosis and Meiosis. 16 mm, 16.5 min. Indiana Univer Teacher March 1985). Addresses a fundamental question
sity, Audio-Visual Ctr., Bloomington, IN. Discussion how did sexual reproduction arise?
of and contrasting meiosis and mitosis. N. Unwin and R. Henderson, "The Structure of Proteins in Bi-
ological Membranes" Scientific American (February 1983).
Life Cycles: A ComprAensive Visual Data Base for Re-
Examines the configurations that allow membrane proteins
productive Biology. Videodiscovery, Inc., Seattle. Ap- that are embedded in lipid to extend into water.
plies also throughout section three.

Laboratory work and problems in this chapter require

CHAPTER 7 a lot of time and effort. You have prepared the investi-
gations in advance, preferably including fertilized chicken
eggs. There are many beautiful photographs of animal and
human embryos at different stages of development avail-
PLANNING AHEAD able from Time-Life books and other comparable sources.
In view of the difficulties in incubating hens' eggs, inves- You may want to collect some of these.
tigation 7.1,has been written so that living t..hitl embryos For investigation 8.2, you will need to prepare tobacco
are not essential for the investigation. However, if you t..an seeds and nonnutrient agar petri dishes, as well as checking
manage to provideembryos, especially for the early stages your supplies.
of development, your students will benefit greatly.

47
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 7 125

GUIDELINES TACTICS
The series of chapters dealing with continuity proceeds to Investigation 7.1 can continue while the reading assign-
development of the zygote. ments al completed.
The primary aim of the chapter is to establish a ra- The reading can be divided into four assignments
tional, objective, and integrated view of reproduction and sections 7.1-7.4, sections 7.5-7.8, sections 7.9-7.10. and
development as basic processes in biology. The cIlapter also sections 7.11-7.12. The last two assignments appear shoe
provides a background for later development of concepts but they arc of such interest to students that you might
of heredity and evolution. wish to spend extra class time on films, discussion, and
In pursuing these aims, students should gain perspec- reports.
tive on their own personal interests in reproductive pro-
cesses. During the last parts of the chapter, they may be
encouraged by the scientific atmosphere to seek answers SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
to personally perplexing questions. Do what you can to
deal with such questions. A liaison with social studies INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
teachers may be desirable.
The following materials are supplied in the Biology
Teacher's Handbook (see Supplementary Materials,
OBJECTIVES
chapter 1).

L An adult multicellular organism develops from a zy- Invitation 37. Subject: Embryonic Circulation;
gote not merely by the proliferation of cells through mi- Topic: Persivence as Evidence of Function
tosis but also by cellular differentiation.
Students should be able to AV MATERIALS
describe the early embryology of animals in terms of 3 What Is Development? 16 mm, 25 min. The Media Guild,
cell layers; San Diego, CA. A film on embryological development
identify in chick embryos or pictures of them at appro- with emphasis on the laboratory techniques used to
priate stages: heart, brain, eyes, limb buds, yolk sac, follow development.
amnion, and allantois; Intro to Development. 16 mm, 22 min. Indiana Univer-
compare growth of cancer cells with normal cell growth, sity, Audio-Visual Ctr., Bloomington, IN. The wonder
explain the rationales for using radiation and drugs for of the process of development from fertilized egg to
cancer. whole organism is beautifully conveyed.
II.The change from embryonic growth outside the Lifetime of Changes: Development and Growth. 16 mm,
mother to that within the mother was a major evolu- 17 min. Educational Media International, Haymarket,
tionary step. VA. This film shows the growth and development of
Students should be able to toadstools, flowering plants, frogs, and humans.
explain the importance of various extraembryonic Chicken or Egg? 16 mm, 22 min. The Media Guild, San
membranes for the embryo; Diego, CA. This very good film attempts to answer the
relate the hard eggshell around a bird or reptile embryo question "Is there a basic organization in eggs and early
to the control of evaporation; embryos that gives instructions or influences later de-
velopment?"
describe the development and functions of the placenta;
order cells, tissues, organs, and systems according to A Study of Frog Development (VDC: BSCS Classic In-
increasing complexity; quiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO.
explain the role of harmful agents to which a pregnant Students observe the processes by which an apparently
woman is exposed in interfering with normal fetal de- structureless egg is transformed into a complex verte-
velopment. brate organism. The role of cell division, growth, and
differentiatimi is explored.
HI. Birth control can take place at several points before The Chick Embryo from Prunime Streak to Hatching.
or during fetal development. 16 mm, 13 min. Encyclopaedia Britannica Education
Students should be able to Corp., Chicago, IL. Includes time-lapse photography
relate birth control by individuaS to overpopulation as of formation and beating of the heart, and circulating
well as to the family's needs; blood.
describe methods of contraception and their advan- The Fish Embryo. From Fertilization to Hatching. 16
tages and disadvantages; mm, 12 min. Encyclopaedia Britannica Education
infer the adaptive advantage of spontaneous abortion Corp., Ch .:ago, IL. External fertilization, and the zy-
of abnormal fetuses. gote from first cell cleavage to formation of young fish.

t 48
T26 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 8

Plants That Grow from Leaves, Stems, and Roots. 16 mm, I I. B. lliscoe, "The Youngest Patient" Th. &Joke Tea, her
11 min. Coronet Instructional Media, Chicago, IL. (Februar) 1984). The author beliees the area of fetal med-
icine is a good starting point for the students' examination of
Presents many examples of vegetative reproduction.
medical "progress."
L. Sachs, "Growth, Differentiation. and the Reversal of Malig-
nancy" Scientific American (January 1986). Leukemic cells
TEACHER'S REFERENCES can be made to differentiate into nondk iding forms, sug-
gesting new approaches to cancer treatment.
J. M. Bishop, "Oncogenes" Scientific American (March 1982) P. Singer and D. Wells, 1985, Making Babies. The A ew Science
These cancer-causing genes were first found in viruses, but and Ethics of conception (New York: Charles Scribner's
normal vertebrate cells may have genes whose abnormal Sons). Includes various topicssex preselection, cloning, ge-
expression can lead to cancerous growth. netic engineering, surrogate mothers, moral and ethical as-
L. W. Browder, 1980, Developmental Biology (Philadelphia: pects.
W. B. Saunders). Focuses on early stages of development S. R. Stephenson and D. D. Weaver, "Prenatal DiagnosisA
morphogenesis, genetic regulation, and cellular and molec- Compilation of Diagnosed Conditions" 198L Publication No.
ular mechanisms. 80-15: Dept. of Medical Genetics, Indiana University School
of Medicine, 1100 West Michigan St., Indianapolis, IN 46223.
Discussion of prenatal diagnosis with tables of conditions that
can be diagnosed prenatally.

CHAPTER 8 population studies and do so again for chapter 8. Most

college genetics texts contain large numbers of problems.
Select and adapt problems that are commensurate with
your students' abilities. It is more desirable to supply many
simple problems that illustrate a limited number of prin-
PLANNING AHEAD ciples through the use of different traits in different or-
Because laboratory work and problems in chapter 8 re- ganisms than to coer a wide range of principles with a
quire much time, it is fortunate that the need to plan ahead limited number of difficult or sophisticaLd problems.
is now considerably reduced. You should now review the
investigations for chapter 9.
You will need seeds for investigations 19.4 and 20.1. OBJECTIVES
They should be ordered now, from a supply house or seed I. Human beings have both practical and personal in-
catalog. terests in the process of biological inheritance.
For investigation 21.1, useful additions are a skull or Students should be able to
jawbone of a horse, and ,ictures of reconstructions of horse give examples of human concern with biological inher-
ancestors. You might want to order these now or to begin itance;
searching through paleontology textbooks, encyclopedias, explain the genetic use of pedigrees;
and other sources for suitab:e illustrations. cite experimental and observational evidence that the
Be sure that you have a good supply of copies of meta- characteristics of an organism result from the inter-
phase smears for investigation 8.3. action of its biological inheritance and its environment;
give examples of genetic disorders.
GUIDELINES II. Gregor Mendel's experimental work led him to for-
mulate a particular theory of heredity.
Several specific topics may require extra effort. Be alert Students should be able to
for signs of student confusion in regard to the idea of re- describe the ways in which Mendel's work differed from
combinations arising from crossing-over, and the material that of his predecessors;
on enzymes. Reasoning from data is difficult for many relate the terms dour nant and recessive to breeding re-
students. The following topics deserve teacher explica- sults;
tion: pedigrees, the Y chromosome, mapping genes, the demonstrate the laws of probability involved in the study
reasoning in the Netirospon. experiments, and the nature of heredity;
of he genetic code. distinguish between an individual's phenotype and ge-
In chemistry and physics, solving probler is recog- notype;
nized as an important method by which students gain un- --identify gene symbols indicating homozygous and het-
derstanding. We have advised it in connection with erozygous conditions;
solve, by the use of appropriate symbols Ind u. ams,
problems involving the 3 major principles in genetics.

49
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 8 T27

III. As a separaie science, genetics has become estab- In estigation 8.4 illustrates a complex idea that is ex-
lished since the beginning of the 20th century. plained in the text that really requires sume mental ma-
Students should be able to nipulation to be understood.
relate Mendel's observations to the chromosome theory
of heredity;
name ,tharacteristics that favor the use of fruit flies in SUPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
genetic experiments;
construct a diagram illustrating inheritance of a sex- AV MATERIALS
linked trait;
DNA: Molecule to Heredity. 16 mm, 16 min. Encyclo-
demonstrate by the use of chi-square the significance
of data from a breeding experiment; paedia Britannica Educational Corp., Chicago, IL.
identify evidence that requires modification of the idea Biochemical mechanisms of inheritance illustrated by
of dominance; animation.
Genetics: Improving Plants and Animals. 16 mm, 13 min.
explain F2 dihybrid ratios that depart from the 3:1 or
9:3 :3:1 phenotype ratios; Coronet Instructional Media, Chicago, IL. Clearly
name, when given suitable case descriptions, various
shows some practical applications of genetics.
Introducing Genetics: Set of six filmstrips. "Dominance,"
modes of inheritance, such as codominance, linkage, and
recombination. "Incomplete Dominance, Segregation, and Punnett
Square," "Independent Assortment and Linkage,"
IV. The origin of new heritable traits in organisms has "Genetics and the Cell," "Ness Trait Combinations and
been traced to changes of substances in cell nuclei. Mutations," "Population Genetics." Ward's Natural
Students should be able to Science Establishment, Rochester, NY. Presents prin-
explain how a mutant characteristic differs from other ciples of genetics in programme sequence.
characteristics of a given individual; Healthier Babies: The Genetic Era. 16 mm, 20 min.
distinguish between chromosomal and gene mutations, (VDC) March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation,
identify the result of nondisjunction in a karyotype, Supply Division, 1275 Mamoroneck Ave., White Plains,
name at least 3 environmenta' e -sirs that have been NY 10605. Focuses on the impact on individuals, fam-
associated with increase h. mutation rate. ilies, and society of four types of birth defects that arise
from different genetic and/or environmental factors.
V. Biochemical geneticists have developed a clear un-
Heredity and Environment. 16 mm, 15 min. Coronet In-
derstanding of the ways in which genes function.
students should be able to structional Media, Chicago, IL. Discusses interrela-
describe the work of Beadle and Tatum;
tionships of these two factors.
The Story of the Gene. Hawkhill Associates, Inc., Mad-
recall ole. si.eps by which it was determined that genetic
informaq^,n is transmitted by DNA; lion, WI. A four-part film discussing prt.scintille be-
--drawn.qra,e by means of a model or diagran: the way liefs about heredity, the development of the modern
in which Dr 4.fr replicates; gene theory, and the works of Mendel, Watson, and
Crick.
contrast the structure of a section of DN,,, the
mRNA formed from it; New Forms of Life: Gene Splicing & Genetic Engi-
neering. 16 mm. Knowledge Unlimited, Madison, WI.
relate codons to the construction of polypeptide chains;
describe the biochemical nature of a gene mutation.
Available in two levels: for an introductory-level class
and an advanced class P"'ll narrations provide a bal-
anzed view of the scier , and social implications of
genetic engineering.
TACTICS
Cancer: The Genetic Connection. Human Relations Media,
In view of the difficulties cited under "Guidelines" you Pleasantville, NY. A comprehensib:e and timely intro-
may want to divide this chapter for assignment eurposes duction to cancer.
into many small blocks. The positioning of tne self-review
questions indicates four divisions but these may be further SOFTWARE
subdivided. For example: (1) sections 8.1-8.3; (2) sections
Genetics by Jungck and Calley
8.4-8.5; (3) 8.6-8.9; (4) 8.10-8.12; (5) 8.13-8.14;
Publisher: Compress
(6) 8.15-8.16; (7) 8.17-8.18; and (8) 8.19-8.20.
Description: A set of tutorial and drill programs on
Investigation 8.1 is an integral part of the assignments.
classical and modern genetics. Part A is a tutorial and drill
The ideas developed in it are basic to understanding the
on classical genetics designed for the biology novice. Part
rest of the chapter. However, though not included within
B, a three-disk set, covers advanced topics in genetics at
assignment divisions, the genetics ideas developed by
means of investigation 8.2 (interaction of genome and en-
vironment) also are fundamental.

'kr 11
T28 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersCnapter 8

the college level. Part C is a classroom utility program single-diarat-ter inheritarke patterns and genotypes of
which allows the student or instructor to create and print parents. Excellent color graphics.
introductoryadvanced genetics problems. Technical Data. Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected.
Technical Data:, Apple 11, 48k. Copy protected. Color monitor preferred.
Flygen by Lehman Birdbreed by Kinnear
Publisher: DEE Publisher: EduTech
Description: A simulation program in which the user Description. A simulation program in which the user
selects from 25 autosomal and sex-linked Drosophila traits determines inheritance patterns fur single- or double-
to produce one- and two-character crosses. Program also charaoer crosses given phenotypes uf p,trents and re-
generates problem crosses. sultant progeny. Similar to Catlab (also by Kinnear), but
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; TRS 80 Models 1, III crosses involving two gene loci are possible.
and IV; Commodore 64; IBM PC, I 28k. Not copy pro- Technical Data. Apple 11, 48k. Cups protected. Color
tected. monitor preferred.
DNAgen by Lehman Catgen by Kinnear
Publisher: DEE Publisher: HRM
Description: A simulation program in which the user Description. Simulation program similar to Catlab (also
enters a sequence of nucleotides or amino acids. The pro- by Kinnear). In Cargo/ the user controls parental gala-
gram generates the corresponding chains of DNA, mRNA, tipes for up to gene loci. User selects genoty pes of
and amino acids. parents, then analyzes progeny generated by the com-
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; TRS-80 Models I and puter to determine inheritance pattern. Excellent color
III. Not copy protected. graphics.
Technical Data: Apple II, 64k; IBM PC, 128k. Color
Monocross by Luncsford, Rivers and Vockell
monitor preferred. Copy protected. The IBM requires a
Publisher: DEE
color/graphics interface.
Description: A simulation program in which the user
generates sinele-character crosses between parents of Human Genettt. DtsorderAb). Kinnear
known or unki..iwn phenotype and genotype. User may Publisher: FIRM
define new traits for subsequent crosses. Description. A two -part program. In Part 1, the user
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; TRS-80 Models I and deduces genotypes of parents uf known phenotype, after
III. Not copy protected. sufficient progeny are generated. Part 11 displays pedi-
grees for cystic fibrosis, albinism and 22 other hereditary
Linkover by Murphy
diseases. User deduces inheritance pattern for each pe-
Publisher: Conduit
digree.
Description: A simulation program in which the user
Technical Data: Apple II, 43k. Copy protected.
plans and performs genetic cross experiments to create a
map of a single chromosome.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected.
TEACHER'S REFERENCES
Genetics by TIES W. F. Anderson and E. G. Diacumakus, "Genetic Engineering
Publisher: MECC in Mammalian Cells- Scientific American (July 1981). Ge-
Description: A two-part program, includes a simula- netic engineering should be feabiblk. in Lxperiniuttal animals
tion of "Chromy Bug" crosses producing progeny with 15 in the ne.tr future, ultiniatiy gene tht.rapy in humans should
dominant, semidominant and recessive gene traits. User be possible.
C. R. Barman, A Collins, E. J, Louis, and .1. R. Jungck, "Sickle
determines inheritance pattern from analysis of progeny. Cell Anemia: 'Interesting Pathology' and 'Rarely Told
Part II simulates inheritance of blood types. Interesting Stories' The American lhohw Teacher (March 1985). The
color graphics. Suitable as an introduction to Mendelian authors discuss nets insights into the pathology of this disease
genetics. and its implications in discussions of evolution.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k (Program will not op- Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 1953, Bask Genetics. A
Human Approach (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall /I lunt). This
erate on the Apple IIc). Copy protected. ries utilizes a magazine format containing up-to-date arti-
Catlab by Kinnear cles, letters, stories, editorials, and interviews which may be
used to examine the principles of genetics as well as the moral,
Publisher: Conduit ethical, and legal issues that arise from new knowledge and
Description: A simulation program in which the user technology. Includes a teacher's guide.
selects ph.:.notypes of parent cats which are then mated to B. Childs, "Peispeetiv eb. Why Stud) I Italian Genetics.'" The
produce progeny. Progeny are analyzed to determine .1merian Biology lith.hcr (January 1983). ImpurtanLe to
the student of the study of genetics.

..1k: 51
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 9 T29

R. M. Laen and G. A. Naar, "The Mulei.ular Genetii.s of 1k in the Ca ut.asian population. Includes teadier's guide. A% ail-
mophilia"&tentifit, Amman (Mara 1 ,.0). The Inc) blood- able from local CF diapters or the Cy.tii. Fibrosis Founda-
clotting protein heniuphiliai.s arc missing t.an flu be artifi- tion, 6000 Fxecutie BIN d., Suite 309, Rotly ilk, MD. 20852.
daily made. A. G. Motulsky, "Impact of Genetic Manipulation on Society
Lising Fibru.sis. a student "nespaper, dist.usses and Medicine &mice (14 Januar) 1983). Addresses var-
various aspet.ts of must t.ummun inlit.riti.d disurdcr 1UUS prublems i.unnixted %%ith genctii. manipulation.
Science (1 September 1980). An entire issue devoted to ad-
vances in analyzing genes, gene action, and gene-splicing.

CHAPTER 9 describe the reasoning that led to the theory of natural

selection;
contrast the Darwinian and Lamarckian theories.
II. Organic evolution is a process of directed change in
PLANNING AHEAD population characteristics.
Students should be able to
Check your supplies for investigations in this chapter to discuss the nature of an evolutionary event, using Biston
make sure you have plenty of paper clips and fabric pieces. bet Warta or another suitable example;
If you have not already done so, read the teacher's notes demonstrate the Hardy-Weinberg principle, given hy-
for investigation 12.2, and decide whether to order algae pothetical population size and allele frequencies;
from a supply house or to ha"e students collect them. If name mutation as the basic source of change in hered-
necessary, order them now, along with the fetal pigs for itary Lharacteristics;
investigation 14.1 and the earthworms for 14.3. Check to
make sure that you have prepared slides of stained human III. Speciation is a process in which characteristics of
blood for investigation 16.2. populations come to differ to such an extent that the in-
dividuals in one population can no longer interbreed with
individuals of the other, thus severing one gene pool into
GUIDELINES two. In nature the process can be observed in various de-
grees of completion.
Chapter 9 illustrates the growth of an idea in the minds Students should be able to
of scientists and depicts these scientists as human beings relate the biological definition of species to the require-
Few biologists fit the purpose as well as Darwin. From his ment of reproductive isolation in speciation;
youth he was a man of many faults. After his one great describe the role of geographic isolation in permitting
adventure he led an outwardly dull and prosaic life. lie the development of genetic traits that might lead to re-
was neither an amateur nor a professional by today's stan- productive isolation.
dards. He was remote from the universities, and a turgid
writer what a wonderful antidote to the popular vision
of'the scientist as a superhuman figure in a white labo- TACTICS
ratory coat!
Laboratory work involving the manipulation of organ- The four sets of self-review questions provide a convenient
isms and equipment is obviously impossible for the subject partitioning for assignments.
matter of chapter 9. But ,manipulating data obtained by Investigations 9.1 and 9.2 are concrete introductions to
others and evercising thoughttwo justifications for lab- the abstract topics of variation and natural selection.
C oratory acti% ,tyare not only possible but necessary. The Inv:stigation 9.3 is fairly difficult. It can be done in
four investigations in chapter 9 require as careful prep- class or assigned as homework. Because it involves math-
aration as any others in the course. ematics, the law:, option might net be advisable for some
students. In any case, the procedures as well as the results
should certainly be discussed in class.
06JECTIVES Investigation 9.4 deals with a real evolutionary problem
that was pursued by a contemporary biologist. It uses ac-
I. In his theory of natural selection C t,es Darwin pro- tual field data and should give students a feel for how re-
vided a rational mechanism for the evolution of life on search on evolution proceeds. Indeed, some of the questions
Earth, an ancient idea for which he a..sembled a large bcd) aie ones that arose during the original study, questions for
of evidence. which Dr. Stebbins' intensive fieldwork provided possible
Students should be able to answers.
name at least 4 kinds of evidence that Darwin used in
supporting the basic theory of evolution;
T30 Teaching Strategiec by ChaptersChapter 9

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS SOFTWARE

Coevolution by Lopez
INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
Publisher: EduTech
The following invitation can be found in the aro log) Description. A game format simulation. The user must
Teacher's Handbook (see Supplementary Materials, direct the eoltition.of a predator population's character-
chapter 1). istics in order to capture more prey than the computer's
predators.
Invitation 13. Subject: Natural Selection:
Technical Data: Apple I i, 48k. Copy protected.
Topic: Practice in Hypotheses
Natural Selection by EME
AV MATERIALS Publisher: EME
A Study of Oak Populations. (V DC: BSCS Classic In- Description: A three-part program. Parts I and II are
tuto.als which explain industrial melanism and natural
quiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. The
selection. Part III is a simulation which allows the user to
film explores the possible role of genetic makeup and
set initial gene frequencies for a population of moths, and
environment in determining the appearance of the trees.
determine the effects of varied pollution levels on those
Convergence. (VDC: BSCS Classic Inquiry) Media De-
gene frequencies.
sign Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. , ftcr observing
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
some look-alike plants and animals, students are asked
to account for certain similarities in appearance and Evolut by McCormick
lifestyle of unrelated organisms. Publisher: Conduit
Gene Flow in a California Salamander. (V DC. BSCS Description. A simulation of oultition and natural se-
Classic Inquiry ) Media Design Associates, Inc., lection based on a "bead" model. Interaction of beads
Boulder, CO. This film analyzes the possible gcnetic simulates geneti, drift. speLiation and polymorphism.
relationship of several salamander populations that are Technical Data. ,1pple. IL 48h. Not copy protected.
characterized by distinct patterns of appearance. hab-
itat, and interbreeding.
The Peppered Moth: 4 Population Study. (VDC: BSCS TEACHER'S REFERENCES
Classic Inquiry) Media Design Associates, Boulder, T. M. Cronin. "Specia non and Stasis in Marine Ostracoda: Cli-
CO. Students investigate possible causes for the change matic Modulation of Evolution Science (Januar) 1985).
in the number of light and dark moths that has oc- Main point. The frequenc.) and duratio' of amain: events
curred over the last century. ha% c more impact on ostracode e. olutiun than the magnitude
of climatic changes.
Australian Marsupials. (VDC: BSCS Classic Inquiry)
I) S, May. "An Interdisciplinary Look at Lactose Malabsorp-
Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. Students tion" The American Biology Teacher (March 1985). Inves-
investigate explanations for the uneven distribution of tigates the reasons cc h) adults of most populations onnot
marsupials throughout the could. and w lay there arc digest lactose. and t% h) must t lutes of European origin can.
more marsupials in Australia than anym here else. Inwritan (September 1978). The entire issue deals
Darwin's Finches. 16 mm, 15 min. Film Associates of u;;!, :ous aspects of evolution.
A. Walker. R. E. leakey, J. M. I larris. and F. 11: Brown. "2.5
California, Los Angeles. Myr Ausiralophhecus hoisel from West of Lake Turkana.
How Living Things Change, 16 mm. II min. Coronet In- Nature (7 August 19S6). Discusses characteristics
structional Media, Chicago. IL. Concerns the muta- of this important And and its relationship to A. afrk al110 and
tional background for changes in organisms. other early forms.
Mimicry. BSCS Classic. Inquiry) Media Design Asso- B Williams. "The Scientilk Status of E%olutionar) Theory"
ciates, Inc., Boulder. CO. Students study the relation- The American Biolog) Teacher (April 1985). Addresses the
fundamental question of how theories can be tested or if they
ships between look-alike insects and their predators. and can be tested at all.
investigate adaptive advantages that may be associated
with such cases of similar appearance.

,7
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 10 T31

OBJECTIVES

CHAPTER 10 I. Despite the initinlly bewildering dive,sity of organ-

isms, biologists have been able to devise a classification
scheme.
PLAKAIING AHEAD Students should be able to
.state reasons for use of' a scheme of le..ek in_ biological
You will nccd to obtain pctri dishes (preferably dispos- classification;
able), antiseptic and antibiotic disks and disks with no recogni:e greater and lesser degrees of likeness among
chemicals for use in investigation 11.2. Although students groups of organisms;
will be instructed to bring chemicals to use in the exper-
iments, you should be prepared with extra samples. You
use a simple taxonomic key to identify selected organ-
isms.
also will need to prepare broth cultures of Micrococcus
luteus and Esherichia cull, as well as agar plates. II. Although taxonomists differ in their interpretations
For investigation 11.3, you are urged to read the article of evidence, they follow similar procedures
"APRA IDS" (Acute Fear Regarding AIDS). You will find Students should be able to
the reference cited at the end of Chapter 1 I. Reading this describe the kinds of evidence used b) taxonomists;
article in advance v ill help )uu lead student discussion of explain the conflict between the 2 basic taxonomic pur-
this very scnsit issue. poses.
In planning to teach chapter 14, you may wish to ask III. Although paleontologists have no direct evidence of
a zoo curator or veterinarian to visit the class along with how life originated, some biologists have speculated about
some live animals. the origin of complex compounds that might have bee,
forerunners of simple living systems.
Students should be able to
GUIDELINES distinguish between speculetions and thec:ies:
To most present-day 101;1-grade students, the idea of clas- describe the environmental conditions in w ht..:11 life
sifying is well known. Therefore, you nccd to emphasize might have originated;
how biologists use categorization and w h), particularl) its . explain how biochemical experiments support specu-
use to express inferred relationships. Above all, remind lations on the biochemical origin of life.
students that the system of animal classification is a human
construction and is artificial. TACTICS
Continue to direct attention to structural adaptations
and ecological relationships among major groups of or- Investigation 10.1 provides a link from the earlier mate-
ganisms. This chapter provides you with an opportunity rial on genetics to the midern methods of studying evo-
to develop two important aspects of humanistic science lution It should folic,. the first reading assignment,
teaching: sections 10.1-103.
I. From the first chapter students have been exposed Investigation 10.2 is a translation from abstract ideas
to the idea that learning science is not the memoriztng of to the concrete details of the next part of the text. It can
a prescribed system into which facts are to be fitted, but be a homework assignment to be discussed in class. How-
rather a seeking for new and better ways to order an ever ever, if your students have reading difficulties. you might
widening array of facts; or. as put by the Abbe Gallant, want to conduct it in chss. It can be done at any time
"Science is destined rather to study than to know, rather during the second reading assignment, sections 10.4 10.5.
to seek truth than to find it:' The five-kingdom system of classification is intioduced
Devote part of whatever time may be available for class
in the third reading assignment, sections 10.6 10.8. The
discussion to problems involved in human attempts to im- long final reading assignment, sections 10.9 10.14, ex-
pose order upon the facts of natureas illustrated by dif- plores possible origins of life.
ficulties of classification at the kingdom level, for example.
2. Brief references-have been made in previous chap- SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
ters to the historical background of present biological
knowledge. This idea is developed more fully in this INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
chapter. It should be a second area of class discussion. A
The following invitation, found in the Biology Teache:'s
necessary corollary is the international nature of the sci-
Handbook (sec Supplementary Materials. chaplet. 1), ap-
entific enterprise.
plied to this chapter.
Take every opportunity from this point forward to use
biological names. Invitation 33. Subject: Simple Examples of Evidence of
Function;
Topic: Seven Evidences of Function

54
132' Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 11

AV MATERIALS Description: A database of 74 North American plant

families. The user inputs characteristics of a plant spec-
Five Kingdom Slide Sets. Ward's Natural Science Estab-
imen such as floral formula, type of fruit, and position of
lishment, Inc., Rochester, NY. Six slide sets written and
flower parts. The program generates a chart of percent
assembled by Lynn Margulis and Karlene Schwartz.
similarity to selected plant families.
Applies throughout section three.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected.
The Scientific Methods and Values. 16 mm, 15 min.
Hawkhill Associates, Inc., Madison, WI. An excellent
introduction to the nature of science and scientists.
TEACHER'S REFERENCES
GrouseA Species Problen. (Video BSCS Classic In-
quily) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. R E. Dickerson, "Cytochrome C and the Evolution of Energy
Metabolism" Scientific American (March 1980). The basis
Observe two closely-related populations of birds. How for metabolism in modern organisms can be traced to bac-
could you determine whether or not they are separate teria used in research on the origin of cell respiration.
species? F. E. Fox, et al., "'he Phylogeny of Prokaryotes" Science (25
Introducing Insects. 16 mm, 17 min. National Film hoard luly 1980). In-depth discussion of bacterial taxonomy.
of Canada, New York, NY. D.:usses Inc diversity M. W. Gray, "The Bacterial Ancestry of Plastids and Mito-
chondria" BioScienee (December 1983). Comparative studies
among insects and discusses classificatbn Includes
have revealed the ancestry of these organisms.
good slow-motion and time-lapse sequence,. L. Margulis, 1981, Symbiosis uz Cell Evolution: (San Francisco:
What Is a Fish?, What Is an Amphibian?, What Is a Rep- W. H. Freeman). Comprehensive discussion of cell evolution.
tile?, What Is a Bird?, What Is a Ma, .ca? 16 mm, L Margulis and K. Schwartz, 1982, Phyla of the Five King-
various lengths. Encyclopaedia Britannica Et;:ication doms (San Francisco. W. H. Freeman). A catalog of the
world's living diversity covering all major groups of organ-
Corp., Chicago, IL. A good series if your lab is defi- isms.
cient in living specimens or visits to aquariums and zoos C. G. Sibley and J. E. Ahlquist, "Reconstructing Bird Phylo-
are too few. geny by Comparing DNAs" Scientific American (February
1986). Discusses how evolutionary distances between species
SOFTWARE can be determined by studying differences between DNAs
and how this provides a basis for classifying living groups.
Family Identification by Hauser and Crovello R G. Wright and P. J. Bottino, "Mitochondrial DNA" The Sci-
Publisher: Conduit ence Teacher (April 1986). Explores the possibility that mi-
tnchondrial DNA might once have been a free-living
organism.

The number of diseases mentioned has been kept small.

CHAPTER 11 In class discussions students will bring up many more. This

could result in a morbid catalog. Try to make each disease
a representative of a class of diseases.
This chapter contains scientific background for consid-
PLANNING AHEAD
eration of many human problems of social importance. If
If you plan to use glass petri dishes for the investigations you have not already done so, establish bonds with your
in this chapter, be sure that you have available a pressure social studies colleagues. They also may deal with topics
cooker or an autoclave in working order. of disease and medical care. The educational situation of-
Be sure you have ordered the living materials needed fers mutual reinforcement.
for the investigations in chapters 12 and 13.
OBJECTIVES
GUIDELINES
I. Microorganisms occur in all natural ecocystems. The
Disease prevention and soil conservation are important distributions of particular kinds are relatively unaffected
topics. Chapter 11 brings students to grips with the bio- by geography.
logical realities of these concepts. You must, of course, Students should be able to
apply the concepts in a local context. What disesise in your cite examples of the wide distribution of microorgan-
area is still an important infectious disease? Use it to point isms of disease;
up the concepts of transmission, symptoms, virulence, re- demonstrate a method for collecting samples of micro-
sistance, epidemiology. In New Orleans what has hap- organisms from an environment.
pened to yellow fever? In Charleston what has happened
II. Disease is a universal attribute of living things.
to malaria? In Norfolk and Baltimore what has happened
Students should be able to
to cholera? Even the most voluminous textbook cannot
name at least 1 disease each of protists, plants, and non-
mention such local or regional matters. Only you can.
human animals;

155
t;
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 11 T33

describe characteristics of infectious, deficiency, envi- Imitation 16A. Subje..t. Disco% ery of Anaphylaxis,
ronmental, hereditary, and degenerative diseases: Topic: Accident in Inquiry
contrast modern understandings of disease with histor- Imitation 3 L Subject. Population Gro411 in Bacteria,
ical beliefs. Topic: Exponential Exponent > I
III. Infectious disease can best be understood as an eco-
AV MATERIALS
logical phenomenon involving a relationship between 2 or-
ganismsin a particular environmental situation. Bacteria. 16 mm, 19 min. Encyclopaedia Britanmea Ed-
Students should be able to ucation Corp., Chicago, IL. Emphasizes types of bac-
describe in ecological terms at least 4 infectious dis- teria and their life processes.
eases, some of which do not directly involve humans, Bacteria. 16 mm, McGraw -Hill Book Co., New
relate the means of disease prevention to the modes of York. A good film for background, without too many
transmission; excurs;ons beyond the concerns of chapter I L
explain the relationship between virulence of pathogen Life in a Cubic Foot of Soil. 16 mm, 11 min. Coronet
and resistance of host to the development of disease; Instructional Media, Chit.ago, IL. Good introduction
recognize factors involved in the development of im- to components of soil.
munity; Microorganisms Harmful Activities. 16 mm, 18 min.
identify, from descriptions or graphed data, epidemic Indiana University Audio-Visual Center, Bloom-
and endemic disease situations; ington, IN. Discusses specificity of infection, types of
explain why, although microorganisms are potentially immunity, antibodies, and Koch's postulates.
worldwide in distribution, many infectious diseases have Nitrogen and Lining Things. 16 mm, 13 min. Universal
limited geographic distributions. Education and Visual Arts, Universal City, CA. Links
IV. Most of our knowledge of microorganisms depends on nitrogen cycle to agriculture very well.
the techniques used for growing them in laboratories. World at Your Feet. 16 mm, 23 min. National Film Board
Students should be able to of Canada, New York, NY. Contains good material on
use effectively appropriate equipment and instruments soil structure and soil physics.
for handling and observing microbes;
identify at the phylum level specimens and pictures of SOFTWARE
microorganisms. Microbiology Techniques by Norrell
Publisher: EME
Description: A tutorial program covering microbiology
TACTICS lab techniques, growth curves, serial dilutions, pipetting
Laboratory work should occupy a large part of the class and bacterial cu' uring. Valuable information, presented
time devoted to chapter 11. If you have not all eady set up clearly and with good user control.
investigation 11.1, do so immediately, to allow time for Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
culture growth. When space and petri dishes are avail- Dilute by Lunesford, Rivers and Vockcll
able, set up investigation 11.2. Publisher: DEE
Investigation 11.3 may be carried out at any conve- Description. Dilute is a tutorial and simulation pro-
nient time. Al! students should participate in the discus- gram which explains serial dilution techniques. The user
sion of this vital topic. determines concentrations of unknown cultures by
The chapter text matter can be sandwiched into the counting colonies and comparing with serially diluted cul-
laboratory work in any manner that is convenient. tures.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; TRS-80 Models I and
III. Not copy protected.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Bacterial Titer Kit II by Wards
INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY Publisher: Wards
Description: The Bacterial Titer Kit contains nutrient
The following materials arc supplied in the Biology broth, agar, petri dishes, E. Cull culture, and worksheets
Teacher's Handbook (Sec Supplementary Materials, for 30 students. After completing the Dilute simulation
Chapter I). (described above), students perform serial dilutions of a
Invitation 10. Subject: Environment and Disease; real E. Coli culture, incubate the dilutions and count col-
Topic: The Idea of Hypothesis onies.
Invitation ,16. Subject: Discovery of Penicillin; Technical Data: Materials for class of 30 students. Re-
Topic: Accident in Inquiry quires incubator or water bath.
T34 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 12

TEACHER'S REFERENCES J. L. Marx. "How Rhizobia and Legumes Get It Together" Sci-
ence (11 October 1985). Investigates the formation of
R. H. Evans. "Archacbactcria: A New Kingdom for Our Class- nitrogen-fixing nodules on legume roots.
rooms" The American Biology Teacher (March 1983) In- . Ptashne. A. D. Johnson, and C. 0. Pabo, "A Genetic Switch
cludes a discussion of the archaebacteria and why this topic in a Bacterial Virus" Scientific American (November 1982).
should be important in the instruction of biology. Outlines the control of gene expression in a prokaryote.
D. W. Krogmann. "Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae) Their L. Roberts. "A Herpes Vaccine: A New Effort Using Recom-
Evolution and Relation to Other Photosynthetic Organisms" binant DNA" Science (November 1982). Discusses the latest
Bio Science (February 1981). Brief but comprehensive dis- biotechnology tools used in the development of a vaccine
cussion of cyanobactcria. against the herpes complex.
J. E. Lennox. S. E. Lingenfelter. and D. L. %Vance, "Archac- G. Taubes. "The Game of the Name is Fame. But Is it Sci-
bacterial Fuel Production: Methane from Biomass" The ence?" Discover (December 198o,. Addresses the contro-
American Biology Teacher (March 1983). Discusses exper- versy surrounding the "discovery" of prion.
iments designed to illustrate the possibility of using gas pro- C. R. Woese."Archaebacteria"Scietizific /lineman (June 1981).
duced by the microbial digestion of organic matter as fuel Detailed article dealing with justification for the new grouping
and the use of molecular studies to determine classification
groupings and ancestry.

III. The 5-kingdom system of classification is based in part

CHAPTER 12 on the probably prokaryotic origin of eukaryotic organ-

elles.
Students should be able to
list similarities between mitochondria and hetero-
PLANNING AHEAD trophic prokaryotes;
If you are inexperienced in handling paramecia, try out list similarities between chloroplasts and autotrophic
the techniques in investigation 12.1 before attempting to prokaryotes:
guide students. compare and contrast fungi and protists.
You will need to get fresh mushrooms from a grocer
for investigation 12.3.
TACTICS
Allow a good deal of time for laboratory work in this
GUIDELINES chapter. Students can begin investigation 12.3 immedi-
Students usually have had many experiences with ani- ately.
mals, fewer with plants and fungi. and almost none with The first reading assignmr it is short, but dense in ideas.
protists. Providing firsthand experience with protists is not The remaining assignments follow the format of the text
easy, but if protists arc not to be mythical creatures, you sections 12.3-12.8. 12.9-12.12. 12.13-12.17, and 12.18-
must show them to your students. Therefore, the core of 12.20. Have students do investigation 12.1 after com-
this chapter is laboratory work. pleting section 12.8, and investigation 12.2 any time after
complet...g section 12.12.

OBJECTIVES
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
I. The more we learn about nature, the more difficult it
becomes to fit our knowledge into ordinary definitions. INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
Students should be able to
argue for and against the use of the 5-kingdom system The following materials can be found in the Biology
of classification; Teacher's Handbook (see Supplementary Materials,
describe fungal characteristics that could place them chapter 1).
either inside the plant kingdom or outside it. Invitation 28. Subject: Rate of Fermentation;
II. The protists and fungi comprise a wide range of or- Topic: Change of Rate; Complicated Variables
ganisms.
Students should be able to AV MATERIALS
stage the salient characteristics of the major groups of The Proust Kingdom. 16 mm, 14 min. Film Associates of
protists and fungi; California, Los Angeles. Excellent photography helps
recognize common examples of those groups; to acquaint students with these organisms.
diagram a food chain that includes fungi.
ar
5%*
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 13 T35

TEACHER'S REFERENCES E. Ruber, "The Land of the Lichens" The American Biology
Teacher (December 1983). The use of drama reinforces stu-
M. Foote, "Microscopic GardensA Close Look at Algae" The dent learning.
Science Teacher (May 1983). Describes methods of studying
R. J. Sobieski, "Where Have All These New Microbes Come
algae in the laboratory. From?" The Science Teacher (April 1984). Discusses the
D. E. James, "Take a Dip! Culturing Algae is Easy" The Sci- benefits and strategies of studying microbiology.
ence Teacher (May 1983). Praises the utility of algae in the
laboratory and discusses several introductory lab exercises.

13 The great majority of land plants share a large number

II.
of structural similarities.
CHAPTER Students should be able to
recognize and point out such basic plant structures as
flowers, fruits, leaves, roots, stems.
PLANNING AHEAD
III.Plants are found in a wide variety of habitats and are
Try to have a sphygmomanometer available for investi- involved in many ecological relationships.
gation 15.4. Students should be able to
name plant groups that might be found in such habitats
as marshes, deserts, seawater;
GUIDELINES infer functional differences from observing differences
It is important to have abundant illustrative material on in plant structure.
hand. Botanical gardens and conservatories are less nu-
merous than zoos, but if there are any in your area, make
use of them. Natural history museums often have excel- TACTICS
lent displays relating to plant adaptations and evolution. For assignment, the obvious divisions are sections 13.1-
In assembling pictures, try not to place too great an 13.6, 13.7-13.9, and 13.10-13.11. The last of these is
emphasis on flowers. Show whole plants as much as pos- rather short, but number of pages is not necessarily a good
sible, and try to give balanced representation to all plant guide to number or importance of ideas.
groups. Gauge the experience of your students. Many may Investigation 13.2 can be deferred until all the study
be unacquainted with "ie whole plants from which come assignments have been completed. It provides a good
even familiar foods potatoes, peanuts, squash beans. A means of reviewing much of the information and many of
field trip to a large grocery store with a variety of fruits the ideas that are presented in the chapter. The placement
and vegetables may spur your students to do sonic re- of the investigation gives the students a chance to com-
search on the origin (both geographical and structural) of pare degrees of complexity among representative plants
the foods. discussed in the chapter.
Do not let taxonomic filmstrips and films entangle your
students in alternation of generations. Students should gain
a panoramic view of plant diversity. Continue to empha- SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
size that structural adaptations and ecological roles are
themes running throughout the book. INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
The following materials may be found in the Biology
OBJECTIVES Teacher's Handbook (see Supplementary Materials,
chapter 1), and are applicable to this chapter.
I. The diversity and adaptations of modern plants have
resulted from selective forces acting on plants of the past. Invitation 3. Subject: Seed Germin.tion;
Students should be able to Topic: Misinterpretation of Data
dem,mstrate the adaptations of land plants for con- Invitation 4. Subject: Plant Physiology;
serving water; Topic: Interpretation of Complex Data
diagram the life cycle of any major group of plants, Invitation 6. Subject: Plant Nutrition;
compare the relative proportions of sporophytic and ga- Topic: Nanning of Experiment
metophytic generations in primitive and advanced Invitation 7. Subject: Plant Nutrition;
plants. Topic: Control of Experiment
T36 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 14

Invitation 11. Subject: Light and Plant Growth; TEACHER'S REFERENCES

Topic: Construction of Hypotheses M. Batten, "The Ant and the Acacia" Science 84 (April 1984).
Invitation 14. Subject: Auxins and Plant Movement; Explores the possibility of coevolution of plants and animals
Topic: Hypotheses: Interpretation of Abnormality in the tropics and the ways that some plants and animals de-
Invitation 29. Subject: Growth Regulation in Leaf; pend on one another for survival.
Topic: Nonlinear Polynomial of Degree > 1 H C. Bold, C. J. Alexopoulos, and T. Delevoryas. 1980, Mor-
phology ol Plants and Fungi (New York: I larper and Row).
Invitation 30. Subject: Light and Auxin Formation;
A "iype method" text including representatives for each of
Topic- Nonlinear Polynomial of Degree < 1 the major divisions of plants. monera. and fungi.
T. E. Elthon and C. R. Stewart, "A Chemiosmotic Model for
AV MATERIALS Plant Mitochondria" BioScience(December 1983). A bal-
anced application of chemiosmosis to plant mitochondria is
Water and Desert Plants. (VDC: BSCS Single Topic In- presented.
quiry) Media Design Associates, Inc.. Boulder, CO. J. Janich. R. W. Schcry, F. W. Woods. and V. W. Ruttan, 1981,
Students investigate features of desert plants that aid Plant Science. An Introduction to World Crops (San Fran-
cisco: W H. Freeman). This text concentrates on plants that
in their survival. Then they design a model of an "ideal"
are important to human existence.
desert plant. J. B. Jones, "Growing Plants Hydroponically' The American
Colour of Life. 16 mm, 24 min. National Film Board of Biologj Teacher (September 1985). A "how-to-do-it" ar-
Canada, New York, NY. Illustrates the development -tide.
of the maple seedling, by time-lapse photography. Also P D Peebles and W H. Leonard. "Is There Life among the
Plants?" The American Biology Teacher (May 1986). Offers
discusses seasonal changes and the process of photo-
alternatiees to the traditional plant study labs.
synthesis in leaves.

CHAPTER 14 Students vary greatly in their acquaintanceship with

animals; gauge your students' backgrounds and choose
supplementary materials accordingly.

PLANNING AHEAD
OBJECTIVES
You will need a human torso model for chapter 15. If you I. Among different animal species, similar structures
do not have blood typing serums for investigation 16.2,
vary in detail. These variations appear to adapt some of
order these now. You also will need stained slides of human
the species to efficient functioning in particular environ-
blood for that investigation. If you are using the Student ments.
Study Guide, you will need to allow time for the class re-
Students should be able to
ports called for in activity 2.
recognize a variety of structural adaptations in familiar
animal species;
predict the environment in which unfamiliar animals
GUIDELINES
might suitably live. given a set of selected structural
Diversity among animals is the obvious thread running adaptations.
through this chapter. In this thread two strands are em- II. Since energy release is basically aerobic in animals.
phasized: structural adaptation (rather strongly) and eco-
oxygen is required eventually, and all animals have means
logical relationships. To the greatest degree possible. allow
to obtain oxygen from the environment.
stud-its to observe diversity in living animals. In addition
Students should be able to
to displaying animals in your classroom, suggest that stu-
explain how some animals can exist without specialized
dents visit a zoo or aquarium. Use pictures for a still organs of 02-0O2 exchange;
broader view. The many animal pictures available on
identify the principal breathing organs in a dissected
2 X 2 color slides can provide this for the whole class. For
animal and in a human;
bulletin boards, National Geographic and Natural His-
state relationships between the process of 02-0O2 ex-
tory are particularly good sources.
change and water balance in both aquatic and terres-
trial animals.

-59
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 14 T37

III. By means of homeostatic mechanisms involv ing sense Imprinting. Media Design Associates. Inc.. Boulder. CO.
receptors, chemical and nervous coordination systems, and The mechanisms responsible for imprinting are studied.
muscular effectors, an animal maintains an internal reg- Predation and Pruteclion in the actin. (N, DC. BSCS
ulation and copes with the vagaries of its external envi- Classic Inquiry) Media Design Associates, Inc..
ronment. Boulder, CO. Students investigate the ways in which
Students should be able to marine animals may avoid being eaten.
identify from a brief statement of their characteristics, Temperature and Actilit) in Reptiks. (N, DC. BSCS
or from pictures, striated and smooth muscle tissues; Classic Inquiry) Media Design Associates, Inc.,
state 3 functions of skeletal systems; Boulder, CO. The reactions of lizards to changes in ex-
explain in terms of muscles and bones simple mu\ e- ternal temperature are observed. and students are asked
ments of their own bodies; to generate ideas about the significance of temperature
describe a homeostatic mechanism involving either in- regulation.
ternal or external regulation in an animal, preferably Water and Desert Animals. (BSCS Single Tupie Inquiry )
hurrian. Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder. CO. Students
record and interpret information about how desert an-
imals obtain and conserve moisture.
TACTICS Social Behavior in Chickens. (VDC: BSCS Classic In-
Investigation 14.1 can be carried out at any time early in quiry) Media Design Associates., Inc.. Boulder, CO.
the chapter. The fetal pig is useful as an example of a Based on his observation of the behavior of chickens,
mammal, with many structural and functional similari- the student may infer dominant/submissivc relation-
ties to humans, and for demonstrating fetal structures. ships and the nature of a social order.
Sections 14.1-14.3, the first reading assignment, pro- Mating Behavior in the Cockroach. (VDC: BSCS Classic
vide a general introduction that emphasizes adaptation to Inquiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO.
various ways of life, rather than classification. The second Mating behavior in two species is compared. The stimuli
that evoke mating behavior are discussed.
assignment, sections 14.4-14.8, continues that emphasis
but helps students understand the rationale behind animal The Animal and the Environment. 16 nun, 28 min.
classification. The topics are summarized in investigation McGraw-Hill Films, Nev York. Homeostatic mecha-
14.2. The final assignment, sections 14.9-14.15, is rather nisms involved in breathing, heartbeat, and kidney
long and gives a broad introduction to many animal func- function.
tions; use investigation 14.3 to break up the assignment Digestion. 16 mm. Universal Education and Visual Arts.
and to provide a concrete example of the ideas. Universal City, CA. Part 1: Mechanical. 17 min. Me-
chanical processes; absorption; function of the liver. Part
2: Chemical. 19 min. Covers the structure and function
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
of digestive glands. distribution of digested foods.
The Senses. 16 mm, 28 min. McGraw-Hill Films, New
AV MATERIALS York. Sight, hearing, and taste, and the nervous and
chemical operations involved in these processes. Good
Prey Detection in the Rattlesnake (VDC. BSCS Classic sequence on the experimental determination of taste in
Inquiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. houseflies.
Helps students design and interpret experiments to
learn how rattlesnakes detect the presence of their prey. The following series of behavior films is available from
An Example of the Biological Significance of Color. BFA Educational Media, Santa Monica, CA:
(VDC: BSCS Classic Inquiry) Media Design Associ- Language Without Words. Deals with communication
ates, Inc., Boulder, CO. Explores the ways in which among animals. Provides a variety of examples.
color recognition, color preference, and color selection A Member of Sou-et). Investigates animals that live in
may be important in the life of the tortoise. complex social relationships with one another.
Feeding Behavior of Hydra. (VDC. BSCS Classic In- Obsening Behavior. Introduction to how and what to ob-
quiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. serve in the field.
Students observe the hydra's feeding habit, then ex- Parents. Introduces and suggests inquiries about the in-
plore the nature of the stimulus that elicits the feeding fluence of patents on the behavior of thar young.
response. What's Mine Is Mine. Investigates territoriality.
Cheinica Communication. (VDC: BSCS Classic In-
quiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO.
Causes of ant behavior are investigated under natural
and experimental conditions.

/et
kP 6
T30 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 15

SOFTWARE TEACHER'S REFERENCES

Atiiinal Dissection Guides by Newby D. L. Alkon. "Learning in a.Marine Snail" Sliennfi American
Publisher: Cross (July 1983). Neural mechanisms underlying associative
learning have been defined in the snail, and they might not
Description: A series of dissection tutorials explains be very different in the human brain.
structure and functiPa while directing the user through an W. G. Holmes and P. W. Sherman. "Kin Recognition in Ani-
animal dissection. rood supporting graphics. Dissection mals" American Scientist (January, February 1983). Ad-
Guides available for the: Frog, Earthworm, Grasshopper, dresses the basic questions about how and nhy animals
Crayfish,,Starfish, Clam and Perch. distinguish relatives from unrelated individuals.
J. S. Levine and E. F. Mac Nichol. "Color Vision in Fishes"Sci-
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected. entific American (February 1982). The retinal pigments ac-
Insect Identification by Burggraf quired by diverse fish species in adapting to their visual
environments are a valuable clue to the evolution of the eye.
Publisher: Focus R. J. Plomin, J. C. DeFries, and G. E. McClearn, 1980, Behav-
Description: A simulation program in which the user lora( Genetics (San Francisco. W. H. Freeman). Examines
identifies insect specimens by examining clues (habits, the genetic basis of behavior.
habitat, coloration, and anatomy) offered by the com- Scientific American, 1980, Birds (San Francisco. W. H.
puter. A Go Ide-n insect guide is included with the program Freeman). Selected articles from the Scientific American,
each covering a different aspect of the life of birds and their
documentation. relation to humans.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; TRS-80 Models III and T. D. Seeley. "How Honeybees Find a Home" Scientific Amer-
IV. Copy protected. ican (October 1982). Investigates the search carried out by
the older scout bees for a winter shelter.

OBJECTIVES

CHAPTER 15 I. Because all animals are consumers, they must obtain

food from outside themselves. This involves ingestion and
digestion.
PLANNING AHEAD Students should be able to
identify the principal digestive organs in a human;
Sec that you have any necessary models or charts for distinguish between ingestion and digestion;
chapter 16, or that you can borrow them when the time relate physical digestion to chemical digestion;
comes. explain the functions of digestive juices;
name environmental factors that influence the action of
a salivary enzyme.
GUIDELIUES
II.Energy-releasing processes involve the breakdown of
Humans are the animals emphasized in this chapter, large complex molecules into simpler substances with or
though the processes of ingestion, digestion, cellular res- without the use of oxygen.
piration, and nutrition arc found in all animals. Animal Students should be able to
structure is correlated with the requirements of the an- describe thc role glucose. plays in aerobic cellular res-
imal way of life: the intake of materials, the release of piration;
energy from foods, the disposal of excess and poisonous write thc general chemical equation for thc process of
substances, the internal c ordination of all metabolic ac- aerobic cellular respiration;
tivities, and the means of coping with the environment. compare the efficiency of anaerobic and aerobic cel-
In many school systems human anatomy and some gross lular respiration;
physiology are well taught in earlier grades. Nevertheless, contrast photosynthesis and respiration;
a good manikin is an essential adjunct to the teaching of understand the ADPATP cycle.
this chapter.
Chapter 15 will stimulate questions not only about car- III. Modern humans' digestive systems and nutritional
diovascular diseases, but also about other nutrition- needs are the outcomes of adaptations to early human en-
related topics. vironments.
Students should be able to
compare the proportions of fat, fiber, sugar, and salt in
early and modern human diets;

61
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 15 T39

identify symptoms as being characteristic of deficiency enz) me aLet)Icholinesterase. The user seleas the aimunt
or excess of certain minerals; of substrate and enz) me, the inhibitor. and reaction time.
calcidate the number of kcal needed for their ov.n The program reports enz) me Isine,tiLs in tabular and
health; graphic form.
distinguish between healthy and obsessive attitudes to- Technical Data. Apple II, 48k, TRS-80 Models I. III
ward thinness. and IV; IBM PC Jr., I28k. Not copy protected. IBM re-
quires a color/graphics interface.

TACTICS Enzyme Investigations by Chandler

Publisher: ;-1RM a'
During class discussions it is almost essential that a good De.,-riptieli: A three-part simulation and tutorial pro-
manikin be available to illus.rate the anatomy in which gram. In part I, the user controls pH, temperature, and
the human physiology occurs. substrate concentration for an enzyme. The computer plots
Investigation 15.1 can be used to stimulate interest at reaction and rate of reaction for the chosen conditions.
the beginning of the chapter, but you may wish to post- Part II is a game-format simulation of enzyme action on
pone it so the difficult reading material can be more easily food passing through the digestive system. The third part
broken up into several short assignments. is a tutorial on enzymes.
The suggested first assignment is sections 15.1-15.5. Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
The Cellular Respiration section is best understood if di-
vided into three short assignments-15.6-15.8, 15.9- Enzkin by Heydemann
15.10, and 15.11-15.12. Give students time to understand Publisher: Conduit
each topic before moving on to the next. Nutrition, sec- Description: A simulation of enzyme cataly zed reac-
tions 15.13-15.19, can be given as one assignment. tions. The user adjusts temperature, pH and time for each
enzyme-substrate combination. The computer plots the
resultant enzyme kinetics.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Technical Data: Apple IL 48k. Not copy protected.
Health Awareness Game by Ellis
INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY Publisher: HRM
These materials are supplied in the Bullugt Teacher's Description: A five-part simulation and tutorial pro-
Handbook (see Supplementary Materials, chapter 1). gram col,ers the topics of. coronary risk (calculates risk
of heart disease), smoking (advice on smoking), exercise
Invitation 12. Subject: Vitamin Deficiency; and weight (calculates optimal weight), life expectancy
Topic: "If . . . , then . . ." Analysis (habits affecting life expectancy), and lifestyle (advice on
Invitation 44. Subject: The Stress Reaction: Adrenaline; improving health).
Topic: Interrelations of Homeostatis: The Self-
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; TRS-80 Model III; IBM
Regulating Organism PC, 128k; Commodore 64. Copy protected.

AV -MATERIALS Nutrition: A Balanced Diet by Chandler

Publisher: EME
Bacteria and Health. 16 mm, 18 min. Educational Media Description: A database of selected foods and their nu-
International, Haymarket, VA. Effective in stressing tritional values allows the user to construct and analyze
personal hygiene and in teaching students that they live menus by age and sex for compliance with RDA. Similar
in a world filled with bacteria. to The Food Processor but this database is not as com-
Heart Attack. 16 mm, 26 min. Time-Life Video, New plete.
York. This film focuses on the patient's attitude as a Technical Data: Apple II, 4.ik; TRS-80 Models I, III
crucial factor during an attack and recovery. and IV. Copy protected.
Cell Respiration. 16 mm, 28 min. McGraw-Hill Films,
New York. Function of ATP in cellular respiration is The Food Processor by Geltz and Geltz
explained in a rather sophisticated way. Publisher: MECC
Description: A database of 1500 foods and their nu-
SOFTWARE tritional contents allows the user to analyze a menu of
foods' compliance with RDA. Excellent database com-
Enzyme by Luncsford, Rivers and Vockell piled from USDA and 200 other references.
Publisher: DEE Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; IBM PC, 128k. Copy
Description: A simulation program in which the user protected.
explores the effects of six inhibitors on the action of the

62
T40' Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 16

TEACHER'S REFERENCES R. M. DeCoursey, R. M. and J. L. Renfro, 1980, The Human

Organism 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill). A well-bal-
C. R. Barman, "Nutrition Education: An Essential Ingredient
anced treatment of human anatomy and physiology.
of'Biology Education" The American Biology Teacher (Sep-
B. R. Landau, 1980, Essential Human Anatomy and Physi-
tember 1985). Discussion of why and how to incorporate nu-
trition as part of the biology curriculum. ology (Glenview, Ill: Scott Foresman). An integrated presen-
FDA Consumer, Department of Health and Human Services.
tation of the anatomy and physiology of humans.
Public Health Service, Food and Drug Adnumstration.Office D A McCarron, C. D. Morris, H. J. Henry, and J. L. Stanton,
of Public Affairs, J600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857. "Blood Pressure and Nutrient Intake in the United States"
Science (29 June 1984). Investigates the link between diet
This pamphlet and others dealing with nutrition (and many
and hypertensive cardiovascular disease.
other topics) are available from the Food and Drug Admin-
istration.
N. Sharon, "Carbohydrates" Scientific American (November
1980). Fascinating article about the many important roles of
carbohydrates.

II. Specific and nonspecific immunity protects the body

CHAPTER 16 against foreign antigens.
Students should be able to
describe the general process by which antigens are re-
moved from the body by the immune system;
PLANNING AHEAD diagram the events in vaccination and subsequent ex-
A variety of plants is needed for use in chapter 18. Ar- posure to an antigen for the same disease;
range to buy or borrow these now. predict the likelihood of future problems for an Rh+
For investigation 19.2, you will need leafy plants. If you woman who has given birth to an Rh+ or Rh- baby.
want to grow these from seed, plant the seeds now; oth- III. Oxygen is required for the cellular respiration of glu-
erwise, plan to order plants in time for the investigation.
cose, and carbon dioxide is a product of that respiration.
Students should be able to
identify the organs of respiration and describe their
GUIDELINES functions;
In this chapter, students see how the circulatory, respi- explain how oxygen and carbon dioxide enter or leave
ratory, and excretory systems work in coordination to keep the body, move between the circulatory and respiratory
the body's temperature constant, to distribute materials, systems, and are transported;
and to rid the body of wa,,tes and toreign matter. As in relate the sites and processes of overall respiration to
the previous chapter, you will find models and charts in- those of cellular respiration.
valuable.
IV. Metabolic activities result in the accumulation in or-
ganisms of substances that are either useless or poisonous.
These substances are excreted into the environment -in
OBJECTIVES
many animals by means of special organs o, organ sys-
I. Humans and other animals have means of trans- tems.
porting substances throughout their bodies, some of these Students should be able to
involve special fluids that are LiNulated through vascular distinguish between excretion, secretion, and elimina-
systems. tion;
Students should be able to name at least 3 major kinds of substances that are reg-
name at least 3 means of transporting substances in an- ularly excreted by animals;
imal bodies; explain how a terrestrial organism can have too much
demonstrate with a chart or model the course of blood water;
flow through a mammalian heart, --identify kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra;
distinguish between arteries, veins, and capillaries, describe the function of a kidney;
identify from a brief statement of their characteristics ompare the components (and their proportions) of
the principal components of mammalian blood; blood and urine.
describe the process of blood clotting but not neces-
sarily with the proper names of substances;
compare and contrast the composition and functions of
lymph and of blood.

x.:63
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 16 T41

'V. Homeostasis provides, among other things, a constant SOFTWARE

internal temperature for the body.
Students should be able to Biochemistry of the Immune System by Malkin
diagram the hypothalamus's thermostatic control of the Publisher: Helix
body's temperature through evaporation from the skin Description: A tutorial and drill program covering im-
and changes in the blood vessels; mune response, AIDS, antibodies and clonal selection.
explain the advantages of maintaining a constant in- Current information presented clearly.
ternal temperature. Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
Cardiovascular Fitness Lab by Antonnuci and Travers
Publisher: HRM
TACTICS Description: A lab interfacing program in which the
Have students read sections 16.1-16.4 first, so that heart user's heart rate is monitored during exercise or at rest.
rate will be a thoroughly familiar topic before they do in- Heartrate data may be plotted as a graph or histogram.
vestigation 16.1. The main emphasis in this investigation Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; IBM PC, 128k; Com-
should be on the formation and testing of hypotheses. modore 64. Not copy protected but program includes one
Each of the other investigations has been designed to set of interfacing hardware only.
illustrate the text that precedes it. Thus, you could break Adventures in Flesh by Williams
the chapter into five assignments sections 16.1-16.4, Publisher: Krell
16.5-16.7, 16.8-16.10, 16.11-16.12, and 16.13-16.15, Description. A simulation program which takes the user
with an investigation following each but the last assign- or a journey through the arteries, veins, and organs of a
ment. patient suffering from ten ailments. The user must diag-
nose the ailments by examining the appropriate organs and
symptoms displayed by the patient. Program displays text
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS onlyno graphics.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
These exercises may be found in the Biology Teacher's Experiments in Physiology by Tinker
Handbook (see Supplementary Materials, chapter 1). Publisher: FIRM
Invitation 15. Subject: Neurohormones of the Heart; Description: A lab interfacing program includes ten
Topic: Origin of Scientific Problems experiments on heart rate, respiration rate, response time
Invitation 38. Subject: A Thermostatic Model; and thermoregulation.
Topic: The Concept of Homeostasis Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected but
Invitation 39. Subject: Control of Blood Sugar; only one set of interfacing hardware and probes is in-
Topic: Maintenance of Dynamic Equilibrium cluded with the program.
Invitation 40. Subjec' c''ood Sugar and the Internal En- Experiments in Science by Tinker
vironment; Publisher: HRM
Topic: Fitness of Models Description: A lab interfacing program includes twelve
invitation 41. Subject: Blood Sugar and Insulin; experimcits, including heart rate, response time, flicker
Topic: Sensing Mechanisms of Homeostasis fusion and nine experiments in chemistry, physics and
earth science.
AV MATERIALS Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected but
Nerves and heartbeat Rate. (VDC: BSCS Classic In- only one set of interfacing hardware and probes is in-
quiry) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. cluded with the program.
Students evaluate experimental evidence and formu-
late statements about the relationship of nerves, chem-
icals, and the rate of heartbeat. TEACHER'S REFERENCES
The Kidney and Homeostasis. (BSCS Classic Inquiry) R. F. Doolittle, "Fibrinogen and Fibrin" Sienttfi, Anterkan
Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. The func- (December 1981). Detailed discussion of the mechanics of
blood clotting.
tions of the kidney are examined, as is its role as a ho-
D. R. Heador., "The Art of Making Antibodies" The Science
meostatic organ. Teacher (January 1986). Covers the production and purpose
of monocional antibodies.
T. P. Huston, "The Athletic Heart Syndrome" The New England
Journal of Medicine (4 July 1985). Interesting discussion of
how exercise affects the circulatory system.
T42 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 17

J. Laurence, "The Immune System in AIDS" Scientific Amer- J. L. Marx, "Making Antibodies without the Antigens- Science
ican (December 1985). New knowledge of how the virus al- (April 1985). Disuussion of anti-idiutype antibodies and their
ters the growth and function of 14 lymphocytes may lead to possible usefulness as vaccines.
treatments and perhaps a vaccine. C. Milstein, "Monoclonal Antibodies" Si. ientific American (Oc-
P. Leder, "The Genetics of Antibody Diversity" SLientifi, tober 1980). Covers the production and purpose of mono-
American (May 1982). Addresses the combinatorial process clonal antibodies.
that generates information specifying billions of antibodies. M. B. Zucker, '`The Funt.i,oning of Blood Platelets" Suenitfu:
P. Marrack and J. Kapp ler, "The T Cell and Its Receptor" St.i- American (June 1980). The interactions of blood platelets
einific American (February 1986). The cell plays a key role with substances in the blood plasma and in tissue play com-
in the body's capacity to fight viral infection, but it also acts plex roles in health and disease.
to reject grafted tissue.

diagram the main sensory and motor pathways in-

CHAPTER 17 volved in the motor response to a stimulus that also
triggers conscious thought;
show causation of a given physiological activity as being
controlled by the autonomic or central nervous system;
PLANNING AHEAD name the endocrine glands and their functions;
In addition to checking the availability of materials for analyze the effects of some interruption of an endocrine
investigation 19.1, practice the technique yourself. feedback loop.
Order the aquatic organisms for investigations 19.3, III. In general, the complexity of behavior is proportional
23.2, and 23.3, and set up the aquatic ecosystem for in- to the complexity of nervous systems.
vestigation 23.2.
Students should be able to
You will need newspaper articles about local environ-
describe difficulties in establishing that a behavior is in-
mental problems for chapter 24. Ask students to begin nate;
collecting articles now. distinguish levels of innate behavior;
list the effects of various drugs on the nervous system
and on the actions it controls;
GUIDELINES evaluate their own problems and make informed de-
This chapter concludes a series of three chapters on the cisions about drug use.
human animal by showing how the nervous and endocrine
systems coordinate the body's functions. Human behavior
is presented as the observable result of neural activity, and TACTICS
drugs are discussed in the context of their effects on the The chapter falls easily into four assignments: sections
brain and behavior. 17.1-17.3, 17.4-17.7, 17.8-17.10, and 17.11-17.17. The
last assignment seems long, but no investigation accom-
panies it. You may want to take advantage of students'
OBJECTIVES interest in drugs by having some students write papers or
I. With the energy released by the breakdown of ATP present class reports on this important topic.
to ADP, muscles move the skeleton and other parts of the
body.
Students should be able to SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
distinguish among the 3 types of muscle;
diagram the foodglucoseglycogenATP pathway in INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY
connection with muscular exertion; The following materials are supplied in the Biology
evaluate their own physical condition and decide what Teacher's Handbook (see Supplementary Materials,
dietary and exercise measures are needed for reaching chap; er 1).
and maintaining fitness.
Invitation 17. Subject: Thyroid Action;
II. The nervous and endocrine systems work together to Topic: Unit Causes
coordinate voluntary and involuntary actions of muscles Invitation 21. Subject: Parathyroid Action;
and glands. Topic: Multiple Causation
Students should be able to Invitation 22. Subject: Control of Pancreas;
identify the parts of a neuron and show the direction in Topic: Diverse Causation
which a nerve impulse passes;

65
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 18 T43

Invitation 23. Subject: C itrol of Pancreas; Biofeedback Micro lab by Antonucci and Travers
Topic: Diverse Effects of Diverse Causes Publisher: HRM
Invitation 24. Subject. Control of Thyroid Secretion, Description. A lab interfacing program int.ludes ex-
Topic: Inhibitory Causes periments on heart rate, galvanic skin response, skin tem-
Invitation 25. Subject: Pituitary-Gonad Mechanism; perature, and muscle tension.
Topic: Feedback Mechanisms Technical Data: Apple II, 64k. Not copy protected but
Invitation 32. Subject: Muscle Structure and Function, ugly one set of interfacing hardware and probes is in-
Topic: Six Evidences of Function cluded with the program.
Invitation 34. Subject: Muscle Synergism and Function;
ti
Topic: Function in a System
Invitation 35. Subjcct: Muscle and Lane; TEACHER'S REFERENCES
Topic: Function in a System
E. Ca rafoli and J. T. Pcnniston, "The Calcium Signal" Scien-
Invitation 43. Subject: Basal Metabolic Rate; tific American (November 1985). The calcium ion controls
Topic: Adaptive Change of Equilibriums processes ranging from muscle contraalun to cell
M. Constantine-Paton and M. I. Law. "The Development of
AV MATERIALS .laps and Stripes in the Brain" Scientific American(De-
cember 1982). By creating a frog with three eyes, new knowl-
Locomotion in the Amoeba. (BSCS Classic Inquiry) edge is gained concerning this topi^.
Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. Students \V J. M. 1 Irushesky, "Circadian Timing of Cancer Chemo-
therapy" Science (5 April 1985). Discusses experiments re-
observe the locomotion of an amoeba, and discuss pos-
lating to the effectiveness of drugs when administered at
sible mechanisms that might account for these move- varying times of the day.
ments. P. Morel' and \V. T. Norton, "Myelin" Scientific American (May
1980). A general discussion of myelin, with special emphasis
SOFTWARE on multiple sclerosis and related diseases.
D. E. Parker, "The Vestibular Apparatus" Scientific American
The Special Senses Volume I. The Ey. by Perelberg, (Nuvember 1980). Examines the wit; of the organs of the inner
MacDonald, Moller ear responsible for balance and orientation.
J. Ii. Schwartz, "The Transport of Substances in Nerve Cells"
Publisher: Compress
Scientific American (April 1980). Examines the transport of
Description: A tutorial program in four parts covers large molecules z.nd other substau,es through axons to nerve
optics, m chanics of vision, rods and cones, and termi- endings.
nology. Each section ends with a quiz. The information is R \V. Wurtz, M. E. Goldberg, aria D. L. Rubinson, "Brain
accurate and clearly presented, with good user control. Mechanism of Visual Attention" Scientific American (June
1982). Interesting studies done on monkeys help show how
Technical Data: Apple 11, 48k. Copy protected.
the brain decides that certain objects in the world are sig-
nificant.

A slide presentation of unusual plants is a good idea.

CHAPTER 18 The actual plants are better than pictures, but you can
introduce a wider variety with slides. A session or two de-
voted to observing the microstructure of plant organs may
be desirable. The physiology of plants will be more im-
PLANNING AHEAD portant to students than morphological detail.
You will need mounted skeletons of a cat and a human for
investigation 21.3. If you have none available, make ar-
rangements to borrow them. OBJECTIVES
I. Most leaves are specialized organs of photosynthesis.
They exhibit, both externally and internally, structural
GUIDELINES complementarity with this function.
As you begin this chapter, have 4 display of plants that Students should be able to
exhibit special adaptations. Some suggestions. Aloe or distinguLli between simple and compound leaves,
Agave (with thick fleshy leaves that resist desiet.atwn), identifj in diagrams or microslides epidermis, meso-
Kalanchoe (plantlets on leaf margins), Monstera (perfo- phyll, veins, and stomates;
rated leaves), Maranta (leaves foldmg at night), Mimosa reLugni:e substances normally taken in and substances
pudica (leaflets folding when touched), Saxifraga sar- normally lost through stomates;
mentosa (plantlets on hanging runners), and of course, describe the action of stoma tes;
various cacti. All of these are houseplants. explain transpiration in terrestrial plants.

Sr rci-
6
 T44 Teaching Strategies by Cha-AersChapter 19

II. In general, sterns support leaves and conduct mate- SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
rials between them and roots.
Students should be able to AV MATERIALS
identify 3 principal functions of stems;
describe the function of lenticels;
How Hormones Regulate Plant Growth. Filmstrip.
Denoyer-Geppert Audio-visuals. Chicago, IL.
identify in diagrams or microscope slides pith cam-
Phloem. 16 mm, 22 min. The Media Guild, San Diego,
bium, xylem, phloem, fiber cells, and ray cells;
CA. Explores the relationship between form and func-
explain how water moves up in a plant;
tion in phloem tissue.
demonstrate the relationship between turgur and ri-
gidity in plant tissues. Flowers at Work. I v nthl, 16 min. 3rd ed. Encyclopaedia
Britannica Education Corp., Chicago, IL. Time-lapse
III. The environment of roots is usually quite difTerent presentation of the %%urld and de% clopment of Users.
from the environment of shoots, this is reflected in root Grail th of flux ens. 16 mm, 11 mm. 2nd ed. Curunet Films
functions. & Videos, Deerfield, IL. Time-lapse scenes illustrate
Students should be able to the unfolding and movement patterns for a variety of
name 3 principal functions of normal roots; garden flowers.
distinguish between fibrous -root' and taproot systems, Seed Dispersal. 16 mm, 15 min. Muudy Institute uf Sci-
identify ire Jiagrams or microscope slides epidermis, root ence, Whittier. CA. DoLumentary detailing a variety
cap, root hair, and cortex; of seed dispersal mechanisms among flowering plants.
name difTusion and active transport as 2 as in N, hiCh Seed Satter. 16 mm, 1 min. Chiral!! Films, Los An-
soil substances enter root hairs; geles, CA. Illustrates several flays in %%hid] plants dis-
give examples of 3 or more plant roots that people use perse seeds.
for food.

IV. Growth of multicellular plants results (I) from mi-

TEACHER'S REFERENCES
totic activity in special, persistently undifferentiated tissue
and (2) from enlargement of the newly formed cells under See also the Students' Suggested and Ti hr's Ref-
the influence of auxins. erences for chapter 19.
S. T. Clay-Poole and D. L. Slesnick, The Beauty and Biology
Students should be able to
of Pollen" 77w American Biology nacher (November 1983).
describe the formation of a young seedling from a seed; Scanning electron micrographs can be useful aids for instruc-
point out the location of the principal meristems on a tion and may be used in a number of v.ays.
plant or on a plant diagram; r. L. Martin, "Bryopktllum Pumatom. A Great Teaching Aid"
demonstrate the measurement of root growth. The American Ili log) Teat hcr (rebruary 1983). Dis,.usses
how easily this plant can be used to teach basic botanical
principles.
F. 13. Salisbury and C. W. Ross. 1985, Plant Physiology (13d-
TACTICS mom. Cal.: Wadsworth). Excellent tvlinieal resource.
The chapter assignments can be divided as follows: Sec-
tions 18.1-18.2, 18.3-18.6, 18.7-18.10, and 18.11-18.14,
each of the first three assignments to be followed by an
investigation.

CHAPTER 19 Now is a good time to back up your inventory of sup-

plies.
Check your materials for the investigations in chapter
21. It is possible to do investigation 21.2 with only one cat
skeleton and one human skeleton.
PLANNING AHEAD
If you plan to have a local ecologist visa the class during
chapter 20, call or write now to make the arrangements. GUIDELINES
Unless you already have a supply of scmilog graph
This chapter will help students understand how energy
paper for investigation 20.2, buy some nuw and duplicate
provides the force to organize and maintain life. The
enough for the class. If possible, order an aerial photo of
chapter explores the production of stored ri-,:mical-bor.d
your local area from the USGS, NASA, or other map
energy of food in photosynthesis and ILA, this energy is
source. This will add interest to investigation 25.1, though
released in living cells. In addition, plant growth is seen
it is not necessary for carrying out the activity.
to be a response to plant hormones, which are adaptations
for specific enviromnents.

67
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 19 T45

OBJECTIVES Invitation 20. Subject: Several Examples of Sequential

I. Photosynthesis is the remarkable process by which Analysis;
green plants are able to trap solar energy and store it in Topic: Serial Causation
energy-rich compounds. The present understanding of Invitation 27. Subject: Light Intensity and Photosyn-
photosynthesis has been achieved by the work of many thesis;
scientists of many nations. Topic: Linearity; Lirliting Factors
Students should be able to
discuss the role of chlorophyll in the photosynthetic AV MATERIALS
process; Photosynthesis. 16 mm, 2! min. Encyclopaedia 131,zan-
demonstrate a technique for separating plant pigments; nica, Chicago, IL. Laboratory demonstrations show
define an absorption spectrum of a plant pigment; how photosynthesis is studicd.
write the general chemical equation for the process of Absorption of Light by Chlorophyll. 16 mm, 4 min.
photosynthesis; Thorne Films, Boulder, CO.
diagram the reactions of the Calvin cycle; Plants. Problems With Water. 16 mm, 25 min. The Media
distinguish between an absorption spectrum and an ac- Guild, San Diego, CA. Discusses sonic of the expla-
tion spectrum; nations for the ability of plants to absorb and transport
--relate the rate of photos) nthcsis to emironmenial ef- water from the soil to the top leaves of both woody and
fects. herbaceous plants.
H. Some organisms always use, and most organisms Phototropism. (BSCS Classic Inquiry) Media Design
sometimes use, the process of anaerobic respiration. Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO. Students formulate hy-
Student should be able to potheses and interpret experimental results to answer
write the overall equation for fermentation; the question, Why do certain plants bend toward the
distinguish between the products of aerobic respiration light?
and the products of fermentation:
.relate an organism's use of aerobic or anaerobic res- SOFTWARE
piration to environmental conditions. Solar Food by Friedman. Stevens and Young
HI. hints have adaptations for growth in their specific Publisher: FIRM
environments. Description: A three-part program. Part i is a tutorial
Students should be able to explaining the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis.
describe the effects of various plant hormones on plant Part 11 is a demonstration of a molecular labeling exper-
parts; ;mem. Part III is a simulation which allows the user to
analy:e a nursery's problem with plant growth and pre- examine the effect:- of varied light intensity, CO2, and
scribe appropriate measures; water levels on sugar and ATP production in plants.
relate a tropism to photoperiodism and plant growth; Technical Data: Apple II. 48k. Copy protected.
describe a method for bringing a plant into bloom for
a certain holiday, using photoperiodism.
TEACHER'S REFERENCES
L. E. Anderson, A. R. Asliton, A. H. Mohamed, and R. Scheibe,
TACTICS "Light/Dark Modulat:on of Enzyme Activity in Phetosyn-
thesis" BioScience (February 1982). Technical disc scion of
There are many difficult topics in this chApter, and stu- eight modulated enzymes.
dents need to master eat..11 before moving ua to the next. \1 Chilton, "A Vector for Introducing N_%% Genes into rants"
It can be broken up into five short assignments: sections Sciendfic American (June 1983). Genetic modification of
crops may be advamcii by studying how a bacterium induces
19.1-19.2, 19.3-19.5.19.6-19.7, 19.8-19.10. and 19.1I- a plant tumor.
19.14. R. O. Erickson and W. K. Silk, "The Kinematics of Plant
Growth" Sciemific American (May 1980). Plant growth is
analyzed in terms of fluid flow.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS J. Foote. "Thin !Ayer Chromatograph) (TLC) of Chlorophyll
Pigments" The Amer'can Biology Teacher (April 1984).
Outlines the use of nruoidure to separate plant pigments.
INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY F. B. Salisbury and ..,s, 1985. Plant Physiology (Bel-
mont, Cal.: Wadswo 1" :client technical resource.
Thcsc materials are supplied in th Biology Teacher's G. L. Stcu and R. J.. .11 '.hotosynthesis I, An Assay Util-
Handbook (sec Supplementary Materials. chapter I), izinc Leaf Disks" 7. . uaa Biology Teacher (February
1985). The first of two . w-to-do-it" articles in this issue.
Invitation 19. Subject- Photosynthesis;
Topic: Serial Causation
....,,,
T46 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 20

CHAPTER 20 III. To explain the geographic range of any species, one

must consider its structure and physiology in relation to
the barriers across which it must have dispersed from its
area of origin.
Students should be able to
PLANNING AHEAD
cite 3 or more means of dispersal;
Survey your pictorial and projection materials for chapter relate these means of dispersal to effective barriers;
22. That chapter requires student experience with various describe the distribution of 3 or more spccics in terms
biomes, and, except for the biome in which you live, stu- of barriers to their dispersal.
dents can gain that xperience only vicariously, through IV. Within any region particular areas may be found that
still and motion pictures and through atIclio recordings. show communities in various states of successional devel-
Check your school and local 'libraries for additional ma- opment toward the climax community.
terials. Also, other schools in the area might be willing to Students should be able to
share their resources. Veterinarians are another good relate the idea of climax to succession and to their own
source of information. A lot of mathematics is involved in rcgion;
investigation 20.3. You may want to review statistical cal- describe characteristic successional communities in
culation procedures bcforc starting this activity. their own region.
V. Ecology is an integrative discipline, drawing together
GUIDELINES many of the sciences and making use of their techniques.
Students should be able to
Chppter 20 begins this book's concluding Section, which plan experiments to test hypotheses about changing
emphasizes .modcrn biomes that have been and are con- populations;
tinuing to be formed by evolution. Selective forces include interpret data about population size and structure.
an increasing number of human actions.
Whenever possible, refer back to earlier chapters on
topics such as genetics. Earlier chapters w needed to TACTICS
set the stage for the important ideas here, beAuse Section
Five not a set of isolated concepts, but the planned out- Investigation 20,1 can be set up be any reading is as-
come of this program. signed. If you do this, the results should be ready for study
when tolerances of crop plants are considered.
Sections 20.1-20.5 can be read bcforc investigation
OBJECTIVES 20.2. Introduce this investigation by discussing the idea
of a scientific model. Students can read sections 20.6-20.8
I. In any given region the naturally occurring organisms bcforc carrying out investigation 20.3, then conclude the
are those that can survive and successfully reproduce under topic by studying sections 20.9-20.11. Investigation 20.4
the environmental conditions prevailing there. can be used either to introduce the ideas in sections 20.12-
Students should be able to 20.14 or as a wrap-up activity.
relate the idea geographic range to the idea biota; While students are reading sections 20.15- 20.19, you
--describe maximum and minimum tolerances of a may wish to have an ecologist from a local college or uni-
number of familiar organisms to a variety of abiotic en- versity visit the classroom to demonstrate some sampling
vironmental factors; techniques (such as radiotelemetry) or to show some slides
explain ways in which environmental factors interact of ecologists at work in the field.
to set limits to geographic ranges;
construct hypotheses by which tolerances might be
tested. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL:3
II. fhe population concept from Section One is further
extended to include open and closed populations and to INVITATIONS TO ',ENQUIRY
emphasize changing populations. These materials are supplied in the Biology Teacher's
.;Zudents should be able to Handbook (see Supplementary Materials, chapter 1).
distinguish between closed and open populations;
recognize characteristic graphs as from closed or open Invitation 8 Subject. Predator-Prey, Natural Popula-
populations. tions;
Topic: "Second-Best" Data
invitation 9. Subject: Population Growth;
Topic: The Problem of Sampling

69
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 21 T47

AV MATERIALS Description: A simulation program allo%%s the user to

Worlds Apart. 16 mm, 55 min. Time-Life Video, New compare population growth models. The user selects
York. Covers the aspects of plant and animal island starting population size, doubling time and carrying ca-
biogeography and includes examples from the Islands pacity. The program generates growth curves, following
of Aldobla, Komodo, Hawaii, Easter Island, and New exponential or logistic growth models.
Zealand. Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected.
Ecological Modeling by Reiner, Glanz and Cornish
SOFTWARE Publisher: Conduit
Popgro by Lehman Description: A simulation program in which the user
Publisher: DEE adjusts growth rate, initial population size, carrying ca-
Description: A simulation program in which the user pacity, and lifespan of the simulation for a given popu-
chooses one of three models to simulate population growth:
lation. The program gel-crates a series of growth curves
unlimited growth, limited growth, and limited growth with with increasing restrictions: unlimited growth of a single
a lag phase. The user inputs initial population, growth rate species, growth with a specified environmental carrying
and limiting'factors truly. The program generates log and capacity, growth with random environmental impact, and
arithmetic plots of population growth. growth with competitive interaction between species.
Technical Data: Apple II Series, 48k; TRS-80 Models Technical Data: Apple 11, 48k. Not copy protected.
I, IILand IV; Commodore 64; IBM PC and IBM PC Jr.,
I 28k. Not copy protected. The IBM requires a color/
TEACHER'S REFERENCES
graphics interface.
R. M. May, "Parasitic Infections as Regulators of Animal Pop-
Mark and Recapture by Kramm and Spain ulations" American Scientist (January/ February 1983). 11u-
Publisher: Conduit mans are included in this discussion as well.
Description: A simulation program allows the user to D. A. Russell, The Mass Extinaiuns of the Late Niesur.kni."
choose one of three models for estimating population size: Scientific American (January 1982) The fall of an asteroid
might have been the cause for the sudden extinction of many
Lincoln-Peterson, Schnabel, and Schumacher-Eschmeyer
plants and animals about 63 million years ago.
models. The user removes, marks, and returns sample an- M. E. Tashiro, "A Natura. Selection Game" The American Bi-
imals to a population, then determines population size by ()lug) Teacher (January 1984). This ac.tnity maul-Les the
counting the ratio of marked to unmarked animals. coneer if natural seleLtion by simulating selei.ti,,n pressures
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected. on a hominid group.
R. A. Wallace, J. L. King. and G. P. Sanders. 1984, Biosp-'-ere:
Population Growth by Soldan and Spain The Realm of Life (Dallas. Tex.. Stott oresman). Includes
Publisher: Conduit chapters on populations, changes in populations, and the
human population.

CHAPTER 21 GUIDELINES
You may want to supplement this chapter with photos of
fossils and museum displays of anemia organisms. Better
yet, if your school is near good fossil-bearing strata, plan
PLANNING AHEAD a field tripperhaps a Saturday expedition of volunteers.
Regardless of your school's location, have a collection of
Continue to assemble as many biome pictures as possible fossils in your laboratory. Donations from a fossil collector
for use in chapter 22 National Geographic and Natural usually can be arranged. In your journeys, be alert to op-
1-11.4ory are good sources. portunities for acquiring specimens. You also can order
If you have no pH meters for investigation 23.4, ar- fossils from biologizal supply companies. Most cities have
range to borrow son- z. a museum with fossils and o;: -lays of paleoccosystems of
You may want to make arrangements to visit a zoo your area. Plan to visit it.
sometime during chz lter 22. Zoo personnel are usually The illustrations in the textbook include restorations
very cooperative when asked to give "behind the scenes" and fossils. The former have their use, hut, in general, the
tours of animal life. more vivid the portrayal of a scene from the geological
past, the further the artist probably has departed from the
strict fossil evidence. Attempt to distinguish between facts
about fossils and interprcl is of such facts.

70
T48 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 21

Refer students frequently to Section Three and "A understand the chronological order indicated in the
Catalog of Living Things," appendix 3. Extinct groups of fossil record for the origin of bacteria trilobites, fishes,
organisms are not covered there, but the task of fitting amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.
extinct groups among modern organisms is instructive.
Most of the groups on the higher levels of classification From their work paleontologists have developed a
III.

have long histories, so that mention of them recurs in number of principles that provide a framework for u-
derstanding the past.
chapter 21. Referring to Section Three also will giv you
Students should be able to
an opportunity to show how the arrangement of taxon-
state the principle that knowledge of present organisms
omic groups reflects the efforts of taxonomists to portray
and environments is the basis for interpretation of the
phylogenya matter discussed in chapter 10. Chapter 21
past;
is an exhibit of one major sector of the evidence that un-
dergirds the theory of evolution.
demonstrate a method for uncovering trends in an an-
atomical characteristic through time;
"Human beings are animals" is a simple statement of
discuss the difference between evolution and extinc-
biological fact that might summarize the end of the
tion,
chapter. Obviously humans may well he much more than
this; the statement does not preclude other viewpoints.
describe an example of adaptive radiation;
Science is not the whole of human experience (see BSCS describe adaptive convergence in 2 organisms;
Goal 2, p. Tii). Students are not likely to recognize this explain how knowledge of past distribution of organ-
isms is used to understand present discontinuous dis-
limitation unless their science textbooks do so. Therefore,
tributions.
"The Emergence of Humans" is confined to matters that
are biological sensu strict°, chapters 24 and 25 ts ot erlap IV. Anatomically, human: shots the characteristics of
considerably more with social studies. primate mammals and possess characteristics that so
If there is such a thing as "pure" science, the search closely agree with those of the other hominids that clear-
for human fossils is certainly such. This .s one form of Cut structural distinctions are difficult to fino.
science that captures the interest of almost everyone; the Students should Le able to
best indi,:ation is the space that nets spapers are %tilling to ;lank mammalian characteristics that occur in hu-
devote to the subject. Discussions of human fossils are al- mans;
most alt% ays lively. Be alert for and discuss any recent identib in a skeleton characteristics as.ociated with
human fossil discoveries. human upright posture;
describe at least 3 externally observable characteristics
that differentiate modern humans from modern pon-
OBJECTIVES gids.
I. Fossils are tangible el idence for the existence of or- V. Though their efforts to elucidate the pongid-hominid
ganisms in the past. From this et idence paleontologists dichotomy hate proceeded very slowly, paleoanthropolo-
have been able to piece togeth, r a sketchy history of eco- gists have uncovered during the past J e% cral decades much
systems on the earth. evidenceboth fossil and artifactualconcerning devel-
Students should be able to opment of hominids.
name at least 3 forms in which fossils may occur; Students should be able to
describe ways in which fossilization occurs; relate hominid evolutional-) events to the geological time
explain briefly how geologists date fossil-bearing rocks; scale;
construct a diagram of the geological eras; rder chronologically the hominid to xa discussed in the
discuss ways in which scientists' ideas about the past text;
may change as their work continues. describe the et idence on t% hich present understanding
II. The fossil record indicates that throughout the bio- of hominid evolution rests.
logical history of the earth, as environments changed, once VI. All living hominids constitute a single species, but an-
abendant kinds of organisms became extinc and nets kinds thropologists hat made attempt!: to distinguish and name
arzared. This resulted in succession of ecosystems populations on the basis of various biological character-
through ecological time. istics.
Students should be able to Students should be able to
name 2 or more major groups of organism. character- name at least 5 characteristics that have been used in
istic of Cambrian, Carboniferous, Triassic, and Pleis- distinguishing human varieties,
tocene times; describe the principal characteristics of the 5 geo-
o-
explain how the biota of a paleoecosystem indicates the graphically based human varieties,
graphically
environmental condition in the ecosystem; explain, using blood characteristics, the genetic con-
cept of human relationships.

71
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 21 T49

TACTICS Australian Marsupials. (V DC: BSCS Classic Inquiry.

A visit to a natural history museum. especially one having 1986) Media Design Associates, Inc.. Boulder. CO.
exhibits about paleontological methods, would be an ex- Students investigate the explanations for the uneven
cellent addition to this chapter. Whether or not that is distribution of marsupials throughout the world, and
possible, be sure to emphasize the careful work that goes why there are more marsupials in Australia than any-
into the study of fossils. Students should understand that where else.
the paleoecosystems described here are not flights of ar- Fossils. Filmstrips. Encyclopaedia Britannica Educa-
tistic fancy, but the results of scientific methods. tions' ("orp., Chicago. IL. Filmstrip.. with tape cas-
, Investigation 21.1 may be carried out at any time while settes. Contents: "How Fossils Arc FormeC* "Col-
students read sections 21.1-21.12, and the reading as- lecting and Interpreting Fossils." "Fossils and the
signments can be broken up as indicated by the self- Relative Ages of Rocks." "Fossils and Prehistoric En-
review questions. vironments:* "Fossils and Organic Change." One of the
Investigation 21.2 can be used to introduce sections best audiovisual treatments of this subject available.
21.16,21.18, though students will not understand sonic Story in the Rocks. 16 mm, 17 min. Shell Oil Co.,
references yet. It is a fairly simple discovery activity that Houston. TX. Deals with the more glamorous activities
will challenge students more before thcy read The Emer- of paleontologists, emphasizing their skill in inter-
gence of/Humans" thz..1 afterward. preting bits and pieces of evidence.
Investigation 21.3 can follow the reading of sections Dr. Leakey and the Dawn of Man and Search for Fossil
21.13-21.15. After sections 21.16-21.18 arc read, the dif- Man. 16 mm. National Geographic Society. Wash-
ficult investigation 21.4 provides an important link be- ington. DC. Discusses how anthropologists contribute
tween human genetics and evolution. to an understanding of early hoi. .nids.

SOFTWARE
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Dating and Geologic Time by Jersey Cow Software
Publisher: D. C. Heath
AV MATERIALS Description: A simulation program in which the user
The Beginnings. 16 mm. Animal Secret Films, New York. must discover the age of 20 geologic samples by per-
r)iscusses the possible beginnings of life. forming a variety of tests including: radiologic and min-
The Fossil Story. 16 rim. 19 min. Shell Oil Co.. Houston, eral testing, site examination, magnification, and fossil
TX. The practical importance of paleontology in ex- comparison.
ploring for oil. Technical Data: Apple II. 64k. Copy protected.
Host, Did Life Begin? 16 mm, 20 min. National Aeronau-
tics and Space Administration. Washington, DC. Dr.
Sidney Fox discusses the evolutionary relationships of TEACHER'S REFERENCES
various protein molecules, and traces his synthesis of E. Buffctant and R. Ingabai. "flu. Nksuzuu. Vatcbratcs of
artificial protein. Thailand" Scientific American (August .985). Well-
illustrated discussion of the 100 million year fossil record. and
Fossils: Clues to the Past. 16 mm, 23 min. National Geo-
how it helps clarify the geologic history of the region.
graphic Society Educational Services, Washington. DC. Scientific American (September 1983). This issue. entitled "The
Emphasizes field and laboratory aspect, of vertebrate namik. Earth.- includes su..h topit, as wniancntal drift. the
paleontology. atmosphere. and the biosphere.
Celestial Earth. 16 mm, 10 min. Barr Films, Pasadena, G G. Simpson. 1983. Fossils and tlu Ilistoo of Lrfc (\o% York.
W. II. Freeman). This Scientific American book is filled with
CA. Depicts the earth's geologic and natural history at
excellent illustrations and many diverse topics relating to pa-
the ratc of 600 million ycars per minute. leontology and evolution.
64,000,000 Years Ago. 16 mm, II min. Barr Films, Pas- S. M. Stanley. "Mass Extinctions in the (Xcans- Scientylc
adena, CA. An acti packed film about the end of the Amer:Lan ;June 1984). I ru. estigat.s .hcil.r a .uuling of the
Cretaceous period. sea might have been responsible for the periodic mass ex-
tinctions of the past.
F. VanNoten, D. Callen. and L. Keeley -A Paleolithic Campsite
in Belgium- Scientific American (April 1980). !Italian ac-
tivities recreated from EA tools.
 T50 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 22

CHAPTER 22 the principal-climatic characteristics of that

describe
biome and the biologics characteristics associated with
the climatic ones;
describe the relationship of biome structure to latitude
when moisture is adequate;
PLANNING AHEAD discuss the relationship of precipitation to evaporation
Chapter 23 requires as many pictorial supplements as in desert and forest biomes;
_chapter 22 does. Plan bulletin boards about standing and --recogni:e the major biomes ss hen characterized in cli-
flowing inland waters and marine ecosystems. Some en- matograms;
thusiastic students may want to help with this project. If -construct climatograms, given dta of monthly precip-
you are' unfamiliar with the technique for determining itation and temperature.
dissolved oxygen (investigation 23.1), make the solutions II. Humans ,tre increasingly important in determining
and practice it. Kits are available from biological supply the characteristics of landscapes.
!times to test oxygen in water. Order or collect organisms Students should be able to
for investigation 23.3. name organisms that owe their present distributions to
humans' intentional and unintentional actions;
describe 3 or more examples of how humans have al-
GUIDELINES tered natural biomes;
Emphasize the biome in which your school is located. To explain the effects of humans on ecosystems in terms
broaden student views of the world, however, use audio- of succession;
visuals to acquaint them with other biomes. The more explain the effects of fire on succession in at least 1

r:carly your students understand their local biome. the community.

-clearer will be their understanding of others.
Arrange for a half- or full-day trip that will provide a
display of the salient characteristics of the biome. If late- TACTICS
winter weather is prohibitive, the trip can be postponed, If your students have poor ba,kgrounds in earth science.
but this should be necessary only in the northern states. you ss ill need to impend some time demonstrating the ideas
A biome is a biotic expression of a climate. Therefore, in section 22.1 with a globe. The rest of the chapter falls
students must have some knowledge of (1) the atmo- naturally into four reading assignments: sections 22.2-
spheric factors thatwhen statistically summarized and 22.14-1).17.
constitute climate and (2) the astronomical and geophys- Investigation 22.1 will be more understandable after
ical phenomena tha' determine the distribution of cli- the descriptions of the biomes have been considered. In-
mates. As in the case of distant biota, an understanding vestigation 22.2 can be carried out at any time. Perhaps
of distant climates is best developed against a background some of your students would like to do this inve ttion
of familiarity With the local climate. independently. Investigations 22.3 and 22.4 focus atten-
An excellent source of information about distant biomes tion on your own biome.
and climates often is overlooked. Some of your students Most museums have displays of local communities.
have lived in other biomes. Such students often have pho- Zoos and botanical gardens arc good places to see plants
tographs and arc eager to talk about their former sur- and animals from all over the world all year long. If a trip
roundings. to observe characteristics of your biome is not feasible.
The chapter 2 i concept of humans as selective agents portray it with a good selection of color slides. You may
is continued here. Do not dwell on the changes made in have to take the photographs yourself. They will be of real
your local ecosystem by humans; that will be taken up value only if they are genuine local scenes, recognizable
again in chapters 24 and 25. to at least some of your .students. Even if you have been
able to take a field trip. such pictures are useful for recall
and for extending the experience. especially to the many
OBJECTIVES kinds of successional communities that no single trip can
I. Over large areas of the earth, terrestrial organisms cover adequately.
form characteristic landscape patternsbionics -which Another tactic for bringing the outdoors into the class-
are linked to large-scale c'unates. room is the use of aerial photographs. Obtain these from
Students should be able RJ agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Geological
name the biome in which they live; Survey, Soi' Conservation Service, and NASA.

73
Teaching Strategiesby ChaptersChapter 22 T51

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS The Boreal Forest. 16 mm, 19 min. International Film

Bureau, Chicago, IL. Community structure based on
AV MATERIALS analysis of vegetation.
The Baking Deserts. 16 mm, 55 min. (Marty Stouffer
Tbe Prairie 16 mm, IS min. International Film Bureau,
Film) Time-Life Video, New York. Describes the ef- Chicago, IL. Community structure of the mid-latitude
fects of man's presence on canyon topography and ad- grasslands of North America, with special reference to
aptations of animals to the topography. the short-grass plains.
Seashore Ecology. 16 mm, 16 min. Lucerne Films. Inc.,
Populations and Ecosystems. Slides. Crystal Produc-
Morris Plains, NJ. Records the existence of common tions, Aspen, CO. This sequence includes 5 topics:
animals from boreal North Atlantic areas. "Variety Among Living Things," "Population Inter-
The Living Mosaic: The Tamil hpan Biotic Province. 16 actions," "The Dynamics of Populations," "The Con-
mm, 27 min. Adams & Adams Films, Austin, TX. cept of Ecosystem." "The Finite Earth: Space for Life."
Year of the Wildebeeste. 16 mm, 55 min. Benchmark
The Indiana Dunes. 16 mm, 14 min. International Film
Bureau, Chicago, IL. Films, Briarcliff Manor, NY. This award-winning films
Arctic Oasis. 16 mm, 16 min. Beacon Films. Norwood, links many biological concepts.
MA. Examines the diversity of life in the rare parts of
SOFTWARE
the Arctic where life is abundant.
-Hawaii.- Crucible of Life. 16 mm. 57 min. Time-Life Biomes by Boeschen
Video, New York. Highlights the 200 species unique to Publisher: D. C. Heath
the islands. Description: A game-format simulation in which the
"Walter Cronkite's Lint crse'l Disappearance of the Great user controls atmospheric conditions and the movement
Rain Forest. 16 mm, 12 min. Arthur Mokin Produc- of continents on the imaginary planet Triakis. The goal of
tions, Inc., Santa Rosa, CA. TL_ subject of this film is the game is to make Triakis habitable by recreating Earth's
the Amazon Basin rainforest in Brazil, which is being six isiomes.
cut or converted to other uses at an alarming rate. technical Data. Apple II, 64k. Copy protected.
The Northern Forests. 16 mm, 55 min. Time-Life Video,
New York. Features adaptive environments as well as
the predator/prey' balance. TEACHER'S REFERENCES
The Desert and the Waterhole. 16 mm, 28 min. Film-
M. Batten, "The Ant and the Acacia" Science 84 (April 1984).
makers Library, Inc., New York. Shows the impor- Explores the possibility of cocvolution of certain plants and
tance of both temporary and semipermanent waterholes animals in the tropics.
in desert ecology. N. F. Hadley and S. R. Szarek. "Productivity of Desert Ecosys-
Mountain TreesAn Ecological Study. (BSCS Single tems" Bic Science (November 1981). A rather technical look
at one effect of desertification.
'topic Inquiry 1987) Media Design Associates. Inc.,
T. T. Kozlowski. "Impacts of Air Pollution on Forest Ecosys-
Boulder, CO. Students are asked to suggest factors that tems" BioScience (February 1980). Stability and produc-
may in9uence tree form and distribution in a high tivity of various forest ecosystems have been seriously
mountain environment. threatened by air pollution.
Prairies and Deciduous Forests. (BSCS Single Topic In- E J Nebel. 1980. Environ.4emal Silence. The Wot the World
quiry 1986) Media Design Associates, Inc., Boulder, Works (Englewood Cliffs. N. J.: Prentice Hall). An eco-
system approach to the study. understanding, and solution of
CO. Students assess climatic and geographic factors, environmental problems.
and how these factors affect plant form and distribu- D. R. Perry, "The Canopy of the Tropical Rain Forest"' Sewn-
tion. lit.c American (November 1984). Once inaccessible, this
Life in a Woodlut. 16 mm, 17 nun. National Film Board aerial habitat h .s been opened to exploration b} the author's
invention.
of Canada, New York, NY. Shows the factors that af-
P. 11. Raven. "Tropical Rain Forests: A Global Responsibility"
fect the dynamic balance of populations in a woodlot 'Natural History (February 1981). Discusses the conse-
community through the cycle of seasons. quences of the disappearance of the world's ram forests.
Plant-Animal Communities. Phi ,ical Em irumnc 'it s. 16 R L. Smith, 1980, Lulagi and Field Biology 3rd ed. (New
mm, 11 min. Coronet Instructional Films. Chicago, IL. York harper and Row). Basic introduction to ecology. Also
Useful for picking up the stresses function and structure of communities and ecosys-
Ad of ecological thought tems.
at the beginning of chapter 22.
High Arctic: Life on the Land. 16 mr. 23 min. Elevclo-
paedia Britannica Educational Cot ;,., Chicago, IL. On
location in the tundraQleen Elizabeth Islands,
Canada.
AIMIUMNIMIIMOIMM.

74
 T52 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 23

!I. The human species has influenced inland-water eco-

CHAPTER 443 systems almost as much as it has influenced ten zstrial

ones.
Students should be able to
deccribe at least 3 major ways in which human activity
PLANNING AHEAD has physically changed inland-water ecosystems:
You will need water from various sources in the environ- eYplain the changing effects of sewage inflow along a
ment for investigation 23.4. Students can collect and store length of river:
the water ahead of time. You will want to arrange fur this analyze news articles about acid rain and other sources
by discussing potential sources of samples and explaining of water pollution.
to students in advance what sorts of containers are ap- III. Only within the past century has some understanding
propriate. of ocean ecosystems developed.
Studcnts should be el,:e to
name devices tha_ have helped to increase knowledge
UUIDELINES of oceans:
Chapter 23 should come at a season that is convenient for deccribe some findings that hav e resulted from the use
fieldwork, and where standing water is available even in of these devices;
areas having a dry season in the summer. A 1,.id trip can evaluate arguments abuut support for occanograp!.y.
focus the students' attention once again on individual or-
ganisms and their adaptations. on specks populations, and
on the interaction of both with the environment. A study TACTICS
of human involvcinent with aquatic ecosystems continues If you use Chapter 23 at a time of the year that is favor-
the program's emphasis on human ecology and serves as able for outdoor activity in your locality, begin with a field
a bridge to chapter 24. trip to a pond or stream. Some suggestions for a pond study
There is little additional technical vocabulary in arc given in the Teacher's Resource Book.
Chapter 23. The discussion and the attendant inquiry- The number of new terms is small and the density of
stimulating questions and problems revolve primarily ideas is rather low. Therefore only three divisions are sug-
around the special (from our terrestrial viewpoint) envi- gested for this chapter: sections 23.1-23.8. sections 23.9-
ronmental factors of aquatic ecosystems and adaptational 23.14, and sections 23.15-23.18.
responses of organisms. One general ecological concept is
developed: biomass.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

OBJECTIVES AV MATERIALS
I. Aquatic ecosystems encompass almost 757 of the Seabirds. 16 mm. I7 min. Beacon Films. Norwood, MA.
total biosphere. They arc characterized by such factors as Presents the seabirds of the North Atlantic.
depth. translucency. currents, pressures, and the chem- Life on Seashores. 16 mm, 23 min. The Media Guild. San
istry of dissolved and suspended substances. Diego. CA. A botanist and zoologist demonstrate the
Students should be able to most common intertidal plants and animals that live on
distinguish between inland and ocean waters; a rocky shore and a sandy shore.
name at least 5 major kinds of aquatic ecosystems: Fascinating Fishes. 16 mm. 26 min. Marty Stouffer Pro-
describe character..aic abiotic factors in the ecosystems ductions. Ltd.. Aspen. CO. About freshwater fishes
named; how they feed and reproduce.
name a num bcr of organisms characteristic of the eco- City of Coral. 57 min. Time-Life Video. New York. Il-
systems named: lustrates the fundamental ccologi,a1 principles of bi-
demonstrate a method for estimatine the dissolved ological systems.
oxygen content of water in parts per million: The Invisible Reef 16 mm, 28 min. Filmmakers Library,
relate salinity to the survival of sclectei: crganisms: Inc.. New York. Photomicrography. reef scenes, and
explain how measurements of biomass ir, an ecosystem aquarium settings are combined to show the diversity,
are dependent on prods livity. complexity, and interrelationships of reef life.
Sweet Fresh Water. 16 mm, 55 min. Time-Life Video,
Time-Life Bldg.. New York. Describes the various parts
of a river's life.

75
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 23 T53

The Microscopic Pond. Filmstrip. Educational Images, Description.. simulation program in Mud' the user
Lyons Falls, NY. The set introduces students to nu- adjusts water temperature, ty pe of wa,te, method of w aste
merous representatives of the three kingdoms Monera, treatment, dumping rate, and other %,,iriables for a gi% en
,Protista and Metazoa and gives examples of the sorts body of water. The program reports oxygen and waste
of-adaptations that have made these species tolerant to levels in graphic and tabular form. Similar to Pullitte.
their-freshwater habitats. Technical Data: Apple II, 48k, TRS-80 Models I. Ill
Predation and Protection in the Ocean. (VDC: BSCS and iV. Copy protected.
Classic Inquiry 1986) Media Design Associates, Inc.,
Pollute by Luncford, Rivers, Vockell
Boulder, CO. Students investigate the ways in which
Publisher: DEE
marine animals can avoid being eaten.
Life in the Intertidal Region. (V DC, 1986) Media Design Description: A simulation program in which the user
selects type of waste, dumping rate, method of waste
Associates, Inc.. Boulder, CO. This film looks at the
ways organisms have adapted to this environment of
treatment, and water temperature for a given body of
water. The computer displays waste and oxygen levels in
changing salinity, temperature, and water supply.
The Intertidal Region. (VDC 1986) Media Design As- tabular and graphic form. Similar to Water Pollution.
sociates, Inc., Boulder, CO. Certain plants and animals
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k: Commodore 64; TRS-
80 Model III; IBM PC, I 28k. Not copy protected.
survive only within limited areas of the intertidal re-
gion. Students examine the factors that determine the
life zones of intertidal organisms.
TEACHER'S REFERENCES
The Everglades Region: An Ecological Slay. 16 mm, 24
min. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Examines rela- J R Beddingtcn and R. M. Ma). ''The Hanesting of Inter-
tionships of biotic and abiotic factors in the Ever- acting Species in a Natural Ecos)stem" Sc ient Anterit:an
(November 1982). Examines the intricate relations among
glades. species in an ecosystem: in t1 case, whales. krill, and other
Life in the Ocean. 16 mm, 13 min. Film Associates of Cal- organisms.
iLrnia, Los Angeles. Includes beautiful photography W. S. Br JeList..r. "The ()Lean" .inkritini (September
of sea animals that most students are not likely to see 1983) 1nalyzes the past and present chemistry of the ut..e.m.
otherwise. R. Bybee, "Acid Rain: What's the ForeeastT The Science
Teach (March 1984). General discussion of this increas-
The Coral Reef Filmstrip. Life Filmstrips, New York. ingly important environmental problem.
Contains a good collection of photographs from an in- J. M. Edmund and K. \ion Wimp. "Hot Springs on the Ocean
teresting marine ecosystem. Floor" Scientific AnteriLan (April 1983). Comprehensive,
Oceanography: Understanding Our Deep Frontier. Film- rather technical treatment.
11. W Jannasch and M. J Mottl, "Geomicrobiolog) of Deep-
strips. Prepared under the auspices of the Committee
Sea Hydrothermal Vents" Science (23 August 1985). Tech-
on Oceanography. National Academy of Sciences. En- nical discussion of vent communities.
cyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corp., Chicago, IL. D. W. Schindler, K. H. Mills, et al.. "Loag-Term ELos;stem
Filmstrips (averaging 70 frames each) and 5 phono- Stress. The Effects of Years of Experimental ,1LidifiLation un
discs (12 in, 33 rpm). This set contains the following a Small Lake" SLien(c (21 June 1985) Presents results o,
titles: "Physica. Oceanography," "Geological Ocean- an eight -year study of a lake that was subjected to gradual!)
increased acidity.
ography," "Cheini,-11 Oceanography," "Biologics I
The American Biology leacher (April/May 1983). The focus
Oceanography," "Marine Resources," "Air-Sea Inter- of this issue is acid rain.
action," "Ocean Engineering," "Careers in Oceanog-
raphy," "An Im oduction to Oceanography."
Ecology of an African River. 16 mm, 18 min. ACI Media,
1
New York. An examination of an unspoiled river eco- Investigation 23.1 (alternate)
system with animals in and around the river. DISSOLVED OXYGEN
World in a Marsh. lo mm, 22 min. National Film Board
of Canath, New York, NY. Ecological relationships in Materials (for each sample)
a marsh. The organisms are chiefly those of eastern 1 ml manganese sulfate solution
North America. 1 ml alkali-iodide-azide solution
The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau. 16 mm, 20- 1 ml concentrated sulfuric acid
1 ml starch solution
60 min. Walt Disney Educational Media Co., '3urbank,
10 ml sodium thiosulfate solution
CA. Both long and short versions on several topics are
flask, 250 ml
available.
solid stopper to fit flask
graduated pipet, 5 ml
SOFTWARE

Water Pollution by Harmon

Publisher: EME
76
V
T54- Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 24

A student assistant trained to use a balance cart weigh the 6 2 Using a pipette, add 1 ml manganese sulfate solution to
chemicals needed for the 4 solutions It may be conveniel it to tht,,,arriple Wash the pipette thoroughly with running water Use
prepare several packages of the dry-weighed chemicals before It to add 1 ml alkali iodide-a4ide solution to the sample,
they are to be used, ,dark four 250-m1 flasks at the 100 ml CAUTION. frianui'e th,s .olutioi. with ,;are !hash immediately with
Boil 800 ml distilled water to drive off dissolved oxygen Make ronoing water it you come ,ontad with it Stopper the flask
the following solutions no more than 24 hours before use Store and mix its contents by slowly inverting it. The ..ntants should
in stoppered bottles. These quantities of reagents should be become cloudy.
enough to run about 100 tests. 3 Have your teacher add 1 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid
Manganese sulfate solution. Add 48 g MnSC4 to 95 ml H2O to the flask Handle with care Mix siowlv as before. The flask
in a 250-m1 flask. Fill to 100 ml. Agitate intermittently until contents should clear to a straw color
clearness indicates thorough solution. 4 Wash your pipette Add 1 ml of starch solution to the
Alkali-iodide-azide solution. (a) Add 50 g NaOH and 15 g fla-k. The contents should become blue-black
KI to 50 ml water and fill to 100 ml (b) Dissolve 1 g sodium 5 Wash your pipette and fill it with 10 ml of sodium
azide (NaN3) in 4 ml water and add to the NaOH KI solution thiosulfate solution. Slowly add this solution drop by drop to the
Starch solution. Boil 0 5 g starch in 100 ml water gently until flask Swirl the contents as you do this
it dissolves thoroughly Cool and use clear supernatant If Iodide 6 Continue until the blue-black Goo' ot the flask contents
solution fails to turn a test ,,ample blue-black, the stark-h is not disappears Record the volume ot sodium thiusultate solution
completely dissolved. that you used
Sodium thiosulfate solution. Arid 1 4 g Na2S20, 5 H2O to 7 Each ml of sodium thicisulfate solution used in the final
285 ml H20. Fill to 300 ml, step indicates 1 ppm dissolved oxygen in the water sample.
8 Compare your results with those of your classmates.
Procedure
1. In a 250-m1 flask collect a 125-m1 sample of the water to
be tested, Stopper the flask Try not to shake the flask too
much. Carry out the testing procedure as soon as possible after
you collect the se 1ple.

OBJECTIVES

CHAPTER 24 I. Like other animals, humans at first had little per-

manent effect on ecosystems. Then they began using fire
and making tools. Those capabilities, combined with the
PLANNING AHEAD increasing size of the human population, led to human
domination of the biosphere.
You may want to look for aerial photos in addition to what Students should be able to
is provided for investigation 25.1. Reference librarians are compare social behaviors in various primate groups, in-
a good source of information about where to find these. cluding humans;
Another thing you might want t consider is to begin analyze history textbooks for ecological information;
planning ahead for next year's supplies. Th's will avoid describe ecological relationships of primitive humans;
the last minute rusl-. It is helpful to take inventory of state 2 or more ecological consequences of the Agri-
equipment, solutions, slide materials, etc., and order as cultural Revolution;
soon as possible. explain the effects of developing technology on the ex-
tension of the ecosystems of which human populations
were a part.
GUIDELINES
II. The urbanization of human populations has had many
Though the book has em:,hasized the human ecosystem advantages for humans, but has also had deleterious ef-
throughout the year, the last two chapters focus on it. In fects on the environment.
chapter 24 the history of humankind is considered, along Students should be able to
with our species' increasing impact on the biosphere. construct a local food web based on readings in natural
By this time you should have accumulated materials to history;
begin investigation 24.1. Use the investigation to create evaluate arguments for and ,,gainst additions te, the built
interest in the special qualities of your local ecosystem, environment;
then link the local examples to the broad concepts in this identify plants and animals in their local environment
chapter. as being native or introduced.

77
 Teaching Strategies by Chapters-Chapter 24 T55

III. The continuing degradation of the environment is not J. H. RAISC, "Food Seieme and Nutrition. The Gulf between
inevitable Population size and other elements can be con- Rich and Poor" .5, joke (18 June 1982). Contrasts the ways
trolled in order to reduce their damage to the biosphere. modern food science has influent.ed suLiety in do, duped and
Students should be able to developing countries.
G. T. Miller, 1982, Living in the Environment (Belmont, Cal.:
-arta lyze newspaper data about population, transporta- Wadsworth). Very readable book that deals with every topic
tion, and pollution, and project future scenarios; that is a part of this chapter.
-relate the disappearance of a local endangered species Scientifit. Amer:Lim (September 1974). The entire issue deals
to the impact of humans. with various aspects of a growing human population.
L . Tanglcy, "Agricultural Biotechnology: Who's Holding the
Reins?" BioScience (November 1986). This article addresses
the concern that large corporations are taking over these
TACTICS powerful new technologies.
L Tanglcy, "Biotechnology on the Farm" BioScience (October
Chapter 24 provides an opportunity to link biology to so-
1986). Discusses the ways farmers are entering a new era of
cial studies-Some students may want to investigate eco- sophisticated technology.
logical issues in U.S. or world history as a special project.
The chapter can be read quickly, in three assignments:
Sections 24.1-24.3, 24.4-24.8, and 24.9-24.11. Investi-
gation 24.2 gives students an opportunity to evaluate their Imr.Istigation 24.1
local water sources. It can be performed at any time during YOUR ECOSYSTEM
the second reading assignment. State References
AL 2, 4. 46, 52-4. 60. 65. 69. 90, 91. 96
AK 7, 15, 22. 52-54. 60. 65. 69. 90, 91, 96
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
AZ 1, 2. 4. 11. 21, 29 52-54, 60 65, 69, 71, 73, 76. 90.91 99
AV MATERIALS AR 2. 4. 52-54. 60, 65, 69. 90. 91.94, 96
New World. 16 mm, 55 min. Time-Life Video, New York. CA 1, 2, 4. 7, 13, 31. 37, 39, 40, i, 52-54, 55, b9 60, 62. 65, b9.
Vacant Lot. 16 mm, 21 min. International Film Bureau, 73, 79, 81, 85 88-93, 95-99
Chicago, IL. Good illustration of a small ecosystem in CO 2, 4. 7. 17...). 52-54. 60, 65, 69, 77. 83, 86 9u. 91
a city. CT 2, 4, 8, 9, 14, 35, 46, 51-54, 57, 60 61, 65. 69, 85, 90, 91, 94,
96
SOFTWARE
DE 2, 4. 9, 14. 44. 46. 52-54 65. 69, 90, 91, 94, 96
Air Pollution by Chandler FL 2, 4 7, 18, 19, 23, 25, 27, 45 52-54. 56-57. 60, 63-65. 68 72,
Publisher: EME 90, 91, 95. 99
Description: A simulation in which the user selects wind GA 2. 4. 9. 51-54. 60. 61. 65, 69, 90, 91
speed, number of vehicles on the road, emission rate, and
HI 52-54, 60, 66, 69, 70 75, 90, 91
average traffic speed for a hypothetical city. The com-
puter displays resultant carbon monoxide levels in tabular ID 2, 4, 52-54, 60 65 69 90, 91
or graphic form. IL 2, 6, 8, 9, 21, 31. 52- 54.60, 65. 69, 73, 84 90 91, 94, 96
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; 'CRS-80 Models I, III IN 2. 4. 9. 52-54. 60. 65. 69. 90, 91, 94, 96
and IV. Copy protected.
IA 2, 4. 30, 52-54, 60, 65, 69, 90. 91, 96
Oh Deer by MECC
KS 2. 4, 52-54, 60, 65. 69, 90. 91
Publisher: MECC
Description: A deer mana ment simulation in game KY 2 4, 52-54, 60, 65, 69, 90-92, 94, 96
format. The user has five years to control an expanding LA 2, 4. 16. 52-54, 60, 65, 69, 90. 91
deer herd using management techniques described in the ME 2, 4, 9, 14. 28, 46. 51-54, 60, 61. 65, 69, 85, 90, 91, 96. 99
program.
MD 2 4, 8, 9, 14, 44, 46, 51-54, 57, 60, 61, 65, 69, 90 91. 94 96
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
MA 2, 4, 9, 14. 46, 51-54, 57, 60. 61, 65, 69. 85, 90, 91, 94, 96
MI 2, 4, 9, 52-54, 60. 65. 69, 90, 91, 94, 96
TEACHER'S REFERENCES
MN 2, 4, 9. 52-54, 60, 65, 69, 85, 90, 91, 94. 96
M. J. Dover and B. A. Croft, "Pesticide Resistance and Public
MS 2, 4, 34, 52-54, 60, 65, 69, 90, 91
Policy" BioScience (February 1986). This is one of two ar-
ticles in this issue dealing with pesticide use. MO 2. 4, 31, 52-54, 60.65, 69, 73, 90, 91, 94, 96

rM
t
tt
T56 Teaching Strategies by Chapters-Chapter 24

State References 12 Pyne, S a "Burning Fires Natural History 92 (1983) 6

13 Mellichamp, T L "Cobras of the FaL4ic Northwest Natural
MT 2, 4, 17. 24, 52-54, 60, 65, 69, 83, 84 90, 91 History 92 (1983) 47
14 Wficove, D , and H F Whitcomb Gone Are .ne Trees.
NE 2, 4, 17, 52-54. 60, 65, 69, 90. 91 Natural History 92 (1983) 82
15 Underwood, L S 'Outfoxing the Arctic Cold Natural History 92
NV 1, 2, 4, 52-54, 60.65. 69, 90. 91 (1983) 38
NH 2, 4, 9. 12, 14, 16, 46, 51-54, 57, 60, 61, 65, 69, 85. 90. 91, 94, 16 Krapu, G I. and J Eldridge Crane River Natural History 93
96 (1984) 68
17 MaLk. R N Invaders at Hume un the Range Natural History
NJ 2, 4. 8. 9, 14, 44, 46. 49, 52-54. 57, 60, 65, 69. 90, 91, 94, 96 93 (1984) 40
18 Fitzpatrick. J W , and G E Wooltenden -The Helpful Shall
NM 1, 2. 4, 7, 52-54, 60, 65 69, 83. 90-92 Inherit the Scrub Natural History 93 (1984) 86
19 Schneider, W J , and J H Hartwell "Troubled Waters of the
NY 2, 4, 5, 8, 9. 14, 33, 35. 41. 46, 51-54, 57, 60 61 65, 69, 90,
Everglades Natural History 93 (1984146
91 94. 96
20 Alderson. 0 "Palmetto Rebellion Stripmining Osceola N:^tional
NC 2, 4, 9, 14, 26.33 36, 41 46, 51-54, 57.60, 61, 65, 69 90 91. Forest Sierra 68 (1983) 2611 (I

94, 96, 99 21 Sutton. Christine "Home on the Nuclear Prairie New Scientist
107 (1985) 36-39
ND 2, 8, 17. 52-54, 60 65 69, 90, 91 22 Rearden, J The Chilkat Miracle Audubon 86 (1984) 40-54
23 Norman, M S "Justice. Just in Time " Esquire 101 (1984)
OH 2, 4. 9. 52-54, 60, 65. 69, 90. 91, 96
109-11
OK 2, 4, 52-54, 60, 65. 69. 90, 91 24 Robbins, J Range War in Rosebud Valley" New York Times
Magazine (May 6, 1984).82ff
OR 1 , 2. 3, 4, 6, 13, '7, 31.37, 52-54. t C 65, 69, 88, 30, 91, 96 25 Angier, N Now You See it. Now You Don't Time 124
(1984)56
PA 2, 4, 14, 44, 46, 51-54, 57 60 61 65 69 90 01 94, 96 26 Polsgrove, C Conflict along the Carolina C Jast Oceans 16
RI 2, 4. 9 14, 46 51-54 57 60 61 65 69 85 90 91 94 96 (1983)65 -67
27 Yates, S 'Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the Glades Crusade
SC 2, 4, 14, 26. 38, 46. 51-54, 60, 61 65, 69, 90, 91, 94 96 Audubon 85 (1983) 112
Berger, G Troubled Waters Field and Stream 88 (1983)
SD 2, 4, 17. 52- 54.60, 65, 69, 85 90 91 11- 21k';
29 Carothers, S W and R Dolan "Dam Changes on the Colorado
TN 2, 4, 9. 10, 48, 52-54 60, 65, 69, 90 91, 94, 96, 99
River" Natural History 91 (19E2! 74-83
TX 2, 4, 50, 52-54, 60. 65, 69, 90, 91 30 Tone, M H `Iowa's Ecological Inventory Environment 24
(1982) 42-43
UT 2, 4, 7. 52-54, 60 65 69, 90, 91 31 Cohn, J P Lead Shot Poisons Bald Eagles BioScience 35
(1985) 474-76
VT 2, 4, 9, 14, 46, 52 54 60 65, 69, 78, 35 90 91, 94, 96 32 Ebisch R A New Acid Rain Culprit'? Science Digest 93
(1985) 32
VA 2, 4. 9, 14, 44, 46, 51-54, 57, 60, 61, 65, 69 90 91 94 96
33 Raloff, J "Is Ozone Giving Acid Rain a Bad Name?" Sc' rice
WA 1, 2, 4, 17, 37, 52-54, 60, 65, 69, 73, 80, £41, 88, 90 91, 96, 99 News 128 (13;:i) 279
34 Thomas, B "The Singing Swamp Ocea.rs 18 (1985).10-15
WV 2, 4, 44, 52-54. 57 60 65 69 90 91 94 96 as Brown L Grasses and Grasslands of tf.onnecticut Discover
18 (19e5) 3-7
WI 2. 4. 8. 9. 42, 52-54 60 65 69 85 90 9 r, 94 96
36 Anonymous "New York Acts Fast on Acid Rain" New Scir- 31
WY 2, 4, 17, 43, 52.54 60, 65 69 82-83 90, 91 103 (1984)3
37 Johnson, Labeling (3erics Which Fish Belongs Where
Oceans 17 (1984) 66-68
References 38 Mrosovsky. N et al "Sex Ratio of Sea Turtles Seasonal
Changes Science 225 (1984) 739-41
1 Fritts, H C 'Tree Rings died Chi ata S,ttirdik totri,,,ii :26 39 Anonymous BugKillitio Cotton New Scientist 103 (1984) 21
(1972) 92 40 Stacey. P and W D Koenig "Cooperative Breeding in the
2 Hodgson, H J Furage Crops Soentifi, 4itieri,,m234 Acorn Woodpecker Scientific American 251 (1984) 114-21
(1976).60 41 Moyle, P B "America's Carp " Natural filit tory 93 (1984)42 -51
3 Denison. W C 'Life in Tall Trees &leak Aintri..an 228 42 ingber, D Odyssey of a Crane Lover Science Digest 92
(1973) 75 (1984)52 -57
4 Smith. C L "Going with tht, flow Natural History (Mar,h 43 Madigan, M T A Novel Photosynthetic purple Bacterium
1983) 48 Isolated from a Yellowstone Hot Spring " Science 225 (1984).313-15
5 Conner, 0 A Life in a Rock Natural History (June 44 Beck, Alan M An Epizootic of Rabies Natural History 93
1983) 51
6 Yates, T L "The Mole That Keeps its Nost. Cluari Natural Anonymous
n8 Fertile Nursery of the Tropics Discover 5
Vistory (November 1983) 55
7 Sherman, C K , and M L Morton 'P Thad nut ....;tays on Its 5e9rson, I European no U S Forests in Trouble Science
Toes " Natural History (March 1984) 73 News 125 (1984) 215
8 Cox, G W "Mounds of Mystery Nat.:all-Wary (Junk. 1981) 36 47 Miller, J Invasion of the Ecosystem Science News 127
9 Inouye. D W "The At and the Sunflower Natural History tJune (1985)410
1984):50 48 Peterson, I "Air Pollution and Tree Rings Science News 15
10 Delcourt, H R and P A Delcourt "Ice Ag. Haven for (1984) 279
Hardwocds" Natural History (September 1984) 22 49 hood, R L , and N F Good The Pineland National Reserve
11 Mohlenbnok R H Syl-amurt_ Conyori ',I.z:-And Natural An ELosystuni Approach to Management Bioscience 34 (1984)
History (Novernt zr 1984)86 169-73

79
 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 25 T57

50 Weisbrud, S "Altruism Absent in Mom Bats" Science News 125 75 Anonymous Goat-to-Steer Cud Transplant &fence News 127
(r984):148. (1985)41
51 'Roberts. L "Studies Probe Unexplained Decline in Eastern 76 Anonymous Seduction Atop Fern Mountain Discover 6
Forests." Bio Science 34 (1984):291-92, (1985) 12, 14
52' Raton, J "Soil Losses Eroding Food Security" Science News 77 Mittor , J B So Grows the Tree Natural History 94 (1985)
126 (1984):212. 58-65
53. Simons, P "How Copycat Weeds Threaten Their Crop 78 Peterson, I Killing with Kindness Trees and Excess Nitrogen
Partners." New Scientist 103 (1984);21, Science News 127 (1985) 228
54 Connor, S "Bad Farming Blamed for Disappearing Soil New 79 Lichtenberg, E R., and W Gelz Economics of RiceField
Scientist 104 (1984):4,
Mosquito Control in California " BioScience 35 (1985).292-97
55, Anonymous "Mutant Bacteria Meet Frosty Reception Outside R0 Mereson. A A Mountain Bounces Back Science Digest 93
the Laboratory." New Scientist 102 (1984):8 (1985):30
56 Anonymous "A Bug Imperils Florida's Citrus" Discover 5 81 Anonymous. The Killer BLes Have Been Done infor Now
(1984):12. Discover 7 (1986)9
57 White, C M "The Beginning of an Endangered Spec.r:s' 82 Anonymous The Plight of the Black-Footed Ferret Discover 7
Comeback: The Pereorine Falcon," American Biology Teacher 46 (1986):7
(1984):212 -20.
83 Clark, T "black- Footed Ferret' Ghost of the Prairie Animal
58. Mlot, C. "Aerial Wolf Hunts Resume in Alaska." Science News Kin,;dom 89 (1986).38-43
126 (1984):279.
84 Hutchins, M "The Goats lhat Don belong Animal Kingdom
59. Caulfield. C. 'Toxic Selenium Collecting in California Soils " New 89 (1986):20-29
Scientist 104 (19848. 85 Bowker, M "Nasty Tick Tricks ;,,errs 71 (1986) 12
60 Hohn, T "A Heavenly Weed" Animal Kingdom 87 (1984) n3 86 Pollock, R A Ray of Sun. a Patch of Blue Animal Kingdom 89
61, Tangley, L. "Taking Stock of White Cedar Wetlands." (1986)10-15
BioScience 34 (1984) 682-84
87 Bower, B "Infanticide All in the Coterie Science News 128
62. Greany, P. D., et al. "Insect Parasitoids: Finding New (1985):341
Opportunities for Bioiugical Control" BioScience 34 (1984).690-96 88 Raton, J To Save the Monarchs Science News 129
63. Thomas. B. "Christmas Deer" Oceans 17 (1984)46-51 (1986)14
64 Carr, A "Secrets of the Sea Turtles Animal Kingdom 87 89 Anonymous Last Condor Dies New scientist 109 (1986) 23
(1985)11-18.
90 Tangley, L "The Urban Ecologist " BioScience 36 (1986) 68 -71
65 MacClintock, D "City Raccoon, Country Raccoon The Ways of 91 Wallace, J Where Have All the Songbirds Gone? Sierra 71
an Ecological Opportunist," Discover 17 (1984):2-3 (1986)44 -47
66 Dunbar, R "Scapegoat for a Thousand Deserts" New Scientist 92 Holmes, K Death Among the Lowlife sierra 71 (1986).22-23
'104 (1984),30 -33
.3 Anonymous "The Insect with Designer Muscles New Scientist
67. Anonymous "Almost As Dead As a Dodo " New Scientist 104 109 (1986).23
(1984)4 94 Morse, D M "Milkweeds and Their Visitors Sc,entilrc American
68. Schneider, W. J., and J. H Hartwell "Troubled Waters of the 253 (1985).112-19
Everglades " Natural History 93 (19841 46-57 95 Toufaxis, A "The Trees Are Taking Over 7.me 125 (1985) 71
69 Woodwell, G M "Broken Eggshells " Science e4 5 (1984) 96 Anonymous Fungus Fools Bees and Lives ell Blueberries
115-17 New Scientist 106 (1985):30
70 Kupchak, K R "Aloha Kahauale'a9"Srerra 69 (1984),52-54 9' Anonymous Survival Tales of Four Species Science Digest 93
71 Bennett, D. D. "Scarlet Gala, Flowering Chameleon Science (1985) 15
News 127 (1985):69
a Miller. J., and a Raloft "Where the Rats Are Science News
72. Mot. C "For the Sake of Citrus " Science News 126 127 (1985)360
(1984):380 -81 99 Ouigley, H 'Super Survivors Animal Kingdom 88 (1985).24-34
73. Anonymous. "Eagles Victims of Poison Pellets" Oceans 18
(1985).5 1
74, Sanonen, C, "One Salmon, Two Salmon . 10,000 Salmon "
Oceans 18 (1985).14-18

CHAPTER 25 Planning involves tactics and strategy. Spontaneity is

most effective when it comes from solid preparation. If
you have not done so, join the National Association of Bi-
ology Teachers and the National Science Teachers' As-
sociation. These are excellent resources for new'
PLANNING AHEAD
information and techniques. Other good sources of prep-
Planning ahead for this year is now almost over. You need aration are works dealing with the philosophy of science,
to plan now for the most efficient storage of materials and the nature of scientific research, or futurc trends in bi-
equipment at the conclusion of activities for the year. ology education. Some suggestions:
Planning for next year also can start now. You may find The American Biology Teacher, "Focus: The History, Philos-
that certain materials should 1.ave been ordered in the ophy, and Sociology of Biology" (April 1985).
spring. Review your experience from this year. Decide R N. Bybee, ed., 1985, Stiena, Techrzolug), &met) (Wash-
which materials or equipment you should obtain now for ington, D,C , National Science Teachers Assotaation).
next year, and send off your orders. Daedalus, "Scientific Literacy" (Spring 1983).

or{
3..1 V

80
T58 Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 25

r. M. Hickman and J. B. Kahle, eds., 1982, Aeit threawns in name the principal sources if power now used in in-
Biology Teaching (Reston, Virginia: Nat:anal Association of dustrial cultures;
Biology Teachers). apply the idea of trade-011S to at least I resource
T. S. Kuhn, 1970, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd.
ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press). problem.
Ernst Mayr, 1982, The Growth of Biological Though; (Cam- IV. The extent of the problem posed by unused resources
bridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Ilarv,..d'University Press).
termed wastes results both from human population den-
sity and from the degree of technological development.
Students should be able to
GUIDELINES relate wastes to resources;
In this chapter we have deliberately introduced 1, Ale- name at least 4 categories of substances that are -ur-
laden, controversial topicsnot for the sake of sensation- rently regarded as wastes;
alism, but because these t:.pics inevitably will be a part of tIcskribc the problems of disposal posed by at least 2 of
students' lives, and biological knowledge is needed for these;
making decisions about them. apply the idea of trade-offs to at I.:ast I waste-disposal
Topics considered in the chapter should by no means problem.
limit the discussion. Wherever possible, the infonnr..ion
V. Since every human problem involves living things, bi-
and concepts gained during the year should be woven into
ological knowledge is essential, though not sufficient, for
the prospect of the future. Above all, try to make; all stu-
its solution.
dents feel their personal responsibility for applying what-
Students should be able to
ever knowledge of science they possess to decisions that
--explain their attitudes toward at least 2 major current
will be made by their generation.
human problems.

OBJECTIVES
TACTICS
L The social behavior of humans, innate and learned,
In addition to its other functions. chapter 25 provides an
makes it possible for humans to affect enormously the bio-
opportunity to review almost all aspects of the course. The
sphere.
marginal notes call attention to many of the ideas and some
Students should be able to
of the vocabulary presented in earlier chapters, but you
analyze a pedigree to show how altruistic behavior can
can augment these references.
be selected for;
The chapter may be conveniently divided into three as-
evaluate the potential environmental consequences of
signments: sections 25.1-25.3, 25.4-25.8, and 25.9-25.12.
proposed human activities.
II. Technological developments that have greatly in-
creased 14.man ability to prolong life and to produce food SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
have temporarily put human numbers into a phase of ex-
ponential increase. AV MATERIALS
Students should be able to
Coping with Stress. 16 mm, 17 min. Journal Films, Inc..
cite ways in which mortality has been decreased;
Evanston, IL. Provides an overview of the principal
apply the rule of population determiners to the earth's
everyday sources of stress and the chief ways of coping
human population;
with stress.
describe the rational basis for proposing to limit human
Living with Technology. 16 mm, 20 min. Agency for In-
population increase;
discuss the biological, cultural, and ethical difficulties structional Television, Bloomington. IN. Intended to
help students understand how technology affects the
involved in the purposeful limitation, of natality.
way we live.
III. The entire -tali, with the radiant energy that it in- Wildhfe-,In American Heritage. 16 mm, 13 min., rune,.
tercepts, has become .available to the present and future qf Wildlife, 16 mm, 15 min. West V and Prudi.%,tions,
human population as a single resource. Inc., Boulder, CO. Magnificent wildlife photography
Students should be able to covering many American species. Basic wildlife man-
relate adequacy of Icod supply to human nutrition, agement and e%,olugh,a1 relationships are presented.
describe at least 3 difficulties that are encountered in The Traged) of the Commons. I6 mm, 23 min. 131A Ed-
attempts to increase agricultural production, ucational Metra, Santa Munka, CA. Inquiry - oriented
name at least 2 resources derived from nonagricultural film. Illuminates a b..sh, social fa%,tur in many human
and -tionurban lands; problems, though it focuses on the population problem.
Teaching Strategies by ChaptersChapter 25 T59

SOFTWARE L. R. Brown, "World Population Growth. Sod Erosion, and Food

Security" Science (27 November 1981). Pressures on the
Genetic Engineering by Malkin world's cropland base arc intensifying everywherefarmers
Publisher: Helix are adopting agricultural practices that lead to excessive razes
Description. A tutorial program i-u%crilig ecaL if soil erosion and a loss of momentum in the grt.mt:luf %%urld
lion, recombinant DNA, cloning, restriction c Nod production.
D Elseth and K. D. Baumgardner. 1980. Population Biology
protein synthesis, electrophoresis, plasmids, and
(New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold). An advanced text
The information is current and presented c' rly, dealing %%tilt genetic and ecological theories of population.
user control. I. W. Lewis, "The Safety of Fission Reactors"Scientific Amer-
Technical Data. Apr le II, 48k. Cvpy prot.ct_Acii. itan (Mardi 1980). Better risk assessment is required for rc
actor safety.
National Academy of Sciences, 1980. Energy in Transit.on-
1985 2010 (San Francisco: W. II. Freeman). A comprehen-
TEACHER'S REFERENCES sive took at energy policy by experts on energy.
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 1984, Budnedital !eth- 0 S 0%%en. 1980. Natural Resource Consert allot:. .In Etolog
nology (Dubuque. Iowa. Kendall/ Hunt) (96 pages). hxam- teal 1pproach (No% York Macmillan). An introductory
ines the techniques, drugs. biologicals, eqUIPMC5l, and vironmental text for students .vith limited backgrounds in
procedures used by he,,lth-care professionals and in oper- biology and chemis'ry. Examines each natural resource with
ating health-care systems. respect to the future.
BioScience (July/August 1986). The main theme of this issue
is "Ecology From Space" and includes several articles about
how remote sensing may be used to study ecosystems.

r.

62
 Teacher Appendices

Vidichart II by Warme
APPENDIX T Publisher: Interactive Microware
Description: A classroom utility program allows the
user to plot data inputted via keyboard, disk file, or a lab
interfacing device. The program performs integrations,
CLASSROOM UTILITY PROGRAMS differentiations, quadratic smoothing calculates moving
Rain Maker by Smith and Hill averages, minima and maxima.
Publisher: Co..ipress Techr 11 Data: Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected. Re-
Description: A classroom utility program allow- he quires I, -dhics interface to print.
user to create a matching game using vocabulary or con-
Graphical Ar2lysi;- II by Vernier
cepts relevant to biology or any topic. The user scores
Publisher: Vernier
points in the "rain Game" by correctly matching words
Description: A classroom utility program allows the
that rain down on associated words or formulas.
user to plot data inputted via keyboard or disk file. Graphs
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected.
may be plotted with exchange of x/y axes, manual or au-
Data Analysis by Elberfeld tomatic sealing, log or semilog conversk.is, statistical
Publisher: EduTech analysis of data, and linear regression. Data files may be
Description: A classroom utility program illows the merged.
user to input x and y data values via the keyboard. The Technical Data. Apple II, 48k. Not copy protected. Re-
values are plotted by the computer and compared with al- quires graphics interface to print.
gebraic functions selected by the user. Fewer options than
other plotting programs but easier to use.
Technical Data: Apple II, 44k. Copy protected. Re. SOFTWARE SUPPLIERS
quires graphics interface to print.
Cambridge Development Laboratory, Inc. (CDL)
Quiz Grid by Weigers 1696 Massachusetts Avenue
Publisher: HRM Cambridge, MA 02138
Description: A classroom utility program includes a
database of 250 questions of varying difficulty. Genetics, Compress
evolution, plants, cell organization and function, and P.O. Box 102
human body systems are covered. An "authoring" system Wentworth, NH 03282
allows additional questions to be included in the database.
The user earns points for correct answers. Conduit
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k. Copy protected. Two P.O. Box 388
disk drives required to "author" new questions. Iowa City, IA 52244
Scientific Plotter II by Bogdan and Warme
Cross Educational Software
Publisher: Interactive Microware
1802 N. Trenton Street
Description; A classroom utility program allows the
P.O. Box 1536
user to plot data inputted via keyboard or disk file. Graphs
Ruston, LA 71270
can include error bars, text labels, variable scaling, log
and semilog conversions.
D. C. Heath, Inc.
Technical Data: Apple II, 48k; IBM PC, 128k. Not 125 Spring Street
copy protected. R.;:quires graphics interface to print.
Lexington, MA 02173

T60
3 S3
'Appendix T2 161

Diversified Educational Enterprises (DEE) Krell Software

725 Main Street 130 Stonybro _k Road
Lafayette, IN 47901 Stony Brook, NY 11790

Educational Materials and Equipment Compri) (EME) Minnesota Educational Comr ing Consortium (MECC)
P.O. Box 17 3490 Lexington Avenue North
Pelham, NY 10803 St. Paul, MN 55126

EduTech, Inc. Sunburst Communications

634 Commonwealth Avenue 39 Washington Avenue
Newton Center, MA 02159 Pleasantville, NY 10570

Focus Media, Inc. Vernier Software

839 Stewart Avenue 2920 SW 89th Street
P.O. Box 865 Poreand, OR 97225
Garden City, NJ 11530
In addition to the publishers listed above, many of the
HRM Software (HRM)
recommended programs may be purchased from scientific
i75 Tompkins Avenue
and software supply houses such as: Carolina Biological
Pleasantville, NY 10570
Supply, Burlington, NC; Ward's Natural Science Estab-
:ishment, Rocnester, NY; Learning Arts, Wichita, KS;
Interactive Microware, Inc.
Projected Learning Programs, Sacramento, CA.
P.O. Box 771
Check their catalogs for software listings.
State College. PA 16804-0771

APPENDIX T2 embodies what should govern your safety philosophy. Be-

cause legal matters such as teacher liability vary consid-
erably from state to state and even from school district to
school district, no simple set of rules can be developed to
guide you. You should become familiar with Cie subject
SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
of liability. Many school systems conduct at least one in-
Safety must be a major cunside .tion in a biology :abu- sell, ice seminar each sear 9n this subject A local law pro-
ratory. Not only is it important that student, be instructed fessor or lawyer might be to help with this very
in techniques of laboratory safety, they also must be green important activity. Tort liability, its definitithi, and its ap-
the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of the plieat; )n to the biology teacher arc sc sects of utmost im-
,proper safety practices. When students le- -n what is ex- portance.
pected in the way of safety, and you sh-Av that you are Many states and/or school districts have science lab-
safety conscious, a positive contribution will be made to oratory regulation, covering such topics as eye and body
the learning environment. protection, storage of chemicals, fire protection, and
In addition to the basic concern fur the safety of each 2vailability and use of first-aid supplies. Chick with your
individual student, we must consider our own situation. state and local department of education. Even in the ab-
We live in a litigious society. Litigation problems can be sence of state or local regulations, the following safety
expected to increase. Before each laboratory experience precautions should be routire procedures in any labora-
you should anticipate accidents and take steps to prevent tory.
theiroccurrence. Preventing an accident is, after all. the
most desirable goal of a safety program. Your conduct and LIVE ANIMALS
expectations should be based on the students' age, back- A double safety s.aiidard must be maintained when live
ground and intelligence. Do not expect,them to behave as animals are used in the laboratory for observatir . and ex-
responsible adults. perimentation. The numane treatment of the animals is
If you can reasonably foresee the consequence of your me objective and the safety of the student is the othe .
action or inaction, you arc responsible. This statement best

t,3 84
 T62 Appendix 12

The following "Guidelines for the Use of Li% e Animals" 2All animals used in teaching or research programs must
was adopted by the National Association of Biology rei.ewt proper cart Quarter., should provide for anita-
Teachers on April 27, 1985. It is considered a com7re- tion, protection from the elements, and have sufficient
space for normal behavioral and postural requirements
hensive policy concerning the use of live animals in the of the species Quarters shall ue easily cleaned, venti-
instruction,of biology. The student text contains general lated and Lighted Proper temperature reguV lion shall be
rules on which you may dal. jrate. provided
3 Proper food and clean drinking water for those animals
requiring water gall be available at all tin es in suitable
containers
NAST Guidelines for the Use of Live Animals 4 Animals care shall be supervised by a science teacher
experienced in proper anima: care
Living things are the subject of biology, arvi their direct ludy 5 If euthanasia is necessary, animals shall be sacrificed Hi
is an appropriate and necessary part of biology teach.,g Text- an approved, humane manner by au adult experienced in
book instruction atone cannot provide students with a basic ..zi- the use of such procedures Laborate :y animals should
derstanding,of life and life processes We further recognize the not be released in the environment if they were not orig-
importance of research to understarld;iig life processes aild pro- inally a part of the nathre fauna The introduction of non-
viOng information on health, disease, medical care and agriculture native species which may become feral must be avoided
The abuse of any living orgamsm for experimentation or any 6 The procurement and use of wild or domestic animals must
other purpose is intolerable in any segment of society Because comply with existing locai, state, or federal rules re-
biology deals specifically with living things, professional biological garding same
educators must be especially cognizant of their responsibility to F Animal studies should be carried out under the provisions of
prevent inhumane treatment to living organisms in the name of sci- the following guidelines
ence and research This responsibility should extend beyond the 1 All animal studies should be clmed out under the direct
confines of the teachers classroom to the rest of the school and supervision of a compete.,i _ . ience teacher It is the re-
community.
sponsibility of that teacher tc ensure that the student has
The National Association of Biology Teachers, in speaking to the necessary comprehension for the study being done
the dilemma of providing a sound biological education while ad- 2 Students should not be allowed to take animals home to
dressing the problem of humane experimentation, presents the fol-
carry out experimental studies. Tnese studies should be
lowing guidelines on the use of live animals done in a suitable area in the school
A Biological experimentation should lead to and oe consistent 3 Students doing projects with vertebrate animals should
with a respe:A for life and all living things Humane treatment adhere to the following
and care of animals should be an integral part of any lesson a No experimental procedures should be attempted that
that includes living animals. would subject animals to pain or distinct discomfort,
B ."-ll ^spects of exercises and or experiments deahg with living or interfere with their health in any way Palling of live
ih.'igs must be within tne comprehension and capabilities of frogs should be carried out by a teacher experienced
the students involved It is recognized that these parameters in such procedures and should not be a part of the
a,*e necessarily vague, but it is expected that competent general class activity
teachers of biology can recognize these imitations b Students should not perform surgery on living verte-
C Lower orders of life such as bacteria flop, protozoans and brate animals except ur the direct supervision of
insects can reveal much basic biological informatic i and are a qualified biomedical scientist
preferable as subjects for invasive studies wherevei and 4 Experimental procedures should not involve the use of
whenever possible. microorganisms pathogenic to humans or other animals,
Vertebrate animals may be used as experimental organisms ionizing radiation, carcinogens, drags or chemicals at toxic
in the following situations levels, drugs known to produce adverse or teratogenec
1. Observations of normal living patterns of wild animals in effects, pair causing drugs, alcohol in any :crm, electric
the free living state or in zoological parks, gardens or shock, exercise until exhaustion or other distressing
aquaria. stimuli
5 Behavioral studies should use only positive ,. reinforcement
2. Observations of normal living patterns of pets, fis i or do-
mestic animals. in training studies
3. Observations of biological phenomena, e including ovu- 6 Fgg embryos subjected to expermenta' manipulation must
lation in frogs through hormone injections that do not be destroyed humanely at least twc Jays prior to hatch'ng
cause discomfort or adverse effects to the animals Normal egg embryos, allowed to hatch must be treated
E. Animals should be properly cared for as described in the lot- humanely within these Guidelines
lowng go:felines. 7 The administration of anesthetics should oe carried cut
1, Appropriate quarters for the animals being used should by a qualified science teacher competent in such pro-
be provided in a place free from undue stresses If housed cedures (The legal ramifications of student use of an-
in the classroom itself, animals sh"uld not be constantly esthetics are complex and such use hould be avoided.)
subjected to disturbances that might be caused by stu- G The use of living animals for suence fair projeds and lisplays
dents-in the classroom or other upsetting activities shall be in accordance with these guidelines In addition, no
living vertebrate animals shall be used in displays for science
fair exhibitions

(.>
85
 Appendix 12 T63

H. It is recognized that an ex, eptionally talented tudt.ti'. may wish Before remoing vultures and washing petri dishes, the
to conduct original research in the biological or medical sci- culture should be killed by sterilization or b flooding
ences. In those cases where the research value of a specific
with alcohol or a strong disinfectant.
project is obvious by its potential contribution to science, but
its execution would be otherwise prohibited by the guidelines Pathogenic bacteria should never he used in a labora-
governing the selection of an appropriate experimental animal tory.
or procedure, exceptions can be obtained if:
1. the project -is approved by and carried out under the di- SAFETY EQUIPMENT
rect supervision of a qualified biomedical scientist or a
designated adult supervisor m the field of th., investiga- Safety in the biology laboratory is the responsibility, of the
tion: and teacher and the studenteach assuming his or her share.
2 the project is carried out in an appropriate research fa-
The location of safety equipment and the correct use of
cility; and
3. the project is carried out with the utmost regard for the each piece of it must be know, by teacher and student.
humane care and trtlatirieni of the animas involved in the An essential activity for your biology students should be
project' and a safety test early in the school year. The test results would
4. a research plan is developed'and approved by the qual- pinpoint weaknesses of safety training.
ified biomedical scientist prior to the start of any re-
Because of the vaiiety of possible laboratory fires (com-
search -
bustible materials, alcohol, electrical equipment) a tri-
class, ABC extinguisher should be in your laboratory.
NABT Guidelines for the Use of Live Animals from The American Biology
Teacher 48 2 (February 1986)0 National Association of Biology Teachers.
When is it appropriite to wear goggles in the 'abora-
Reston, V.rginia. Reprinted by permission tory? A good but general rule is: Working with chem-
icals? Any chemical? Wear goggles!!
In addition to the NABT guidelines the foi!Jw ing First aid should be a part of a biology teacher's training.
recommended for student safety. Se ere blurts. cuts, or caustic cy e splash require prompt
All aniinals used in the biolow, laboratory should ha% e action. The school nurse or a physician should be called
been inoculated for rabies unless they were purchased immediately in case of a serious accident.
from o. reliable biological supply house. Some form of eye wash should be present in ever) bi-
Wild animals should no cr be brought into the labo- dogs laboratory. Teacher and student must be very fa-
ratory. miliar with its location and use. Be aware that in the
student who i.. scratched or bitten by an anim..I case of a strong alkali splash, the e-,e can be damaged
should r:..t.cive immediate attention by the school nurse in les than a minute.
or a physician.
GENERAL
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Laboratory rules should bf-conspicuously posted as a
Students should not be allowed to operate an autodav e constant safety reminder to students. Before the class
or a pressure Wok er for sterilization. CJnduLt the ster- begins an experiment. review spec& rules %%Ilia may
ilization yourself. be applicable.
From the standpoint of safety and economics, small hot Never permit .Audents Lo work in your laborators
-plates,arc the ideal_heat source. without your supervision. No unauthorized, investiga-
Chemicals should be kept 'locked at all tiros in a ell- -tions :Itould ever be conducted 133 a student.
ventilated storage are". flammable chemicals should T'ou should insist on a safety contract relationship be-
be stored 'in a fire-resistant cabinet. tween the student and the school. Devise your on or
Strong acids and bases dest.rve special amntion. They use the sample presented below. A contract demon-
should be stored in an approved location, not in the strates that you are a responsible teacher implemeitin I,
classroom. a coherent program that ensures kno ledge and un-
If plri dishes with prepared culture media ,ire nv han- derstanding of the safety rule3 of your i..boratury
III
dledcarefully, undesirable and even path.t,genic bac-
terl- .rowth is possible. Petri dishes containing bacterial
cultures should be sealed with tape.

`,/
 T64 Appendix T2

Laboratory Safety Agreement

, agre to abide by the following laboratory safety regulations whenever performi4 a biology
investigation.
1. Use the science laboratory for authorized work only.
2. Wear safety goggles during experime...s involving chemicals or flames.
3. Study the laboratory investigation before coming to the lab. If in doubt of any procedure, ask the teacher.
4. Know how toligs,'11.f.. safety equipment provided. Know the of the fire extinguisher, eye wash, and fire blanket.
5. Smother fires with a blanket.
6. Keep flammable materials such as alcohol and acetone away from open flames.
7. Place broken glass and solid disposable materials in designated containers.
8. Report any accident, injury, or incorrect procedure to the teacher at once.
9. Never taste or smell any substance unless directed specifically by the teacher to do so.
10. Handle chemicals carefully. Check " . label of every bottle or jar before removing the contents. Do not return unused
chemicals to reagent containers.
11. When heating a substance in a test tube, make sure that the mouth of the test tube is not pointing at another person
or myself.
12. Use caution and proper equipment to handle hot glassware.. Hot glass looks the same d. cool glass.
13. Tie back -long. hair. Remove dangling jewelry. Roll up loose sleeves.
14. At the end of the lab, clean my work area. Wash and store all materials and equipment, and turn off all water, gas,
and electrical appliances.

Student's Signature Paren. or Guardian's Signature

Date

MATERIALS LIST Item

. t# Catalog # Quantity TY
Materials necessary for investigations are listed by inves- 21 graph paper 15W9813 1

tigation number. "'Local" means materials should be Pocket calculator 27W2060 1

22 calculators (cot.onal) 27W20.60 15 NE

available locally; "E" denotes materials found in the Ex- graph paper 15W9813 1

pendables Materials list; "NE" denotes materials in- 2.3 aluminum foil 15W 1009 1

cluded in the Nonexpendables Materials list. bacto-yeast 38W5600 1

balance (sensitive to 0 1
Th;s listing includes all materials necessary for each 15W6020
9) 15 NE
investigation, followed by the catalog # from Ward's Nat- beaker (250 ml) 17W4040 15 NE
ural Science Establishment, Inc. catalog. Many of the Bunsen burner 15W0610 15 NE
coverslips glass 14W3251
mateiials listed may be available locally, but for your con- distilled water
1

88W7005 E
venience;'the Ward's catalog # is listed as v. ell. dropping pipet 17W0230 30
flasks (125 ml) 17W2981 30 NE
glass-marking crayon 15W1155 15
MATERIALS, glucose 39W 1155 1

graduated cylinder (250

ml) 170/0184 15 NE
Inv. # Item Catalog # Quantity TY hot plate 15WCO25 15 NE
microscope 24W0410 15 NE
1 1 Animal Kingdom Survey
microscope slides. glass 14W3500 72
Set 67W9900 1 NE peptone 39W?755 1
har .ens 25W 1400 30 NE potassium phosphate-
mrr ruler ( 12-inch) 15E4655 30 NE
monobasic 37W4845 1
mm ruler (6-inch) 14W0810 30 NE spatula 15W4300 15 NE
stereomicroscope 24W0710 15 NE stirring rod 17W6010 15 NE
1.2 pencil 15W9816 30 E

67
Appendix T2 T65

Inv. # Item Catalog # Quantity TY Inv. # Item Catalog # Quantity TY

3.1 cap 17W2050 15 NE premeasured. dry.

meterstick 15W4065 15 NE vitamin C soln 37W9538
pint jar 17W2050 15 NE silver nitrate 37W5156
stiff cardboard local sodium chloride 37W5487
stopwatch 15W2601 15 NE starch 39W3275
table of relative lest tube 13 X 100 mm 17W0610 30 NE
humidities 23WI271 5 vegetable oil 37W9539
thermometer w!cotton 43 beaker (250 ml) 17W4040 15 NE
sleeve I5W1460 15 NE distilled water 88W7005
thermometers (-10 to fine sand 20W7425
+ 100° C) I5W1460 15 NE forceps I4W1000 15 NE
umbrella local fresh liver local
33 bean seeds 86W8009 not plate 15W8025 15 NE
colored chalk 15W4635 15 hydrogen peroxide solo
glass-marking oencil 15W 1155 30 (3'4 37W8450
graph paper 15W9813 manganese dioxide
metric ruler 15W4655 33 powder 37W2b, 0
paper towels 37W9850 marking pencil 15W1155 15
pets dish (100 X 20 metric ruler 14W0810 15 NE
mm) 17W0736 30 mortar 15W3334 15 NE
rainwater local pestle 15W3335 15 NE
scissors 14W060C 30 NE potato local
solutions; pH from 2 to small test tube rack 18W4260 15 NE
7 37W9533 test tube, 18 X 150 rnm 17W0640 30 NE
4.1 beakers (50 ml) I7W4010 15 NE 51 blade for scalpel 14W0709 30
blender 15W2(15 1 NE compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE
buffer (pH 7) 37W5982 covershps. glass 14W3251
dropping pipets 17W0230 30 dissecting r idle 14W0650 60 NE
egg white local dropping g et 17W0230 30
gelatin 2% soln. 37W9535 1 elodea leaves 86W7500
gelatin; powder 37W9535 forceps. fine-pointed 14W1004 30 NE
graduated cylinder (50 frog blood 87W8217 1

ml) 17W0182 15 NE iodine potassium-iodide

hydrochloric acid 0 IN 37W8605 soln 37W2380
liver/potato methylene blue (alc )
homogenates local soln 38W9525
pH meter 15W2481 I NF methylene blue chloride
pH paper 15W2560 1 biostain 38W8323
sodium hydroxide soln microscope slides, glass 14W3500 72
0.1W 37W7803 onion local
tap water local paper towel 15W9850 1

4.2 ascorbic acid (vitamin physiological saline

C) 39W2005 1 E solution 37W4477
beaker (250 ml) '7W4040 5 NE scalpel 14 W0713*/ 30 NE
Ben. lict's solution 37W0702 I E toothpicks 15W9840
Benedict's solution 37W0720 I E 52 beaker (1,000 17W4080 30 NE
Biuret powder 37W0795 1 E cellulose tubing. 20 cm
Biuret solution 37W0790 I E each 14W-"i17 2
bra vn wrapping paper local E Chnitest tablet 14W4112
Bunsen burner 15W0610 5 NE glassmarking crayon 15W 1155 30
dropping bottle 17W54(11 5 NE glucose 39WI455 1

glucose 39WI455 I E iodine solution 37W2380

graduated cylinder (10 starch 39W3275
ml) 17W0180 5 NE string 15W9808
hot plate 15W8025 5 NE Tes-tape 14W4107
indolphenol 39W 1670 1 E test tune 17W0630 1 NE
Lugol's odine 39W 1685 I E 53 beaker (250 ml) 17W4040 15 NE
misc foods local E mm ruler 14W0810 30 NE
pre-measured. dry, :0% phenolphthalein agar 88W0928
gelatin sol, 38W3030 I E pre-measured dry, 0 4,'0
premeasured, dry; 1% sodium hydroxide 37W9546 1 E
silver nitrate soln 37W9555 I E razor blade 14W4172 I E
pre-measured, dry, 10% sodium hydroxide 37W5560 1 E
starch soln, 37W9537 I E 54 /1/ /turn root tip.
pre-measLrei, dry; 10% microscope slide 91W7040 1515 NE
glucose soln. 37W9536 I E compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE
pre-measured. dry; 2% 61 coleus plant. hvirg 86W6800 15
sodium chloride 37W9549 1 E flower pot: P, hallow local
pre-measured. dry; label: pot 15W 1832
indophenol soh 37W9542 I E plastic bag (12 X 16") 18W6940 30
sand 20V:7425 1
T66 Appendix T2

Item Catalog r: Quantity TY Inv. ,r; It em Catalog » Quantity TY

saucer, shallow pan 14W 1548 15 NE microscope slide, glass 14W3500 72

scalpel 14V'0707 30 NE papr black 15W9841 1

scalpel blade 14W0709 30 pence. colored 15W2576 4

stone: broken flower pot local peptone 39W2755 1

6.2 modeling clay (red. Probst slowing agent 3/W7950 1

Me) 36W4147 1 stopper (::2) 15W8462 30 NE

pipe clearer 15W9851 test tube (18 X 150
wrapping paper local mm) 17W8462 30 NE
81 rdboard box 15W9852 1 test tube rack 18W4256 15 NE
pennies local thread; cotton 15W9836 1

8.2 box. large local yeast suspension 88W0929

dissecting microscopP 24W0710 15 NE 12 2 Agardhiella. preserved 63W0360 1

forceps 14W 1004 30 NE Ascophyllum preserved 63W0310

hand lens 25W 1400 15 compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE
nonnufnent agar plates 88W0926 30 coverslips glass 14W3251 1

tobacco seeds 86W8345 1 culture, Chlorella 86W0126 1

glassmarking pencil 15W1155 15 culture. mixed diatoms 86W3021 1

83 glue 15W9806 1 culture. Spirogyra 86W0650 1

human karyotyroing kit 33W 1040 1 culture Ulothrix 86W0750 1

pencil 15W9816 15 culture Zygnema 86W0900 1

scissors 14W0600 30 NE dropping pipet 17W0230 15

tape 15W 1957 1 Lamrnana, preserved 63W0335 1

91 graph paper 15W9843 1 microscope illuminator 25W2900 15 NE

metric ruler (6 inch) 15W4655 30 NE microscope slides. glass 14W3500 72
objects (50) of a kind local E Porphyra. preserved 63W0395 1

92 bowl small local 1 teasing needle 14W0650 15 NE

containers with 100 12 3 compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE
paper chips. assorted container for growth
colors local 15 medium local
tablecloth fabric (3 X6') local 1 copper sulfate solution 37W2242 1

94 map outline. coverslip glass 14W3251 1

state of California 33W 1001 30 culture Pilobolus

pencils. colored 15W2576 4 E crystalknus 85W4671 1

10 1 paper clips black 15W9844 160ea culture Aspergaus over 85W4100 1

paper dips white 15vV9845 160ea culture, Penicillium

paper clips green 15W9846 160ea notaturn 85W4700 1

paper clips red 15W9847 160ea dissecting microscope 94W0710 15 NE

11 1 agar 38W0015 1 fresh mushrooms via mushroom kit
beef extract 38W212: 1 fungicide (captan) 20W3035 1

dissecting microscope 24W0710 15 NE glass tumbler local

markinc; pencil 15W 1155 30 gly :erne 39W1438 1

nutrient agar 38W 1200 1 knife 14W1195 15 NE

peptone 39W2755 1 metric ruler 15W4655 30 NE
pet(' dishes with nutrient microscope slide,, glass 14W3500 72
agar 88W0905 60 E mushroom growth
swabs cotton steno 14W5502 1 E chamber local
tape transparent 13W1957 1 E mushroom growth kit 36W5600 1

water, d.sh'ited 88W7005 1 lunchroom growth

11 2 antibiotic disk set 38WJ036 1 E medium local
antiseptic disks set 38W1602 1 E paper local
culture, Eschenchia colt 85W1860 1 E small brush 15W3864 30
cultwe, Micrococcus mushroom spore
luteus 85W1915 1 suspension 85W6008 1

forceps 14W 1004 15 NE 13 1 compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE

marking pencil 15W1155 15 cover slips 14W3251 1 box
nutrient agar,pl 88W0905 60 dissecting needle 14W0650 30 NE
sensitivity disks, Hank 38W 1600 1 fresh bean or pea pods local
swab cotton sterile 14W5502 15 NE gladiolus flower local
tape, transparent 15W 1957 1 microscope slides 14W3500 1 pkg, 72 E
12 1 Bios lain. alizarin red 38W7040 mos plants. fresh 86W4250 4 NE
Biostain Congo Red 38W7004 moss plants with female
compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE sex organs 86W4360
coverslip, glass 14W3251 1 moss plants with male
culture, Paramecium 87W1310 1 sex organs 86W4360 6
distilled water 88W7005 1 moss plants with
dropping pipet 17W0230 30 sporophyres 86W4360 6
foil; aluminum 15W 1009 1 prepared de
hydrochlonu acid (0 IN) 37W8606 1 file us 91W4311 15 NE
light source 15W8120 1 NE razor blade, single-edge 14W4172 1 box. 100 NE
simple flowers local
stereoscopic dissecting
microscope 24W0720 15 NE

89
Appendix T2 T67

Inv. itt Item Catalog r: Qua nit/ TY Inv. r: Item Catalog r: Quantity TY

13 2 cover sups 14W3251 1 box E 15 1 acetic acid solution (1 ) 37W9544 1

hand lens a .400 30 NE beaker 17W4040 30 NE

labeled specimens of handkerchief r Mold local
organisms. 10 67W9700 1 set NE mist solutic local
microscope 24W0410 15 NE paper cups 15W9830
microscope slides 14W3500 1 box 72 E premeasured. dry
stereomicroscope 24W0720 15 NE quinine sulfate 37W9545
13 3 bean or pea seed 86W8012 1 pkg pre-measured. dry
compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE sodium chloride 37W9549
cover slip 14W3251 1 box pre-measured. dry
hand lens 25W1400 30 NE sucrose solution 37W9543 1

microscope slide 14W3500 1 box 7') E swab, cotton 14W5502 1

pine branch with cones local Syracuse watch glass 17W0530 15 NE

Pine Life History Set waste jar (bottle) 18W9706 lb NE
(cnnes, pine seeds) 63W6a75 15 15 2 balance 15W6020 15 NE
seed and fruit cork 15W8350 15 NE
(dandelion. poplar. cork pad 14W7602 15 NE
etc ) 67W 1149 lc graduated cylinder (10
dissecting microscope 24W0720 to NE ml) 17W0170 15 NE
tomato local hammer 12W0140 1 NE
tomato branch with matches, safety local
flowers local nail local 1

14 1 dissecting needle 14W0650 30 NE needle 14W0200 15 NE

dissectine pad 18W3645 15 NE peanuts 'walnuts 0 2g
dissecting pan 14W8510 15 NE pieces local 1

fetal pig, preserved 69W5712 15 pliers. needle-nose 15W9833 NE

metric ruler 15W4655 30 NE test tube (18 X 150
probe, dun 14W0950 30 NE mm) heat-resistant 17W0640 15 NE
scalpel blade 14W0709 30 test tube holder 15W0841 15 NE
scalpel handle 14W0707 30 NE thermometer ( 10 to
sciscors 14W0601 30 NE + 110° C) 15W 1460 15 NE
string 15W9836 1 NI can (10-12 cm dia local
14_2 aquarium 21W524 i 2 NE tin snips 14W0945 1 14F

battery Iar 17W 1003 3 NE 15 3 6athrooni scale 15W3760 15 NE

brushes watercolor ophygmnmanometer 14W5011 15 NE
type 15W3846 9 NE tape measure 15W3989 15 NE
compound microscopes 24W0410 9 16 1 stopwatch 15W2601 15 NE
crayfish, living 87W6030 E 16 2 alcohol prep pad 36W5519 30
crayfish, preserved 68W2802 2 anti-sera (Anti-A, Anti -B) 36W3034 1

culture, Daphnia 87W5200 1 blood componentsAV

culture fi.iydra 87W2020 1 aids 75W4080 1 NE
culture Plarrarra 87W2500 1 blood, human prepared
dissecting microscope 24W0710 9 NE slide 93W6540 1i NE
dissecting ru, idles 14W0650 6 NE blood-letting lancet
dropping pipets 17W0230 5 sterile 14W5501 30 f-
earthworm observation microscope slide glass 14 V35t.7 72
niber local 12 paper toweling 15W9850 1

earthworm, c c toothpicks 15WE-.840 60

prepare slide 92W 1840 3 NE 16 3 flask (250 ml) 181h0980 15 NE
earthworm, livir,g 87W4660 12 graduated cylinder (100
finger bowl 17W0550 3 NE ml) 17W0173 15 NE
frog, living 87W8217 3 paper local
frog, skeleton 65W2210 1 NE phenolphthalein solution
hand lens 25W 1400 NE (1' .) 09W2874
Hydra, I s prepared premeasured dry
slide 92W0633 3 NE sodium hydroxide 37W9546 1

paper local soda straws 15W9P42 1

paper toweling 15Wb850 1 stopwatch 15W'`hir 1 15 NE

pencils 15W9816 30 stopper. rubber (g6) 15 ,4136 15 NE
Plarlarra, sec prepared 17 2 colored pencil; 15W2576 4 Gets
slide 92W0830 3 NE meter stu.K 15W4065 15
Plarlarra, vim prepared metric ruler 15W4655 15 NE
slide 92W0810 3 NF probe. blunt 14W09E:0 15 NE
raw liver pieces local 22 18 1 balance 15W6020 15 NF
Syracuse watch glasses 17W0530 6 NE beaker 17W4040 15 istE
14,3 clock 15W2430 15 NE cardboard, heavy local F
dissecting pad 18W3645 15 NE cork borer (1 cm dia ) 15W 1665 15 NE
dissecting tray 14W8510 15 NE distilled water 88W7005 1

earthworm, living 87W4660 15 graph paper 15W9813 1

paper towels 15W9850 1 knife (12 cm blade) 14W1190 15 NE

thermometer 15W1460 15 NE petri dishes 18W7102 3 pkg 20 E
water bath 14W5734 15 NE potato local

3 0
T68 Appendix T2

Inv. 4; Item Catalog # Quantity TY Inv. # Item Catalog # Quantity TY

pre-measured. dry 19 3 beaker (liter) 17W4090 30 NE
sucrose solutions 37W9547 1 clamp, pinchscrew
refrigerator 15W8810 1 NE type 15W3911 30 NE
ruler, metric 15W4655 15 NE elodea, living 86W7500 1 E
18,2 bean seed 86W8(39 1 flask (250 ml) 17W2982 ",5 NE
cat,ti 86W6700 4 glass tubing (20 cm) 17W0941 1 pkg E
carrots local glass tubing (8 cm) 17W0941 1 E
coleus stem, c.s , light source 15W812C 1 NE
prepared slide 91W7831 15 NE needle (25 ga) 14W2303 15 E
coleus. living 86W6800 4 pipet (1 ml) 17W1305 30 E
compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE ring stand 15W0660 30 NE
dissecting microscope 24W0710 15 NE ring stand clamps 15W0646 30 NE
geranium 86W6900 4 rubber stoppers (2hole,
grass seed 86W8130 1 #4) 15W 8514 30 NE
pencils, colored 15W2576 2 sets rubber tubing 15W1033 1 pkg E
radish seed 86W8280 1 soda stray 15W9842 1 pkg E
Ranunculus root, c s syringe (10 cc) 14W1617 15 E
prepared slide 91W8142 15 NE test tubes (22 X 175
succulent plant, hvinct 86W6705 4 mm) 17W0757 30 NE
18 3 bean seed 86W8009 1 19.4 blotting paper 20W4700 1 pkg E
corn seed ;15."3080 1 cardboard boxes local E
FAA solution 39W1331 1 cellophane, blue-colored 14W8220 1 E
hand lens 25W 1400 15 NE cellophane, redcolored 14W8200 1 E
iodine solution 37V12380 1 corn seed 86W8080 1 F
iodine solution 39W 1685 1 cotton, absorbent 15W3830 1 E
petri plate 18W7101 4 pkg/20 E flowerpots (8 chi dia.) 20W2130 60 E
razor blade 14W4172 1 glassmarking pencil 15W1155 15 E
starch agar 88W0927 15 modeling day 36W4147 1 pkg E
18 4 corn seed 86W8080 1 petri dish (150 X 20
distilled water 88W7005 1 mm) 17W0738 15
filter paper 15W2835 1 radish seed 86W8280 1 E
glass-marking pencil 15W 1155 15 Scissors 14W0600 15 NE
ink 15W1913 1 soil 20W8306 1 E
pets plates 18W7101 2 pkg/20 E tape, cellophane 15W1957 1 E
razor blade 14W4172 1 20 1 bag, mastic 18W6940 30 E
ruler, metric 15W4655 15 NE beakti 150 ml) 17W4010 60 NE
tags 16W1873 1 pkg cardboard boxes with
toothpicks 15W9840 1 box covers 15W9852 30 E
19 1 acetone 39W0151 cardboard skips local E
bottle with cap, amber 17W2105 15 NE forceps 14W1000 15 NE
cap 17W2129 30 NE fungicide 20W6035 1 E
chromatoiar 11W5480 15 NE glassmarking pencil 15W1155 15 E
jar (4 oz) 17W2090 30 NE incubator 15W7; ^7 1 NE
microscope slides. glass 14W3500 72 lettuce seed 86W8155 1 E
mortar 15W3334 15 NE paper toweling 15W9850 1 E
pestle 15W3335 15 NE petri dish (partitioned) 18W7108 30 E
petroleum ether 39W 1235 1 radish seed 86W8250 1 E
pipets, Pasteu. 17W1140 30 refrigera to, 15W8810 1 NE
silica gel 37W8880 1 string 15W9808 1 E
spinach leaves local thermometer ( 10 to
stirring rod, glass 17W6010 15 NE + 110° C) 15W1460 15 NE
19 2 beaker (1000 ml) 17W4080 15 NE tomato seed 86W8340 1 E
heaker (400 ml) 17W4050 45 NE vetch seed 86W8350 1 E
ct.leus, Imng 86W6800 30 20 2 graph paper, arithmetic 15W9813 1 E
compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE graph paper, semi-log 15W9848 1 E
cotton, absorbent 15W3830 1 20,3 graph paper, arithmetic 15W9813 1 E
covershp, glass 14W3251 1 box pencil, red 15W2576 30 sets E
dropping pipet 17W0230 30 21 1 graph paper, arithmetic 15W9813 1 E
forceps 14W1000 30 NE pencil 15W9816 30 E
geranium, living 86W6900 4 21 3 ruler 15W4655 30 NE
hot plate 15W8025 15 NE skeleton, cat (mounted) 65W5205 1 NE
iodine solution 37W2380 1 skeleton, human
isopropyl alcohol (95%) 39W0277 1 (mounted) 82W3010 1 NE
microscope slides, glass 14W3500 72 22 1 graph paper, arithmetic 15W9813 1 E
paper local 22.4 bags 18W6940 30 E
Paper towels 15W9850 1 cap 17W2149 15 NE
petri dish 18W7101 3 pkg/20 E forceps 14W1000 30 NE
petroleum jelly 15W9832 1 hammer 12W0140 15 NE
razor blade 14W4172 1 jar (pint) 17W2050 15 NE
scissors 14W0600 30 NE meterstick 15W4065 15 NE
xylene 39W4515 1
metric tape 15W3989 15 NE

91
Appendix T2 T69

Inv. # Item Catalog # Quantity TY Inv. # Item Catalog Quantity T

pan, plastic 14W8500 15 NE A2 beaker (30 ml) 17W4000 15 NE

shovel, garden 20W7012 15 NE compound microscope 24W0416 15 NE
stakes (18-25 cm) 15W9849 120 NE cover slip, glass 14W3251 1 E
string 15W9808 1 dropping pipet 17W0230 15 E
trowel 20W7017 15 NE forceps 14W 1004 15 NE
wire screen (5 mm lens paper 15W8250 15 E
mesh)strainer 15W9834 15 NE magazine photographs local E
23.1 dissolved oxygen kit 21W0340 15 metric ruler 15W4655 15 NE
23.2 aquarium kit 110 gal.) 21Wb510 1 NE microscope illuminator 25W2900 15 NE
compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE microscope slide, glass 14W350` 72 E
coverslips. grass 14W3251 1 box newsprint strips local E
microscope slides. glass 14W3500 72 scissors 14W0600 15 NE
oipet. Pasteur 17W1I40 30 A3 beaker (30 ml) 17W4000 15 NE
23.3 compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE
t )verslips, glass 14W3251 1 box coverslip, glass 14W3251 1 E
colture, Daphnia 87W5210 1 dropping pipet 17W0230 15 E
culture, n ,xed iodine-potassium-iodide
crustaceans 87W5900 solution 37W2380 1 E
culture, Spirogyra 86W0650 1 lens paper 15W8250 15
dropping pipet 17W0230 30 microscope slide, glass 14W3500 72 E
elodea, living 86W7500 1 paper towel 15W9850 1 E
microscope slides, glass 14W351,0 144 white potato (pieces) local E
paper towels 15W9850 1 yeast susperioion 88W0929
premeasured, dry
sodium chloride 37W9549 1 E
?3.4 beaker (100 ml) 17W4020 NE
distilled water 88W7005
1
MATERIALS LIST: EXPENDABLES
1 E
filter paper 15W2836 1 E
funnel 17W0220 1 NE
Catalog #15 the listing for that item in the Ward's Natural
pH meter 15W245U 1 NE Science Establishment, Inc. catalog. "Quantity" is the
pH paper 15W2560 1 E maximum number of the item used in any investigation.
premeasured, dry
acid solution 37W9548 1
"Local" means the item should be availab:z locally.
24.2 compound microscope 24W0410 15 NE
coverslips, glass 14W3251 1

light source 15W8120 .5 NE Item Investigation CataIog # Quantity

microscope slides, glass 14W3500 72
pipet, Pasteur 17W1140 15 acetic acid solution (I%) 15 1 37W9544 1

pipet 14W3417 6 acetone 19 1 39W0151 1

test tubes (10 X 100 agar 11 1 38W0015 1

mm) 17W0610 90 NE Aga/dine/fa: preserved 12 2 63W0?q0 1

AI apron 15W-1005 30 NE alcohol prep pad 16 2 36W5519 30

beaker (100 ml) 17W4020 15 NE aluminum foil 23 15W 1009 1

Biostain. Brilliant Cresyl anti-sera (Anti-A, Anti-B),

Blue 37W9556 1 blood typing,
coverslips, glass 14W3251 1 monoclonal 16 2 38W3034 1

culture: Para, aeclum 871A 1310 1 antibiotic disk set 11.2 :8W0036 1

distilled water 88W7005 1 antiseptic disks set 11.2 :.W 1602

drooping pipets 17W0230 30 Ascophyllum, preserved 12 2 63W0310 1

ethyl alcohol, denatured 39W0273 1 as-corbc acid (vitamin C) 42 39W2005 1

eye goggles (chemical) 15W3119 30 NE bactoyeast 23 38W5800 1

forceps 14W 1005 1 NE bag, pinlic 20 1 18W6940 30

gloves (chemical) 15W 1085 30 NE bags 22 4 18W6940 30
hydrochloric acid; 1N 37W8605 1 bean seeus 3 3,18.2.18 3 86W8009
mic.oscope slides, glass 14W3500 72 beef extract 11 38W2123 1

petri dishes w/agar 88W0905 1 Benedict's solution 42 37W0702 1

pH paper strips 15W2564 1 Biostain. alizarin red 12 1 38W7040 1

phenol (crysts:- ) 39W2695 1 Biostain, brilliant cresyl

potassium hydroxide blue A1 37l/v9556 1

(pellets) 37W4750 1 Biostain, Congo Red 12.1 38W7004 1

protozoan slowing agent Biuret powder 4.2 37W0795

DETAIN 37W7951 15 Biuret solution 4.2 37W0790 1

red food dye 37W 1596 1 blade for scalpel 51 14W0709 30

sodium bicarbonate 37W5464 1 F. t ,00dletting lancet, sterile 16.2 14 V5501 3G
sodium chloride (rock uiotting paper 19 4 20W4700 1 pkg
salt) 37W5500 1 bowl: small 9.2 local 1

sodium hydroxide box: large 8.2 local

(pellets) 37W5560 1 brown wrapping paper 4.2 local
spatula 15W4310 15 NE buffer (pH 7) 4.1 37W5982
sugar (lumps) 39W3182 1 cacti 18 2 86W6700
vinegar (acetic acid) 39W0138 1 cardboard box 81 15W9 &52
white paper local cardboard boxes 19.4 ocal

92
 T 7,0 Appendix T2

Item Investigation Catalog ;I Quantity Item Investigation Catalog II Quan'ity

cardboard boxes with fresh liver 43 local
covers 201 15W9852 30 ir'.$11 mushrooms 123 via mushroom Kit
cardboard strips 20 1 local ..og blood 51 87W8217 1

cardboard, heavy 3 1.18 1 local frog living 14 2 87W8217 3

carrots 18 2 local fungicide 12 3.20 1 20W6035 1

cellophane. bluecolored 19 4 14 W8220 1 gelatin 2' soln 41 37W9535 1

cellophane, red-colored 19 4 14W8200 1 gelatin powder 41 37W9535 1

cellulose tubing, 20 cm geranium, living 18 2 19 2 86W6900 4

each 52 14W4517 2 glass-marking pencil 2 3 3 3,4 3,
Clinitest tablet 52 14W4112 1 11 1,112,184,
coleus plant living 6 1,18 2,19 2 86W6800 30 19 4,20 1 15W 1155 30
colored chalk 33 15W4635 15 glass tubing (20 cm) 193 17W0941 1 pkg
co ored pencils 17 2 15W2576 4 sets glass tubing (8 cm) 19 3 17W0941 1

cortainer for growth glass tumbler 123 local

medium 12 3 local glassmarking crayon 52 15W 1155 30
containers for 100 paper glucose 2 3,4 2 5 2 39W 1455 1

chips assorted colors 92 local 15 glue 83 15W9806 1

copper sv fate solution 12 3 37W2242 1 glycerine 123 39W 1438 1

corn seed 18 3, 18 4, 19 4 86W8080 graph paper arithmetic 2 1 2 2.

cotton absorbent 19 2,19 4 15W3830 1 3 3,9 I,
ooverslips grass 2 3,5 1, 18 1,20 2.
12 1,12 2, 20 3,21 1,
12 3,19 2 22 1 15W9813 1

23 2,233. graph paper semi-log 20 2 15W9848 1

24 2,A 1, crass seed 182 86W8130 1

A 2,A 3 14W3251 1 box handkerchierblindfold 15 1 local

crayfish. living 14 2 87W6030 3 human karyotyping kit 83 33W 1040 1

crayfish, preserved 14 2 68W2802 2 hydrochloric acid, 0 IN 12 1,4 1 37W8606 1

culture, Daphnia 23 3 87W5210 1 hydrochloric acid, IN Al 37W8605

culture., mixed hydrogen peroxide soln
crustaceans 233 87W5900 1 3" 43 37W8450 1

culture Pilobolus indophenol 42 39W 1670 1

crystaltinus 123 85W4671 1 ink 184 15W1913 1

culture Chfore.13 22 86W0126 1 iodine solution 5 2.18 3,19 2 37W2380 1

culture Asper,,,Ilus niger 123 85W4100 1 iodine potassium iodide

culture Dapnnia 14 2 87W5200 1 soln 5 1,A 3 37W2380 1

culture Eschen,ma coli 11 2 85W1860 1 isopropyl alcohol (95 ..) 19 2 39W0277 1

culture Hydra 14 2 87W2020 1 label pot 61 15W 1832 1

culture MINococcus Laminarra preserved 12 2 63W0335 1

luteus 11 2 85W 1915 1 lens paper A 2,A 3 15W8250 15

cullure, mixed diatoms 12 2 86W3021 1 lettuce seed 20 1 tieW8155 1

culture Paramecium 12 1.A 1 87W1310 1 liver, potato homocenate.s 41

cuttore Penic, 'urn Lugol's iodine 42,183 39W1685 1

notatum 12 3 85W476 1 magazine photographs A2 focal

calture, Pianana 14 2 87W2500 1 manganese croxide
ailture Spirogyra 12 2,23 3 86W0650 1 powder 43 37W2870 1

Culture Ilioftrux 12 2 8GIN0750 1 map outline, state of

culture. Zygnerna 12 2 86W0900 1 California 94 33W 1001 30
di, Oxygen tut 2? 1 21W0340 15 matches, salc:t 153 rocai
distilled water 2 3.4 3,12 1 methylene blue (atc ) soln 51 38W9525 1

18 1.18 4, methylene blue chloride

23 4,A 1 88W7005 1 biostain 51 36W8323 1

dropping met 2 3A 1,5 1, metric ruler 33 15W4655 30

12 1,12 2, microscope slide, glass 2 3,5 1,
14 2.19 2, 12 1.12 2,
23 3,A 1, 12 3,16 2,
A 2,A 3 17W0230 31 19 1.19 2,
e.arthworin observation 23 2.23 3,
chamber 14 2 local 12 24 2,A 1 14W3500 144
earthworm. living 14 2,14 3 87W4660 15 rniscl foods 42 local
egg while 41 local miscl solutions 15 1 local
elodea, Jiving 19 3,23 3 86W7500 1 modeling clay (red blue) 62 36W4147 1

elodea leaves 5I 86W7500 1 moss plants 13 I 86W4360 6

ethyl alcohol, denatured A1 39W0273 1 mushroom growth
MA solution 183 39W 1331 1 chamber 123 local
fetal pig, preserved 14.1 69W5712 15 mushroom growth kit 12 3 3(0/5600 1

filler paper 18 4 15W2835 1 mushroom growth medium 12 3 local

filter paper 23 4 15W2836 1 mushroom spore
fine sand 43 20W7425 1 suspension 123 85W6608 1

flower pot. shallow 61 local nail 15 3 local 1

flowerpots (8 cm dia,) 19.4 20W2130 60 needle (25 ga) 193 14W2303 15

IN, aluminum 12 1 15W 1009 newsprint Strips A2 loca'

93
 Appendix T2 T71

Item Investigation Catalog Quantity Item Investigation Catalog Quantity

non nutrient agar plates 82 88W0926 30 premeasured. dry quinine
nutrient agar 11 1 38W1200 1 sulfate solution 15 1 37W9545
nutrient agar plates 11,2 881N0905 60 premeasured, dry sodium
objects (50) of a kind 91 local chloride solution set 15 1,23 3 37W9549 1

onion 51 local 1 premeasured, dry, sodium

paper 12 3.14.2, hydroxide solution
16.3,19 2 local (04 %) 163 37W9546
paper clips, black 10 1 15V 9844 'd0 premeasured, dry.
paper clips, green 10 1 15111,9846 160 sucrose solutions set 18 1 37W9547 1

paper clips, red 10 1 15W984 t 160 premeasured, dfy,

paper clips, white 10 1 15W9845 160 sucrose solution,
paper cups 15 1 15W0830 v 15 1 37W9543 1

paper tows"' 3.3.5 1,14.2. protest slowing agent 12 1 37W7950

14.3,16 2. protozoan slowing agent
19 2.20 1, DETAIN A1 37W7951 15
23 IA 3 15W9850 radish seed 18 2,19 4,
paper black 12 1 15W9841 20 1 86w8280
r nuts/walnuts 0.2 g rainwater 33 local
pieces 15 3 local 15 raw liver pieces 14 2 local 22
pencil 1.2.8 3,21 1 15W9816 30 razor blade 5 3,18 3,
pencils, colored 9 4,12 1, 1C 4.19 2 14W4172 1

18.2.20.3 15W2576 30 set., red food dye A1 37W 1596

pennies 81 local rubber tubing 19 3 15W1033 1 pkg
peptone 23,11 1,12 1 39W2755 1 sand 61 20W7425
pets dish 18 3.18 4, scalpel blade 6 1,14 1 14W0709 30
19.2 18W7101 4 pkgs seed and fruit set '3 3 67W1149 15
petri dish (100 X 29 mm) 33 17W0736 30 ensitivity disks blank 11 2 38W 1600
pets dish (150 X 20 mm) 194 17W0738 15 smra gel 19 1 37VV8880 1

petri dish (partitioned) 20 1 18W7108 30 silver nitrate 42 37W5156

petri dishes 18 1 18W7102 3 pkgs small brush 12 3 15W3864 30
petri dishes with nutrient sodb straws 16 3.19 3 15W9842 1 pkg
agar 11 LA 1 88W0905 60 sodium bicarbonate A1 37W5464
petroleum ether 19 1 39W 1235 1 sodium chloride 42 37W5487
petroleum icily 19 2 15W9332 sodium chloride (rock
pH paper 4 1,23 4 15W2560 salt) A1 37W55C0
pH paper strips A1 15W2564 sodium hydroxide 53,A 1 37W5560
phenol (crystals) A1 39W2695 sodium hydroxide soln
Phenolphthalein agar 53 88W0928 0 IN 41 37W7803
phenolphthalein solution. sod 194 20W8306 1

10;) 16 3 39W2874 solutions pH from 2 to 7 33 37W9533 1

physiological saline spinach leaves 19 1 loco,

solution (amphibian) 51 37W4472 1 starch 4 2.5 2 39W3275 1

Pine Life history Set 13 3 63W0575 15 starch agar 183 88W0927 15

,pipe cleaner (4-6 cm) 62 15W985 , stone/broken flowe pot 61 local
pipet, Pasteur 19 1,23 2. string 5 2,14 1,
24.2 17W 1140 30 20 1,22 4 15W9808 1

pipet 19 3.24 2 17W 1305 30 succulent plant, living 182 86W6705 4

plastic bag (12" X 16") 61 18W6940 30 sugar (lumps) A1 39W3182 1

Pnrphyra. preserved 122 63W0395 1 swabs cotton, sterile 11 1,15 1 14W5502 1

potassi..n hydroxide syringe (10 cc) 193 14W 1617 15

(pellets) A1 37W4750 1 table of relative humidities 31 23W127 i
potassium phosphate, tablecloth fabric (3' X 6') 92 local 1

monobasic 23 37W4845 1 tags 184 15W 1873 pkg

potatu 4 3,18 1 Ir :al tap water 41 local
premeesured, dry, acid tape, cellophane 83,11 1,
solution (pH 4) 23 4 37W9548 1 11 2,19 4 15W1957
premeasured, dry, 10% TeS- tape 52 14W4107
gelatin solution 42 38W3030 1 lin can (10-12 cm
premeasured, dry, 04% diameter) 152 local
sodium hydroxide tobacco seeds 82 86W8345 1

solution 53 37W9546 I tomato seeds 20 1 86W8340 1

premeasured. dry, 1% toothpicks 5 1.16 2,18 4 15W9840 1 box

silver-nitrate solution 42 71W9555 I umbrella 31 local
premeasured, dry; 10% vegetable oil 4.2 37W9539 1

starch solution 4.2 37W9537 I vetch seed 20 1 86W8350 1

premeasured, dry, 10% vinegar (acetic acid) A1 39W0138 1

glucose solution 4.2 37W9536 I water, distilled 11 1 88W7005 1

premeasured, dry; 2911 white potato (pieces) A3 local

sodium chloride solution 42 37W9549 I wrapping paper 62 local
jpremeasured, dry; xylene 192 39W4515 1

indophenol solution 4.2 37W9542 I yeast suspension 12 1,A 3 88W0929 1

premeasured, dry, vitamin

C solution 4i2 37W9538 1
 T72 Appendix T2

MATERIALS LIST: NONEXPENDABLES Item Investigation Cat.:: Quantity

Catalog # is the listing for that item in the Ward's Natural frog. skeleton 14 2 65W2210 1

Science Establishment, Inc. catalog. "Quantity" is the funnel 23 4 17W0220 1

gloves chemical A1 15W1085 30

maximum number of items used in any investigation.
graduated cyl,nder (10 ml) 42 17W0180 5
graduated cylinder (10 ml) 15.3 17W0170 15
graduated cylinder (50 a) 41 17W0182 15
Item Investigation Cat.:: Quantity graduated cylinder (100 mll 16.3 17W0173 15
graduated cylinder (125 ml) 2.3 17W0184 15
Album root lip, microscope hammer 15.3 12W0140 15
slide 54 91W7040 15 hand lens 1 1,8 2,
Animal Kingdom Survey Set 1,1 67W9900 14.2,18.3
1
25W1400 30
apron A1 15W1005 30 hot plate 2.3,4 2,
aquarium 14 2 21W5241 2 4.3.19 2 15W8025 15
aquarium kit (10 gal ) 232 21W6510 Hydra, Is . prepared slide 14 2
1
92W0633 3
balance 2 3.15 3.18 1 15W6020 15 incubator 20 1 15W7527 1
bathroom scale 15 4 15W3760 15 jar (4 oz) 19 1 17W2090 30
battery jar 142 17W1003 3 jar (pint) 22.4 17W2050 15
beaker 15 1,18 1 17W4040 30 knile 12.3 14W1195 15
beaker (liter) 19 3 17W4090 30 knife (12 cm blade) 18 1 14W1190 15
beaker (1000 ml) 5 2.19 2 17W4080 30 light source 12 1,19.3,24.2 15W8120 15
beakers (400 ml) 19 2 17W4050 45 meter stick 3 1,17.2,22.4 15w4065 15
beaker (250 ml) 2 3,4 2, metric ruler 1 1.4.3,12.2 14W0810 30
4.3,5 3 17W4040 15 metric ruler 9 1,12.3,14,1,
beaker (100 ml) 23 4,A 1 17W4020 15 17,2.A.2 15W4655 30
beaker (50 ml) 4 1.20 1 17W4010 60 metric tape 22.4 15W3989 15
beaker (30 ml) A 2.A 3 17W4000 15 microscope 2.3 24W0410 15
blender 41 15W2675 microscope illuminator 12.2,A 2
1
25W2900 15
blood components, AV aids 16 2 75W4080 mm ruler (12-inch) 15E4655
1 1 1 30
blood, human prepared slide 16 2 93W6540 15 mortar 4 3.19 1 15W3334 15
bottle with cap amber 19 1 17W2105 15 moss plant. fresh 13 1 86W4250 4
brushes watercolor type 14.2 15W3846 9 needle 15.3 14W0200 15
Bunsen burner 2 3.4 2 15W0610 15 pan, plastic 22 4 14W3500 15
calculators (optional) 22 27W2060 15 pestle 4 3.19 1 15'N3335 15
cap 31 17W2050 15 pH meter 41 15W2431 1
cap 19 1 17W2129 30 pH meter 23 4 15W2450 1
cap 22 4 17W2149 15 pint jar 31 17W2050 15
chromatojar 19 1 14W5480 15 Planana, sec prepared slide 14.2 92W0830 3
clamp, pinch screw type 19 3 15W3911 3() Planana, w m , prepared slide 14 2 92W0810 3
clock 14 3 15W2430 15 pliers, needle nose 15 3 15W9833 1
coleus stern. C s prepared pocket calculator 21 27W2060 1
slide 182 91W7831 15 probe, blunt 14.1 17.2 14W0950 15
compound microscope 5 1,5 4,12 1, Ranuncuus root. c s
12 2,12.3. prepared slide 182 31w814: 15
14.2.18 2, ri.frigemtor 18 1,20 1 15W8810 1

19 2.23 2. ring stand 19.3 15W0660 30

23 3.24 2. ring stand clamps 15W0646 30
A 2,A 3 24W0410 15 rubber stoppers (2 hole, #.-/ 19 3 15W8514 30
Cork borer (1 cm dia.) 18 1 15W 1665 15 ruler, metric 18.1.18 4.21 3 15W4655 30
cork 15 3 15W8350 15 saucer/shallow pan 61 14W 1548 15
cork pad 15 3 14W7602 15 scalpel 5 1,6 1.14.1 14W0707 30
dissecting microscope 8,2,11 1,12 3. ccissors 3.3,8.3.
4 2,18 2 24W3710 15 19.2,19 4./1/4.2 14W0600 30
dissecting needle 5 1.14 1.14 2 14W0650 60 scissors 14 1 14W0601 30
dissecling pad 14 1.14 3 18W3645 15 shovel, garden 224 20W7012 15
dissecting tray 14 1,14 3 14W8510 15 skeleton, cat (mounted) 21.3 65W5205 1
dropping bottle 42 17W5401 5 skeleton, human (mounted) 21,3 82W3010 1
earthworm, c C . prepared small test tube rack 4.3 18W4260 15
slide 14 2 92W1840 3 spatula A1 15W4310 15
eye goggles. chemical A1 15W3119 30 spatula 23 15W4300 15
filamentous moss, prepared specimens. 10 labeled
slide 13 1 91W4311 15 organisms 13 2 67W9700 1 set
finger bowl 14 2 17W0550 3 sphygmomanometer 15 4 14W5011 15
"flask (125 ml) 23 17W2981 30 st-kes (18-25 cm) 22 4 15W9849 120
fla:k (250 ml) 16 3 18W0980 15 stereomicroscope 1 1 24W0710 15
flask (250 ml) 19 3 17W2982 15 stirring rod. glass 2.3,19 1 17W6010 15
forceps A1 14W1005 stop watch 3 1,16.1,16.3
1 15W2601 15
forceps 5 1,8 2, stopper (02) 12 1 15W8462 30
11.2,A 2 14W1004 30 stopper, rubber (#6) 16.3 15W8466 15
forceps 4 3,19 2, swab, cotton, sterile 11,2 14W5502 15
20 1,22 4 14W1000 30 Syracuse watch glass 14 2,15 1 17W0530 15
 Appendix T2 T73

Item Investigation Cat.: Quantity a 5 percent solution (b) weight %Ante) of a salt, put 5 g
tape measure
of the salt into a graduated cylinder and dilute to 100 ml
15 4 15W3989 15
teasing needle 12.2 14W0650 15 with distilled water. Care in mixing such sola,ions is most
test tube 52 17W0630 1 important.
test tube (18 X 150 mm) 12 1 17W8462 30
test tube (18 X 150 mm),
heatresistant 4.3.15 3 17W0840 15 Molar Solutions
test tube holder 153 15W0841 15
test tube rack 12 1 18W4256 lb To prepare a molar solution, dissolc the number of grains
test tube (13 X 190 mm) 4 2,24 7. 17W0610 30 equal to a..., molecular mass of the subst.mee in distilled
test tube (22 X 175 mm) 19 3 17W0757 30
water (or other solvent) and dilute to I liter. For example,
thermometer ( 10 to 3 1.14 3,15 3.
+ 110° C) 20 1 15W 1460 15 the molecular mass of hydrochloric acid is 36.5, therefore
thermometer w Lofton sleeve 3 1 14 3.2u 1 1b4 1460 lb 36.5 g of concentrated 11C1 is dissuIN ed in enough distilled
tin snips 15 3 14W0945
trowel
1
water to make I i ;er of solution. The solution is written
22 4 20W7017 15
waste tar (bottle) lb 1 16W9706 lb as a I Al MCI. Fractional -molar solution., are prepared in
water bath 3 14W5734 15 the same way. For example. a 0.1 M solution of MCI con-
wire screen (5 mm mesh).
strainer
tains 0.1 X 36.5, or 3.65 g of PCI per liter of solution. A
22 4 15W9834
I molar sclution of sodium chioride contains 0.4 X 58.45
(grains equal to the molecular mass of the substance), or
23.3'd g of NaCI per liter of solution.
RECIPES FOR SOLUTIONS AND MEDIA

PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS Molecular Masses of Some Common Compounds

acetic acid 60 05
Percentage Solutions 11 diochloric acid 36 46
sodium hydroxide 40.01
a. Percentage by volume calcium chloride 74 55
In diluting concentrations of solutions that must be IagneSium chloride 95.23
measured by volume, first take the solution (of any per- sodium chloride 58 45
centage greater than the required concentration) and sulfuric acid 98 08
measure out the required concentration percentage in
milliliters. No calcultaion is needed: if you are preparing Normal Solutions
a 40% solution, measure out 40 nil. Then add sufficient
The normality of a solution k &term, by the number
distilled water to bring the volume to the percentage-of
of gram equivalents of solute per liter of se floe.. A gram
the original solution in milliliters. Again, no calculation
equivalent is the a moon of solute containing I gram atom
is needed. For exainple, if you have 95 Percent alcohol on
of hydrogen (1.008 g). A normal solution of an acid,
hand and wish to prepare a 50 percent alcohol solution,
therefore, contains I gram atom (1.008 g) of reacting hy-
measure out 50 ml of the 95 percent alcohol and add suf-
drogen per liter of solution.
ficient distilled water to bring the volume to the per-
Solutions that have I hydrogen ion, or I hydroxyl ion,
centage of the original solution, in this case 95 ml.
or I of any ion that combines with a hydrogen or a hy-
b. Percentage by weight* droxyl, have the same normality as mat rity. For example,
To prepare solutions by weight, place the specified a I molar (I Al) solution.uf I .C1 (11;druk.hluric acid) is
number of grams of the material iu a beaker and add suf- also a I normal (I A) solution, because I gram molecule
ficient soive.n (in most cases distilled water) to make a of ! ICI contains I- awnt of h)drugcn. A gram mol-
total of 100 g. For example, to prepare a 5 percent (by ecule of IiC1 i.. therefore Loa: to I grain etitiiwier
weight) solution of a salt, dissolve 5e, of the salt in 95 g A I N su'attion of 112SO4 (sulfuric acid), hose% er, con-
of water. Often biological solutions are specified in terms tains hail the amount of 112SO4 found in I ,%1 solution.
of weight (mass) and volume. In this case, the specified That is because !12SO4 contains 2 reacting hydrugeib, or,
number of grants of the material is placed in-a graduated in other words, because I grant molecule of 112SO4 (98 g)
cylinder and water (or other solvent) is added: sufficient contains 2 gram atoms of hydrogen. Because a gram
to make a total volume of 100 ml. For instance, to picpare equit client, by definition, contains just 1 gram a;um 01 hy-
drogen, a grain equivalent of 1-12SO4 contains half of a
grant molecule (98 g ÷ 2 = 49 g).

0 'Although it is technically correct to speak of such solutions as per-

centage of mass, we shall retain, the traditional term percentage of weight.

pc), 96
T74 Appendix T2

The general formula for normality is as follows: Agar, starch

15 g aear
()ram equivalents of solute
normality = 10 g starch
liters of solution
Add enough distilled water to make I I solution. Mix
or
and autoclave before use.
gram molecules of solute
normality =
total valence of positive or nepative ions Alkali-iodide-azide solution
X liters of solution 50 g NaOH
15 g K1
50 ml water
Other Solutions
1 g NaN3 (sodium azide)
If the formula you seek is not in thii list, check the list of 4 ml water
materials of the specific inquiry for additional informa-
tion.
Add NaOH and KI to 50 ml water and fill to 100 ml.
CAUTION: In preparing acid and basic solutions, never
Dissolve I g NaN3 in 4 m; water and add to NaOH KI
solution.
add water to concentrated bases or acids. Add the con-
centrated chemical slowly and carefully to the water to
Benedict's solution
avoid violent bubbling and splashing.
173 g sodium or potassium citrate
200 g crystalline sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) (or
Acetic acid (Percentage by volume preparation.)
100 g anhydrous Na,CO3)
1% solution:
17.3 g crystalline copper sulfate (CuSO4)
I ml glacial acetic acid (CH3C001-1)
1000 ml distilled water
99 ml distilled water
10% solution: This solution will detect 0.15% to 0.20% dextrose by
10 ml glacial acetic acid fol ming a yellow-red precipitate of cuprous oxide when
90 ml distilled water heated with the "unknown.- Benedict's solution can be
purchased ready-made.
Agar, nonnutrient Dissolve the carbonate and citrate in 700 ml of the
1.5 g agar water. Warm the water to speed solution. Filter. Dissolve
100 ml hot water the copper sulfate in 100 ml of water. Slowly add the 100
ml solution to the 700 ml solution while stirring con-
Dissolve the agar in the hot water.
stantly. Cool. Add water to make 1000 ml.
Agar, nutrient
Biuret reagent
I distilled water
3 g copper sulfate (CuSO4)
23 g nutrient agar (or
12 g potassium tartrate
5 g peptone
I I distilled water
3 g beef extract
600 ml 10% sodium hydroxide (Na01-1)
15 g agar)
This reagent may be purchased ready-made, or pre-
Heat the distilled water until it is hot but not boiling.
pared as follows: dissolve the copper sulfate and potas-
Dissolve agar in the water, add peptone and beef extract.
sium tartrate in the distilled water. Add the 10% sodium
Pour into test tubes or other containers and sterilize in an
hydroxide with constant stirring.
autoc'-,ve at 9 kg (20 pounds) pressure or in a pressure
CAUTION: Sodium hydroxide is very caustic. In pre-
cooker at 6.8 kg (15 pounds) pressure for 15 minutes at
paring ID% sodium hydroxide the solution will get hot
121° C.
as the sodium hydroxide dissolves.
Agar, oatmeal
Buffer solution
36.25 g Bacto oatmeal
12.2 g Na2HPO4
7.5 g agar
12.0 g NaH2PO4
1000 ml distilled water
distilled water
-40 g baby oatmeal
Buffer solution pH 7 can be purchased or prepared. To
Mix agar, Bacto oatmeal, and 700 ml distilled water
prepare, mix together in equal proportions 0.1 M solu-
over heat to melt. Combine 40 g baby oatmeal and 300
tions of Na21-1PO4 and NaH2PO4.
ml distilled water; add to agar mixture.
 Appendix T2 T75

0.1 M Na2HPO4: dissolve 12.2 g Na2EIP04 in distilled Methylene blue solution

water in a volumetric flask and fill to the 1000 ml mark. 1.48 g meth) lene blue d) e
0.1 M NaH2PO4: dissolve 12.0 g NaH1PO4 in distilled 100 ml 95% ethyl alcohol
water in a volumetric flask and fill to the 1000 ml mark.
Add dye to the alcohol. Let stand for 2 days, stirring
frequently. Filter and store as stock solution. To use, add
FAA (Formaldehyde, Alcohol, Acetic acid) solution
10 ml stock solution to 90 ml distilled water.
50 ml 95% ethyl alcohol
2 ml glacial acetic acid
Paramecium culture
I 0 ml 40% formaldehyde
4-5 outer lettuce leaves
40 ml distilled water
I I water

Combine the above ingredients. 100 ml beakers (or baby food jars)
Boil lettuce leaves in water for 10 minutes. Half fill the
Hydrochloric acid solutions
beakers or jars with the water and add a piece of the boiled
I M solution:
lettuce to each. Let cool, add dropperful of Paramecium
36.5 g concentrated hydrochloric acid (I-ICI)
culture. Allow 3 or 4 days for cultures to become rich.
Slowly add acid to distilled water to form I I of solu-
tion. pH solution
0.1 itl solution: distilled water
3.65 g (approximately 9.3 ml) concentrated FICI dilute HCI
Sim% 1). add acid to distilled water to form I I o: solu- p11 1. boil distilled water to dri%c off the carbon dioxide.
tion. Normal solutions of HO are the same as the molar pH 6. start with 1500 ml of distilled water_ Add small
ones. amounts of HCI to the water, checking the pH (with a pH
meter or narrow-range pH paper) until a pH of 6 is
Iodine solution, dilute (Lugol's iodine) reached. Pour off 300 ml of this for the pH 6 solution.
10 g potassium iodide (KI) pH 5: using the remainder of the pH 6 solution, con-
5 g iodine crystals tinue adding dilute FICI until a pH of 5 is reached. Pour
100 ml distilled water off 300 ml of this for the pH 5 solution.
pH 4, 3, 2: continue the above procedure until the pH
Dissolve KI in distilled water and add iodine. For del-
2 solution is reached. Label the bottles clearly and keep
icate work, this solution must be diluted further.
tightly stoppered.
Iodine, potassium iodide solution (Gram's iodine)
Phenolphthalein-agar blocks
3 g potassium iodide (K1) dissolved in 25 ml dis-
I g phenolphthalein powder
tilled water
20 g agar
0.6 g iodine
I I water
200 ml distilled water
(yields about I I of blocks)
Add the iodine to the KI solution and stir until dis-
solved. Add sufficient distilled water to make 200 ml so- Mix 20 g agar with I I water. Bring to a boil, stirring
lution. Store in dark bottle. Can be used wherever iodine continuously. Let the mixture cool. Before it solidifies, stir
in I g phenolphthalein powder for each liter of water. If
stain is needed.
the mixture is pink, add a few drops of dilute HCI until
Indoohenol solution (2,6-Dichloroindoplienol) the pink disappcars. Pour mixture a : tle over 3 cm deep
0.1% solution: into a square or rectangular flat pan. When solidified, cut
0.1 g indophenol the agar into blocks the desired size.
100 ml distilled water
Physiological saline solution
Lugol's iodine (see Iodine solution, dilute) 7 g NaCI
I I distilled water

Manganese sulfate solution Combine NaCi with water.

48 g MnSO4
95 ml water
Add MnSO4 to water; fill to 100 ml. Agitate intermit-
tently until clearness indicates thorough solution.

`;98
T76 Appendix T2

Ringer's solution (amphibian) Start, cultures on a weekly basis. The temperature

0.14 g. KC' should be kept as close as possible to room temperature
6.50 g NaCI (22° C).
0.12 g CaCl2
Physarum polycephalum from dried selerottum:
0.02 g NaHCO3
The orange-colored incrustations on the slips of filter
500 ml distilled water
paper are the selerotial stage. To activate the Physarum.
Dissolve salts in water and mix thoroughly. Add dis- prepare iauisturk. Jut iiibt.r as described abuse. Howe% er,
tilled water to bring volume to 1000 ml. after moistening, drain off the execs water and add a
dropperful of distilled water dad) to prevent drying. Place
Saline solutions (sodium chloride) a piece of the selerotium (sLlerotial side up) in the center
sodium chloride of the moisture dumber in contact with three flakes of
distilled water uncooked rolled oats. Cover the dish and keep at room
I% solution: dissolve I g NaCI in distilled water in a temperature. away from direct sunlight. Within 24 hours
volumetric flask and fill to 100 ml mark.
the plasmodium should have become nth e. As the plas-
modium advances from the initial oatmeal food, new flakes
2% solution: dissolve 2 g NaCI in distilled water: fill to
should be placed in its path. At this stage the instructions
100 ml.
for the culture of the plasmodia' stage can be followed.
5% solution: dissolve 5 g NaCI in distilled water: fill to
100 ml.
Sodium hydroxide
Saturated solution: 360 g sodium chloride per liter of
0.1 M or 0.1 N solution:
distilled water.
g sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Silica gel slurry Add distilled water to form 11 of solution. CAUTION:
20 g silica gel H Handle sodium hydroxide with care-- it is caustic!
70 ml acetone
Soluble Starch Solution
Combine ingredients. CAUTION: Acetone is toxic and
10 g soluble starch
extrenzely flammable.
500 ml water
Siher nitrate solution 1 rif' solution: Add 10 g soluble starch to 500 ml water.
1% solution: Stir or shake. and then filter. If you cannot obtain soluble
I g silver nitrate (AgNO3) starch, try launar) starch. Filter it through cloth and then
100 ml distilled water through filter paper. Some brands of soluble starch are
reported to diffuse through cellular membranes, so the
Slime-mold culture (plasmodium ur sclerutium) starch should be tested More bang used by students. For
Physarunz polycerhalun: 0.2"; solution. use 0.2 g starch and 100 ml water; for 0.5(7f,
petri dish (150 mm) 'se 0.5 g starch and 100 ml water, for use 2 g starch
culture bowls (22.6 cm X 8.2 cm) and 100 ml water, and so on.
coarse filter paper
oatmeal (not instant) Sodium thiosulfate solution
1.4 g Na2S202 5H20
Using Physarunz polycephaluni plasmodium:
285 ml water
Place half of a 150 mm petri dish face up in the center
of a large piece of coarse filter paper. Wrap the filter paper Combine abuse ingredients. I ill to 3U0 ml.
around the dish. Invert this inside a large culture bowl to
form a platform. Lift an oat grain which is covered with Sucrose solution
the plasmodium. If the plasmodium is wandering from the 1.0 M solution. 342 g sut.rose water to make
oats in the tube, a fresh oat grain may be placed in contact 1000 in'
with the mass, and it will soon be covered. 0.2 M solution. Mix I part 1.0 M solution to 4 parts
Place several of these encrusted grains in the center of water.
the moisture-chamber; cover with culture bowl or piece of 0.4 M solution. Mix 2 parts 1.0 M solution to 3 parts
glass. As the plasmodium begins to wander and abandons water.
the oat grains, remove them and place fresh ones in con- 0.6 M solution. Mix 3 parts 1.0 M solution to 2 parts
tact with the advancing plasmodial front. Moisten each wa ter.
grain with a drop of water from the chamber.

99
Appendix T2 T77

If solutions arc prcpared more than 1 day in ad% ance, Yeast suspension
they should be stored in a ref, igcrator to limit grow th of 1 g peptone
microorganisms. 1/2 packct dry ycast
500 ml of 5-10% molasscs diluted in distillcd watcr
Tissue homogenate
Culture the ycast suspcnsion for at (cast 12 hours at
10 g potato or 10 g liver
25-30° C; or boil the mixture just Wore using and add
100 ml distilled water
a pinch of Congo rcd powder.
Blend potato or liver with the distillcd water. Thc
antlunt of tissuc used influenccs the buffering capacity of
a homogenate.

Yeast culture
1 g dricd ycast
5 ml tap watcr
250 nil of 5-10% molasscs dilutcd in distillcd watcr
Mix ycast and tap watcr to form paste. Stir the paste
into molasses solution. Place uncovered in warm, dark
place. Prcpare scvcral hours bcforc use.

CHEMICAL SAFETY INFORMATION HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS OR MIXTURES

Plcasc note Thc information contained herein is fur- The following chemicals ur mixtures arc hazardous, i.c.
nishcd w ithout warranty of any Lad. Edui.aturs should ca..h displays one or more of the following charactcristics.
usc-this information only as a Supplement to other infor- flammability, corrosivity, rcactis it), or toxicity.
mation gatheral by them. and must make independent Names of chemicals are as they appear in the imcsti-
determinations of suitabilit) and ..ompkt..ncss of infor- gations. The number in parentheses following the name is
mation from all suur..es to aNsure proper use of these ma- the index number for the Merck Index, 10th cd.. refer to
terials and the health and safety uf both S tud .nts and this resource if furthcr information is nccdcd. The inves-
themselves. tigation // in which the chcmical or mixturc is uscd is also
given.
NON-HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS Storage. Kccp all containers tightly closcd when not in
The following substances or mixtures are considered to be use. Rcad label carcfully.bcforc using.
non-hazardous; thcy do no meet published criteria of es- Disposal: Check appropriate state, federal, and local
-tgblished hazard charactcristics or are not specifically -regulations before disposing of any hazardous materials.
regulated as hazardous substances. First Aid: For emergency information concerning
chcmical hazards or accidcnts, call CFIEMTR EC at (800)
424-9300 (24-hour scrvicc). You may Nish to post this
Substance/Mixture Investigation(s)
numbcr near the phone.
Agar 82
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) 42
Bactoyeast 23
Buffer (pH 7) (phosphate buffer) 41
Clinitest tablets (consumer commodity
read product literature before using)
POISON 52
Gelatin (powdt. /2,4sotutron) 41,42
Glucose (dextrose sugar) 23 42 52
Glue (consumer commodity) 83
Nutrient agar 111, 112
Peptone 23, 111, 121
Petroleum jelly 192
Physiological saline (frog ringer's) 51
Potassium phosphatemonobasic 23
Starch solution (10?,7) starch agar 42.52. 183
Sodium chloride (solutions) 42,233
Sucrose (solutions) 151 181
Red food dye A1
Rock salt (halite, sodium chloride) A.1
Sugar A1
Vegetable oil 4.2
Yeast suspension A 3, 121 r)

100
 Name (Merck 10th ed. Health Effects First Aid
Index tt; Investigation #)
Skin ContaCt Eye Contact Ingestion
Acetic acidglacial Skin eye contact produces Wash immediately with soap Irrigate watt water immediately Rinse mouth, uive a glasses
(47; inv. 15.1) immediate damage and water for 15 min., including under milk, water. Get medical
eyelids; seek medical attention immediately. Do not
attention immediately, allow to vomit.
>
permanent damage may result '
Acetic acid solution 1% Irritating by eye contact. Wash affected rheas with Irrigate with water for 15 mm . Data indn.ates row ingestion -i
(47; inv. 15.1) soap and water. including under eyelids. If hazard. .
irritation persists. consult
physician
Acetone Irritating to eyes and skin Wash with soap and water Irrigate with i..ater f ar 15 min . Give 2 glasses water, induce
(58. inv 19.1) Vapors may cause headache. Consult physician if irritation including under eyeeds Get ,,umiting (i.onscious person).
nabsea. persists. medical attention Get medical attention. . g

i.
Acid solutionpH 4 0 Irritant to eyes. mucous Wash with soap and water. Irrigate with water for 15 min , Do not inGuce vomiting. Give
(N 'A: inv. 23.4) membranes, skin consult physician if irritation including under eyelids Get hmew ate, and water to drink,
persists. medical attention Get medical attention.
Alizarin Red S Avoid direct contact with skin Wash affected areas with Irrigate with running tap water k,ontact physician.
(8402; inv. 12,1) and eyes; avoid dusting soap and water 15 min., including under
conditions, eyelids Get medical attention
Benedict's solution Toxic via ingestion, irritant Wash immediately with water Irrigate with water for 15 min.. Give 2-3 glasses water to
(N 'A, inv. 4.2) corrosive to skin, eyes. Get medical attention, including under eyelids dilute. Do no induce vomiting.
mucous membranes. Consult physician if irritation Contact physician
persists. immediately, .
Biuret powder Avoid creating dusting Wash well with soap and Irrigate with water for 5 min., Give milk or water, induce
(1303. inv. 4 2) conditions. A diuretic if water including under eyelids. Seek vomiting (conscious individual
ingested. medical attention if irritation only). Contac.,physician at
persists. once.
Biuret solution Contains :0 t, KOH. can Wash promptly with water 15- Irrigate with water for 15 min., Immediately dilute by taking
(N A, inv. 4.2) produce burns upon body 20 min Contact physician if including under eyelids Get large volumes of milk, water.
contact. injury results medical attention. Speed in Neutralize with vinegar. Do not
contacting important. induce vomiting.
Brilliant cresyl blue Toxicology not investigated, Wash area with soap and Irrigate with water for 15 min., Induce vomiting (conscious
(1350, inv A.1) keep away from skin and water. contact physician if including under eyelids, person only), Get medical
eyes. irritation persists. contact physician if irritation attention.
persists
Congo Red Benz:dine-derived dyestuff Wash with soap and water. Irrigate with tap water for 15 Induce vomiting (conscious
(2465. inv 12 1) minimize exposure upon Consult physician if irritation min., including under eyelids. individual only). Get medical
handlng. persists. Get medical attention if attention. CAUTIONtots may
irritation persists. contain benzidine.
Copper sulfate (20% aqueous) Toxic by ingestion, irritant to Wash with soap and water Irrigate with water for i5 min . Drink laiim quantity of milk or
(2645. inv. 12.3) skin, eyes. Toxic to fish and Consult physician if irritation including under eyelids water Gail physician
wildlife in low concentrations persists. Contact physician if irritation immediate Y,
persists.
Denalared ethyl alcohol 951 Liquid POISUNOUS by Wash with soap and water Irrigate with water for I5 min.. Give 2 glasses water, induce
(213, inv A.3) ingestion Irritating to skin, Consult physician if irritation inciudmj under eyelids Get vomiting (conscious individual
eyes, nose. persists medical attention if irritatio: only). Get medical attention
persists. :,nmediately,

DETAIN I Non-toxic Wash with soap and water Flush with water for 15 min., Not a hazard via this route:
(N/A: inv. 12.1) including under eyelids low absorption hazard.

Embalming fluid Toxic by ingestion, most Wash area with soap and Irrigate with water for 15 min_ Give 3 glasses milk/water,
(N A, inv. 14.1) solutions contain phenol water for 10 minutes including under eyelids Get induce vomiting immediately
Material can be skin medical attention (conscious individual only).
sensitizing. Irritant to eyes, Get medical attention at once.
skin, mucous membranes.
Fixative.
rAA solution (Formalin. Irritant to eyes, skin, mucous Wash with soap and water. Irrigate with water for 15 min., Give 2 glasses water to dilute.
Alcohol. Acetic acid soln ) membranes. Fixative Consult physician if ir..lation including under eyelids Allow to vomit (conscious
(NIA; inv. 18 3) persists. Contact physician individual only); Contact
immediately physician immediately.

Formalin-5% Irritant to skin, eyes, nose and Wash with soap and water. Irrigate with water for 15 min., Give 3 glasses milk or water,
(4120. my 14 2) mucous membranes Material consult physician 4 irritation including under eyelids. Jet indu e vomiting (conscious
can be skin sensitizing. persists. medical attention. individual only). Get medical
Fixative. attention immediately.
Glycerine Mild eye irritant Wash with soap and water Irrigate with water for 15 mm., Give conscious individual large ,
(4347; inv. 12.3) Consult physician if irritation including under eyelids, amounts of water. induce
persists. Consult physician st irritation vomiting.
persists.
Hydrochlr ,-ici Vapors, mists, liquid, highly Wash with soap and water for Irrigate with water for 20 min., Do not induce vomiting. Give
(4682, in. 4 , 12 1) corrosive Avoid contact 15 min. Seek medical including under eyelids Get limewater, water to drink. Get
attention medical attention immediately. medical attention immediately.

Hydrochloric acid solution Irritant to skin, eyes, mucous Wash with soap and water. Irrigate with water for 15 min . Do not induce vomiting. Give
0.1N membranes consult physician if irritation including under eyelids Get limewater and water to drink,
(4682; inv. 4.1. 12.1) persists. medical attention if irritation Got medical attention
persists. immethatr ty
Information in this table courtesy Ward's Natural Science Establishment. Inc.
01
 Protection Spill
;inhalation Storage Safety Equipment
Remove to fresh air, rinse Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Neutralize with sodium bicarbonate, flush
:mouth and nasal passages, direct sunlight. Store in acid cabrie: apron, eyewash station. chemical fume to drain. Be sure material is neutral by
hood (explosi,-a-prool). pH test. Flush with copious amounts of
water.

Data indicates low inhalation Store in cool, dry location awuy from Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Neutralize v.th sodium bicarbonate.
'-' hazard. direct sunlight. apron. eyewash station, confirm with pH test. Flush neutralized
material to drain with copious amounts of
water.
4Vemove to fresh air. Get 'Cool, dry location, away ,:em direct Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Eliminate all sources of ignitior. Take up
,.medical attention. sunlight, oxidizing materialsanc flame. apron, eyewash station in close small spills onto absorbent material and
. proximity. Avoid skin contact. Local place in non-leaking containers. Seal.
exhaust ventilation recommended.
Remove to fresh air. Get Store in cool, dry location away; from Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Neutralize with NaOH oi sodium
'..>riledicat attention. direct sunlight. epron, eyewash station bicarbonate. Mix, test with phi paper.
1:.: _ ,
Place in sealed container.
illemove to fresh air. Give CPR Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Treat as inert solid.
if iaquired, Get medical direct sunlight. apron, eyewash station.
- 'attention.
'(Mists) Remove to fresh air. Store in coo., dry locaton away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Neutralize to litib.,s paper test with dilute
Ft.Coirsult physician. direct sunlight. blore away from acids, apron, eyewash station. HCI. Liquid wastes, after neutralization.
can be flushed to sanitary sewer if local
regulations allow.
":Remcive to fresh air, see Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Pick up spilled material, avoid dusting
;physician if irritation persists. direct sunlight. apron, eyewash station. conditions.

"CAvold'dusting co:iditions. Get Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Neutralize with dilute acetic acid or
:;iiiedical attention. direct sunlight, apron, eyewash station, vinegar. Dilute, test with pH paper.
Absorb onto sorbent material.

;Avoid dusting conditions. Store in amber bottle, in cool, dry Chemical goggles. protective gloves. Treat as inert solid.
. Remove to fresh air. Contact location away from direct sunlight. apron, eyewash station.
physician.

'.JAvoid dusting. Remove to Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Treat as inert solid
cfiesh air, direct sunlight. apron. eyewash station.

',Data indk.ates low hazard, Sore in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Treat with lime, soda ash to form
,',avoid dusting conditions, direct sunlight. apron. insoluble copper salts. Then evaporate
to dryness.

:ReMove to, esh air. Get Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Eliminate all ignition sources. Absorb
Fibedical attention. direct sunlight Store no more than 1 jai. apron, eyewash station onto vermiculite or sand. Carefully
inside flammable liquid storage cabinet. sweep up and remove. Use nonsparking
tools to place material in sealed
container or evaporate in explosion-
proof fume hood. Flush spill area with
water.
-Low hazard potential via this Store in light proof bag accompanying Not required, but exercise due caution. Treat as inert solid.
' route, product, in cool. dry location away from
direct sunlight. Material depolymerizes
upon exposure to UV light.
'Remove to fresh air. Store in cool, dry location away Iron. Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Small quantities may be absorbed onto
direct sunlight, apron, eyewash station, paper towels and evaporated in a
chemical fume hood Flush residue with
water,

-,.
`."Remove to fresh air. Contact Store in amber bottle. in cool, dry Chemical goggles, protective aloves. Absorb onto paper towel or vermiculite.
physician for observation location away from direct sunlight. Avoid apion, eyewash station Evaporate in explosion-proof fume hood
instructions. contact with strong oxidizers and bases or scoop and place in sealed container.
Material can possibly react with metals Flush residue with water.
to form hydrogen gas.
irRemove to fresh air. See Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Absorb onto paper tcw.,1 or vermiculite.
Zphyslcian if irritation persists. direct sunlight. Store in amber bottle, apron, eyewash station. Evaporate in explosion-proof fume hood
away from strong oxidizers and bases, or scoop and place in sealed container,
Flush residue with water.
-;Avoid mists. Remove to fresh Sure in (-Jot, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Absorb onto paper towels or vermiculite.
Fair, Contact physician. direct sunlight. Keep away from strong apron, eyewash station.
oxidizing agentsexplosion may occur.

;Remove to fresh air. Get Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Wear ACID RESPIRATOR. Neutralize with
:medical attention immediately. direct sunlight. Area should have acid apron, face shield when handling high sodium bicarbonate Test pH. Sweep up
resistant floor and secure drainage, concentration of acid, eyewash station in and place residue in sealed container.
Store in acid cabinet away from oxidizing close proximity. Concentrated material
and reducing materials. should be handled inside chemical fume
hood. Safely shower should also be
accessible. P :ovide emergency
neutralization materials noar storage and
use areas.
'7Aioid mists. Remove to fresh Store in cool, dry k' tion away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Neutralize with sodium bicarbonate. Test
,air,1 Contact physician. direct sunlight Stoi ,n acid cabinet, apron, eyewash station. pH. Sweep up and place residue in
.--io sealed container.
'',
 Name (Merck tOth'ed. Health Effects First Aid
Index PI investigation::)
Skin Contact LEY° Contact Ingestion
Hydrogen peroxide solution Strong eye irritant may be Flush area with water Consult -Irrigate with water for 15 min , Give water to drink, encourage
3' - irritant to skin upon prolonged physician if irritation persists including under eyelids vomiting (conscious individual
(4706, inv. 4.3) exposure Contact physician prom))11y. only). Get medical attention
immediately.
Indephenol Irritant to skin, eyes, other Wash with soap and water Irrigate with water 15 min , Induce vomiting (conscious
(3052 inv 4 2) .effects undetermined to date Consult physician should Including under eyelids individual only). Get medical
Special Precautions. Material irritation persist. Consult physician should attention.
liberates KI in acid solutions. irritation persist.
Aqueous solutions deep blue;
changed to red by acids.
Indophenol solution Irritant to eyes, other effects Wash with soap and water, Irrigate with water for 15 min Induce vomiting (conscious
(3052: inv 4.2) not determined consult physician if irritation including under eyelids individual only). Contact
persists. Consult physician if irritation physician immediately.
persists.
Isopropyl alcohol POISONOUS by ingestion, Wash area with soap and Irrigate with water 15 min . Get prom.' t medical attention.
(5057: inv 19 2) irritant (skin eye). narcosis. water Consult physician at including under eyelids, get Induce vcanting (if conscious).
nausea if inhaled. irritation persists medical attention if irritation
persists,

Lugol's iodine solution POISON Harmful if inhaled Wash with scap and water Irrigate with water for 15 min.. Immediately induce vomiting (if
(N. A inv 4 2 5 1, 18 3, 19 2) May cause irritation Special Consult physician should Including under eyelids. Get conscious). Get medical
Precautions. Do not heat irritation persist medical attention. attention Immediately.
material. Toxic; corrosive
vapors are given off.
Manganese dioxide Prolonged inhalation ingestion Wash exposed areas with Irrigate with running tap water Induce vomiting. Overexposure
(5552: inv 4 3) can cause manganese soap and water for 15 min., including under may cause manganese
poisoning. eyelids Seek medical poisoning. Get medical
attention if iodation persists. attention.

Methylene blue chloride (alc) Irritant to skin, eyes, mucous Wash with soap and water Irrigate with water for 15 min., Give 1-2 glasses water:
(5933; inv, 5 1) membranes Contact phrsician if irritation including under eyelids ^.Ice vomiting (conscious
persists. Contact physician if irritation individual only). Contact
persists. physician immediately.
Petroleum ether Vapors cause Wa ,h with soap and water Irrigate with water for 15 min.,
(7050, inv 19 t)
Drink water, induce vom ng
lightheadedness, nausea Consult physician if irritation including under eyelids. Get (conscious individual wily).
Irritating to skin and eyes persists medical attention. Get medical attention
immediately.

Phenol Extremely powerful corrosive Immediately wash with water Immediately irrigate eyes with
(7t 15, Inv At) Do not allow to vomit. Give 3'
Avoid skin contact with solid, for 15 mm Contact physician water for 15 min., including glasses of milk. Contact
liquids Toxic fumes emitted under eyelids. Contact physician immediately.
when burned, physician

Phenolph'alein Generally considered non Wash area with soap and Irrigate with water for 15 mm.,
(7117; inv. .6.3) Data indicates low ingestion
hazardous Avoid creating water. including mid& eyelids hazard.
dusts Consult physician it irritation
persists. Generally low
hazard.
Phenolphthalein- t alc Irritant (eyes, skin) POISON if W'sh area with soap and Irrigate with water for 15 min.. Get prompt medical attention.
solution ingested-10 ml causing including under eyes. Consult Induce vomiting (conscious
(7117; Inv 16.3) illness physician daritation persists. individual only).

Ournine bisulfate solutions Law hazard Wash area with soap and Irrigate with water for 15 min., Data indicates low ingestion
(1969; inv. 15.1) water. including under eyelids, hazard.
consult physician if irritation
persists.
Silica get Dusting hazard Irritant and Wash area with soap and Irrigate with water for 15 min., Drink plenty of water
(8326. inv 19 1) drying agent to skin. nose. water including under eyelids. immediately. Material will pass
mucous membranes. Consult physician if irritation normally through body.
persists,
Silver nitrale Dust or material may cause Wa.,h immediately with water Irrigate with water for 15 min, Give water. Induce vomiting (if
(8352 inv 4 2) skin burns POISON if Contact physician d irritation including under eyelids, Get conscious), Contact physician.
ingested. continues. medical attention,

Silver nitrate solution 1 Irritant to eyes, skin, mucous Discolors skin, wash with Irrigate with water for 15 min.. Give 2 glasses milk, induce
(8352. inv 4 2) membranes, POISONOUS if soap and water including under eyelids. vomiting. Contact physician
ingested. Consult physician if irritation immediately.
continues.
Sodium bicarbonate Moderately toxic viu oral Wash with soap and water Irrigate with water for 15 min., Do not induce vomiting. If
((84 t 4; inv A 1) route Consult physician d irritation Including under eyelids. conscious give large amounts
persists. Contazt physician if irritation of water to rinse mouth.
persists. Contact physician.
Sodium hydroxide Destructive to all Issue Avoid Wash area with soap and Immediately irrigate with water Immediately dilute by drinking
(8462, Inv 5 3, t6 3, A 1) contact with dusts. .ohds. water Get medical help. for 15 mm., including under large amounts of water
liquids. eyelids, Speed is essential followed by vinegar. Do not
Contact physician at once, induce vomiting,
Sodium hydroxide solution Irritating to skin and eyes Wash with soap and water Immediately wash with water Give milk or water to dilute.
0.4G6 Consult physician if irritation for 20 min., including under followed by vinegar, rinse
(8462, inv. 5.3, 16.3) persists. eyelids. Get medical attention. mouth. Gs medical attention.

Xylene Dangerous Fire Hazard Avoid Avoid prolonged contact Irrigate with running water 15 Get medical attention
(9890; Inv 19 2) inhalation, skin eye contact Wash with soap and water min., including under eyelids immediately. Do not induce
Get medical attention vomiting.
immediately.

103
 Protection Spill
Inhalation Storage Safety Equipment
Remove to fresh air. 11 Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Dilute 59111 with laige art ounts of water.
A*irritation persists get medical direct sunlight. Avoid agitation. apron, eyewash station. Avoid any ignition sources. Take up on
help: A snrbent material Allow to evaporate.

Avoid
....
dusting conditions. Store in cool. dry !oration away horn Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Sweep up and place in sealed container.
:Remove to fresh air, direct sunlight, apron, eyewash station

Dataindicates iow inhalation Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles. protective gloves, Absorb onto sand or vermiculite
Jifizarth direct sunlight apron, eyewash station. Carefully sweep up and place in sealed
container

;Remove to fresh air, observe Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles. protective gloves. Eliminate all si. ices of ignition. Absorb
',.14.30 min for signs of direct sunlight. Store no more than I u4 apron, eyewash station, chemical fume onto sorbent material Use non sparking
;Intoxication. in flammable liquid cabinet hood (explosion-proof). tools to scoop up material, Evaporate in
explosionproof Lime hood or place in
sealed container.
Avoid heating. Vapors Store in cool, dry lOcation away from Chemical goggles. protective gloves. Absorb onto sand or vermiculite.
;;Coriosive. Remove to fresh air, direct sunlight. Store away from light. apron, eyewash station Carefully sweep up and remove Flush
spill area with water. Place material in
sealed containers.

*.Dust hazard. We.:i respirator if Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves. Treat as inert solid
dusting anticipated. direct sunlight. Special Precautions: apron, eyewash station.
Keep away from grease and oil. Do not
heat or rub in contact with easily
oxidizable matter.
Data indicates low inhalation St -re in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, SOLID sweep up, treat as inert material.
hazard: avoid dusting. direct sunlight. Store solid and liquid apron, eyewash station. LIQUID. absorb onto paper towelling,
solutions in amber bottle. treat as inert solid,

,Remove to fresh air. Gel Storage options. Never store more than Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Caminate all sources of ignition. Absorb
:medical attention immediately. 6 months needed material. Store in apron. eyewash station. explosion proof onto paper towels. Use non sparking
certified explosionproof refrigerator, in chemical fume hood, tools to collect residue. Evaporate in
, cool, dry, well ventilated location explosionwoof chemical fume hood or
outside, or in explosionproof fume hood outside away from all sources of ignition.
.. . that is constantly running.
tRemove to fresh air. Contact Store in cool, dry location away t om Chemical goggles, pi otective gloves. Immediately flush area with water until all
`physician immediately. direct sunlight. Prevent physical damage apron, face shield, neoprene gloves, odor is removed. Absorb onto sorbant
during storage. Monitor storage utensils, eyewash station in close material Use non sparking tools to place
containers often. Exercise extreme care proximity, ready access to safety in sealed container.
...
when handling this material. shower. Material is extremely corrosive.
'Avoithdusting. Remove to Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Treat as inert solid.
:fresh air. direct sunlight, apron, eyewash station.

;Remove
. ,.
to fresh air. Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Eliminate all sources of ignition. Absorb
direct sunlight. apron. eyewash station. onto sand or vermiculite. Collect with
nonsparking tools. Place in explosion
proof fume hood and allow to evaporate.
Treat evaporated material as inert solid,
;Data indicates low inhalation Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles. protective gloves. Treat as inert solid Liquids. dilute with
;hazard; avoid dusting. direct sunligh (decomposes upon apron, eyewash station, copious amounts of water, absorb onto
' ,.' exposure to light). paper towels and treat as inert solid.
... .. .

Avoid dusting conditions. Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles. protective gloves. Treat as inert solid,
direct sunlight. apron, eyewash station

:Remove to fresh air. Contact Store in cool, dry place in an amber Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Scoop up material, Place in suitable non
*physician if irritation glass container away from sunlight. apron. eyewash station reactive container (plastic, glass),
;continues, Avoid strong oxidizers or reducing
,
agents.
,Information not available. Store in amber bottle, in cool, dry Chemical goggles. protective gloves, Take up small spills onto sorbent
location away from direct sunlight. apron. eyewash station. Avoid skin material. Place in suitable non reactive
contact. container (plastic/glass).
S. ,
,Remove to fresh air. Store in cool, dry 10:tion away from Chemical goggles. protective gloves, Sweep up, treat as inert solid.
direct sunlight. Store at ambient apron. eyewash station.
temperature.
.

tReinove from exposure, gel Sto'c in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles, protective gloves, DRY use utensils to pick up and return
:prompt niedical attention. direct sui..,ght. apron, eyewash station, to container, Avoid dusting conditions,
, -r-
Flush contain- aated surfaces with water
and vinegar.
;Remove to fresh air. Gel Store in cool, dry location away from Chemical goggles. protective gloves, Neutralize with vinegar or 4 8 ii, acetic.
:medical helix direct sunlight. apron. eyewash station, acid solution, test with p11 paper. Absorb
onto sorbant material and seal M dry
container.
Remove to fresh air; Gel Store ID cool, dry location. away froin Chemical goggles, protective gloves, Eliminate all sources of ignitan. Take up
;medical attention. direct sunlight. oxidizing materials, and apron. avoid skin contact. Eyewash small spills onto sorbent material. Use
flame. Store less than 1 gal. in approved station in close proximity. Loca exhaust non sparking tools to place in sealed,
flammable liquid storage cabinet. ventilation recommended (explosion. metal container.
proof).
 Teacher's Notes

1.05
 `Section One
The World of Life:
The Biosphere

Chapter 1 The Web of Life

43,(5:hapfer2 Populations
Cheptev,3-Co Mmunities and o
o
Ecosystems
Chapter 4 Matter and Energy ir. the
Web of Life

HOW shall we begin to study biologythe

acience-of life?
We might-start with.the abundance of
litatat lives in a-lakeltnd discuss the
,nsany.telationshiPs among the indiViduals.
We might look into some lk.ing thing and
eximine,its smallest parts under our
microsoOpe.to see how those parts are put
logither. awe might study - chemistry,
=because chemical processes occur in all
living things. We might even take a
historical approach, searching for,clues to
fihe:beginning of life and examining the
;fossil record to trace the development of
living thints.
There are many ways to start a biology
course. Let us begin by looking at the
many relationships among. familiar living
aings around us.

vASISOCIATE
 Rod Planck/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Food webs are a major part of, the web of life: What role is played by the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus?

109
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages
113-16.

CHAPTER 1 Key ideas:

the web of life Irmed by interacting
organisms;
food chains of plants, animals, and other
living things;
balance in the biosphere,
The Web of Life the need for energy for all activities,
photosynthesis as the source of food energy,
the proposal of hypotheses to explain
observations about the living world.

Introduction
You are one of many organisms (OR guh niz umz)living thingsin New terms are defined in the text ind in the
the web of life. Because all organisms depend on other organisms for glossary at the end of the book
their source of energy and matter, there are many connections in this
web. All organisms need energy to live, to grow, and to reproduce. All You can have students read the first section of
organisms need matter to make up their bodies. In the web of life there The chapter in class in order to start the chapter
are many direct connections between organisms that eat each other. There the first day.

also are countless, indirect relationships between any individual and the
organisms that affect its life. All this activity happens in the biosphere A concept map of the biosphere (see p T9) can
(BY oh sfir), the living part of the world. The biosphere cxists in a del- be constructed with the class to draw on
icate balande, which may change from day to day or year to year, but knowledge that students already have about
biology.
which remains relatively stable for long periods of time. The people who
study the biosphere are biologists (by OL uh jists), scientists who study
living things. In this chapter we will introduce the biosphere and the
bases for all living thingsmatter and energy.

Interactions Guidepost: Why is it difficult to study

an organism apart from its
environment?
1.1 Organisms Interact with the Organisms
They Eat
A brightly colored grasshopper sits on a young plant and chews a leaf. Each major heading in the chapter is
The grasshopper is blue, red, and black,, and it is as long as your fin- accompanied by a guidepost in the form of a
gernail. After several minutes the leaf is completely eaten. The grass- question. Direct students to look for answers to
the question as they read the text
hopper jumps toward another plant, but lands on a sticky thread instead.
The thread is j'tst one of many that are carefully woven together into a
large, shiny trapa web. As the grasshopper struggles to free itself, more
threads stick to it. With each movement, the grasshopper. sends a vi-
bration from = thread to thread and finally to the maker of the trap. In

110
6 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 1.1 gra ashoppaufeeding on a plant. Figure 1.2 What activity is illustrated hero?

C;;Iin.; A organ GUNon Rand /TOM STACK i'AsaciAits

the blink of an eye, a large brown and yellow spider seizes the grass-
hopper and kills it with poison injected from its fangs. Digestive fluid
from the spider's mouth liquefies the grasshopper's body, and the spider
sucks up the resulting broth. Later, the spider drops the remains of the
Explain or demonstrate how if a plant is shut in grasshopper on the ground and begins to wait for another insect.
a closet away from all light, it will die Plants that This story is repeated every day all around the world. An insect eats
are green, plants that are colorless from lack of
a plant, and a spider eats the insect. Like the threads of the web, these
sunlight, and plants that are dead can be shown
to the class
three organisms are connected to each other in the web of life. They are
connected to each other by their shared need for energy to grow and to
reproduce. Some animals eat plants to get their energy, and some ani-
mals eat other animals. Plants, such as the poNies in figure 1.3, get their
energy from the sun and make their own food. No matter where the
energy comes from, without it an organism soon dies. If grasshoppers
eat all the leaves of the young plant, the plant can no longer make its
own food, and it dies. If the spider web is torn by a falling twig, the web
must be repaired, or the trap can no longer catch food for the spider.
The link to the supply of energy cannot be broken.
Many things can change the relationships between the plant, the
grasshopper, and the spider. Caterpillars may eat the plant, which means
Live caterpillars or frogs in a terrarin can less food for the grasshoppers. Without enough rain, the plant may die
demonstrate how caterpillars eat Itnes or how before it can reproduce or provide food for an animal. The spider may
frogs eat grasshoppers
catch flies and moths as well as grasshoppers in its trap. A bird may eat
the grasshopper, and it may even eat the spider and the caterpillar. The
spider web has many threads, and in the web of life many organisms are
connected to each other. The more closely we view the world, the more
complex this web becomes.
Chaptec .1. The Web-of Life 7

Figure.14-Boppies.in the sun.

:Uses b`jcstijetilivin

Figure 1.4- Gypsy moth caterpillar eating a leaf. Figure 1.5-Bird eating a caterpillar.
How is the food supply of other organisms
affected?

USDAAPHIS David C. Fritts

 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

You may wish to assign reading of investigation We have seen how plants and animals interact within the web of life.
11 ahead of time Stress that this will speed The nonliving parts of the world such as temperature, sunlight, and rain-
things up You may want to have students write
0 fall influence the growth of plants and animals. The study, of the living
out the procedure in their own words before
and nonliving parts of the environment and how they affect organisms
they begin the investigation Give them the
format you want them to use in writing tab
is called ecology (ee KOL uh jee). Scientists who study ecology are ecol-
reports It is suggested that you require eath ogists (ee KOL uh jists). Ecology is only one aspect of biology. In this
student to have a data book (You may have to text, we will study many areas of biology, but we will focus on ecology.
supply these if students art to ust then, on Mt, Let us begin our study by observing some organisms in investigation 1.1
second day of class )

-THEyowEfts pF,.oBsERsegiorf
Investigation 1.1 Introduction
THE POWERS OF OBSERVATION
There are many ways of exploring the world around us. In this investi.7
gation you will begin your exploration by doing some of the things scientists
This investigation provides an opportunity for
do: observing, reporting, and verifying observations.
students to sharpen their observational skills
while working with a variety of organisms The
investigation will take approximately two 45- Materials (per class)
minute class periods or one 90-minute
labeled specimens of organisms
laboratory period The time required for
hand lens or stereomicroscope
procedure steps 1 through 5 is relatively short,
millimeter rulers
steps 6 through 8 should take about 3 to 5
minutes per group of organisms Students will
need to refer back to specimens and Procedure
descriptions when they work through step 9
1. Located around the room are groups of organisms or parts of organ-
Optimal team size for this Investigation is 2 to
isms. Each group contains 4 specimens of an organism. A specimen
4 optimal number of groups of organisms is 8
is a sample individual or, in the case of large plants, a characteristic
to 12
part leaf, for example). Each group is labeled with the name of the
Put 4 specimens of the same species in
organism and a number. Each specimen is labeled with a letter.
each group Use live organisms Et at all possible
2. Work in teams of 2 to 4. Each team will begin with a different group
Collect organisms before the first week of
of specimens. You will have approximately 10 minutes to observe and
school In early fall, many live specimens are
describe the specimens.
available in most areas If it is appropriate to
3. Select one person to take notes. Observe the 4 specimens and make
place all 4 specimens in the same container,
notes on differences you see among the specimens. Take measure-
label each Individual specimen with a letter tag
ments, if appropriate.°Remembet the differences must be in the or-
(A. B, C, and 0) Place each specimen for which
ganisms, not the containers they are in.
this is not appropriate in a separate container
4. When your team has decided on the differences among the 4 speci-
and label the containers
mens, choose 1 specimen and, on a separate sheet of paper, write a
Try to provide variety Include both plants
description of it. Make this description as complete as possible. Other
and animals and representatives from as many
teams will use it to try to pick out which of the specimens you were
different groups as possible
describing. Do not indicate the letter of the specimen on your descrip-
Since students wilt be writing a description 3t
tion sheet. Write this information (group number and letter of specimen
1 of the 4 that is clear enough to distinguish that
described) on a slip of paper and give it to your teacher.
specimen from the other 3, the organisms
5. When your teacher signals that the time is up, place your team de-
should be similar in size, color, and shape Try
scription with the grcup of specimens so that other teams can use it
to select specimens of each kind that
for step 6.
demonstrate some dtfferences, but avoid
6. When your teacher tells you, move to the group with the next highest
specimens that have a readily distinguishable
number. The group with the highest number will go to group 1. You will
characteristic, such as a cricket missing a leg or
have several minutes to observe each group. Select another team
a branch with far fewer (or more) leaves than
member to take notes. Read the description and decide as a team
the others in the group
which of the specimens it describes.
Include species that can be seen with the
7. Make up a chart with these headings:
naked eye and species for which some
magnification (hand lens or stereomicroscope) is Specimen
necessary. With each group of Organisms,
Group Number Fitting Description
however, supply a hand lens or
stereomicroscope and a millimeter ruler
Record the letter of the specimen on your chart.-

113
Chapter 1 The Web of Life 9

8. When your teacher signals, move to the group with the next highest Suggested organisms to be observed with
number. Move from each group to the next in this way. Continue until the naked eye goldfish, guppies, crickets,
you return to your starting point. grasshoppers, butterflies, moths, geraniums,
9. Your teacher will list each group and the letter of the specimen de- coleuses, branches with leaves, cut flowers that
scribed on the chalkboard. Check your chart of observations against stay fresh (such as carnations and sunflowers),
this list. If your conclusions do not agree with the list, recheck that cacti, earthworms, mice, gerbils, oranges, and
group of specimens. Did you miss anything? Was the description com- apples.
plete? Suggested organisms to be observed with a
hand lens or stereomicroscope: hydra, planaria,
small nonparasitic worms, mosses, algae,
Discussion lichens, and small insects.
1. Which was easier, writing a clear description or selecting the de-
scribed specimen? Why? Disussion
2. (a) What information could be added to each description to make it -5. Answers to these questions will vary,
clearer? depending on the specimens observed and the
(b) Does everyone in the class agree on what could be added? Why descriptions generated. Do not expect
or why not? observations to focus on characteristics
3. (a) What information could be removed and still leave each descrip- deemed significant by biologists. Students
tion clear? should begin to understand how observation,
(b) Does everyone agree on what information to:remove? Why or reporting, and verification correct
why not? misinterpretations and refine observations. The
4. Was there a group that you would have liked to describe? Why? idea that this process involves careful study by
5. In what ways did reporting and verifying observation in this investi- several people is also important in
gation increase your knowledge of these organisms? understanding science as a cooperative human
endeavor.

1.2 Plants, Animals, and Other Organisms

Make'Up a Food Chain
Not far from the spider's web is a raspberry bush, and beneath the
bush is a rabbit. The rabbit needs shelter and a place to hide from an-
imals that may kill it. The raspberry bush is an ideal place to hide be-
cause its thorns can tear clothes or dig into the flesh of larger animals.

Figure 1.6 Describe all the relationships you see among the plants and animals
and their environment.
 10 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

The rabbit needs food, so it eats the low-hanging red fruit of the bush.
A small brown bird feasts on the fruit near the top of the bush. The
raspberry leaves are not very tasty to the rabbit, so after the berries are
gone, it ventures out of its hiding place to look for grasses to eat. The
rabbit moves quietly to a small patch of tender grass, but its movement
is seen by a hungry fox. The fox creeps slowly toward the grass and
suddenly leaps for the rabbit. The rabbit,looks up just in time to avoid,
the teeth of the fox, and a wild chase begins. This time the rabbit reaches
safety in a nearby raspberry bush.
A young rabbit the week. before was not as lucky. Not far from the
raspberry bush is the den of the fox. Near the den are scraps of fur and
flesh that were last week's rabbit. The fox had carried this rabbit back
here and eaten most of it. The next day flies buzzing around the rabbit
carcass laid eggs on the dead flesh. The eggs hatched into wormlike
maggots that fed on the flesh. At the same time, microorganisms (my
kroh OR guh niz umz) such as bacteria, organisms too small to seen
with the naked eye, began to break down the flesh, causing it to decay.
There are many interrelationships among the rabbits and raspberries
and the other plants and animals living near them. They all play roles
in the web of life. Green plants, such as the raspberry bush and the
The terms "producers" and "consumers" are grasses, use light energy to make their own food. Therefore, they are
used in preference to "autotrophs" and called producers. Animals, on the other hand, cannot make their-own
"heterotrophs." The latter two terms will be food, so they must eat plants or other animals or both. They are called,
introduced in chapter 10 consumers. Consumers that break down the bodies of dead plants and

Figure 1.7 Decomposers such as flies are an essential part of a food web.

""211/P"

;L
A
 Chapter 1 The Web of Life 11

animals in the process of decay are called decomposers (dee kum POHZ
erz). Examples are bacteria and mushrooms, such as those in figure 1.8.
All of these organisms, living and interacting in one place, form a com-
munity.
We can describe the interrelationships among the raspberry bush, the
rabbit, and the fox in a food chain. This pathway tells us who eats what.
In this case, the rabbit eats raspberries from the bush, and the fox eats
Ihe rabbit, as shown in figure 1.9a. A shorter food chain is the bird that
eats the raspberries (figure 1.9b). These two food chains are connected
to each other bythe raspberry bush. -Earlier, we described yet another
'food chain in which a spider ate a grasshopper that ate a plant (figure
1.9c).lf the bird that eats raspberries also eats the spider, two more food
chains are connected (figure 1.9d). When all the food chains in a com-
munity are joined together, a food web is formed. Figure 1.9 There is more than one food chain
The food web represents the web of life, but it is not the whole web here. How many can you find?
of lifeMe have not included decomposers or all the plants a rabbit might
eat or all the animals that might eat a rabbit. What would the web look foxes
like if there were two spiders instead of just one? Figure 1.10 shows a
simplified food.web that involves the organisms we have been discussing
in this chapter. You can see that a complete food web can be very large
and very, complex.

Figure 1.8 -Mushrooms are important decomposers. Their underground parts

LQ___
,7-,-- .:abiodi rooa.from aea o. anis
. .
,_.

d
grasshoppers

Gordon E. Un-o-
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 1.10 How many food chains can you trace in this simplified food web?

mountain lions

decomposers

117
:01 OW 1 The Web of Life
13

Ecologist
Barbara'Winternitz is an ecologist. who teaches e
Colorado College. Teaching classes is only-a
small part of her work in ecology. She conducts
ir4tes "tfs-
field research on birds in aspen forests and on *gtaligtrt'4
Scrub Jays in the pinon-juniper woodland. At the
same time she shows students how to do such
research. She and her students work withetate
and local agencies in assessing and designing
parks and open space areas for wildlife, and they
'inventory wildlife preSent in areas soon tote
changed. As more of the land near, dies is
developed for human uses, the wildlife living there
can be badly disturbed by roadbuilding, powerline
construction and bulldozing. Sometimes these
impacts can be reduced by knowing in advahce
the trails used by large animals, and where and
when small animals are breeding and therefore ,Kaikeeisik %%Swift
most easily. destroyed. By planting vegetation the
animals like to eat in places that are safe for
them, the developer can help maintain normal
wildlife populations.
All-across the country dams are being built,
coal and other minerals strip-mined, and fields
and farms converted to suburban development.
All of this destroys habitats (homes) for fish and
wildlife. The impact of development must be
assessed for each group of animals, and ways
must be found ,to reduce this impact.
On one day, Barbara may work with a private
company wanting to develop homes. Where
would be the beit land to set aside for parks and
wildlife? How can a major road be built so it does- , kifteilti A. VAMernitt
not affect the movement of mule deer, and
reduces the chances of serious car and deer industry are very complex. Ecologists attempt to
collisions? On another day she may assess ensure that the development of our nation's
wildlife use of a city park scheduled for change. resources is in the best interests of all our people
How can the changes be made so they are least and takes into account all the many kinds of
disruptive for wildlife? Where should trails be wildlife. State fish and game departments,
located for both humans and wildlife to use? She conservation 6rganizations, private consulting
also speaks-to citizens' groups or school, groups firms and other industries hire ecologists to assist
to alert them to changes that soon will happen. in their operations. There are many pressures on
All'organisnis need a place to live. Forhumans, ecologists, especially when a developer wants to
not only living space and food, but the energy to destroy the habitat of an endangered species.
produce other necessities must be extracted from The ecologist must be a true diplomat and
the natural environment. The interrelationships of negotiator in order to ach:eve the best solutions
fish and wildlife with water, land, people, and for all concerned.

-1.

118
14 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

1.3 The Living World Tends to Be Balanced

The world changes all the time. Some change seems rapid. You can
see the world change with seasons. Trees lose their leaves in winter, and
swarms of houseflies and mosquitoes may pester you in summer. You
can see change in your world and in yourself through the years. Change
also occurs over very long periods of time. The dinosaurs and flying rep-
tiles of the past have given way to the mammals and birds of today. Yet
the living world tends toward a balance. at any given time.
That balance depends on many interacting factors. The rabbits live
off the green plants, and many other animals, including humans, live off
the rabbits. This might appear to be hard on the rabbits, but rabbits
produce many offspring in a short time. Imagine how many rabbits there
would be if they reproduced without control. They soon would be so nu-
merous that they would eat all the plants; all the rabbits then would die.
Go back and discuss the guidepost question Foxes and other animals that eat rabbits may help keep the rabbit pop-
-LA
with the students. Initially, you might have them ulation under control. Disease or lack of food also may keep the rabbit
write a paragraph at the end of each section to population from growing too large. These controls, or checks, apply to
assess their understanding of the ideas all living organisms and are just one part of the balance of nature. Much
presented. of ecology deals with the study of the checks and balances in nature.

Self-Review

1. What parts of the environment does an ecologist study?

2. How do producers differ from consumers?
3. How is a food chain related to a food web?
4. Explain how reproduction and death are part of the balance of na-
ture.
5. In what way do decomposers differ from other consumers?

Guidepost: Where do organisms obtain The Foundations of Life

the matter and energy they
require?
1.4 All Biological Activity Requires Energy
Ask students to write down everything they eat When we lock at food chains and food webs, we find that they involve
fos one day and bring the list of foods to class the flow of energy and matter from one organism to another. The details
for investigation 1,2. of that flow will be developed throughout the rest of this biology course.
Here, we will look at just the broad outline.
All the activities of an organism require energy. Imagine a marathon
runner trying to run 26 miles without first eating high-energy foods. The
activity does not have to be great to require energy. Even the movement
of a tiny one-celled organism across a shop of water requires energy.
Whenever you see biological-activity, you need to ask, "Where does the
Notice that energy is not defined. Instead,
energy come from to support this activity?"
examples of familiar forms of energy are given,
The classical definition the ability to do work"
Where do you get your energy? It may take some imagination to see
is an oversimplification, but will be used in energy in a hamburger and a pile of french fries. But there is energy in
chapter 4. Energy formulations are usually this food: it is chemical energy. Such energy is found in the structure of
expressed mathematically and would not be the molecules that make up the meat and the potatoes. Other forms-of
useful to beginning biology students. energy include electrical, mechanical, heat, light, and nuclear energy.
Chapter 1 The Web of Life 15

."

1i11;tWhere do these organist* get the energy?

a. Rae Hathaway Mit by Catty* Calvin

The most important form of energy for you is the chemical energy stored
in the food you eat. You begin to release this energy as you digest your
food. Most of the energy from your food, however, is released within
your cells in a,complex series of chemical reactions known as cellular
respiration (SEL yoo ler res pih RAY shun). This energy then can be
used by you to grow and develop. Investigation 1.2 may help you un-
derstand how you are involved in the flow of energy and matter.

Investigation 1.2
Introduction YOU AND THE WEB OF LIFE

,How do you fit in the web of life? By relating your food for one day to Procedure
the pk..its and animals from which it came, and to the other organisms with
You may have to make a list of foods that
which those plants and animals interact, you may begin to form a picture
of your role in the biosphere. animals eat. Cattle eat alfalfa, grass, hay, corn,
barley, oats, etc. Chickens eat corn, fish
products, etc.
Materials
Discussion
pencil and paper
1. Answers will depend on the individual
food webs.
Procedure 2. Beetles that damage grains; bacteria and
1. List the focd that you ate yesterday. Separate these items into foods fungi that cause decay, herbivores such as
that came from animals and those that came from plants. birds, insects, and rabbits are some possible
2. Many foods are combinations of different foods. List the ingredients competitors.
of each food separately. Then indicate whether each was from a plant 3. Decomposers should be included at each
or animaland the type of plant or animal. For instance, if you had level of the food web.
cake for lunch you should list: flourplant, wheat; sugarplant, sugar
cane or sugar beets; eggsanimal, chicken. For every animal that
you have listed, list several foods that it eats. For example, if you had
milk with your cake, list cow as the producer of the milk, and list grass
and corn as food the cow eats.

A20
16 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

3. Across the bottom of a clean sheet of paper, write the names of all
the plants you have mentioned. Above this. in another row, list all the
herbivoresanimals that eat any of the plants in the first row. From
each plant, draw a line to every animal that eats it. (Use figure 1.10
as a model.)
4. Above the herbivore line, enter the names of all the carnivoresan-
imals from your list thateat other animals. From each herbivore, draw
a line to the carnivores that eat that herbivore. The food web you have
drawn shows some of the relationships between the plants and ani-
mals that provided your food for one day.

Discussion
1. (a) Are any of the items you listed as food for animals also foods that
you could eat?
(b) Which ones?
2. Did you include in your food web organisms that might compete with
you for your food? Add as many as you can to your food web.
3. What about the role of decomposers in your food web? Indicate with
lines how they might be involved.

1.5 Photosynthesis Is a Process that

Supplies Food Energy
Remember that you are part of many food chains and one giant food
web. Your hamburger came from a cow, but cows eat only plr.nts such
as grasses and grains, A grass plant or a potato does not eat other or-
Students should already be aware that plants ganisms. Where do they get their energy? All green plants grow in light.
can grow in visible light from any source, In the process of photosynthesis (foh toh SIN thuh sis), they absorb light
including lamps. energy from the sun and convert it to the chemical energy of sugars. The
plant can use the energy in the sugars to grow and reproduce, or it can
store some of the energy in the form of starch to be used at a later time.
The potato plant does that. When we harvest and eat the potato. we
benefit from the chemical energy stored in it.

Figure 1.12 For a hamburger with french fries these are your main sources of
energy. But where did they ge Ineir energy?

Genie* E. use BEM br Cobs COM

121
 Cheptff 1 The Web of Life 17

Photosynthesis supplies almost all the food energy in the world. Only Ask students to name some decc:noosers,
certain bacteria are able to make their own food in other ways. Aft producers. and consumer , besides those
grass makes its own food in photosynthesis, it uses some of that food to named in the reading
grow. Thus, some of the energy that is captured from sunlight is used
before it reaches the cow, even if the cow eats the whole plant. Because
no animal can make its own food, it must get its energy from s or
other animals. The cow eats the grassei and uses the energy in them to
grow, to produce milk, and to move across the pasture. However, some
of the energy it'not used by the cow and remains in the waste products
dropped in the pasture. This energy is not completely lost to all organ-
isms. Decomposers break down the cow dung and use the energy from
it for their own growth and reproduction. Decomposers also get energy
from the bodies of the cows and plants that die.
Na matter where energy comes from, almost all energy that enters a
food web eventually is lost froin the community in the form of heat. The
conversion of chemical energy to the energy used by living organisms is
not efficient. Whenever an organism breaks down its foot, some of the
energy escapes as heat. However, no organism can use this heat energy
for growth. If you touch your arm, it feels warm. That is because some
of the chemical energy once stored in the hamburger and fries you ate
is Converted to heat energy. The rest of the energy is used to':eep you
alive and for your growth.
Energy enterva food web through its producers and then is trans-
ferred from one,consumer to another. Decomposers break down dead
0
organisms and wastes to get their own energy. Eventually, however, all
the energy that was once captured by plants in photosynthesis leaves a
food web as heatheat from your arm, from decomposers, and even
from plants. This means that energy must continually enter a commu-
nity, beginning witliphotosynthesis, or the community will die, The source
of this energy forAlniost all communities in the world is the sun. If the
sun were to burn out, life on earth would cease.
We have seen that energy flows one way through a food web. The
flow of matter is very different.

1.6 Matter Is Used to Build the Bodies

of Living Things
Living things get their energy from the sun, but they get their matter,
or substance, from the earth and the air around them. You probably
know something about matter. An atom is the smallest unit of an ele-
ment. An element is matter that is made of a single kind of atom. Most
elements occur as molecules (MOL uh kyoolz), which usually are com-
binations of two or more atoms. A compound is matter that has more
than one kind of atom, chimir.illy combined. Plants and animals are Do not dwell on the difference between an atom
made up of many different con pounds. But the atoms used to make up and a compound. It will be discussed again in
-1 these compounds can be found all around you in the nonliqing world. chapter 4.
Living things are very different from nonliving things. For a long time
scientists thought that there must be special elements in organisms that Borrow a periodic chart of the elements from a
were not found in nonliving matter. We now know this is not the case. chemistry teacher. Use it to show how few of
Of more than 100 different elements found in the earth, only about 30 the elements are involved in the makeup of
are used in the makeup of organisms. Most of these are very common. organisms.

p
122
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Examples are the hydrogen found in a water molecule and the carbon
found in the carbon dioxide of the air. Figure 1.13 shows the proportion
of elements in humans, and table 1.1 compares elements present in or-
Have students name some familiar inorganic and
ganisms and in the earth.
organic compounds. Examples of inorganic
compounds include salt, clorox, hydrochloric
The movement of matter through the fold web begins with plants.
acid, sodium hydroxide, and Jus mineral
Plants take in inorganic (IN or GAN ik) compounds, such as carbon
compounds. Examples of organic compounds dioxide and water. Inorganic compounds contain no carbon at all or just
include sugar, starch, proteins, fats, fatty acids, one carbon atom per molecule. Only small amounts of chemical energy
glycerine, methane, and alcohol. are present in inorganic compounds.
During photosynthesis, plants build larger, carbon-containing or-
ganic (or GAN ik) compounds. Using light energy, they link together
many carbon atoms to make sugars. Both energy and matter are stored
in organic compounds. A plant can use sugars as a source of energy, as
we learned in section 1.5. Or the plant can use the sugar molecules to

Figure-1.13 The human body contains the

same elements that are found in air, water,
rocks, and other nonliving substances. Element Symbol Approximate % Approximate % Approximate %
(by Weight) of (by Dry Weight) (by Weight) of
a Human of a Corn the Earth's
Shoot Crust

Oxygen 0 65.0 44.4 49.0,

Carbon C 18.0 43.6 0.09

Hydrogen H 10.0 6.2 0.88

Nitrogen N 3.3 1.5 0.03

oxygen Calcium Ca 1.5 0.23 3.4
65%
Chlorine CI 0.19 0.14 0.19

Copper Cu 0.00015 0.01

Iodine 0.00004 variable

Iron Fe 0.005 0.08 4.7

Magnesium Mg 0.05 0.18 1.9

Manganese Mn 0.0003 0.04 0.08

Phosphorus P 1.0 0.20 0.12

carbon
18% Potassium K 0.35 0.92 2.4

Selenium Se 0.0003 0.02

hydrogen Silicon Si trace 1.2 25.0

10%
Sodium Na 0.24 2.6
nitrogen
3% Sulphur 0.25 0.17 0.05
mineral
elements Zinc Zn 0.002 trace
(about 4%)
Other trace elements in the human body: arsenic, boron, chromium, cobalt, fiuorine,
molybdenum, nickel, tin and vanadium.
 Chapter 1 The Web of Life
19

make other molecules needed to build its body. To do this, a plant rear- e You might use students' ideas to develop a
ranges the atoms in the sugar molecules and adds new atoms. Thus sugars diagram on the chalkboard that shows simply
are a food. A food is an organic substance that an organism can break the ide. cycling The carbon cycle will be
down to get energy for growth, maintenance, and repair. Food is also discussed in detail in chapter 4.
matter that can be used to build the structure of the body.
An animal eats a plant, using it as a food. In this way both energy
and matter are passel from one organism to another in a food web. How-
ever, unlike the flow of energy in a food web, the flow of matter is not 0 Figure 1.14 Energy flows one way through the
one-way. Matter cycles within .a community. Plants use carbon dioxide, biosphere, from producers to consumers to
decomposers. Matter, however, cycles from the
water, and other substances in photosynthesis. TheSe are the same sub- nonliving to the living environment, through food
stances that are given off by organisms when they use the food. webs.
Producers build large Molecules and store energy and matter in them.
After a consumer organism uses those molecules as food, the matter in energy tt:
them--carbon dioxide, water, and other, moleculesis returned to the (as light)
environment. Plants then can use these materials to continue the process
of photosynthesis. In a community the same matter is used again and
again. Matter travels in cycles from the nonliving environment to living
plants through food webs, and back to the nonliving environment. It then
enters the food webs once again in photosynthesis. The relationship be-
tween matter and energy in, the biosphere is summarized in figure 1.14.

Self-Review osPHE40
4b

1. What is the source of energy for almost all living things? inorganic
matter
2. How are light and chemical energy related in photosynthesis?
3. How does matter get from the soil and air to animals?
4. How does the flow of energy through a community differ from that
of matter?
5. In what way does an inorganic compound differ from an organic
compound?

The Living- World organic

matter
and How We Study It

1.7 The Biosphere Is Home

to All Living Things energy
(mostly as heat)
After studying many different food webs, biologists have concluded
that the spider, the rabbit, and you are all-part of one worldwide web of
life. All organisms are part of this web, and they are tied together by 0
the energy and the matter that they need for life. The living world forms
only a thin layer aroun the nonliving world. This layer is called the Guidepost: How do humans fit into the
biosphere?

1;24
3-
20 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

0 biosphere, and it includes all the organisms and the air, soil, and water
Most adults and, perhaps, many students are surrounding them. The biosphere extends from the bottom of the oceans
aware that various agencies exist to take into the air above the earth, as can be seen in figure 1.15.
corrective actions on biosphere problems Because you are a living organism, you, too, are part of the biosphere.
However, not everyone is aware that the You have interrelationships with your family, friends, and teachers. Be-
corrective actions are often offset by the growth cause you are part of the web of life, you also have relationships with
of new industries and the growth of the human all other organisms. Some relationships are obvious, such as those with
population. Thus, increases rather than the plants and animals that you eat. However, you often do not see the
decreases in biosphere problems may result
relationships with the animals that eat the same foods you eat. The re-
from combined regulation and new growth
lationship between you and a grasshopper that eats and damages lettuce
These are the maximum altitudes and depths at
is indirect. Any damage to your food plants can affect your food supply,
which some living organisms have been found. however.
Bacteria ( +9.750 m above sea level), birds Humans also have long-term effects on the biosphere. Data being
(+8,230 m), spiders (+6,700 m), green plants gathered today show that many human activities strain and destroy the
(+6,100 m), plants (-300 m below sea level), delicate balance of nature in the biosphere. That happens when people
animals ( 10,000 m), bacteria (-600 m behave as though they were independent of the rest of the living world.
beneath the earth's surface).

Figure 1.15 The world of lifethe biosphere. All life on earth is limited to this
thin shell of air,- land and water. Living organisms can be found irom the highest
point above sea leVel tbalmost 11,000 m balOw sea level.

,higheitpolat
abcive sea level
(9,750m)

BIOSPHERE

,
highashnquntaie-

- ,,-.,111,7 .

Aetievel-4,-,).
-0.-*,_---1.1.__;:_ :,----
0,97;sm)
--,--
Chapter 1 The Web of Life, 21

In the spider's web, one torn thread weakens the entire web. So, too, do
your actions affect the world. What you, your friends, and your family
du affect the rest of the biosphere in many subtle ways.

1.8 A Hypothesis Is an "Educated Guess"

that Explains an Observation
The biosphere is a complex, living world. We look at the biosphere
from many different viewpoints, but each viewpoint reveals only a small
part of the whole. An artist might look at living things for their beauty
of color and form. A farmer might look for ways to manage the growth
of living things. A biologist might view the world scientifically.
As a science, biology does not deal with value judgments such as what 0
is beautiful. Beliefs and value judgments differ from person to person. Ask students how a dictionary defines "fact."
For instance, in figure 1.16a and b, some members of your class might While the students are referring to a dictionary,
prefer the fawn, others the puppy. Biology is concerned with factsin- ask them to look up the word "opinion," too.
formation that does not differ from one person to another. The Steller's You also may want them to become familiar with
jay in figure 1.16d is bluea fact that can be agreed on by everyone "implication" vs. "inference."

Figure 1.16 The question;"'Which animal is nicerthe fawn or_the puppy?"

involves a Aialue,judgrrient '461iCh bird,is hfue?".dealS with a factcolor.

Maltby Studio Stair,' Studio

22 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

with normal color vision. Biologists collect and organize facts about or-
ganisms, and they use the facts in ways to gain more information. Sci-
ence, though, is much more than just the collection of facts. It is a
systematic way of looking at the world and of obtaining the facts. It is
an ongoing process of inquiry, the product of which is a body of knowl-
edge. This body of knowledge is subject to change and revision as we
acquire new information. Above all, science is a human endeavor be-
cause people are involved in the process of inquiry.
Science is one way of obtaining knowledge about the world around
us. The method of obtaining scientific knowledge involves a series of steps
that begins with an observation of the living world. In the field with the
spider and the rabbit, there may be many flowers with insects buzzing
around them. A scientist may observe this field and ask the cluestion,
"What attracts bees to the bright red flowers in the field?" Libiary re-
search may provide information about previous investigations of the
question, or it may suggest appropriate approaches to the problem.
Reading and thinking about the question may produce thoughts such as
"Bees may be attracted to this kind of flower because of its red color?'
This thought is a hypothesis (hy POTH uh sis). A hypothesis is a state-
ment that explains an observation. A good hypothesis leads to predic-
tions and can be tested by experimentation. An experiment is usually
designed to collect evidence that would either support or not support the
hypothesis.
The hypothesis about the bees makes possible a prediction. If bees
are attracted to the flower by its red color, then an artificial flower cut
out of red paper may attract the same bees to it when placed in the field.
To test this hypothesis you could cut out paper flowers, some yellow and
some red. Suppose you carried out this experiment and observed that a
bee landed on a red paper flower but not a yellow one. Have you proved
that the bees are attracted to red flowers by the color? No, you have
only provided evidence to support the hypothesis. Perhaps the bee be-
came tired after flying and landed on the red paper flower because it was

Figure 1.17 What attracted the bee to this flower?

MOrg'an
 Chapter 1 The Web of Life 23

the nearest resting place. Perhaps you made the red flower out of paper
,.more flimsy than the yellow one, and it fluttered in the wind. The flut-
:tering, rather than the color, may have attracted the bee to your paper
flower.
You can see that flowers may differ in many ways. These differences
are called variables (VAIR ee uh bulz). Some of the variables for the
flowers in.the field,are size, shape, odor, movement of petals, and color.
,A good experiment tries to control all variables except for the one you
are studyingthe experimental variable. In this experiment, color is the
experimental variable, so it is important that the flowers be made of paper
that differs only in color.,The yellow flowers are included as a control,
to make certain that it is the red color that attracts the bees. If no'bees
ever land on red paper flowers, you can reject the hypothesis. You must
think of other possible reasons-why bees visit the flowers. Perhaps it is
the odor of the flowers. Many experiments may be necessary before you
have enough.information.to answer the question, but each one of your
, experiments provides certain facts, or date. A scientist uses data to make
conclusions about the hypothesis. In this example, the data are obser-
vations of what the bees do and what they do not do under the conditions
of the experiment. In investigation 1.3 you will have a chance to use
some of these processes.

Self-Review

1. What parts of the earth make up the biosphere?

2: -How does a value judgment differ from a fact?
3. What is the role of observation, hypothesis, data, control, and a vari-
able in a scientific investigation?

Investigation 1.3
HOW DO FLOWERS ATTRACT BEES?
A STUDY OF EXPERIMENTAL VALUES
Introduction
You will recall from the previous reading that a hypothesis focuses a This investigation provides students the
question to something that can be tested by an experiment. Observations opportunity to analyze a problem and project
from the experiment will either support or not support the hypothesis. There the entire course of its scientific investigation. As
are usually many variables that can affect the outccme of an experiment. supported by the preceding text section, the
The experimental variable is the specific one being studied. Other variables investigation is self-clued and requires no
are usually controlled or made the same in an experiment. If other variables additional introduction. The procedural steps are
are, in fact, controlled, there is a better chance that the experimental vari- hypothetical and are illustrated in figures 1.18
able alone is responsible for the differences in results of the experiment. and 1.19. No other additional equipment or
In this investigation you will try to determine what variables are responsible materials are required. Students should be able
for the observations and why experimental controls are useful. to follow this procedure on their own.
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Procedure 'Procedure
2 (a) Experiment 1 lacks a control for 1. Study the observation and hypothesis in the diagram immediately below
variables such as flower shape and color. about what attracts bees to flowers.
(b) No.
(c) Flower color, shape, size, and the Observation: Bees are attracted to flower 1.
background in which the flower grows may be
other variables.

Discussion
1. Variables being controlled for in
experiment 2 are aspects of its appearance,
such as color, shape, size, and arrangement of
the petals and sepals.
2. A preexperimental observation is that the flower 1 flower 2
bees do not visit flower 2. The untreated flower F:gure 1.18a
2 is a control to make sure that this observation
continues to hold. Otherwise the experiments
are not needed and the original observation was Hypothesis: If bees are attracted to flower 1 by scent, then addition
faulty. of scent to a flower that does not attract bees should cause bees to
3. The control flowers with unscented spray be attracted to that flower.
will test whether the spray solvent (apart from 2. Examine experiment 1 immediately below. Here the scent of a flower
the scent) may attract the bees If so, the that attracts bees is added to a flower that does not attract bees.
experiment must be redesigned using a different
spray solvent that will not attract the bees. Experiment 1: Scent of flower 1 is added to flower 2.
4. Outcome A supports the experimental
hypothesis that bees are attracted to flower 1
by its scent. The scent also attracts them to
flower 2 in the presence of the scent.
5. Outcome B supports the hypothesis that
scent is not the only attracting factor to bees
However, the unscented spray is not a natural
factor, as the untreated flower 2 indicates. A
new spray solvent must be selected that does
not attract bees. flower 1 flower 2
scent added
6. Outcome C appears to indicate that the
preexperimental observation was wrong. Bees Figure 1.18b
do visit the untreated flower 2. The only
alternative is an altogether new hypothesis that
(a) What does experiment 1 lack?
a previously undetected variable must exist in
(b) Is the scent the only variable?
flower 2 and that it has changed during the
(c) Identify as many variables as you can think of between these two
experiment.
types of flowers.
7 Outcome B distinguished between flower
3. Study carefully experiment 2 immediately below. Be prepared to de-
2 in its natural state and with unscented spray
fend or criticize it. A, B, and C show different possible outcomes.
added. The possibility of a difference in the
bees' behavior supports the hypothesis that the Experiment 2: This is a redesign of experiment 1 to consider other
spray solvent is another variable that must be variables that might be responsible for the original observation. Flower
controlled. 2 in this case is a different type from flower 1, although both appear
similar.

flower 2 flower 2 flower 2

(control) scented spray added unscented spray added
(control)

Figure 1.19a
Chapter 1 The Web of Life

Outcome B

flower 2 flower 2 flower 2

(control) scented spray added unscented spray added
(control)
Figure 1.19b

Outcome C

flower 2 flower 2 flower 2

(control) scented spray added unscented spray added
(control)
Figure 1.19c

Discussion 8. A further control could eliminate any

1. Compare the results of flower 2 in experiment 1 with flower 2 in ex- differences in temperature between flower 1 and
periment 2. What variables are being controlled in the design of ex- flower 2 by keeping them at the same
periment 2? temperature. Still another could keep them at
2. In experiment 2, the scent-producing substance from flower 1 -is dis- the same light intensity. A third could keep the
solved in a liquid (water or another solvent harmless to flowers) to soil in which they are grown at the same level of
produce a spray. What is the purpose of the control flowers with nothing moisture Still further controls could be devised.
sprayed on them? Whether their variables may affect the outcome
3. What is the purpose of the control flowers sprayed with unscented is questionable But certainly a significantly lower
spray? temperature for flower 2 than for flower 1 would
4. What hypothesis would account for outcome A in experiment 2? be an important variable to eliminate or control,
5. What hypothesis would account for outcome B? for bees must warm up to be able to fly at lower
6. What hypothesis would account for outcome C? temperaturesand they might not fly at all.
7. How does outcome B illustrate the difference between the two sets of Hence, if flower 2 grows in the shade and flower
control plants? 1 in the sun, then light, temperature, and
8. What other variables can you think of that might be helpful to control? moisture all could be important variables.
9. Why would it be useful to try a similar experiment with more than one 9 Th3 larger the experimental population of
group of the same kind of bees? bees, the less any variables among the bees
10. Why would it be useful to repeat it with more of the same kind of themselves will influence the outcome of the
flowers? experiment.
11. How would you interpret the results if the numbers of bees visiting each 10 The individual flowers selected for this
kind of flower differed noticeably? experiment may not be representative of all
12. How would results similar to outcome A with different kinds of flowers flowers of this type (species).
11, If the difference in numbers of bees
strengthen your conclusions?
visiting each kind of flower is consistent, then
some variable in addition to scent is probably at
work. It is not uncommon for two or more
variables to interact in influencing a behavioral
pattern. The problem is to identify the additional
variables and confirm them by experiment.
12. Similar results with different types of
flowers would allow one to generalize the
conclusions to more than one type of flower
and, perhaps, to most flowers in general. Such a
sweeping generalization would be the basis for
a scientific theory.

11.3,0
26 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Summary
No organism is isolated from other living things. All organisms are
part of a large, complex web of life. Plants are producers. They use the
energy from the sun and inorganic material from the soil and air to pro-
duce the organic molecules of life. Because animals are consumers and
cannot do this, all of:them depend on plants, directly or indirectly, as
their source of energy and matter. Humans also rely on plants and an-
imals for food. Humans, though, have a greater effect on the biosphere
than other organisms because our activities often result in permanent
changes in the environment. Using the techniques of observation, hy-
pothesis formation, and experimentation, we are becoming more aware
of how those changes affect the lives of all organisms in the biosphere.

Application Questions Problems

1. What might happen to the balance in the food web Some of the following problems involve applications of
of life in a pond if the number of one kind of your understanding of the text and the laboratory.
organism suddenly increased greatly? How long do Others require further study.
you think such an increase would last?
1. In making a trip to outer space, astronauts must
2. Consider the pond in question 1. Is your prediction
take along a part of our biosphere. Try to design an
affected by the kind of organism involved? Consider
first a producer; then, a consumer. efficient "package" of the biosphere for such a trip.
2. Some people have careers related to biology. How
3. Look at the fawn and the puppy in figure 1.16.
does the career of the nutritionist in your school
Draw a food web for each animal. Explain the role
cafeteria relate to energy flow and materials cycles
each animal plays in a food web.
in a food web?
4. After drawing a food web for the fawn and the
puppy in question 3, has your value judgment
changed about which one you like better? Why or
why not?
5. What is the relationship between hypotheses and
facts?

Suggested Readings
F. Graham, "Durward Allen: A Clear-Eyed View of the Scientific American (September 1970). The entire issue deals
Natural World" Audubon (February, 1985). Although the with the biosphere.
article concentrates on this famous ecologist, it illustrates C. Starr and R. Taggart, 1981, Biology: The Unity and
the methods employed by all ecologists and biologists to Diversity of Life (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing).
study wildlife. See Chapter 28: Community Interactions.
C. P. Hickman, L. S. Roberts, and F. M. Hickman, 1984,
Integrated Principles of Zoology (St. Louis: Times
Mirror/Mosby College). The first two chapters contain
discussions pertaining to chapter 1.
G. T. Miller, Jr., 1982, Living in the Environment (Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Publishing). Excellent resource, with
several chapters relating to the foundations and
interactions of life.
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1. A population of organisms cannot increase dramatically 1. The main point is to design a low-weight but high-efficiency
without an energy source. Such sudden increases in natural system that recycles materials. Finding small producers with
populations are usually only temporary. While they last, the a high output would be the place to begin. Students can. try
balance in a food web is considerably shifted. to go on from there.
2. in terms of producers and consumers, such an occurrence 2 Your school system has a nutritionist, either in your own
as the dumping of sewage in the pond could enrich the school cafeteria or in a central office, who plans meals. She
supply of nutrients for producers, and they might increase or he considers foods by bulk (matter), by calorie content
greatly in numbers, but only as long as the enriched nutrient (energy), and by diversity of needed nutrients present in
supply lasted. In turn, whatever feeds on the producers these foods. The nutritionist is the school cafeteria's link to
might increase greatly in numbers, but only as long as the the plants and animals in people's food chains. Another
producers are in increased supply. linkto materials cyclesis in garbage disposal from the
3. The food webs for each animal will vary, but the main idea school cafeteria. Possibly the school system has a contract
should be that the fawn will mature and could eventually be to supply the garbage to an agricultural business or a stock
used as food for humans. On the other hand, generally in animal raiser. If not, then the garbage is still decomposed in
Western society the puppy will only be a consumer. garbage dumps somewhere, and the materials reenter the
4. Answers will vary. In terms of a food web, some students materials cycles.
may see the fawn as "better" because it may be used as
food for humans.
.5. Hypotheses are possible explanations of an observation.
Facts are topics of information that not differ from one
person to another.
aso

3 132
 es

IP

1/4

A potion Of ladybird beetles. Notice the variation ireSOot ic variation is the raw material of evolution.
 Teaching strategies for this chapter, pages
T16-17,

CHAPTER 2 Key ideas:

the grouping of individual organisms into
populations;
the demand for resources by the human
population;
biotic and abiotic factors in the environment;
Populations use of nutrients by the body;
factors affecting populations
limited capacity of any space for supporting
individuals.

Introduction
An individual is one organism. An organism always lives with other or- The term "individual" is appropriate As a living
gahisms, some like itself and some different from it. Individuals of the unit of the biosphere, an individual can properly
Warne kind make up a population, and populations grow or decrease in be said to be indivisible Where divisibility exists,
s;z.e in response to many environmental factors. Some factors are non- the result is new individuals. Portions of an
living and some areiiiing, but all interact to affect the size of a popu- individual can be maintainedas in tissue
lation.. When some factor affects one population, the other populations culturesbut this is obviously artificial, except
for undifferentiated plant menstem tissue that
connected to it within the web of life also are affected. Humans affect
may produce new individuals
otherpopulations more than other organisms because we change the en-
vironment to suit our needs. Our needs, however, might not be the needs
of other organisms.

Individuals and Populations Guidepost: How do populations

change?
2.1 Individuals Are Separate Packages
In general, life processes occur in separate "packages." You are such
a package, an individual. You carry on the activities of life within your
:body apart from the life processes in the bodies of your parents, brothers,
or sisters. Each person is an individual. So, too, is each cow in a herd or
Students are interested in clones from viewing
each corn plant in a field. In most cases it is easy to distinguish individ- science fiction TV shows The irises in figure 2.1
uals. Sometiifies, however, plants are cennected to each other under- are the same plant. Individuals separated from
ground. What looks like two separate plants above ground is really only the common root are referred to as clones.
one. With some careful digging,you can determine that the two above- Some trees also grow connected underground,
ground parts are connected, as with the iris in figure 2.I. Aspens are an example.

29
30 Section Orli, The World of Life: The Biosphere

When a principal welcomes the student body at Rarely is an individual totally isolated from all others of its kind. A
the opening of school, he might make a
group of similar individuals: living in one particular area is called a pop-
statement such as this "This year we have
ulatioa. To define a population, you need to identify the kind of individ-
2371 students." Time and kind of organism are
explicit; place (in this school) is implied. Context
uals, the time, and the place. Thus, you can refer to the population of
of the statement is very important when one or pigeons in Denver in 1987, the number of spring beauty flowers in Okla-
more of the parameters of population is implied. homa in March, or the geese in figure 2.2. You also can refer to the
number of Brontosaurus dinosaurs throughout their entire history.
Populations are very important to scientists. To test a hypothesis, a
scientist needs to observe not just one individual, but many individuals
from a population. This is to make sure the observations made for one
hold true for all. If not, the hypothesis might have to be changed.
A population is also very important because as it increases or de-
creases in size, it can affect many other populations. The more we know
about one population, the more we can predict about others.

One or two examples will not suffice unless your 2.2 Population Size Depends on Interactions
students are superior in mathematical
Among Four Factors
background. Provide a number of additional
practice examples, using simple numbers with The size of a population changes over a period of time. Suppose a
both positive and negative values. biologist counted 700 ponderosa pine trees on a hill in Colorado in 1976.
In 1986 there were only,500 trees on the same hill. That means that
them were 200 fewer trees in 1986 than in 1976, a decrease in the pop-
ulation of ponderosa pines. We can express that change as a rate. A rate
is the amount of change divided by the amount of time for, the change
to take place. In this example, the rate is the change in the number of
Figure 2.1 From above ground how many iris trees divided by the change in time: 200 trees/10 years 20 trees
plants do these seem to be? How many when per year. In other words, there was an average of 20 fewer trees each,
the soil is removed? year in the population.

Figure 2.2 Population of Canada geese.

Mob*, Mood/TPA STACK & ASSOCIATEA

 Chapter 2 Populations 31

What might eiplain the decrease of 200 pine trees in the 10 years
between 1976 and 1986? Because pines cannot wander away, or emi-
Cirate, they must have died. That decrease represents the death rate, or
mortality (mor TAL ih tee), of the pine population. The number of deaths
in t1;.; pine population per unit of time is the death rate. Mortality is not
the only change that can affect a population, however. While some pines
might have died, some young pine trees might have started to grow from
seed: Death decreases a population size; reproduction increases it. Rab-
bits are born, birds are hatched, and seeds of plants germinate. For all
of these, the rate at which reproduction increases the population is called
the birthrate, or natality (nay TAL ih tee).

Figure 2.3-Popcieroatpine foiestin Color

Do*. Sokell

Figure 2.4 Dead ponderosa pines. Figure 2.6 Spruce seedlings

Alourbdra Vivo Dew foitail

t, G .11 3
32 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure,2.tr,DandeliOn seed .,bo, dandelions immigrate or.ernigrate

iiine trees are rooted in place, but for organisms that can move; there
are two other waysi population size May change. Immigration .(im uh.
GRAY shun) occurs when one or more organisms move into an area
where others of their kind can be found. Iminigration increases the pop- ),)
ulation. Emigration (em uh GRAY shun) occurs when organisms leave
to area;Emigration decreases the. population.
Suppose you are studying,the pigeon population in your city or town.
Last year a certain number of pigeons hatched, and some died. Some
pigeons flew into the city, and some flew 'out, Natality and immigration
increase the population of pigeons; mortality and emigration decrease
the population. Thus, the 'size of any population is the result of the re-
Ask students to describe the following in terms lationships among these opposing rates. These four ratesnatality, mor-
of these factors. (1) population of Europe tality, immigration, and emigrationare the factors :that determine.___
before and after the Black Plague, population size. They apply to every population, including the human
(2) colonization of North Amei,-a, (3) Eskimo population. In investigation 2.1 you will see how thesefactors interact
population since 1700. in the growth of two populations.

Investigation 2.1
POPULATION GROWTH
Introduction
This investigation allows students to gain an In the past section you have learned how four ratesnatality, mortality,
understanding of exponential growth and of how immigration, and emigrationdetermine population size. Carrying capacity
that affects population size as well as resources. is the maximum populaticin a given environment can support on a long-
term basis. Doubling time is the number of yew.; required for a population
Part A to double its size. In this investigation, you will compare the growth of two
populations and examine the roles played by carrying capacity, doubling
Procedure
time, and the four rates on that growth.
1, (a) 25 3. +200
(b) 200 4. 1930-1938
(c) +175 5. (a) 2000 Materials:
(d) 19.4 (b) 1938 pocket calculator
2. (a) +200 6. 166 graph paper
(b) +20
Chapter 2 Populations
33

Part AReindeer Population Discussion

Prodedure 1. Probably not. Saint Paul Island is more
than 200 miles from the mainland Reindeer are
In 1911, 25 reindeer-4 males and 21 femaleswere introduced onto
strong swimmers, but the distance is too great
'Saint Paul Island, one of the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea near Alaska.
for emigration or immigration to have a major
:Saint Paul Island is approximately 106 square kilometers in size (41 square
effect.
Miles), and is more than 200 miles from the mainland. On Saint Paul Island
2 Population growth is exponential.
there were no predators of the reindeer, and no hunting of the reindeer
Exponential growth is characterized by doubling,
,wasallowed. The graph below indicates what happened to the reindeer
A few doublings lead quicAly to enormous
,population On the island between 1911 and 1950. Use the graph to answer
numbers. With a larger population base to start
the following questions.
with in 1930. the growth between 1930 and
1938 would be great.
3. Overgrazing, death of plants, destruction
Figure 21 of other animal habitats, and accumulation of
wastes.
4 Overgrazing resulted in death of plants
2000 11H I 1 1 IIII I ' l l
and insufficient food to support the population.
Weakened by a lack of food, the reindeer were
prey to disease and the reproductive rate could
decline drastically.
5. It would probably die out because it is too
1500
small to recover.
6. (a) 1912 (b) 1 year
1915 3 years
-43
1920 5 years
1930 10 years
1000
1934 4 years
-1 1937 3 years
E (c) It became longer until 1930 and then
z became shorter and shorter.
7. The population crested after 1938.
500
8. (a) Natural controls take effect and can,
as in this example, have a drastic effecttotal
population dies out.
(b) Predators and hunting might have
prevented exponential growth and-destruction of
0
the environment. That would have controlled the
1905 1910 1920' 1930 1940 1950
population by maintaining the carrying capacity
Years
of the environment.
0 American Association for the-Advancement of Science. 1951

1. (a) What was the size of the population at the beginning of the study?
(b) In 1920?
(c) What was the difference in the number of reindeer between 1911
and 1920?
(d) What was the average annual increase in the number of reindeer
each year between 1911 and 1920?
2. (a) What was the difference in population size between the years 1920
and 1930?
(b) Whawas the average annual increase in the number of reindeer
in each of the years between 1920 and 1930?'
3. What was the average annual increase in the number of reindeer in
each of the years between 1930 and 1938?
4. _During which of the three periods-1911-1920, 1920-1930, or
1930-1938was the increase.in the population of reindeer greatest?
5. (a)- What was the greatest' number-of reindeer found on Saint Paul
Island between 1910 and 1950?
(b) In what year did this occur?
6. In-1950, only f reindeer were still alive. What is the average annual
decrease in the'number of reindeer in each of the years between 1938
and-1950?

1s X
34 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Part B Discussion
Procedure 1. Could emigration or immigration have played a major role in deter-
1. Students may need guidance in selecting mining the size of the reindeer population? Explain your answer.
scales for their graphs. You may wish to 2. What might account for the tremendous increase in the population of
prepare a sample for them to copy. Increments reindeer between 1930 and 1938 as compared to the rate of growth
of 200 years work well on the horizontal axis during the first years the reindeer were on the island?
A.D. 1 to A.D. 2000), and increments of 1000 3. What effect might 2000 reindeer have had on the island and its veg-
million on the vertical axis (0 to 6000 million). etation?
2. (a) 1660 years. 4. Consider all the factors an organism requires to live. What might have
(b) Decreasing. happened on the island to cause the change in population size from
(c) His growing exponentially. 1938 to 1950?
3. About 5800 million. 5. In 1950, 8 reindeer were still alive. If some of those were males and
(4850 4450) X 100 some females, what do you predict would happen to the population
4. of reindeer in the next few years?
4450 X 5
6. (a) Beginning in 1911, in which years did the population double?
40,000
1.8(%) (b) How many years did it take each of those doublings to occur?
22,250 (c) What happened to the doubling time between 1911 and 1938?
70 7. What evidence is there that the carrying capacity for reindeer on this
= 39 years
1.8 island was exceeded?
1987 + 39 years = 2026 8. (a) What does this study tell you about unchecked population growth?
(b) What difference might hunting or predators have made?
Discussion
1. Both show exponential growth curves. Part BHuman Population
2. Food, crop land, grazing land, forests,
Procedure
water, and air.
3. (a) Earth is a limited or finite environment. 1. On a sheet of graph paper, plot the growth of the human population
It is an island in space. using the data below.
(b) Yes, it has finite resources.
4. Starvation, disease, and war
5. (a) Birth.confrol, abortion, infanticide, and rOte3kiitt***.:0604096#67100.0490.0.000
restriction on number of children parents may Date Human Date Human
have. A.D. Population A.D. Population
(b) Student opinion. (Millions) (Millions)
6. South America, Central America, Africa,
1 250 1920 1800
India, high birthrate, poor economy, and
1000 280 1930 2070
insufficient fc . Canada, United States, severe 1200 384 1940 2300
impact on r aces. 1500 427 1950 2500
7. Northern Europe, low birthrate, and 1650 470 (Black Death) 1960 3000
overall education. 1750 694 1975 4080
8. Immigration 1850 1100 1980 4450
9. Water, living space, food supply, quality of 1900 1600 1985 4850
life, justice.

2. Use your graph to determine the doubling times for the human pop-
ulation between A.D. 1 and 1985.
(a) How much time elapsed before the human population of A.D. 1
doubled?
(b) Is the amount of time needed for the human population to double
increasing o_ r decreasing?
(c) What does that indicate about how fast the human population is
growing?
3. Extend your graph to the year 2000. What do you estimate the human
population will be in that year?

:1119
 haPter 2 Populations.
35

I. Using the equations below, estimate the doubling time for the current
population based on the rate of growth from 1980 to 1985. In what
i'ear will the present population double?
Rate of growth (inPercent) =
'(population in,1985 population in 1980) X 100
population in '1980 X number of years
70
Doubling time
rate of growth',

Discussion
1. What similarities do you see between, the graph of the reindeer pop-
ulation and the'graph of the human' p iulation you just constructed?
2. What are the 3 or 4 most important fac,.,'s required to sustain a pop-
ulation?
3. (a) In what ways is the earth as a whole similar to an island such as
Saint Paul Island?
*(b) Does the earth have a carrying capacity? Explain your answer.
4. What might happen to the population of humans on the earth if the
present growth rate continues?
5. (a) What methods could be usedlo reduce the rate of growth of the
human population?
(b)" In your opinion, which of those methods would be most accept-
able?
6. Cite a place in the world where population growth is a problem today.
How is it a problem?.
7. Cite a-place in the world where population growth is not a problem
today. Why is it not a problem?
8. What problems in your country are related to the size of the human
population?'
9. Whatire the most important 3 or 4 factors to think about with regard
to the world population?

2.3 The Human Population Uses Huge

Amounts of Resources
All the humans on the earth make up one large population. This pop- The earth's carrying capacity is finite. The
ulation is especially important because it can affect all the plants and question that seems unanswered is what will
animals on the earth. There are many reasons for this impact, but two limit the size of the human population Will
are particularly significant. First, because our population is large, we use 0 mortality through starvation, disease, and war
huge amounts of the world's resourcessuch as food, clean water, fuels, rise to equal present-day natality? Or will natality
and building materials. After we use these resources, we return many to be lowered to match the low death rates of
today?
the earth as waste materials that cannot be used again in that form.
Second, the number of people on earth is increasing at a tremendous
and alarming rate. That means that though we use up many resources
now, we will use even more in the future. Is there a limit to the size of
the human population?

4:44 0
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Ficire,2.8 HOw many:People can you count?

These and similar data can be obtained from You are one of more than 4.8 billion living huinan beings on the earth
The World Almanac, Statistical Abstract of the today. About 358,000 babies are born each day. About 146,000 people
United States, or other sources. Ask students die each day around the world. The human population grows by about
how these will affect state parks, beaches, and 80 million people each year. That is more people than live in California,
stadiums. New York, Texas, and Pennsylvania combined.
Experts estiniate that at the current rate of growth, the human pop-
The growth of a population through greater ulation will double in less than 40 years. Think about what would happen
survival of old (postreproductive) individuals will if the student population in your school were to double, but the resources
reduce calculated birthrate even though the were to remain the same. You would have the same number of teachers,
actual number of births increases Nevertheless, classrooms, desks, and lunches, but twice as many people would be trying,
the relative sizes of birthrates/death rates per to use them. Could your school handle the,increase? Now, suppose the
1000 individuals determine whether a population student population doubled again. What do you think would happen?
increases or decreases. Just like the student population in the, crowded school, the human
population on the earth increases, but the resources do not. -Why is the
human population growing so rapidly? Simply put, natality exceeds
Discuss Thomas Malthus's "Population Theory" mortality. the mortality rate was high in the early history of humans.
and how it applies to this century See also the Some of our early ancestors were killed and eaten by large animals but
discussion of that theory in Science 86, most died at an early age from diseases. Today in most countries huinans
January/February. no longer have to worry about predators, and we have reduced the danger
of death due to disease. Thus, the population grows.
All organisms need certain things for life. We now know that genetic
Ask students to list what they feel are the background, diet, behavior, and environment play important roles in
necessities of life. have the cla ;s vote to health. There is a long list of resources that we require to live normal,
determine the top 10. healthy lives, however. These are the necessities of life.
Is the population problem one that concerns just other countries? The
answer to that is an emphatic "No! ' Human beings, like all other living
things, have certain basic needs. No matter where wo ;live, we all need
 :!!

Ctjapter2 Populations 37

7:9'fhe'hepeSsifies ofe;:cleari air,vater,looO, and shelter from cold:

410

, "
Carlye CaMn ifiet'ernitz

Thod,;clean,Water, and oxygen to breathe. We need living space, shelter Discuss the Changes in-residential development
from cold or harmful weather, and protection from other organisms that across the last century urban to suburban Also
might harm us, including disease-causing organisms. discuss the houses themselvesfrom farm to
It isfdifficult.to provide alllhe necessities of life to a growing popu- city apartments to suburban houses to condos.
lation. Energy is required to grow the food needed to feed all the hungry
.people. -Engrg}, and resources are needed to make and run tractors, ir-
rigati9n-pülnps, and harvesters. Energy also is needed to transport the
food into cities and towns from distant farms. Already there are many Remind the students of the energy needed to
towns that must ration water. Water for drinking, washing, and.itriga- make the equipment and to irrigate crops
lion often is pipedlor thousands of-kilometers; resources and labor are
required to make and install the pipes. In some places local industries
Must take action to keep the air clean and breathable. In a number of
Cities people may become ill from breathing unclean air. When any of
tT's; the necesSities of life are reduced or spoiled, the human population is Have students research your local statutes. As
affected. In investigation 2.2, you will have a chance to learn just how future voters they should be aware of where to
:much of one of these necessities of life you need. find such information
 38 Section One, The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 2.10 Energy is used to make and run this harvester, and to transport the
wheat for processing and distribution to groCery stores.

Bull Kealc/bSti Extension

Figure 2.11 What abiotic environmental factors can you identify in this photo?
What potential effects could these factors have on the human population?

Smog is the abiotic factor that is most

noticeable. The smog and another abiotic
factor, the buildings, both subtract from the
sunlight that reaches ground level during daylight
hours. The smog also is irritating, causing
stinging sensations in the eyes, respiratory
difficulties, and in general harmful effects on the
human population Still other abiotic factors are
the street lamps, giving the beneficial effect of
light during hours that would otherwise be dark,
and the automobiles, giving the beneficial effect
of transportation and the harmful effects of
accidents and smog Studsnts may identify
additional abiotic factors

2
ri-iesOoimas

Self-Review

1. What three things define a population?

2. When is it difficult to distinguish an individual from a population?
3. What four factors determine population size, and how does each
affect the population?
4. How does the human population affect other populations?
.Chapter /2 Populations 39

Investigation 2.2
WATERA NECESSITY OF LIFE
IntrodUction
investigation you will calculate how much water you use individ7 Students will probably be surprised at how
'tidy on a daily basis, and then calculate the water needs for your family, much water they use in a day The investigation
your class, your school, your town, and your state. You also will discover may encourage them to be more aware of the
some of the ways in which you use water indirecily. finiteness of resources.

Procedure
Materials
1-8. Depend on student data.
graph paper
calculators (optional)
frOteggYAWatiC tat -Weit t-'4*
,procedure Activity Amount Usedin
1. Record how many gallons of water you think you use individually in an Gallons
average day. Later you will compare this estimated daily water use Brushing teeth 2-10
with your calculated daily water use. Washing hands 2
2. As a group, list all the ways members of your class use water on a
day-to-day basis. Shaving 20 (2/min)
3. Using the data in table 2.2, Domestic Uses of Water, determine your Showering 20-25 (5/min)
individual water use per day for each activity that your class listed in Tub bathing 25-35
procedure 2. Include your share of general family uses such as dish-
Flushing toilet 3.5-8
washer and clothes washer. Then determine your individual total water
use perday. Getting a drink 0.25
4. Compare the individual water use you calculated in procedure 3 with Cooking a meal 5-7
the water use you estimated in procedure 1. Is your calculated figure Washing dishes 30 (8-10/meal)
higher or lower than your estimated figure?
Automatic dishwasher 15
5. Find out how many people are in your school, including teachers and
students. Find out how many people live in your town or city and your House c'eaning 7

state. Washing machine 24-50

6. Calculate the amount of water used per day by your family, your class, Watering lawn 10/min (102/1000 m2)
your school, your town, and y6ur state, for each of the activities listed
Leaking faucet 25-50/day
in procedure 2.
7. Calculate total water use per day for all the activities combined, for Faucet and toilet leaks iri New York City = 757
your family, your class, your school, your town, and your state. million/day
8. Draw a bar graph to illustrate how much water is used by your class (From Living in the Environment, Third Ed., by G. Tyler
for each activity. Which activities require the most water? Miller, Jr. © 1982 by Wadsworth, Inca Used by
permission.)

Discussion
Discussion
1. There are many water uses that are not obvious to most people. Con-
1 About 652/a of body weight is water. There
sider, for example, how much water is necessary to raise one calf until
is a continual loss of water in urine, feces, and
it is fully grown. (See table 2.3, How to make a cow.) Why do you think
evapora'ion. This water loss must be replaced.
so much water is needed to raise a calf?
2. Stua6nts' answers will vary. They may be
interested in this data: It takes 650 gallons of
water to make the steel for one bicycle and 200
gal. xis to make the rubber for one car tire.
3. Depends on student answers to number 2.
4. Students have very little control over this.
Being knowledgeable of indirect uses might leao
them to more and better conservation practices.
5. Brushing teeth.do not let water run. Turn
it on only when you need it.
Washing handsdo not let water run. Put
just enough in the sink to clean ham's.
Shavingdo not let the water run.
Showeringtake shorter showers. Turn
water off when lathering hair and/or body.

t44
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Tub bathingdo not fill tub Use just enough

to get clean.
Flushing toiletput something (brick) in tank Ingredients
to take up space. Toilet will use less water, 1 80-lb calf
Getting a drinkdo not let water run to get
cold. Use ice-cubes or keep it in the refrigerator 8 acres grazing land
to keep it cool 12,000 lbs forage
Cooking a mealdo not let the water run.
125 gals gasoline and various
Washing dishesdo not let the water run.
petroleum byproducts
Fill basin with hot water for rinsing. Use the
dishwasher if you have one. 305 lbs fertilizer Fertilizer Recipe
Automatic dishwasherrun only when full of
1.5 acres farmland Combine:
dishes.
170 lbs nitrogen
House cleaning=do not let the water run. 2,500 lbs corn
45 lbs phosphorus
Put water in sink, tub, or bucket and clean entire 350 90 lbs potassium
lbs soybeans
room with same water. insecticides
Washing machinewash only full loads. Use herbicides
water saver features if available. antibiotics
Watering lawnwater in the A.M. when it is hormones
cool. Do not let water run down sidewalks or
1.2 million gals water, to be
into the street.
added regularly throughout
Leaking faucetfix it, or plug sink or tub to
catch water and use it to water plants, clean, or Take one 80-lb calfallow to nurse and eat grass for 6 months, then wean.
any other use you can think of. Over next 10 months, feed 12,000 pounds of forage. Use about 25 gallons of
6. Data from water departments would give petroleum to make fertilizer to add to the 1.5 acres of land. Set aside rest of
these answers. gasoline to power machinery, produce electricity, and pump water. Plant corn
and soybeansapply insecticides and herbicides. At 24 months, feed cow,small
amounts of crop and transfer to feedlot. Add antibiotics to prevent disease and
hormones to speed up fattening. During next 4 months, feed remaining crop'
mixed with roughage. Recipe yields about 440 usable pounds of meat--1000
Agricultural 7-ounce servings. Option: Bake the 2500 pounds of grain and 350 pounds of
soybeans into bread and casseroles-18,000 8-ounce servings.
Item Gallons USed
1 egg 40 (Excerpt from The Cousteau Almanac by Jacques-Yves Cousteau. Copyright © 1980,
1981 by the Cousteau Society, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Doubleday & Company,
1 orange 100 Inc.)

1 ear corn 76
1 loaf bread 142 2. Make a list of the ways you use water indirectly, for example, in the
1 kg flour 165 production of the food you eat or materials you use.
1 kg sugar 275
3. Compare your list with table 2.4, "Indirect User of Water." How many
of these uses did you list?
1 kg rice 1,101
4. How could you reduce your indirect use of water?
kg beef 5,507 5. What could you do to reduce your direct use of water?
Industriel 6. Is there any evidence that the water Supply you use daily is decreasing
in size or is being contaminated by pollutants? How could you go about
Item Gallons Used obtaining this information?
Industrial mining
and manufacturing 183 /person /day
For Further Investigation
Cooling water for
electric power 1. Research actual water use for one of the items you listed in discussion
plants 700/person/day question 2.
1 gallon gasoline 26-95
2. Examine your family utility bills for the past year and note the amount
of water used in each month. Each unit represents 1 m3 of water. Cal-
1 kg steel 77 culate your family's average monthly water use in. gallons. (A gallon
Sunday newspaper 280 equals 0.004 m3.) How does actual use compare with your calcula-
:I kg synthetic tions in this investigation?
rubber 660
1 kg aluminum 2,202
1 car 94,825

(From Living in the Environment, Third Ed., by G. Tyler

Miller, Jr. © 1982 by Wadsworth, Inc. Used by
permission.)

145
 o 'Chapter '2 Populations 41

The Environment Guidepost: How do environmental

and Populations factors affect population
size?

2.4 The Environment is Made Up

of Bioticand,Abiotic Factors
Factors that affeot the human population also affect all other popu-
,
lations. Everything that surrounds and affects an organism is its envi-
4-onmeni (en VY run munt): The7environment may slow the growth of
,in individtial and may even kill it. Or the environment may stimulate
:the growth an&reproduction of an individual. In either case, the envi-
ronment affects the size of a population.
We can divide the environment into two parts. There is the living part Using the term biotic to refer to things that are
and-the nonliving part of an organism's surroundings. The living or re- alive or were recently alive may be confusing to
Cently living part'is callecrthe biotic (by OT ik) environment. This in- some students But the distinction between
cludeslour neighbors, houseplants, and dog, thelleas on your dog, and biotic and abiotic environmental components is
useful A dead elm tree, or a dead zebra being
all the organisms you eat. The:nonliving part is called the sl,iotic (AY
eaten by lions, is still a biotic environmental
by-OT ik) environment, which includes things such as livintipace, sun-
component A dinosaur that is fossilized or
light, soil, wind, and rain. Both-biotic and abiotic factors affect the size plants that have become petroleum can be
ed. e4oPulation. If all the environmental, conditions are not-optimal, a considered to be abiotic.
!(, population :Might not grow. An environmental factor that slows the
trowth.of4 population is called alimitinglictor. We,will discuss some
-of thaste limiting factors in the following .s:ectiOns, and you can observe
their effecti on a specific populationlit investigation 2,3.

Jeffrey pine9rOwingout of`a crevice'in rock. What biotic and

abtotic factori.affactlhis-tre0??

Doug Sokell

14>6
y
 42- Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Investigation 2.3
STUDY OF A POPULATION
Introduction
Students will obtain firsthand experience with Yeast organisms
organisms are useful for studying populations. They reproduce
population dynamics in this investigation. Teams rapidly and are conveniently small. You will observe a population of yeast
of two are preferable. Investigation 2 3 builds up cells growing in a broth medium (plural, media). How do populations change
your students' experience with experimental over a period of time? Before going any further with this investigation, think
methods and applies the ability to use a of three hypotheses that might be possible answers to this question. Write
Microscope. Appendix 2 includes two these hypotheses in your data book and evaluate them with the data you
investigations involving microscope techniques. collect during this investigation.
,If necessary, use these investigations prior to
starting this investigation. Use a sample from a
yeast culture to acquaint them with how yeast
Materials (per team)
looks under a microscope. 125 ml flasks (2) cover slips
Considerations of time and space limit the aluminum foil microscope
choice of organisms. Yeast seems to be the glass marking crayon dropping pipets
most suitable organism: it reproduces rapidly, its 250 ml beaker distilled water
requirements are simple, it is easily visible with balance (sensitive to 0.1 g) nutrient materials
the "high dry" lens of the microscope, it 250 ml graduated cylinder bacto-yeast extract
responds quickly to decrease in food stirring rod potassium phosphate-monobasic
concentration and increase in toxic substances, Bunsen burner or hot plate peptone
and it is an organism that already may be spatula glucose
'known to students. microscope slides
Number 2 under "For Further Investigation"
provides an opportunity to study the relationship
between food availability and population growth. Procedure
If possible, have a group of students do this as Day 1
a demonstration for the rest of the class. Or
1. Measure 200 ml of distilled water and place it in the 250 ml beaker.
prepare media with a different glucose
2. Weigh the four sources of nutrients in the amounts shown below and
concentration for each class. An advantage of
add them to the 200 ml of distilled water.
the latter approach is that it increases the
bacto-yeast extract 0.5 g
importance of each student's contribution to the
potassium phosphate-monobasic 0.4 g
total investigation. Directions for preparing the
peptone 8.0 g
media with different glucose concentrations are
gt.rcose 1.0 g
included in the teacher section on materials.
3. Heat over a low flame or low heat until the materials are dissolved. Stir
constantly while heating. When properly dissolved, the medium is
Procedure
sparkling clear and slightly yellow.
From start to finish this investigation requires 4. Pour 49 ml of your prepared medium into each of the 125 ml flasks.
two weeks. The daily counts will take about half Shape an aluminum-foil cap over the mouth of each flask.
a period at the beginning, but once the students 5. Label each flask with your team identification. Label one flask A and
become familiar with the .techniques, the time the other B.
needed for counts will decrease rapidly. Much of 6. Your teacher will sterilize the flasks and the medium. Why is sterilizing
the class time during this investigation can be necessary?
used for other work. Divide the time as follows:
The Day 1 procedure will require about a
class period. However, you could prepare the
Day 2
medium for the class yourself or have a special 1. Your teacher will transfer 1 ml of a yeast stock culture to your flask
team of students do this outside the regular A. Nothing will be added to flask B. Keep the two flasks in the same
class time. environment during the investigation. What is the purpose of flask B'?,
The Day 2 procedure will require most of a 2. You now have a start of a new population in flask A. Review your hy-
class period because this will be the first potheses as to what you think might happen over the next ten days.
counting day and students will be unfamiliar with 3. Before you go any further, prepare a table like table 2.5 below in your
the counting techniques. Move around the room data book.
as students are preparing their slides, working
with the microscope, and counting. Make sure

47
 N
Chapter 2 Populations
43

Count Day O , Day ,1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10
r First sample

Second'sample

Third sample

Fourth sample

Fifth sample

Total

Average

Dilution

Total X Dilutions

4. You need to know the number of yeast cells with which your new pop-
ulation began. The number is so small that it would be hard to find Figure 2.13 Approximate positions of fields for
counts.
them in your flask A. Instead, you will make a count from the yeast
stock culture that was used to start your population in flask A. Your
teacher will place a drop of material from the yeast stock culture on
a slide, and you will use the following counting method.
(a) Place a clean cover slip over the drop of material on your slide.
Position the slide on your microscope stage (be carefiil not to tilt
the stage). Focus with low power; then switch to high power.
(b) Count the number of individual organisms in five different high-
power fields, as shown in figure 2.13. (Note: Yeast organisms are
difficult to see if the light is too bright.) Refer to figure 2.14 for the
appearance,of yeast organisms. The cells often stick together,
but count each cell in any clump separately. Buds also count as Figure 2.14 Yeast Note the buds still attached
individualsAow have your partner make five counts of a new to the yeast cells. These will become new
sample provided by your teacher. Record your five counts on the individuals. X600
table in your data book under Day 0.
5. But wait. Is that an accurate count of the yeast population in flask A?
Remember you made the counts from the stock culture flask. Only 1
ml of that stock culture was added to the 49 ml of the yeast growth
medium in }our flask for a total of 50 ml. You must do a little mathe-
maNcs with the number you got in procedure 4 (b). What calculations
must you do to get a count for Day 0 for your population in flask A?
6. Do .the calculations and record this number_orithe Total X Dilutions
line on your table for Day 0.

Days 3-12
1. Shake flask' , thoroughly to distribute the yeast organisms evenly. Use
a clean medicine dropper and immediately place a drop of the culture
on a clean microscope slide. Place a clean cover slip over the drop.
As you did yesterday, position the slide on the microscope stage, focus
with low power, and then switch to high power. Use the same counting
method as you did ir.:procedure 4(b) yPsterday.
2. Record your data under Day 1 on th;) table in your data bock.
3. Follow the same procedure for Day 2, Day 3, and so forth.
BSCS by Richard Tolman

i 148
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

they are seeing the yeast cells clearly, Remind

them reouce the liglit. Make sure they are Figure 2.15 Diluting a yeast culture 10 and 100 times.
counting individual cirS'and not clumps of cells,
air bubbles, or extraneous materials.
Days 3-12. A count of the number of yeast
cells per high:powered field is made on each of
these days. The weekend can be handled in
one of two ways:
(a) No counts are made, and when the
graph:fgrall the counts is prepared, the counts
1 ml
for the missing two days can be extrapolated. yeast
(b) A third flask (flask C) with 49 ml of yeast culture
growth medium is prepared on day 1 of the
activity. It is inoculated with 1 ml of Dilution 1
culture on a day later in the activity that will give
the weekend counts on-school days. The
counting schedule below illustrates an example
of this procedure.
Counting Schedule
Friday Measure out dry
1 ml
ingredients, mix with water, 50 ml yeast culture diluted
and sterilize. yeast
culture
Monday Inoculate yeast growth
medium and make Day 0
Tube Dl
rount.
first
Tuesday Day 1 count, flask A. diluted
tube
Wednesday Day 2 count, flask A.
Inoculate yeast growth
medium in flask C.
9 ml
Thursday Day 3 count, flask A. water

Friday Day 4 count, flask A.

Monday Day 5 count. flask C.

Tube D2
Day 7 count, flask A.
second
Tuesday Day 6 count, flask C. diluted
Day 8 count, flask A. tube

Wednesday Day 9 count, flask A.

Thursday Day 10 count, flask A. 9 ml

water

It may be necessary to dilute the yeast

culture during tl,e period of counting. It is 4. There is the possibility that as the population grows older, the fields
essential that you demonstrate the idea of will be too crowded to get an accurate count. If that happens you must
dilution to your students. You can do this very dilute the culture. Obtain a test tube containing 9 ml of water; label
graphically by adding 1 ml of very heavily this tube with your team number and D1 (Dilution 1). Shake the yeast
colored water to 9 ml of water. Remove 1 ml of culture until the organisms are evenly distributed. Use a pipette and
this diluted coloring and add it to another test immediately transfer 1 ml of the culture into the dilution tube. Mix the
tube containing 9 ml of water. contents of the dilution tube thoroughly. Place -1 drop from the dilution
Discussion of the results will require at least tube on a slide as directed above and count the yeast organisms.
one full period.
On each counting day individual students or
teams should add their data to a chart you will
haVe on the chalkboard. From the pooled data
Students can determine a class average for
each day of growth, They will need their
individual data and the class data to construct
growth curve graphs.

1.49
-A.
ChiPter 2 Populations 45

5. If the field is still too crowded for easy counting, transfer 1 ml of the If you are preparing a medium with a rtfferent
contents of tube 01 to another test tube containing 9 ml of water. Mark glucose concentration for each class, use the
this dilution D2. It may even be necessary to use a third dilution (see fallowing guideline. 1 g glucose, IOC ml of
figure 2.15). medium is a 1% glucose solution.
6. In tube D1, the culture is diluted 10 times, in tube D2, 100 times. If you Sodium phosphate or dibasic potassium
make.dilutions during counting, record the proper number (10, 1;10, phosphate may be substituted tor monobasic
or 1000) after Dilution on the data table. If you make no dilutions, the potassium phosphate (Na,PO4 or K2HPO4).
dilution is 1. Sucrose may be substituted for glucose, but this
substitution is less desirabte than either
mentioned above.
Diecussion
Beef bouillon cube* may be substituted for
In this investigation, you obtained an estimate of the population in the ,ptone. Two cubes are sufficient for 1000 ml
flask by counting the individuals in a small sample, a method called sem- hot water, To remove the fat, cool the mixture
'piing. To increase the accuracy of your estimate, you took certain pre- somewhat and filter.
cautions. You shook the flask to distribute the organisms evenly. You Grape juice with glucose added cv serve as
counted the organisms in five different fields of view. Averaging those five a good medium.
fields smoothed out chance differences. On the master table you averaged If materials for preparation of the medium, or
the figures obtained by all teams. That Willer smoothed out chance dif- their substitutes, are impossible to obtain, a
ferences among tha flasks. The final count for each day's population is the water soluticn (about 10%) of molasses not
average number &uiganisms per high-power field. containing sulfur dioxide may be used, but this is
t On a sheet of graph paper, list the ages of the cultures (in days) on a last resort.
the horizontal axis. Then, list the number of organisms per sigh -power One of the inost comn,on sources of error in
field on the vertical axis. Plot your data and then use a different color making counts is an uneven distribution of yeast
to plot the average ,data of all teams. cells in the medium when the sample is
2. On the basis of your discussions of this investigation, explain similar- removed Instruct students to gently swirl the
ities and differences among the graph lines representing data from flask to mix the medium and the yeast cells
different teams. thoroughly and to make the transfer to the sHe
3. Is there any general trend in the graph line.representing the average quickly Experience has shown that it is not
data of all teams? If so, describe it. necessary to use sterile techniques when
4. Review the three hypotheses you developed before starting this in- counting In the rare instance that the culture
vestigation. Are any of them supported by the data? Are any not sup- becomes contaminated, that can be discussed
ported? Explain. as another example of a limiting factor in
5. What limiting factors influenced the growth of the yeast population? population growth,
Anticipate (an the basis of your knowledge
of students) as many difficulties as possible and
For Further Investigation take steps to m,-imize them. Impress on
1. Does temperature affect the growth of a yeast population? Repeat the students 'he ss,.entific necessity for uniformity of
procedures, but incubate the cultures at a constant temperature 15° C procedure.
above or below the average temperature at which the tubes were in-
cubated before. Discussion
2. Does the amount of food energy available affect the growth of a yeast 2. A wide range of numbers is likely to
population? The medium you used in this investigation contained 4 appear when counts of different teams are
percent glucose, a sugar that is used as food by yeast. Your teacher gathered, Fluctuations in the populations as
has directions for making a 1 percent and a 2 percent glucose me-, measured by one team are likely to be so great
dium. Repeat the procedures using one of these media. that to detect any pattern of growth is difficil.
However, when the data from many teams are
averaged, a good growth curve usually results.
Table T2.1 shows data obtained by classes and
figure T2.1 is a graph based on the average of
all nine teams. To obtain a curve that can be
explained in terms of population ;Tory is, of
course, desirable and .atisfying to students.
However, failure to obtain such a must no
be interpreted as failure of the investigation.

continued on page 61

i:15
46 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

2.5 Many Abiotic Factors Make

Up the Weather
This section on environmental effects on The weather is a group of abiotie-factors that affects all plants and
population size (or density) should be reviewed animals. Weather factors include temperature, sunlight intensity, pre-
during study of chapter'20 where this topic will cipitation (rainfall, snowfall, fog), humidity (amount of moisture in the
be considered in more depth. air), and wind. Each factor may be measured alone, but they all affect
each other, and they all affect population size.
Encourage students to give other examples of
local weather effects. Note, however, that
In the northern pail of the -11iiited States, the first heavyJrost kills
because weather effects are short-term, they . almostall adult mosquitoes: frost is a limiting factor for the mosquito
primarily affect the population size of organisms population. In the autumn, swallows fly south, and their population in
with short lifespans. Longer-term changes the north drops. Both those population decreases are related to one
such as drought periodsthat may affect weather factortemperature. However, temperature affects the mos-
population size of organisms with longer quito population through mor. ility and the swallow population through
lifespans are more properly called climatic. emigration.
Wind is often a limiting factor for organisms. The trees in figure 2.16
grow one-sided or very low because the prevailing winds always blow
from one direction. Low humidity in the desert results in a high rate of
evaporation. The high evaporation, coupled with low rainfall, permits
only plants with special-adaptations to survive.
Long-term weatherclimatedetermines what kinds of plants can
grow in a particular area. Throughout the world, characteristic associ-
ations of plants and the animals they support are found in each climate.
We will examine those associations in detail in chapter 22.

2.6 Living Things Require Space to Live

Each indiVidua: needs living space. Some organisms need less space
than others. For instance, individual corn plants often touch each other
in the field and grow very well. Mountain lions, on the other hand, usu-
e ally stay several kilometers away from each other. In general, motile
(MOH til),,or moving, organisms, such as animals, need more space than-
nonmotile ones, such as plants. Large organisms need more space than
small ones.

Figure 2.16- Most of the branches on these trees point in one direction. Can
you think of a reason why?

These trees are growing near the timberline

where wind and blowing ice and dirt destroy the
meristems on the windward side The most
devastating winds come from one direction,
causing this "flagging" condition of the trees

GordonUno-
 ;,-

4hapier 2 POpiiiations 47

.occu-
You might prediot that the'aniount of space an organism needs is
related to-the availability of nutrients. That is true_to some degree, but
-another factor that affects organisms in a population is their density
'the auMber, of individuals in relation to the space the population
pies (figure 2:17). For example, in the experiment shown in figure 2.18,
cages were given more than enough food every day. As the mice

Figure 2.17: (a) Plan of.an orchard. Each dot represents one tree. What is the
'clensity.,Of trees in the 'Orchaid?.(6) Under natural conditions, organiSms are
-rarely distributed evenly. Calculate the density of dusty clover in the field as a
whole and then only in the northwest quarter. Compare.

:ill 7 100 meters

,-

The density of dusty clover is 0139 plants/m2 in

the field as a whole and 0424 plants 1m2 in the
northwest quarter 1.)iisities of blazing star and
goldenrod can also be calculated and
a compared.

0 goldenrod

north

dusty clover

A blazing star
 48 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 2.18 In this experiMent. mice were provided with more than enough food
-(left). As'a result (right), the population has grown dramatically. What will happen
:if the mice in the cage on the riPhrexperience a food shortage?

reproduced, the density of the population increased, and the cages be-
came very crowded. Some female mice stopped taking care of their nests
and young. Mice continued to be born, but many newborn mice died
from neglect. Eventually, mortality of young mice reached nearly 100
percent. The high infant mortality kept the population density from in-
creasing further.

2.7 Humans Use Much Farmland

for Other Purposes
Experiments, such as the one involving the mice, help us to predict
what might happen to other populations under similar conditions. How-
Ask students how much space a human needs. ever, though the mice experiments may help to explain mouse behavior,
This is an open question and should stimulate it is difficult to apply the results directly to humans. Like all other or-
student discussion It provides an opportunity to ganisms, humans require space for living. We need farmland to grow
relate rural isolation, urban density, and food, but most people who live in cities never see that space, Unfortu-
suburban sprawl. It might be interpreted in terms nately, the amount of land on which we cri grow our food is decreasing
of resources, particularly the amount of space
each year because other demands for space are increasing: people want
required to supply food for humans It also can
more places for their houses. Each house occupies about one-eighth of
mean personal space. Two interesting
references are, R. Sommer, 1969, Personal
a hectare. Eight houses occupy one hectare, sufficient land to provide
Space: The Behavioral Basis Of Design food for three people. The living space demanded by families is in-
(Englewood Cliffs .N.J., Prentice-Hall) creasing dramatically. 'Unfortunately, the space on which they build
(paperback); and R. Sommer, 1974, Tight homes is often prime farmland. It is easy to build homes on the level
Spaces. Hard Architecture and How to farmland that is already cleared of trees and rocks. Farmland that has
Humanize It (Englewood-C,fiffs, N J Prentice- been used to build homes is taken out of production of crops, often-per-
Hall) (paperback). manently.
Trucks deliver food produced in the country to the cities. People who
Contrast the European city apartments with our live in the suburbs drive to and from their jobs in the city each weekday.
cities and their residential patterns Both of these activities require a large, complex highway system that
requires great amounts of space. Beneath the highways alone is enough
farmland to feed 0.5 million people. It has been estimated that each year
in the United States, more than 0.4 million hectares (1 million acres) of
farmland are paved over with highways, covered with houses, or per-
Collect local county or state figures on the rate manently flooded. This problem is occurring around the world. If the
of highway development Contact the trend continues, much more food will have to be grown on much less
apprcpriate highway department. land.

-153
 Chapter, 2 PoPuWiens 49

-Figure 2:19' Much of our productive farmlands being,threatened by,suburban

jOtie D. CunniesilmitiilSUALS UNLIMITED (1,

FigUre 2:00 Each year, more than 1 .Million acres of farmland are paved for
'high'ways:

Sokell

2.8 Water le a Neceseity of Life

All living organisms rieedvater. In almost all places on earth where
you find water, you also will find living organisms. In all living organisms
youmill find water. In fact, between 50 and 95 percent of the weight of
,a,plant or animal is water. If you weigh 140 pounds, about 100 pounds
of.you is.water. Almost all of the chemical reactions needed to keep an t)
organism alive take place in water. Water molecules, in fact, are part of
many cheMical reactions. Although, a few organisms can become inac-
tive wheriihere is no water in their environment, most organisms die.
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure2i07,1*talityinjhe desert inCreases:aftereheayy rainfall.

.

John D.'CwinmgPim% VISUALS UNLIMITED G Rod Aihnitotistiok & ASSOCIATES

In the deserts of the U:S. Southwest, thereis a It rarely :'rains in the deserts of southern Arizona, but a few weeks
spedies of frog that lies dormant in the deep after a heavy rainfall, thousands of small, bright, flowering plants quickly
Mud and emerges to eat and reproduce It grow and blanket the once bare and baked desert soil. Rain provides the
buries itself as the water begins to dry up moisture needed for seeds to sprout, thus increasing natality. After a
heavy rainstorm in Texas, small pools of water may be formed. Those
pools may attract frogs to feed on insects and to mate there. At least for
a short time, the frog population increases through immigration to the
pool.

2.9 Poor Sanitation Is Responsible

for the Spread of Disease
in Many Parts of the World
A source of pure drinking water is vital to the health of humans and
other animalS. Many diseases are spread by water, and unclean living
conditions increasetha- -risk of exposure to such diseases. In some parts
of the world the only water available for drinking contains traces of
human wastes. Disease-causing organisms carried in polluted drinking
water ai - the cause of, many serious illnesses around the world. Toxic

Figure 2.22- What might be responsible -for this *wiling?

 Chapter 2' Populations
51

chemicals that seep into wells and reservoirs of drinking water also can
Cause illnesses. As we will see in chapter 23, the purity of the water in
0 You may want to give some examples here.
Water-breeding insects carry malaria (800
some parts of the United States is threatened by such problems. minion infections per year) and yellow fever,
In 1900 the Chief causes Of death in the United States were influenza, Trachoma, leprosy, and conjunctivitis are spread
prieUmonia, and'tuberculosis. Today, as you can see in figure 2.23 the by washing in polluted water Typhoid, cholera,
chief causes of death are heart diseast and cancer, both of which have dysentery, and diarrhea are waterborne, and
been linked; at leait in part, to environmental problems and aging. Much defective sanitation spreads intestinal worms.
ottlie decreaio in fatal diseases has come about through the discovery
and -use Of vaccines and antibioticS. Equally 'helpful has been an in-
OteaSe in-sanitation and public health practices that control the spread
of disease-causing organist/1S:
Fewer babies die,in infancy now than ever before. In 1915, 100 out Discuss the possible links of nutrition and life-
ot every "1000 infants born in the United States died in their first year styles. these will be discussed more fully in
-of Ifft-In 1985.this figure dropped to only 10.5 deaths out of every 1000. chapters 15 and 17
.A baby born in the, United States todLy has a life expectancy of more
than10-years. In some countries the life expectancy is less than 50 years.
Poor sanitary conditions are largely the cause of this difference. The death Have the class discuss how improved medical
Of children accounts for the low life - expectancy figures. Nearly all the care, better nutrition, and sanitation affect the
:,childhood deaths in thoSe countries are caused by a combination of population rate
undernutrition, parasites, and infections spread by air and water. Both
the chance of contracting a disease and its severity are much greater if
you do not get enough food of the right kind. A simple case of diarrhea
or a cold can become a fatal disease.

Figure 2.23 In 1900, infectious diseases such as pneumonia, influenza, and

tuberculosis were the major causes of death. Today, heart disease and cancer
head the list. What changes since 1900 might account for these trends?

500

400

0 heart diseases
Its

a.
0 300
0
0
0
00
I')
a.
200
Co

its. cancer
....... ..........
I' .....
100
......................
and pneumonia

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

year 7C

151
52 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

You may wish to have students distinguish 2.10 Nutrients Are Used to Make
between nutrients and foods. Substances with
carbon-hydrogen bonds contain available
an Organistifs Body
energy. Hence, foods and nutrients are often Living organisms need nutrients for maintenance and growth. Con-
two different things. Foods contain available sumers obtain their nutrients from the foods they eat. These foo-..s
energy, as do many o" le nutrients that make plants and animalsare part of the biotic environment. Producers get
up the foods (amino acids, sugars, and so on)
their nutrients from the soil, part of the abiotic environment. Both plants
But many other-nutrients are minerals with no
and animals need a broad range of nutrients. When a nutrient is avail-
available energysalt, for one example, and
the minerals that plants take up from the soil.
able in adequate amounts in the environment, a population may grow.
Excess amounts of certain nutrients can be harmful, and scarcity of a
nutrient may limit the growth of the population. That is why farmers
Table124Pg,§s!$141 fe :Otit.Wigat#C1 must add fertilizers to their crops if they expect their harvest to be good.
Relative No..of Atoms Table 2.6 lists the nutrients most plants need for growth.
Eleinent Compared to Molybdenum
Molybdenum
Copper
1
2.11 Getting Enough of the Right
100
Zinc 300 Kind of Food Is Not Easy
Manganese 1,000
Boron
Food is a necessity of life. In many parts of the world today, the food-
2,000
Iron 2,000 supply is a major limiting factor for humans. The lack of food slows
Chlorine 3,000 growth or even- causes death. Hungry people can be found even in the
Sulfur 30,000 United States. Many places in the world experience periodic times of
Phosphorus 60,000 famine (FAM in), a great shortage of food. In places such as Asia, Af-
Magnesium 80,000
Calcium
rica, and Latin America,, the number of people that must be fed is in-
125,000
Potassium 250,000 creasing much more quickly than food can'be grown to feed them.
Nitrogen 1,000,000 A common and useful measure of energy is the calorie. A calorie is
Oxygen 30,000,000 the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of
Carbon 35,000,000 water one degree Celsius. The calorie you are probably. .familiar with,
Hydrogen 69,000,000
however, is the food calorie, which is really a kilocalorie, or kcal-1000
Adapted from Plant Physiology, Third Edition, p. 103, calories. Teenage females need 1200 to 3000 kcals per day, depending
by F C. Salisbury and 0 E. Ross, Cio 1985 by on how active they are. Teenage males need 2100 to 3900 kcals, and a
Wadsworth, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the
publisher. football player may use more than 6000 kcals.
In industrialized countries life-styles have changed greatly in the past
100 years, and humans have become less physically active. Because in-
The correlation of activity, kcals, intake. and take of kcals has remained fairly constant, many people consume more
weight is discussed in chapter 15. kcals than they need. In- other places in the world, however, people are
not able to get enough kcals to maintain normal activity levels. Such
people are undernourished. Without a continuous and sufficient supply
of kcals, activity level drops, and eventually muscles are broken down
to supply the cells with nutrients.
The "empty" calories of most fast foods The number of kcals is not the only factor that is measured when
and manufactured foods are discussed in judging the nutritional value of.fiod. Humans need certain nutrients
chapter 15. that are not abundant in plants. A meal of only corn bread or white rice
is not nutritious. Animal products hava the essential nutrients in suffi-
cient amounts, but animals, are costly to produce and to buy. To provide
an American 3000 kcals of food supplying all required nutrients, a farmer
must raise about 30,000 kcals in plant substance. In the United States,
almost 90 percent of that 30,000 kcals is used to feed animals being
raised for meat. Worldwide, 40 percent of the grain crop is used to feed
Some research in mice indicates a relationship livestock.
between the amount of protein eaten as a Because they cannot afford to buy meat or to raise meat animals,
;uvenile and the number of brain cells and many people around the world lack both the kcals and nutrients needed
Synapses developed for good health. Ironically, children with poor diets often have swollen

4.; y 1.5 7
-Chapter .2 Populations 53

'Figure 2.24 Many People from poorer countries are unable to obtain adequate
:amounts of energy.

john leasc/UNICiF

bellies due to the low levels of nutrients in the food they can find to eat.
Such a condition is seen in children suffering from kwashiorkor (kwah Figure 2.25 The child on the left has
shee OR kor). That disease occurs when children eat a diet high in car- kwashiorkor, the most common form of protein
deficiency Malnutrition. Note the swollen
bohydrates but low in protein. These children are malnourishedthey abdomen, a coronlori cymptom of this disease.
may,get enough kcals in their diet, but their food lacks essential nu-
trieids needed for growth and good health. Lack of adequate protein also
may cause mental retardation.
Africa has the fastest growth rate of any continent in the world.
Widespread famine has plagued parts of Africa in the 1970s and the
1980s. Millions of people have died or. mill die from lack of food. A se-
vere drought is partly to blame for the food shortage. Without water at
the right time, the crops in the field die. However, other factors also are
responsible. Much of the fertile soil has been blown away by the wind
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

or washed away by infrequent and violent rainstorms (figure 2.26). Soil

erosion leaves less farmland on which to grow crops. A population ex-
plosion and the inability to grow food have added to the catastrophe in
Africa.
This problem is not limited to just one part of the earth. The number
of people living today in the world is so large that if all the farmland
were divided equally, each person would, have only one-half hectare for
growing his or hershare of food. The amount of land that can be farmed
Most chemical fertilizers tend to increase the is limited, however, so that as the population increases, the amount of
yearly need for water by lowering the porosity of farmland per person decreases. Although it is true that most farmland
the soil Increased amounts of water mash away in the United States is very productive, this .high productivity can be
added fertilizers and, thereby, increase the need maintained only by using huge amounts of fuel energy and fertilizers.
for fertilizer. Compare the so-called primitive way of getting food with the so-called
modern way. There are only ,a few hunting-gathering tribes left in the
world today. Those people hunt and fish and gather berries, nuts, leaves,
roots, and insect larvae. Hunters and gatherers use energy as they walk

Figure 2.26 Soil erosiontas compounded the malnutrition and population

problems in Ethiopia.

'11=111111111.1.11

OW

Robert Maust

Figure 2.27 The game provides enough energy for the hunters to continue

Warren oar:a/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Chapter 2 Populations 55

about and chase after animals (figure 2.27). For every kcal of energy
that tribesmen use up, they get back an average of 5 to .10 kcals of food
0
,edergy.
Islonmechahizecr farming practices in tropical and warm climates may
ireturn46:to 20 kcals in food per kcal of energy spent. Compare this to
food, pioduction in the United Stites. For each kcal of "energy we use to
grim our,food; we get 'back only 0.11ccarof energyan energy=losing
system: In other words, we use more energy to grow-and transport the
food we eat than,we can get back from the food itself. The only way we
can keep up this losing battle is to use our precious supply of oil gas.
and' gas,.hoWever,,,are nonrenewable resourcesmaterials-used by
humanSthat can never be produced-again. Once nonrenewable resources
are'used, they arelone forever. If we -use these resources now, we will
not be able to support our agricultural system in the future. In other
words, we cannot keep growing food indefinitely with an energy-losing
*stem:

Self- Review

1. How does a limiting factor affect a population?

2. How are space and population density related?
3. In what ways is water important to, living things?
4. Why is sanitation important to the health of humans?
5. In a famine, are people undernourished, malnourished, or both? Ex-
plain.
6. How does a so-called primitive way of getting food compare with
so-called modern methods in terms of energy spent and energy re-
turned?

Interaction o'h. Environmental Guidepost: What limits the size of a

population?
Factors

2.12 A Population Is Affected

by Many Factors
The populations of both producers and consumers can be affected
greatly by other organisms. In a single field, snakes, foxes, and hawks
catch and eat mice. Microscopic disease-causing organisms or parasites
that live inside the mice may weaken them so much that the mice die.
A poisonous plant mistaken for food may kill unsuspecting rabbits. In
all these cases, one organism affects another. Because of this interaction,
the size of both populations is affected.

60
 o
56 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 2.28 (a) Normal tomato plants and (b) tomatoes affected by fungus.
What factors are involved?

as ,Don 'STAOCiAttSOCIATES
F*4 8041

mow would this disaster affect a city dweller? If When we study changes in a population, we usually find they involve
students see that availability and prices of food the interaction of- many factors. Consider tomato plants in a,_southern
are influenced by agricultural success or failure,
New Jersey field (figure 2.28a). In some years, all of the plants that are
they are ready to understand the peculiar
relation of humans to ecosystemsas
planted in April survive until July when bright red, juicy tomatoes can
discussed in chapter 20 be harvested. In other years all the plants may die. With enough sunlight
and good soil conditions, tomato plants usually grow well when temper-
ature, rainfall, and humidity are high and the wind is light. There are
many biotic factors that also affect the life of the tomato plants. For
example, various fungi thrive in hot, humid weather. They may attack
the tomato plants (figure 2.28b) and greatly reduce their population.
That, of courses, is a disaster for the tomato grower.
Although there are many environmental factors that affect the size
of a population, a population can affect many parts of the environment.
In turn, other populations are affected because populations are con-
nected to each other in the web of life.

2.13 Any Space Can Support Only a Limited

Number of Individuals
Populations in nature vary between some upper and lower limits. Each
population is like a swing, moving back and forth between two points or
between a high and low number. The lowest limit is, of course, zero. At
Differentiate between population extinction and that point the population no longer exists. Once that occurs, a new pop-
species extinction. ulation can be established only through immigration.
What limits the size of a population on the upper side? There are
0 many factors that may cause a population to stop growing. In the long
run, however, the size of a population is limited by the amount of matter
Ask students why, when considering carrying
capacity, we must think of the earth as a whole
and energy, the resources that are available to it. If a population is so
for human beings but not for house sparrows or large that it uses all the available water, nutrients, or food, it can no
pine trees. Pine (as a genus) and house longer grow. At this point,.it will prot.tbly decrease in size, sometimes
sparrows are widely spread over the earth, but with many individuals dying all at once. The greatest number of indi-
they are not as ubiquitous as people Moreover, viduals that a space can support with its available resources is called its
human activities affect not merely the parts of carrying capacity. Each area has a carrying capacity. In any given space,
the biosphere th4,inhaliii but all parts tor even under the best conditions, there is a limit to energy and matter. In
example, the stratosphere and the oceans. other words, resources are finite.
Chapter 2 Populations 57

,P106,0 2;29-A Aloe! herd leSouthtlakota.

Oity TOM STACK I ASSOCIATES

Consider this example. Suppose a deer pcipulation in a valley in the

RoCky Mountains-is,increasing. Gradually the kinds of plants that the
deer eatAxcome scarce. A few deer may emigrate and look for food in
other places. Those that stay in the valley will be undernourished and
may become weak. They may easily be caught by mountain lions; or a
disease may kill them. Because of this emigration and mortality, the deer Use a local example of a predator-prey
,population decreases. Fewer plants are now eaten. As the remaining relationship
plants continue to grow, more food becomeS available for the surviving
deer. Deer str s'emigrating, and a few hungry deer may even immigrate
into the valley from the surrounding hills. All the deer now find plenty
of food and become healthy. Mountain lions cannot catch these healthy
deer as easily and must search for other sources of food. With less mor- Contrast a lion's prey with that of the hunter.
tality and more immigration, the deer population increases in size. We Ask students for their views on the impact of
are back where we started. hunting on any animal population,
The deer population example illustrates the process of homeostasis
(hoh mee oh STAY sis). In ecology, homeostasis is the tendency for pop-
ulations to remain relatively stable. In this case, the deer population re-
mains within some upper and lower limits even though many different
factors affect it. Environmental factors tend to keep a population either
from becoming too large or from disappearing. For instance, if too many
deer survive, there will not be enough food for all to eat. Some deer die,
and the population returns to a more stable level. Why did homeostasis
apparently not work for the reindeer population you studied in investi-
gation 2.1?
We have disrupted homeostasis for the human population. Oue ability
to control many diseases has resulted in a decrease in mortality for hu-
nnns. More people pi cluce more babies, and the human population con-
tinues to grow. Like all areas, however, the earth as a who has a carrying
capacity. Scientists do not agree about the carrying capacity cf the earth.
If food were the only factor, some claim the earth could support 7 to 8
billion people. Others think that The current population cannot be main-
tained for very. long; All agree, however, that the human population Among these population crashes would be, the
cannot grow forever. We have already seen dramatic population crashes Inca and Maya of South and Central America,
in different areas of the world. For those areas, the carrying capacity Caste Island, Anasazi Indians of the U.S.
for-humans has already been reached. There, population demands for Southwest, and tribes of the Sahara. Reference
the necessities of life exceeded the supply. books available to students would be helpful
 Section One The World o-Ofe: The Biosphere

Figure 2.30 Factors limitingrwlwth; oil,

irrigation and drinking water, and, space.
--;

es.b.c00.

,D,aviiiM:Oticidii TOM STACK i ASSOCIATES .0 John D. CaKttlingIlam/VISO-ALS OfILIMITE0 0

Even in the United Statei we must find answers to-the probiem of

increased demand on limited resources. A rancher knows that he or she
can raise a limited number of cattle on pasture land of a certain size.
How many more people can we feed using food from farms of limited
size? Petroleum is used not only for gasoline and heating fuels, but also
for medicines, cosmetics, plastics, records, styrofoam cups, fertilizers,
The great Ogallala Aouifer, which stretches synthetic rubber, and human-made fibers such as polyester and nylon.
northward through the Midwest from western If more oil and gas are used now, what will people use in the future?
Texas to northern Nebraska, is an example 3f Many people get their drinking and irrigation water from underground
underground water that is being depleted, reservoirs. What happens if people use up this stored water? Suppose
Because of low rainfall, the aquifer is your town or city needs a new highway, and the highway is planned to
replenished at a lower rate than it is used. run through your neighborhood. How should the land be used? Should
Water table's in the area are dropping, and the you keep your house, should the demand for highways be met, or should
amount of irrigated land is decreasing.
you work to reduce the need for the highway?
Like all populations, the one made up of humans has many limiting
factors. As more and more people are born, these limiting factors'be-
come apparent in different parts of the world. However, because we are
all part of the same population on the same planetEarth--we are all
in the same boat, and the boat is filling up very fast with people who
have many needs.

Self-Review

1. How does the amount of resources affect the carrying capacity of

an area?
2. How do environmental factors affect population size?
3. How have humans disrupted homeostasis for their population?
Chapter 2 Populations 59

Summary
We are all part of a population, the human population. Like all others,
the human population is affected by both biotic and abiotic factors. Some
of those factors help to increase a population's size, and other factors
cause it,to deerease. Among the needs of the human population is space
for farmland, homes, and highways. These uses all compete for the same
'space, -but only, one use is possible. The need for, food is great, but in this
,world where some countries grow large amounts,qf food, others have
starving people. The countries with starving peoplekhave,reached their
carrying capacity. How long will it take before the allying capacity of
the earth is reached? The human population is huge and growing, and
it affects other organisms because of the amount of resources we use in
our daily lives. Think about what each person uses and multiply it by
the people in your city, state, or country. The figures are huge. In our
use of resources and the environment, we change the world around us.
When these changes occur, other populations are affectedand not al-
ways for the better. The changes occur because all populations are linked
together in the biosphere.

Application, Questions Problems

1. Do "you think space is a biotic or an abiotic factor? 1. Obtain the census data for your state. Make a
Ex ,tin. graph of these data, beginning with the first census
2. are the terms "mortality" and "natality"as after your state entered the Union. How does the
atfined in this textnot applicable to individuals? form of this graph compare with that for the
3. Discuss the present relationship betWeen the human population of the United States as a whole? Try to
populatiOn and the earth's carrying capacity. explain any difThrences.
4. Name as many ways as you can that humans 2. 'Obtain some duckweed, an aquatic plant that grows
continue to change the biosphere. on the surface of ponds. Tap the mass of plants
5. Why is it difficultfor people to see the effects they with your finger to separate a single individual.
have on the biosphere? Place the single duckweed plant in pond or
6. It is seldom possible to count all the individuals in a aquarium water in a petri dish. Make counts of the
natural population. How can a biologist study numbers of individuals at intervals of 2 to 4 days.
populations without such data? Keep a record of datep and numbefs. Construct a
7. A team of biologists studied a population of box graph to show the grciivth of the duckweed
turtles in an Ohio woodlot for a period of 10 years. population.
They determined that the natality averaged 4v per 3. Grains, such as wheat and rice, are a basic food
year, the mortality'30 per year, immigration 3 per throughout the world. The 1985 worldwide
year, and emigration 8 per year. Was the population production of grains was approximately 1.7 billion
increasing ordecreasing? Was the area supplying tons. This was enough grain to provide 4.6 billion
box turtles to other places or vice versa? people with enough food energy for, normal activity
8. In question 7 what was the average annual change for a year. Still, hundreds of thousands of people in
due to immigration and emigration? If the initial Asia, Africa, and South America were
,population was 15 turtles, what was the population malnourished and thousands of others starved to
at the end of 10 years? death. How can you, etplain'this? The World
Almanac and boot A L. Brown, 1974, By
Bread Alone (New- iraeger), may give you
some ineshts.
!60 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Suggested Readings
Almanac and Book of Facts (New York: Newspaper C. H. Southwick, 1985, Global Ecology (Sunderland, MA:
Enterprise Assoc.). Published yearly; contains up-to-date Sinauer Assoc.). Articles deal with stabilizing human
population data. population, and improving worldwide health and nutrition.
L. R. Brown, W. U. Chandler, and S,Postel, "State of the E. P. Volpe, 1984, Biology and Human Concerns (Dubuque,
Earth" ,Natural History (April, 1985). The effects of the IA: Wm:C. Brown Company Publishers). Several chapters
earth's rapidly expanding population are discussed in are devoted to various aspects of populations.
reference to-soil'csion, water quality, deforestation and R. A. Wallace, J. L. King, ard G. P. Sanders, 1984,
pollution's effects on forests, overfishing, climatic changes, Biosphere: The Realm of Life (Glenview, IL: Scott,
energy use, birth control, and population policies. Foresman). Includes well-illustrated discussions of
J. M. Moran, M. D: Morgan, and J. H. Wiersrna, 1980, population.
introduction to Environmental Science (San Francisco:
W. H. Freeman). Several chapters deal with animal and
human populations.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 We have no evidence at present of life in space, so it must 1 The curve may show accelerated growth (California, Florida,
be considered abiotic. etc.). a decline orkansas), or a stable density.
2 Death rate can be a chaFacteristic only of a population 2 Duckweed (Lemita) is obtainable from biological supply
Because each individual dies only once, an individual cannot houses, but it can also be collected from ponds in most
have a death rate The rate at which reproduction increases parts of the United States. In one greenhouse experiment
the population is the birthrate, or natality Again, this is a under optimal conditions, duckweed plants were lbserved
characteristic of-a population, not of an individual- to double in number approximately every 4 days.
3 Biologists are uncertain about which factorfood, energy, 3 Students may take many different approaches to this.
or spacewill ultimately limit the number of oersons on Among these are. enough food energy does not mean
earth However, everything that is known lout popilations enough of the necessary nutrients, availabilitycountries
indicates that the number of people will be limited The earth where starvat,on occurred lacked food resources, problems
is finite and its carrying capacity is finite The only question of distribution, high standard of living of Western countries,
that seems to face us is "How"" Will mortality through position in the food webwhether grain was eaten directly
starvation, disease, and war rise to equal present-day or fed to animals for meat production. This question helps
natality" Or will natality be lowered to match today's low students relate what they have been studying in chapters 1
death rates? and 2 to a real-world situation, and we hope they will begin
4 Many of our hurhan activities worldwide are straining and to recognize the nonbiological factors that influence
destroying the balance in the biosphere. The text does not solutions to real-world problems.
iist examples, but students should be able to supply them
from newspapers and other sources. Automobile exhaust
fumes and industrial discharges are the chief causes of
changes in the atmosphere. Changes to the land and water
of the biosphere result from many sources.
5. Humans keep pushing and making changes as though we
were independent of the rest of the living world.
Cooperation is not easy to establish: people resist changes
in their life-style.
6. Ecolbgists are interested in changes in density; for this,
estimates from samplings are quite useful if they are made
by a consistent method. Another aspect of making valid
estimates that some students might understand is that the
amplitude of population fluctuations should be greater than
the margin of error,in-the estimates.
7, Simply add natality and immigration (43/year) and subtract
the sum of mortality and emigration (38/year). This means
there was an addition of 5/year, owing mostly to surplus
natality. The population was increasing. Because emigration
was higher than immigration, the area was supplying box
turtles to other places, rather than vice versa.
8. The average annual change due to immigration and
emigration was 5, In 10 years the box turtle population
would equal 65.

eja
continued fron.7page 45 Discussion item 2 on page 45 is the pivot on
which the investigation turns. Whatever the
results, they will provide material for a fruitful
Xi I ,Crg MOA 1-1. -discussion of sources of error in an
Days experimental procedure and of the need for
Team 0- 1 2 3 4 5 6 -7 8 9 10 teamwork in some kinds of scientific work.
Regardless of the results, the nypothesis set up
A 18 218 219 162 355 95 175 132 167 485 136 at the beginning of the investigation must be
considered at the end.
B 24 63 69 283 281 161 147 365 199 227 314
3 There should be increases and decreases
C 39 61 363 56 20 14 322 41 A6 87 38 during the ten day period but if they concentrate
on a general trend, students should be able to
D 36. 53 75 710 'J6 240. 23C 190 200 630 340
see a,grdduil increase, a period of slight
E 30' 210 45 59 46 82 453 93 60 88 increase and-decrease, and then a definite
decrease.
. F ,47 71 73 170 20 242 660 73 110 55
. 4. The three hypotheses that should be
G 16: 25 35 980 540 50 350 165 14 160 212 most obvieJs to students are.
(a) The population will increase.
H 48 42 36 650 760 500 305 356 313 65 69
(b) The population will decrease.
K 23 344 69 45 90 2::0 54 250 37 138 74 (c) The population will remain the same.
Emphasize the fact that the purpose of all
1 'Total 251 907 1140 3101 2181 1536 1907 2612 1162 1962 1326
the techniques being used and all the data being
Average 31 101 127 345 242 192 212 290 129 218 147 collected is 'lc) evaluate these hypotheses.
Dependo ig on what their graphs look like, it
should not be too difficult to make a decision.
5. Food, space, and toxic waste products
350-
are limiting factors. If one or more cultures
become contaminated, then immigration of a
300 new population becomes a factor.

A. Ji
E
E y 250 For Further Investigation
as 0
rn
> If you choose to do number 2 from "For
200
Further Investigation," make up the medium - ,
co "0
oo directed but do not add the glucose. If a team is
150 setting up a demonstration, pour 200 ml medium
.6) ;al into each of 3 beakers or flasks. Label the
100_ beakers, 1% glucose, 2% glucose, and 4%
glucose. To the first, add 2 g glucose, to the
50
second, 4 g glucose, and to the third, 8 g
glucose. To the remaining 400 ml of medium,
add 16 g glucose for the stock yeast culture.
0 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
Prepare and sterilize test tubes as described
earlier, being sure to label each as to glucose
days of incubation
concentration.

' 6r
 1.?

c:AertieF:AN codionse'iNalicif *on.

A coral reef, is a Oct! eCosiistem that, elipperte'rnOtiy communities.

167
 Teaching strategies for this chapter, pages

3
T18-19.
Key ideas:
CHAPTER the interacting populations in a community,
beneficial or harmful relationships among
organisms;
ripples from the abiotic environment to the
biotic community;
Communities and Ecosystems the greater number of producers thr,-1
consumers in a community;
the stability of complex ecosystems,
the effects of humans on communities and
ecosystems.

Introduction
Many populations live and interact within a community. In relationships
between organisms of two or more populations, some benefit and some
do not:, Whatever the case, relationships tie a community together. Be-
, cause of the relationships, large communities with many interacting or-
gan:sms tend to be stable through time. Humans can disrupt that stability
when they cause other populations within the community to become ex-
tinct. However, humans also can preserve communities and help main-
; .rain their stability.

Life in a Community Guidepost: How do differel

populations affect each
other?
3.1 -Mainy Interactions Ate Indirect
The human population is not isolated from other populations. In fact, In the usage adopted in this course, a
all populations interact with each other in a complex web of relation- community involves interspecific relationships,
ships. The set of interacting populations at one'place and time is called and a society involves intraspeohc relationships
a community. In your community there are dogs, cats, trees, weeds, and For example, in a beehive there is a society, not
humans that all interact. Sometimes the interaction is very direct, such 0 a community, of bees
as when you mow a lay or the dog next door barks at you. Most of the
:time, however, the interactions are indirect, and people 'tend to ignore
them. Suppose, for instance, that you had soup for lunch and threw the
can away. The garbage truck hauled the can to the dump, where it filled
with rainwater. A female mosquito laid her eggs in the water and her
offspring matured, flew from the dump, and bit a person or other animal.
Perhaps neither would have been bitten ilou had not eaten the soup in
the first place. Thus, you have had an indirect relationship with the mos-
quitoes and their victims.

63
168
 4

64 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 3.1 A typical neighborhood commu'iiri.

"BSGS

if astudent has any idea at all about the term Each community is affected by the abiotic environmentby the sun-
system, it is likely to be one having static light, soil; wind, rain, and temperature. A community with its abiotic
connotations Therefore, you need to emphasize environment is called an ecosystem (EE koh sis tum). We can use the
the dynamic idea of interacting entities in
two words, community and ecosystem, to describe the same group of
systems generally and in ecosystems
particularly,
organisms. However, the term ecosystem refers to both the biotic and
abiotic environments of an area. Although the biosphere is too big to
study as a whole, we can study a part of the biospherean ecosystem.
In investigation 3.1, you can observe two of.th, abiotic factors that affect
an ecosystem.

Investigation 3.1
ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY
lotroduction
This investigation not only involves the The abiotic factors you will investigate are temperature and relative
ecosystem concept but is related to matters of humidity. Relative humidity is a measure of the moistness of air. It is de-
tolerance and ecological distribution that arise in fined as the parcentage of,4vater vapor actually in the air at any given tem-
chapter 20. perature, compared with the amount of water vapor that the air could hold!
at that temperature. In general, organisms lose water faster in an atmo-
Procedure sphere with low relative humidity than in an atmosphere with high relative,
Teams of 6 (3 pairs) work best. You may humidity. Therefore, this environmental factor is important to land organ-
delegate the procedure to a single team. isms.
However, some replicatiomis desirable and, if
the whole class can be involved in the
Materials (per team)
procedure, the study and interpretation of the
data will be more meaningful for all. 3 watches
Differences in temperature among the 3 3 metersticks
environments are more pronounced early in '3 thermometers ( -10° to -1-1000 C)
autumn than later. For best r;;sults, vegetation 3 thermometers (of same range, with cotton sleeves over the bulbs)
should not yet have become dormant and the 3 bottics (with screw top) containing 30-50 ml distilled water
sun should be fairly high in the sky. Of course, 3 pieces stiff cardboard
the work should be done on a sunny day. The 3 3 umbrellas or other shade devices
enviionments should be as near to each other table of relative humidities
as possible,,so that topographic differences are
minimal,
Chapter:3 -Communities and Ecosystems 65

Procedure Mount the thermometers on a stick or pole.

1. Each team will work in 3 groups. One member of each group will reed Except at the moment when a i eading is made,
the instruments. Another Will fan the thermometer with stiff cardboard students should not stand nt.' the
and record the data. Before starting, the 3 recorders should synchro- 'hermometers Body heat or shading can
nize their watches and agree on the time at which each measurement influence temperatures significantly If bulb
is to be made. sleeves are used repeatedly, they should be
:2. :Record-your data on a form similar to this one. soaked in distilled water.
See table T3 1, Relative Humidity
Location
Discussion
Height
I you have several teams, gather data into a

0 cm 30 cm 90 cm 150 cm master chart on the chalkboard or overhead

projector
1-8. These depend on the results obtained.
Time
On a sunny day, bare ground is usually the
'61:y-bOb warmest and driest habitat at all levels,
temperature vegetation-covered habitats are cooler and
moister below the top of the vegetation than
Wet -bulb
above d In general, these measurements
temperature
illustrate the modifying effect of vegetation. the
Relative conversion of radiant energy to heat on contact
humidity with the soil, and, finally, the idea of
microchmatic variations
9 Vegetation, as compared with concrete
3. Each team will make measurements in 3 kinds of environment. One
and asphalt, is a moderator of temperature
group of students will work in &dense cover of vegetation. Chore a
However, other factors, ouch as different
woods, preferably, or a thicket, or a mass of shrubbery in a Om. A
concentrations of artificially heated buildings,
second group will work in a place that has a single layer of herbaceous
also are important
vegetation. Select a meadow or a lawn (preferably not cut close to
10, 11 Microchmates are generally of
the ground). A third group will work in a place that has no vegetation.
importance to an organism whose size does not
Find some bare grouncLor a tennis court. The 3 environments should
transcend the extent of one distingthshable
be as close together as possible.
microclimate (beetle and grat). but of.httle
4. Each.group will make 4 sets of measurements: at ground level, at 30
importance to an organism whose size
cm above the ground, at 90 cm above, and at 150 cm above.
encompasses the whole range of the
5. Take readings on both types of thermometers at the same time. Po-
microchmate variation (cow)
sition the thermometers as described in steps 3 and 4 at least 5 min-
Cites before readings are to be taken. (If the first reading is to be taken
at 1:36 P.M., both thermometers should be in thefirst position at 1:25 continued on page 93
P.M.) TO make the wet-bulb reading, soak the sleeve of a thermometer
in water and fan it vigorously for-at least 2 minutes; then read the ther-
mometer (For the first reading, fan the thermometer. from 1:28 P.M. to
1:30 P.m.) Schedule at least 8 minutes between readings. You will need
time to move both thermometers to the next position and leave them
there for 5 minutes. Use the umbrellas to shield the thermometers from
the direct rays of the sun.
6. Your teacher will supply a relative-humidity table. To find the relative
humidity on the table, you will need both your dry-bulb and wet-bulb
thermometer readings. When you know these 2 temperatures, you can
determine the amount of water vapor actually in the air compared with
the amount that,the air could hold at that temperature. The necessary
calculationS were made when the table was constructed.

Discussion
1, At ground level which environment,is coolest and most humid?
2. At grdund level which is warmest a 'I least ht!,thid?
3. How do these 2 environreientsliternS 1 and 2) Compare in temperature
rand humidity at higher leveleabove the ground?
4. At Which !ellel aboVe the ground are all 3 environments most alike in
temperature and humidity?
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere
=

5. How does the greatest temperature difference within the sank envi-
ronment compare with the greatest temperature difference among the
environments?
6. What differences among the 3 environments may account for differ-
ences in ternPeratures and relative humidities?
7. How does this show interaction of biotic and abiotic factors in an eco-
system?
8. You have been examining the differences among environments. Now
turn to differences within an environment.
(a) How does the temperature in each environment vary with respect
to elevations?
(b) Is the variation the same for each environment? If not, in which is
the variation greatest?
(c) How does the humidity in each environment vary with respect to
elevation?
(d) Is the variation the same for each environment?
9. In weather forecasts, temperatures predicted for the center of a city
often differ from those predicted for the suburbs. Relate that ,factio
the situations you have been observing.
10. What differences in temperature and humidity would be experienced
by a beetle crawling on the ground in a meadow and a gnat hovering
at 1.5 m above the meadow?
11. In a general sense, we may say the beetle and the gnat are in the
same environment, but small differences within an environment are often
important to the existence of some organisms. We can, therefore, dis-
tirviish small environments within larger ones on the basis of mea-
surements such as those you have made in this investigation Would
it be useful to measure such differences if you were studying-the eco-
logical relationships among cows in a meadow? Explain.

3.2 The Florida River Community Has Many

Interacting Populations
The description of the Florida river serves as An interesting aquatic community lives in the short rivers along the
background from which examples of a west coast of Florida (figure 3.2). One of the largest members of this
community can be drawn Use this community commufiity is the river turtle. Adult turtles eat many of the plants that
as a basis for comparison to stimulate grow in the rivers, but their favorite food is the long, narrow blades of
discussion of communities that your stt.dents the tape grass. Consumers that eat only plant.; are called herbivores (HER
can cbserve in their own neighborhoods

Figure 3.2 A Florida river.

 Chapter 3 CoMmunitiesand Ecosystems 67

,bilivorz). Unlike the adults, -young river turtles are carnivores (KAR
nih voq): they are cOnsumerilhat eat other animals. These young tur- Figure 3.3 Four animals that eat young river
ilesfeast on snails, aquatic insects, and worms. turtles. Describe the direct and indirect
relationships shown here.
Many carnivorous animals cat-river turtles (figure 3.3). The highest
Mortality Strikes turtle eggs. Because female turtleS lay their eggs in a
:hole thekflig on land, the eggs can be dug up and eaten by skunks, rac-
.Coons, or snakes. Unhatched turtles also are killed bylnolds that live in
cthe soil arid 'grow through the thin shells into the eggs: f-the eggs sur-
-viva; thee young turtles that hatch-from the eggs may be eaten by snakes
or raccoons before they reach the river. Even if the young turtles reach
the,..river, they -are. still vulnerable. Large fish, alligators, herons, and
.snapping turtles may eat them in, the river. For the young-turtles, mats
of floating plantS, tangled tree roots,, and sunken log_ s all provide hiding
,places from carnivores.
When river turtles are farger, few. organisms can kill,them directly.
Leeches attach themselves to turtles and suck their blood, but that does
:not usually kill the turtles. However, turtles-do die of disease, accidents,
and old-age. After they die, their bodies become food for decomposers
that return all the.substances in the turtle's body back to the abiotic
World.
Each of the relationships we have described so far is a direct one be-
tween a river turtle and another kind of organism. River turtles also have
inany indirect -relationships with other organisms. For instance, plants
provide not only food and hiding places but also the oxygen in the water
fertile fish that might eat young turtles. Snails eat tape grass. Therefore,
they competewith the river turtles for-the-same-food supply. However,

great blue heron

Figure 3.4 Tape grass, spiral-shelled snails, musk turtle (left), adult river turtle
(right), and pond turtle (below).

IA
alligator
snapping turtle

X1/14

Of t

;1.72
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Have students write the names of the kinds of another kind of turtle, the musk turtle, eats nothing but snails. By re-
organisms and connect them with arrows ducing the number of snails that eat tape grass, musk turtles have an
leading from the eaten the eater Nonfood indirect effect on the river turtles. Inaddition, many carnivores that eat
relationships.can be st-lbwn by simple lines young river turtles also eat musk turtles. Thus, the more musk turtles
without arrowhead endings Note that young and
there are in theriver, the less likely it is that young riverAurtles will be
adult river tertlee must-be listed separately. The
eaten.
most successful diagram is one in which the
organisms' names are arranged so that
intersecting lines are least numerous. ,3.3 A Niche Represents All the Activities
of an Organism
Have students attempt to describe niches of We have been looking at the community as it affects river turtles. We
organisms that :re familiar to them Or have
them match a set of niche descriptions with a
0 have described the niche (NITCH) of the river-turtle. The niche of any
organism is its role in the community: what it eats, what organisms eat
set of organisms Niches can include parasitism it, and what indirect relationships it has with other organisms. A niche
and other relationships also describes how an organism affects and is affected by its habitat (HAB
ih tat)the placewhere it lives. Thus, a niche includes both the biotic)
and the abiotic environments of the organism. It we had started with
some other organism, we might see the community in a different way
because we would have focused on the niche of that organiim. No two
Let students know that it is possible for two types, or species (SPEE sheez), of organisms occupy the same niche
different organisms to occupy the same habitat within a community. For instance, there are many species of turtles living
and have different roles in the community in a Florida river. They occupy diverse niches, but each species live-s in
a manner distinct from the other turtles and has different relationships
with the other- members of the community. To understand the commu-
nity fully, we would have le>iook at all the relationships among all the
organisms and-describe all the niches. That _would not Ix easy even for
a small community.
Consider the effect of adding just one more population, such as hu-
mans, to the study. Humans trap skunks, kill snakes, and catch fish that
eat young river turtles. That indirectly reduces the mortality of river
turtles. Humans also may dredge the rivers and thus kill the tape grass,
which would then increase turtle mortality.

3.4 Organisms Can Benefit from or Be

HarMed by Other Organisms
Orgaoic-is play different roles within their community at different
times. Veu:6uld easily see some of the roles in the description of the
Florida river community. For example, tape grass, algae,- and other green
plants are producers. River turtles, snails, skunks, and fish are all con-
sumers. Other kinds of relationships that help,to form the community's
web of life>include predation, parasitism, competition, commensalism,
and mutualism. Each of these five relationships involves two different
organisms,"fiut in the first three at least one of the organisms is affected
negatively by the interaction.
Ask students whether they wculd call
themselves predators when they eat a
0 Predation (preh DAY shun) occurs when one organism eats anotnef.
Snapping turtles eat young river turtles. Musk turtles eat snails. Spiders
hamburger In a narrow seise, only when you eat grasshoppers, and you eat cows. A consumer that kills another con-
have personally killed the cow There are sumer,organism and eats it is called a predator (PRED' uh tor). The
numerous other possible involutions to this organism that is eaten is called the prey (PRAY). The predator may kill
question What students say is not as important its prey before or while it eats it. The predator is affected posiiively by
as how they explain their answer
this interaction: it gets food (matter and energy) from its prey. However,
the prey is affected 'negatively because it loses its life.

173
Chapter 3 ,ComMunities and Ecosystems 69

iFigure 3.6,/-,:blaOloymed night heron with its prey.

bkD

A,

Paul 44/ioil4iiiCk lA406ATES

Figure-3.6 The mistletoe, a.paraeffic plant, makes its living off a ponderosa

Cady. Call!Tri

In parasitism (FAIR uh Sih;tiz um), one organism lives on or in an- 0

other organism alo:1,4es that organism as its food source. The food source
usually remains alive during the interaction. A leech clings to a turtle's
skin and sucks its blood. Microorganisms in the tuftle absorb food di,
rectly from its blood: Your dog may have worms in its intestines or fleas
in its hair. You may have disease organisms in your lungs or a tick on Ask'students what happens to tuberculosis
your: skin. An organism that lives on or in another living organism and roorganisms when a tubercular person dies.
pbtairis food from it is a parasite (PAIR uh syt). The organism from The question is intended to point up the idea
-which a parasite obtains its food is a host. Plants also can have parasites, that usually a parasite that kills its host is
which may include molds, microorganisms, or even other plants, such as 'unsuccessful This idea will rei_ur ui chapter
,mistletoe (figure 3.6). Large microorganisms can have smaller!. parasitic 11 in connection with pathogens
 A

Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 3.7 Competition does not always involve food. Both bluebirds and
starlings nest in (toles in trees, pole:, and fence posts..Since neither able to dig
holes for itself, both are dependent on holes already avabble. The presence of
either of these birds may be harmful to the other.

ti

O microorganisms in them. A predator kills its prey outright: a parasite

may indirectly kill its host by weakeniikg it. The weakened host is then
more susceptible to disease or becomes an easier prey for predators.
The pirating of fish from ospreys by eagles is In competition, usually neither of the interacting organisms benefits.
called competition and the laying of eggs by Both snails and river turtles eat tape gr2cs.`The tape grass eaten by a
cowbirds in the nests of other species is termed
turtle cannot be eaten by a snail, or vice versa. Therefore, the presence
-brood parasitism,
of one of these herbivoreSis harmful to the other; A relationship where
both organisms are affected in a negative way-is an example of com-
Ask students how many examples of petition. Organisms may compete for things such as food, space, sun-
competition between humans and organisms light, nutrients, or water. There is no competition:for factors such as
they can think of This is a wide-open question temperature or humidity. The competition is always for something in
Probably the most obvious examples involve short supply,,as seen in figure 3:7. In the Florida rivers, If both tape grass,
competition for crop plants
and other plarits,are scarce, competition for tape grais by herbivorts is
intense. If plants are abundant, competition is reduced.
Ask students whether pond turtles compete with Other kinds of relationships occur in a community that were not dis-
river turtles for tape grass This question should cussed in the Florida river community. in commensalism and mu-
emphasize the fact that competition is not an tualism, at least one of the organisms benefits. In commensalism (kuh
onoff effect, but one of degree Since pond
MEN sub iiz im), one organism in the.relationships benefits, and the
turtles appear in the rivers only when tape grass
other is unaffected. An example is the relationship between the remora
is %Tr../ abundant, competition with river turtles
`Jr rt approtches zero and the shark that can be seen in figure 3.8. A remora is a fish that has
a suction disk on the top of its head2Using that disk, the remora attaches
itself to some large sea animal, most often-a shark. Because the shark
pulls it along, the remora uses very little energy to move about. In ad-
dition, it eats small pieces of the shark's prey that float by. Thus, the
remora benefits from the relationship, and its effect on the shark seems-
to be neutral.
Many of the relationships we have described pit one organism against
another. An animal eats a plant. Two animals compete for the same food.
There are, however, many relationships in which both organisms are

1175
Chapter 3 Communities and Ecosystems 71

f19:ufe *Oa rk.. Figure 3.9 Lichens on a tree trunk.

411

+16

affected positively. These are mutualistic-,(MY00 choo, vh LIS tik)

relationships. Lichens (LY kenz) are leaflike, hairlike, or crustlike struc-
tures that grow on rocks or the bark of trees (figure 3.9). Lichens niaY
Doug Sokol'
be gray-green, black, yellow, or orange, and the structure you see is really
made up of two different organisms that live in very close association.
One is an alga, a microscopid-produeer that' ...lakes food by photosyn- Students are often fascinated by the many
thesis. The other is a fungus, a consumer that gets its food from the alga, instances of commensal and mutualistic
but in return provides moisture for,the alga. Thus, both organisms ben, relationships that have been discovered by
efit from the relationship. In most cases of mutualism, neither organism na dralists. Refer students to T. C. Cheng, 197n,
coUld live without the other. Symbiosis: CZganisms Living Together
Frequently, an organism plays more than one role in a community. (Indianapolis. bobbs- Merrill).
For instance,- snapping turtles ire predators of young river turtles, but
they are also scavengers (SKAV en jerz): they eat the flesh of dead an-
imals that, they did not kill. When you eat a salad, you are an herbivore.
If you also eat a hamburger, you eat meat and plants, and so you are an
omnivore (OM nih vor). Because every community includes many dif-
ferent kinds of organisms, an individual can have many kinds of rela-
tionships. The more we study a community, the more interactions we
see. You can study an example of (me kind of interactioncompeti-
tionin investigation 3.2.

Self-Review

1. Give an example of a direct and an indirect interaction between two

organisms.
2. Distinguish between a community and an ecosystem.
3. How does an organism's niche differ from its habitat?
4. In what ways are predation and, parasitism alike?
5. Distinguish between commensalism and mutualism.

r 176
 12 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Investigation 3.2 OOPETIT101.1'...4MPNG` .SPECIES,

COMPETITION AMONG SPECIES
Introduction
The objectives of this investigation are to You will ecall that competition occurs when resources are in short supply.
demonstrate how competition can lead to These resources may include food, water, minerals, light, breeding space,
sliecialization and how generalists and mates, and other substances needed for survival and reproduction. Re-
specialists can coexist A secondary goal is to member that no two species can occupy the same niche within a com-
show how an ecological perspective can help us munity. Competition between two species can be so intense that species
understand our urban world A outcompetes species B because the former is better equipped to use
The data for part A of the investigation (table the resource or because it is able to prevent species B from utilizing the
3 1) was collected from four fast food resource. This phenomenon is called competitive exclusion. In these Situ-
restaurants (FFRs) in the springr'l 1986 You ations, the second species (1) moves to some other place where com-
may use it or have your students collect their petition is less intense, or it is a better competitor, or (2) becomes extinct.
own entrée data from FFRs it your area If Rather than going to wilderness areas to find examMes of competition
students collect their own data it can be and its results, we will use an analogy involving things nidrefarniliar to both
compared from year to year They will see that eye and,.stomach. Our "species" are fast-food restaurants (FFRs), and
FFRs change their menus often This serves to the resource in short supply is the consumer's money. FFRs are defined
illustrate to students the dynamic nature of as those restaurants where service is quick, carryout is available, and nei-
competitive interactions ther waiter nor waitress comes to your table. This definition eliminates some
establishments: However, it reduces the "species" to a manageable number
Procedure and restricts our.sample to a .group of FFRs that Compete intensely.
Part A
Students can work individually or in pairs Procedure
I. Some hypotheses. Part AFast-Food Restaurant Competition
Giveawaysglasses comic books. and
free soft drinks 1. Obviously, FFRs do coexist, often in close proximity to eirie another.
Salesbuy 1 and get 1 tree, reduced price Develop several hypotheses to answer the question: How might these
Better servicein and out in less than 60 FFRs avoid extinction? Another way of asking the same question
seconds What might individual FFRs do to increase their own chances of sur-
Drive through service vival?
Higher quality product 2. For this investigation we will use the hypothesis that entree speciali-
Catchy advertising zation might explain coexistence. Study the entrees from 4 nationally
3. Students can use the top or bottom of franchised FFRs in table 3.1. These generic categories are necessary
petri dishes to make their diagrams The labels because each FFR has its own set of unique names for many entrees.
should be small as possible to give maximum For example, different types of hamburgers were placed into cate-
room in each a-la for writing the entries They gories on the basis of size (quarter-pound hamburgers were cate-
must label the species in a clockwise direction gorized as large and anything smaller was labeled regular).
See figure T3.1 (a-c)

EtitrOes OtfoutInatioria!Vianchiseclifast-topOestaurants
ABCD A.BCD
Roast beef sandwich X arge cheeseburger X X X

Turkey sandwich X Extralarge

hamburger X X X
Chicken pieces X Cy'

Extralarge
Chicken sandwich
cheeseburger X X
Fish sandwich X x x Salad bar X X X
Breakfast X x x Baked potato X
Children's meal X x X
Chili X
Regular hamburger X x Hot dog X
Regular
Ham and cheese
Figure T3.1a Species A, B, D. cheeseburger
sandwich X
1 roast beef, turkey, hotdog Large hamburger X x x Bacon hamburger X X X
2 fish sand, breakfast. reg hamb
4 chick pcs, child's meal, Lg hamb, Lg
cheeseb, '1 hamb
5 baked pbtato, chili
6 chick send, salad bar, bacon hamb

177
Chapter 3 Communities and Ecosystems 73

3. Construct 3 diagrams such as the one in figure 3.10 to compare' these,

"species" of similar FFRs.

Figure 3.10

Figure T3.1b Species A, C, D.

1 roast beef, turkey, hotdog
2 fish sand, breakfast, reg hamb, reg cheeseb
3 tiam & cheese sand
4 chick pcs, child's meal, Lg hamb, Lg
cheeseb, XL cheeseb, XL hamb
5 -chili, bakedNAato
7 bacon hamb, chick salad, salad bar

4. Follow the directions in the table below and write the name of the en-
tree that fits each category in the proper numbered area on the dia-
grams.

IM:43:2;:cool;Cistoi:,01,,FFtspeoiel4.
A-BD A-C-D BC-D
Entrées unique to Entrées unique to Entrées unique to
Areas 1, A, B, D A, C, & D B,C,&D
3, & 5
Entrées common Entrees common Entrées common
to to to
Area 2 A&B,notD A&C,notD B & C, not D
Area 4 B & D, dot C&D,notA C & D, not B Figure T3.1c Species B, C, D.
2 fish sand, breakfast, reg hamb
Area 6 A&b,n3tB A&D,notC B&D,not C 3 ham & cheese sand
Area 7 A,B,&D A,C,&D 4 chick sand, XL cheeseb, salad bar, bacon
hamb
5 chili, baked potato
7 Lg hamb, Lg cheeseb, XL hamb, chick pcs,
5. How is coexistence possible for each set of FFRs? child's meal
6. The hypothesis being tested by these data was: Entrée specialization
might explain coexistence. Do these data support this hypothesis? 4. Chec., 10 d Aermine that students
understand the directions for each of the 3
comparisons,
Part BCompetition Betw3en Birds
5. Note in each case how few items are held
In the short -grass prairie of the Great Plains, yellow-headed and red- in common among the FFRs, For example, no
winged blackbirds live together in the same marshes. Studies of these two items are common among A, B, and D. Each
species indicate that both species use basically the same niches. The only FFR (except B) has some unique items when
difference between the species is that the red-wing is a generalist and can compared to 2 others. Why B different will be
nest in a variety of habitats ranging from moist brushy habitats to moist explained in part B. This demonstrates
meadows. Red-wings do, however, prefer to nest in extremely moist spe..ialization resulting from competition, In
marshes at the edge of the open water of ponds and lakes. The yellow- general, coexistence is possible because of this
head is more of a specialist and requires the extremely wet part of ,the specialization and the unique set of items for 3
of the 4 FFRs. Call your students' attenti J to B,
C, and D. One would conclude (from inspecting

, 178
 74 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 3.11 Overlapping niches of red-winged and yellowheaded blackbirds.

pond

the diagram) the' there is a high degree of marsh, next to open water, to.nest successfully. In fact, yellow-headed
competition among these 3'- Further, one would blackbirds, because of their larger size and more aggressive nature, -will
not expect to find all 3 in close proximity unless displace red-wings in that open wet marsh. Thus, the yellow-headed black-
there were a huge resourCe:(human population) bird has a niche totally included within that of the red-wing, as shown in
available. figure 3.11.
6 In general- -these data support the
1. How do the competitive abilities of red-wings compare to those of
hypothesis of specialization of menu items by
yellcw-heads?
competing FFRs We infer that this specialization
2. Why are all red -wings not displaced by yellow:neads?
is the result,of competition Some students may
3. Compare FFRS B and C. Using what you have learned about black-
want to quantify this investigation by:calculating
birds, how is coexistence possible between these 2 FFRs?
the percentage of their entrees shared by 2
species (for example, the number of items in
common divided by the total number of items for Discussion
both FFRs). Example A and C: 4 items in 1. (a) A new FFR chain,'E, opens a restaurant one block froM an es-
common, total number of items is 24,
tablished B. Eoffers exactly the same menu and service as B.
-percentage of entrées shared is 16 6% Other
What do you think would happen, and why?
percentages are:
(b) What does this suggest to you about the chances that a fish spe-
A and D-0%
cies not established in a lake could swim up a river into that lake
B and C-13.6%
and establish itself there?
C and 0-24%
2. Fivefery similar species of small, insectivorous birds live in the same
B and.D-0%
spruce forest and apparently coexist. What variables might -you in-
vestigate to- explain this?
Part B
3. From the investigation you have learned that competitive exclusion does
1 In direct competition, red-wings are not always.occur among competing:species. How do th: .,pecies co-
inferior to yellow-headed blackbirds. exist?
2 Red ,vings ale able to nest in areas too 4. How can two species coexist when one has a niche included within
dry for yellowheads. that of the other?
3 Coexistence is possible because among 5. How can the concepts of competition, specialization, and included
the items they fiaye in common, the specialist; niches be applied to other aspects of urban life?
B, is the superior competitor.-C is more of a
generalist, having some items (six), that B does This investtgationyras adapter., from D A Zegers, An Urban Example for Teaching
not. Therefore, C,is not driven to extinction eve Interspecific Competition" The American Biology Teacher 45.5 (September 1983)
National Association of Biology Teachers, Reston, Virginia..Reprinted by permission.
though B is the superior competitor

continued on page 93
 Chapter 3; CommunifieS and Ecosystems 75

Fi Ruiet,12;What is the boundary of the ecosystem?

An open question Students'shouto recognize

that the water's edge is an impassable
boundary for the fi but not for the deer.

Giorw.8ilc l do IN. zing A mixt: hic.

Ec.system Structure Guidepost: How are biotic and abiotic

environmental factors
related to each other in an
3.5 The BoundarieS of an Ecosystem Are ecosystem?
Difficult to Determine
What are the boundaries of an ecosystem? You mj,ght think that the
boundary in the Florida river exainple is easy to define=the edge of the
Water. However, turtleS crawl onto the river banks to lay their eggs.
:Herons get Most of'Their food-from the river, but they nest-in tall trees
- pear the water. Frogs are caught and eaten by raccoons on land. Al-
though some organisinssuch as fish spend:ail of their lives in the river,
other organisms in dui example do not.
When we-consider abiotic- factors, the question of boundaries be-
comes more Complex:. Energy for the ecosystem comes from the
_lun,_whichis a-great distance from the river's shoreline. Rain falls from
'-the ay and may carry soii:from the-riverbanks to the river. The wind
thayblow seeds into the river from communities many kiloMeters away.
Thus,,we could keep expanding the boundaries of this oneecosystem to
"include-many more ecosystems.
The Florideriver is-not a special casevAll ecosystems are connected
',to others around them. A riVerecosystemis linked to a forest. A forest,
0
ecosystem is linked to the grassland, and so on. In fact, all ecosystems
on-earth are Connected to eachother to form the biosphere. peeause of
this connection, a change in one ecosystem may affect many ithers.
 76 'Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 3.13 What abiotic environmental factors have produced the effect
shown here?
The prinjpal faCtor here is the exposure In the
northern hemisphere a south-facing slope
(right), beca..-6e-iof its angle o posure to solar
.rays, receives more solar radiation per day aii,
a greater total radiation per year than does a
north -face .g slope Therefore south-facing
slopes are hotter and drier than north-facing
slopes In a-climate where precipitation is barely
enough for tree growth, these factors cause
striking difference between north- and -south-
lacing slopes.

3.6 A Change in -the Abiotic Environment

Causes Many Changes in the Biotic
Community-
Many of theinteractionsin a community involve abiotic factors: In
chapter 2 we saw how one population is affected by abiotic factors. How,
ever, when one population is affected, many others in the same com-
munity are affected at the same time because of the web of relationships.
If the temperature drops to abnormal lows in Florida, river turtle eggs
and young river turtles could be killed while they are still on land. With
fewer river turtles, more tape grass will grow, but there will be less food
for the snapping turtles. If a heavy rainfall-,* ashes mud into the river,
light will not Penetrate as deeply in the water, and feWer plants will be
able to pEotosynthesize. That, in turn, means less oxygen and less food
for herbiVores. So each environmental change has many effects: one
change cati,vs many others. Investigation 3.3 examines the effects ofone,
environmental change on thesermination of seeds.

Investigation 3.3
EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
ON SEED GERMINATION
Introduction
Students will investigate the effects of acid Acidrain is something of a misnomer,. because rain is naturally acidic,
rain on seed germination by conducting an with a pH of aLbut 5.6.hen we speak of acid rain, theWore, we refer
experiment with bean,seeds under varying pH to rain with a pH lower than 5.6 -'Acid rain is bi.oduced when sulfur and
conditions Estimated time for this activity is ' 4 nitrogen compounds are released into the atmosphere,.where they coM-,
class period to organize groups aid set up the bine with water to forM sulfuric and nitriciacids. SulfUrcompounds may
activity, and a few minutes at the start of every come -from 'natural sources such as decomposing organic muter vol-,
other class (for approximately two weeks),to canos, and geysers. The environmental problem called acid rain doe's not
water and meast,.:. seed growth,,and to record arise from naturar!lioirrces, hoWever. Acid rain is caused brimarly oy fossil
data from individual and class ,groups Finally, fuel combustion. When coal, oil,- and gas are burned, large amounts of
there3hould.be a class period to summarize sulfur and nitrogen are released as gases and cambine with water to make
results and prepare reports the rain More acid:Acid rain had hiany effect `oh an ecosystem:Jr:14Na
iNestigation, you will examine just one of those effects.
0

181
,Chapter 3 Communities and Ecosystems 77

Materials Advance Preparation

petri dish scissors Prepare the 6 pH solutions needed: 300 ml
4 bean seeds transparent metric rr'er of each solution should be enough but more can
water solutions ranging in graph paper be prepared if you think this is necessary. You
-pH from 2 to 7 colored chalk or magic markers may use any method of preparation inith which
rainwater glass marking pencil you feel comfortable The tollowing method has
absorbent paper towels been successful:
(a) pH 7 distilled - rater, which has been
-Procedure boiled to drive off the carbon dioxide.
;Part ADay 1 (b) pH 6 to 2start with 1500 ml of distilled
water. Add small amounts of dilute HCI to the
1: Cut 4 paper discs the size of the petri dish frcm the absorbent paper water, checking t' pH (with a pH meter if
towel. available or narrow range pH paper) until a pH
2. Dampen the paper diOas wittithewater assigned to you by your teacher. of 6 is reached. Pour off 300 ml of this for the
Makenote of the pH of your assigned water. 01'6 solution. Continue to add the dilute HCI
3. Place 2 of the paper discs on the'bottorn of the petit dish. until a pH of 5 is reached. Pour off 300 ml of this
4. 1.1easurethelength'of yoLir 4 seeds and determine the average length. for the pH 5 solution. Continue to do this until
Sketch the shapes of the seeds and note their color. you have reached the pH Lsolution Bottles
n Record the average length in millimeters at Day 0 in your data book. i-ontaining the various pH solutions should be
6. r.rrange the seeds in the petri dish and cover with the 2 remaining labeled ,iearly and kept tightly stoppered to
dirs. Make sure the discs are still moist. If not, add more of your maintain the integrity of the solutions.
assigned pH solution.
7. Replace lid on petri dish and label it with y'ur Procedure-
8. Make a hypothesis as to the ideal pH for bean seed growth. Record
1. If at all possible, students should have
yourfiypothesis in your data.book.
their own dishes. Be sure students know which
pH soluticin has;been assigned to them If
Part B Days 2-10 individual work is not possible, teams should
kee_nove the lid from the petri dish and remove the paper discs cov- have no more than 2 members.
ering the fotir seeds. 2. Rainwater should be used by some
:2. Use the transparent ruler to measure the length of the seeds in milli- students as I control. If rainwater is not
ineters,;_werage the lengths and record the average in your data boo'' available, substitute distilled water_
,SketchThe shape of the seeds ark!note their color. 3 Be sure students have hypothesized a pH
4. Cove: the seeds lov"h the paper d: Moisten the paper if necessary they think will be most beneficial to seed
with the assigned PHsolution and replace the lid: germination. The data they collect will-be useu
-5. On a piece of graph paper, set up a:gr3ph with age in days on the to evaluate their, lypotheses.
horizontal, axis and length otthe seeds in millimeters on the vertical 4. Use the chalkboard or a large piece of
axis. white construction paper on visible wall or board
6. Plot the average length of your Seeds for the 2 measurements (Day 0 for the class,graph You will need 7 different
and Day '1) you have made. colors for the 6 pH solutions and the control.
7. Fibppat procedures 1-6 each day for the length of the investigation. After about 3 or 4 average points have been
If seeds begin to germinate during this time,, include the length of plotted, have the students draw a line
any growth in Our measurement. connecting points of the same pH
.8. Students.who are wbrkIng With,the same pH:solution should combine
their data and determine the averag::. Discussion
9. One stOdentrepr'esentind`each PH should record data on the class 1-3. Will depend on class data
graph. Use:the color assigned to your particular pH. 4. Those-seeds being watered with the
lower pH solution should have slower growth
DisCussion rate than the others. The assumption can De
1. 0,hserve.11ie data on the completed class`graph. What appears to be made from this that rainwate.,oth high acidity
optimal pH solution for successful bean seed germination? will have smiler effects on croptgrowth s ow
2. Whal_ apOears `j'a be The leaOt ideal pH solution for successful bean growth rate with a subsequei-,, drop in food
\seed germ;. iation? ,production,
3. 'What pH do think the "rainwater has, based on the data gatheivu? 5 That depends on the rainwater data and
DeterminO:its pH: how it compares to:the data from the various
'4. *hat impact on-local crops might an increased rain acidity have? pH solutions The pH of rainwater is variable
'5. to.you,think therels reason for,conlern? depending on amounts of sulfur and nitrogen
compourr ,tering the atmosphere. A normal
,This,frivestigatiOn a is adapted from E Johnson and R. Bybee, supeivisOre, "Acid Rain: acid rain today might be a very high dcid rain
Activtbes !oeSciencfrTeiclia6-Thi' American Biology Teacher 45:4 (April/May 1983) next week.
National Association of BiolOgy.Teachers; Reston, Virginia. Reprinte4,by permission,
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere.

3.7 Within a Community There Are Generally

More Producers Than,Conaumers
One of the most important abiotic factors that affects relationships
in a community is energy. As we discussed in chapter 1, organisms in
an ecosystem are tied together by the flow of energy and matter:from
one organism to another. A herbivore eats a plant, and a carnivore eats
a herbivore. This food chain-depends-on the the sun. Without-
the sun, there would be no green plants..Without the green plants, there
would be no herbivores, and without them, no carnivores. That is true
for almost all ecosystems on the earth. There are a few ecosystems that
do not get their energy from the sun' by way of photosynthesis. The deep-
sea vent communities foundn the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mr.:iico
are examples of such ecosystems. In these communities, the producers
are bacteria that use sulfuicompounds welling up from vents,in the earth
as a source of energy. Consumers in these vent communities include eight-
foot long worms, king-sized clams,, and blind crabs.-In chapter 231:you-
will find out more about these unusual communities.
Most communities,'however, depend ougreen plants4s the source of
all food. The size of a community is, therefore, limited'
imited by the amount
of energy entering it through its producers. The total amount of chem-
ical energy stored by photosynthesis is the gross primary prodadivity of
the community. Much of that energy is used by:the produCerS to grow
and to maintain themselves. The remainingenergy, that which is avail-
able as food for the consumers, is the net primary productivity of the
community. One gray to measure net Prithary prOductiVity of a com-
Farmers might measure the productivity of their munity is to fine' the mass of all ,proddeers. Mass is-a rdeasure of the
fields in bushek: of wheat, corn, oats, or barley ,amount of matter in an object. Etwause much of the mass of living or
per acre per year.
ganisms is water, the producers first must be dried for a truer estimate
of 'heir mass.--For instance, the energylound in a fresh apricot and a
dried apricot is the same, though the mass of the dried fruit is 'such less.
Ask students how many producers a wheat The greate., the net primary productivity of a community; the greater
farmer tries to get solar energy-10 pass into. the amount of food that is available to consumers. Whenliet primary_
One: wheat; any other kind of plantin a wheat
productivity is high, more consumers can live in the coriinunity. No-
field is, by definition, a weed
matter how great the productivity, however, there is alWayi some liinit

Figure 3.14 A wheat field in Colorado. How would a farmer measure

productivity?

Farmers might measure the productivity of their

,fieI6 in bushels of wheat, corn, oats, or barley
Of acre per year

.escs by Bart erniikis

183
Chapter 3 Communities and Edo`systeme 79

(Olguie 3:15 A food energy pyramid. Each level is one tenth the equivalent of
'theievel below it. Every organism carries on activities that use or release most of
the energy it obtains. Only a fraction of the energy is passed along in a food
'chain.

ocean
life

higher-level consumers
(carnivores)

(omnivores)

first-level consumers
(herbivores)

producers

The 10-to-1 ratio has proved to be a useful average For ,selected feeds, for chickens, 8-to-1 instead of 2-to-1 as
animalsin the wild thel Ai° is often drealer, fordomestic suggested by the selected feeds, and so on.
animals it is often less, owing to development of ri.ore. Notice in the figure that human beings are consumers.at
efficient feeds But taking into account the parts of plants not all, or almost all, levels. When eating certain seafood dishes
used in the feeds, some of these ratios'actually become. for such as cod, for example, a per on is a consumer at the
cattle, 12-to-1 instead of 6-to-1 as suggested by he next-to-top leVel shown in the food energy pyramid.

184
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

to the number of organisms that can be found in any community=the-

carrying capacity for each kind of organism. If we weigh the mass or
count the-number of each; kind of organism, we will find an important
pattern that to descirie a community. Like a pyramid, which de-
creases in size from bottom to top, a community has many producers at
its base, fesiler herbivores in the middle, and even fewer carnivores at
the top.:In most-cases, the number' of producers is much greater than
the number of consumers. That describes the pyramid of numbers in a
community. The letalniass of 'all-the prodtieers is usually much greater
thanthavof the consumers. That -describes the pyramid of (BY
oh Mass) within a community.
You would expect more food producers than food consumers inn
community. There must be enough food to go around, or consumers die.
0 As we &cussed before, as plants live, they use up much of the energy
they produce Energy used to,keep a plant alive cannot be taken in by
a herbivore. Therefore, a large number of plantsls needed to support a
fewlierbivormikcause herbiyores-also use some of the energy to keep:
themselves. alive, notAllef.the energy.they, take. in is available. to ear-
nivores. Thus,,we would expect to find fewer carnivores than herbivores
in a community. For instance, in-a small valley there maybe millions of
indiiiklual producers, such as grasses, butonly a few hundred herbivores,
such as rabbits. In this same valley, you may have to search carefullyto
find just one or two earnivores,such as foxes.

Self-Review

1. Why is it difLult,to draw dib_nct boundaries 1:1tween most ec.o-

systlms?
2. How are gross and net primarproductivity of a community re-
lated?
3. Why is only'part of the chemical energy produced by plants avail-
able for use byherbivores?
4. What Osiylea about a community is shown by the pyramid of num-
'bers aridlliepyramid of biomass?

Guidepost:, How do the complex Ecosystem,3tability

activities of humans affect
ecova.ims?
and Human Influences

3.8 An Ecosystem with Mdny Organisms Is

Usually Stable
It is uncertain whether high species diversity EcoSystems tend to be stable through time because of the greAt number
causes the stability or the reverse. The of different kinds of organisms and interconnecting relationships found
relationship between diversity and stability has 0 in them. In general, the greater the number of kinds of organismsand;
tieen observed in nature, but there is evidence
thus, the greater the nuniber.of the food webthe more stable
that this,may have been an overgeneralization
the community is thought o te. A large commtinity,is like a web with
based on too feW data
many threads. If only one of the threads is broken, the web may still:

85
-Chaptei 3 Communities and,cosysternn 81

`function normally. If a disease kills many of the rabbits in a community,

the foxes can eat mice and squirrels until rabbits reproduce or immigrate
into the community; Even though- nany;fabbits have died, the rest of the
ecosystem remains intact: it may.z.ye 'changed, but it is not destroyed.
'This is-the proCess of homeostasis, discussed ix chapter 2.

3.9 Humana-P.lpset the Stability

of Ecosystems
Ecosystems can be greatly changed by humans. We can have positive
effects on other memberS of the commimity(or-,;ie- can have dramatic,
negative effects. As we have mentioned before, humans-disrupt homeo-
static procese,es. For instance, farmerS eliminate many Member's of a food
web when they raise 'Crops ,to meet human needs. To feed the human
population, large fields of producers are planted. To use machineiy ef-
ficiently, a single crop is planted in a large field. One cornfield may be Where does most of the productivity of a
_16 hectares, contain 76,000 Plants, and 'yield 7258 m3 of corn. In a normal cornfield go? That part of a cornfield s
food. web, these corn plants would provide energy fina great number of productivity that is represented by the grain
r.Onsumers--biids, insects, and animals that eat birds and insects. Be- goes tar trolly the held It may go to human
cause corn-eating birds and insects compete with humans for the crop, consumers of a distant urban ecoJystem,
they are eliminated by 'Winans, as are other plants that,coMpete with directly or indirectly.
the corn for light, water, and nutrients. With such a large population of
Plants, theie is also opportunity for the spread of disease. The disease
Might be a-parasite of the corn.`If the farmer is to grow Crops.econom-
ically for httritanS to eat, he 'must control the food web and reduce the
pests and diseases. Often such control involves widespread spraying of
Crops, which may have unplanned side effects.
-Humans also suffer from parasitic diseases, such as malaria and Af=
fican sleeping sickness, which are carried by insects. Belause such par-
-4sitic diseases cause many deaths as well as,illnecs andloit work time,
we try to eliminate the insects that carry them. One way to control pests
is" to use a poison. Such poisons are called insecticides, herbicides, and-
fungicides. All'Of these can be included in the term biocides. The United
States alone produces more than 636 million kg of biocides each year.
What are all these poisons used for, and what effect do they have on the
relationships in a community?

,Figure 3.16 A corn'i!eld. Figure 3.17 Spraying crops.with Pesticides

helps control destructive insects and disease.

USDA APHIS
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Many biocides act in a way similar to DDT in the environment, so

we can use DDT as an example. Althbugh the use of DDT has been
banned in the United States, U.S. chemical companies make DDT and
export it to other,nations that still use this biocide. An example shows
how a food chain can be, affected, unexpectedly, by the use of biocides.
Marshes along the north shore of Long Island, New York, were'sprayed
with DDT t6.controt mosquitoes. Later, microscopic organisms in the-,
water were foun&to have about 0.04 ppm (parts per million) of DDT
in their cells. ThisiS a very low level of poison, but no one expected to
find any poison in these organisms. The minnows, clams, and snails that
ate these organisms had levels of DDT more than ten times highei--
between 0.5 and 0.9 ppm. The eels, flukes, and bil fish that ate the snails
and small fish had levels of DDT ranging from 1.3 tv 2.0 ppm. The os-
preys, herons, and gulls that ate the eels and minnows had levels of DDT

Figure 3.18 As DDT is passeatrkre nianism to organism in the Long Island

Sound food chain; the concentration is iria-gatied about 10 million times. Dots
represent DDT; and arrows show small amounts lost in the daily activities of the
organisms.

concentration
haS increase !
DDT in small
10 million times
fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm

4466404
4614Vir
0644!!"1,..
w. 4146.4(-
.WZb4
110.0*1

DDT in
zooplaektcn
0.04 ppni

DDT in water
0;000003 ppm,
or 3 ppt

From Living In the Enviemment, Third Edition. by f4Tyler Miller. Jr.,

0 1982 by Wadsworth. Inc. Reprinted by'Pairais,...n of the
publisher.

187
 Chapter.3 ComniunitieS and Ecosystems 83

between 10 and 25. ppm. Thus, the concentratfc a of DDT in the tissues
of the organisms in this food chain increased almost 10 million times Figure 3.19 Borneo rat patrol.
TOM the amount in seawater, and nearly 625 times from the producer
level:at the bottom of the pyramid to the consumer level at the top. That
relationship is-shown in figure.3:18.
'DDT and other cheniicals become conceW,-Rted in fewer individuals
Within dfood chain. Each consumer eats a lthge number of producers.
Although the body\of the producer may be broken down and used by
the consumer, the DOT in the producer'i body is not broken down. Each
of the produders contains a little DDT, andThese small amounts are con -
centratet within the consumer. The greater the concentration of DDT
-indn,orOnism, the greater the-damage. Ospreys and pelicans are ad-
versely affected by`DDY, which prevents them from producing normal
eggs. The egg shells are so thin that the eggs and the developing young
,inside are crushed by the nesting parent. At cite time, some of the osprey
arid'Polican populations became nearly extinct because of the effects of
ObT.=No one expected-that theDDT-used to control posts could affect
so many other organisms far from the area where the poison was sprayed.
The intended victims of the DDT were mosquitoes, but many otheror-
ganisms were harmed.
Malaria 'is a disease carried from one person to another by mosqui-
toes. A person\ with malaria experiences successi"e .bouts of chills fol-
loWed by high fever and, in some cases, may die. Many people in the
tropics suffer froth malaria. At one time, malaria was a major health
problem on the island of Borneo in Indonesia. To help the people of
13Orneo, workers from the 'World Health Organization sprayed remote
villages and nearby areas 'tvith DDT. Most of the mosquitoes in the
sprayed .area died, but because organisms'are connected to each other
itt-tb:,web of life, other esrganisinS also were affected. Flies and cock-
roaches, thefavorite food oflizardSThat lived in the remote villages, died
froth thyDDT. The lizards gorged themselVes on the DDT-poisoned in-
-sects, and they, too, began to'die. Local cats ate the infected lizards and
died; After the cats died,,the rat population grew unchecked.
Thecmalaridearrying mosquitoes were killed by the DDT, but the
rats, in the villages carried another disease that affected: humans. Al-
tholigh the people the island nelongerjiad to worry about malaria,
from the Other diSease. To restore the balancein the
they began to die from
-cOmnittnity,-,cats wereparachute&into the remote villages so they could
eat 'the rats. This is another example of the 'unplanne:1 effects that fiu-
mans-have on other organisms and on themselves, because of the inter
action-of many OrganismS in a community.

1.10 Human Activity Creates

BiocidefRq3istant Organisms
e.;
:.-,ipepeat populations include individuals that are resistant to a bio-
.Cide.hese individuals vary in their ability to tolerate, detoxify, or avoid
the poiSon..Most of the pests are killed by the spray, but a feiv individuals
c survive-and-reproduce. They -pass their biocideiresistanae-to th'tif off -
-'spring. When people, try'to,lcill these offspring with the-same biocide,
C> the poison has littleeffectjhe strength or the amount of the spray must
be increasedto'be effective, liut_in some cases no amount of spray will
Control the Pests. A different pesticide may or may not be effective. Today,

188
84 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

one cat find many resistant disease-causing and disease-carrying organ,.

isms in places where biocides have been used often. DDT-resistant.rnos-
quitocis, herbicide - resistant weeds, and antibiotic-resistantliaCteria are
not uricommO.

3.11 HurnansCause the Extirction

of Many Species
There are many different types oi;organisms in the world. Each type
of organism is called a species. At the same time that biocide-resistant
pest organisms are on the rise, many species of useful or potentially im-
portant orgOisms have lost or are losing the battle 'against human in-
fluence. As; our human population grows and we expand our activities,
we occupy, more land. This process destroys the habitats of many or-
ganisms. Sometimes this is good for humans, as when we drain a pond,
that is,a breediA ground for mosquitoes. Other times the damage ex-
tends_to beneficial' and d^sirable species. The smog created by auto-
mobiles and industry is killing trees of many species over a wide area of
Southern California (figure 3.21). The needles of ponderosa pines grad-

Figure 3.20 These two illustrations show a change in a Population involving a

single characteristic,the ability to tolerate a pesticide.

Figure 3.21 An entire forest has been kill 1 by

smog in souihern California.

John 0. 6unnifieharii /VISUAL'S UNLIMITED !D

18
ihapter 3 'Communities and Ecosystems 85

ually turn brown, and palm treeshave only a small tuft of fronds at their
tops. In these cases, photosynthesis is reduced, and the plants soon die.
The Everglades National Park is a delicate area in south Florida that
depends on a slowly moving sheet of water flowing from north to south.
Drainage ditches built at the northern edge:of the Everglades have de-
-Creased the flow of water over the entire area. As a result, many alligator
_holes (figure 3.22a), ich helped to contain fires in the Everglades, have
dried:up. Destructive fires are now more futquert'in this national park
(figure 3.22b).
,..,)36Catise of human' activities, plants and animals in heavily populated
areas:suck:ai Florida and Southern:.ealiforriia-are threatened. Unfor-
tunatelY, these are not the only two areas where this occurs. For certain
organisms, human-caused changes in the environmenthave been tragic.
On the average, the earth has lost one species of mammal eve:y, year Ask stLJents to think of ways humans are
sint , 1900. When such an event occurs, we say the species has become Inreatening other organi.,ins in your area, either
extinct (ek STINKT). There are hundreds of plants and animals with directly or indirectly by habitat destruction

Figure 3.22 (a) Alligator holes:once were abundant in.the Everglades.

(1a) Today, fires often:are desirUctive.

6ivies

190
.L
 86 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

very small populations that seem threatened with extinction. Examples

include the whooping crane and some rare pitcher plants (figure 3.23).
Extinction is, of course, a natural process. The process has been greatly
accelerated, however, because humans have changed whole ecovstems.
What difference does it make than passenger pigeons and dodo birds have
become extinct?
0 First, there are-lomi400d biological arguments agenst extinction in
general. One comes froi genetics. As long as wild populations exist, a
vast resource of genetic:Cltaracteristics remains available. That is vital
to prevent widespread death among the genetically similar individuals
of our crops and dont;:aicated animals. If all the crop plants in a field
are genetically similar and one individual gets a disease, all the plants
may die. The extinction of each wild population erases genetic material
that could mean healthy crops and animals. Once extinction occurs, the
genetic material is goneforever.

Figure 3.23 Whooping cranes and pitcher plants may be threatened with
extinction.

4 Aisoe4ATEs

191
 ea ti

Chapter 3 Communities and Ecosystems 87

A second argument against human-caused extinction is related to the

instability of simplified ecosystems. Think of a field of corn as a sim-
0
plified,ecosystem. If something should happen to the corn, the whole
ecosystem would collapse. To prevent such a collapse in a natural eco-
system, it is vital for a community to nave a wide diversity of species.
The fewer the species in a community, the easier it is for homeostasis to
be completely disrupted. Although new species are evolving all the time,
the process is very slow compared to the rate at which humans are able
to cause species to become extinct. Each time a species becomes extinct,
-_:te biosphere is simplified a little more, and it becomes more difficult to
maintain the stable biosphere on which all life depends.

Figure 3.24 Some animals that 1..ye been completely exterminated' through
human activities.

X1/25

passenger pigeon

Hawaii oo

great auk

dodo

el
u. 19 %_))
88 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

0 A third argument comes from research on plants that are important

to medicine. The island of Madagascar, off the east cost of Africa, is
the only known habitat of the Madagascdr periwinkle (figure 3.25). This
relative of the common garden periwinkle produces 'two chemicals not
produced by other plantsvincristine and vinblastine. Both of these
chemicals are used to help combat Hodgkin diseasea leukemia-like
disease that affects thousands of people each year. As the human pop-
ulation on Madagascar grew, the habitat for the periwinkle shrank. It
almost shrank to the point of making the periwinkle extinct. Fortunately,
foresighted botanists collected and grew some of these plants before they
were gone forever. The medicines made from the Madagascar peri-
winkle are worth millions of dollars each year, and help many people
with Hodgkin disease to live longer. These medicines would never have
becn known to us if we had destroyed the habitat of this plant.
How many more organisms are there in the world that we know very
little about? Almost 800,000 species of insects alone have been de-
scribed, but at least twice that many are thought to exist. Irextinction
occurs, we will never know anything about them or the many other un-
discovered species. Even as you read this page, thousands of organisms
are being destroyed to meet the needs of a growing human population
around the world.

3.12 Humans Can Preserve Natural

Area' for the Future
Have students investigate wilderness areas in
Humans also can have a positive influence on communities. To ensure
your area
that some ecosystems are maintained in their natural state, Congress
sets aside wilderness areas. In these areas only foot and horse travel is
allowed, and camping may be restricted to designated campsites. In some
wilderness areas a permit system is used. What good are these places if

Figure 3.25 The Madagascar periwinkle, important in combatting Hodgkin's

disease, was very clote to extinction.

.0. Orane/VISUALe UNLIMITED

113
-Chapter 3 Communities and Ecosystems 89

Biology Today I C

Naturalist / Interpreter
Dave Marshall is a naturalist/interpreter for the
Bear Creek Nature Center in Colorado. He grew
up in Colorado Springs, which is very close to the
-Rocly Mountains. His father was an outdoorsman,
and tie took Dave on many fishing trips to the
nearby streams and lakes. ThiS, along with tlis
father's interest in birds, sparked Dave's interest
in nature, and he decided to pursue a career
related to natural history. Originally, he planned to
study forest management and ecology, but after
discovering a program in environmental
interpretation in a college catalog, he decided that El Paso County Parks Department's Bear Creek Nature Center
this career "seemed to fit," and he went on to
obtain degrees in Environmental Education and in interpreters sometimes lead hikes into the back
Resource and Recreation Management. country, good physical health is important.
One of Dave's major duties is conducting Many people interested in natural history
natural history programs for elementary school become trained volunteers, or docents. Docents
students at the Nature Center. He leads the assist in all the duties of the naturalist/interpreter,
children on a short walk,cin the nearby trails, and often present programs and lead walks
shows them the exhibits at the Nature Center, themselves. Volunteers also may become involved
introduces them to a display animal, such as a in programs with senior citizens and scouts.
turtle or garter snake, and gives a short talk on Docents with special skills or interests such as
the specific program. Dave is also in charge of photography and art often are able to use these
the mammal natural history records, the insect skills.
collection, and the Nature Center library. Dave No special education is required to become a
also leads frequent nature hikes to various types volunteerjust a strong interest in natural history
of nearby natural areas. and a desire to share this knowledge with others.
Dave's favorite part of being a naturalist/ Positions such as naturalist volunteers and
interpreter is leading programs and being with the naturalist/interpreters can be very rewarding
public. He especially enjoys working with children, because they provide a service. This service will
and he feels a special satisfaction when he sees be needed more in the future, as the relationship
that their curiosity and imagination have been between humans and the environment becomes
stimulated by his program. Dave feels that being a more critical.
good communicatorboth oral and writtenis
the most important quality for a naturalist/
interpreter. Being a good naturalist is not as
i;nportant as being able to communicate what you
know and to stimulate people's curiosity about the
natural world.
Other duties of a naturalist/interpreter include
exhibit design and construction, preparation of
brochures and educational materials, providing
information for visitors, natural history research,
plant and animal identification, small animal care,
and training volunteers. Because naturalist/
El Paso County Parks Department's Bear Creek Nature Center

194
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 3.26 Three Sisters wilderness area in Oregon.

Do sok.n

more people cannot use them? Although human activity in parks is con-
trolled, bears feeding out of garbage cans and Chipmunks eating out of
your hand are not part of normal food chains. Wherever you find many
humans, the normal stability of a community is changed.
To learn about the community as a whole and its individual organ-
isms, scientists must study a community that has not been changed by
humans. Wilderness areas serve to protect communities from human in-
fluence. By studying these areas, we can learn about the many different
relationships in a community. We also can save such areas for the future.

Self-Review

1. HON"! does the number of kinds of organisms in an ecosystem relate

to the stability of that ecosystem?
2. For what purpose are biocides used?
3. What happens to the concentration of a biocide in the members of
a food chain?
4. Why should human-ca,used extinction of organisms be avoided?
 hapter.3 Communities and Ecosystems 91

Summary-
There are many kinds of relationships in a community, some cif which
are direct but most of which areindirect. Relationships include preda-
tion, parasitism, competition, commensalism, and mutualism. A single
organism may have many kinds of relationships with other organisms,
and these relationships define the organism's niche. The organism's hab-
itat, on the other hand, is the abiotic environment in which it lives. I he
idles of organisms are distinct, but the boundaries between ecosystems
are not clear, because energy and, matter pass easily from one ecosystem
to another. In most ecosystems, there are far more producers than con-
sumersi and there is stability through time. Humans can affect the pop-
ulations of producers or consumers by what they do. Sometimes, as when
DDT -is Sprayed, the results are many, surprising, and undesirable. In
some cases, human activity can lead to the extinction of another species.
This may have negative consequences for humans in the future. One way
to prevent, this is to preserve communities in wilderness areas for future
generations to enjoy.

Application Questions Problems

1. How does the concept of ecosystems help 'is to 1. How might an ecologist find out whether the effect
understand the biosphere? of one kind of organism on another is beneficial,
2. What do you think would happen if all of the harmful, or neutral?
turtles were killed within the Florida river 2. Study a community in your city or town. Gather
community? information to answer these questions: (1) How
3. What do you think would happen to a community if does the community get its energy? (2) Which
the number of carnivores suddenly doubled? organisms would be present and which would be
4. A predator affects the population of its prey, but a absent if humans were not part of the community?
parasite may not have the same effect on its host 3. Here are two parasite-host relationships:
population. Explain. (1) chestnut tree and chestnut blight; (2) whooping
5. How can organisms living in the same habitat cough and humans. Investigate these two
occupy different niches? relationships. How are the hosts affected, and how
6. Explain why organisms can compete for space but have humans tried to control the parasites?
not for temperature.

196
92 Section One The World of Life: The Ciosphere

Suggested Readings
P. R. Ehrlich and A. H. Ehrlich, 1981, Extinction: The E. P. Volpe, 1984, Biology and Human Concerns (Dubuque,
Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species IA: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers). Includes an
(New York: Random House, Inc.). Discusses the impact interesting discusSion about human modification of the
that extinction of species has on the human population of env;ronment.
earth. D. H. 3. Wehle and F. C. Coleman, "Plastics at Sea" Natural
C. P.-Hickman, L. S. Roberts, and F. M. Hickman, 1984, History (February 1983). The pollution of oceans and
Integrated Principles of Zoology (St. Louis: Times beaches with plastic materials is increasing, and sea birds,
Mirror/ Mosby College). The last two chapters in this marine turtles, whales, and seals are suffering as a result.
well-written text deal with animal ecology and animals in
the human environment.
H. W. Menard, 1986, Islands (New York: W. H. Freeman).
One chapter looks at island ecosystems from a geological
viewpoint.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 The biosphere is too big to study as a whole Studying a 1 Ecologi.ts must first define harmful in such a way that
part of itan ecosystemand how each part a teracts with they can eullect data to prove or disprove hypotheses. They
another and with its ablotiz. environment helps us tc might define harmful to mean that an increase in one
understand the biosphere population brings about a decrease in another population.
2 The community food web would be disrupted Many Beneficial would then mean that an increase in one
carnivores eat turtles directly or other carnivores that tat population brings about an increase in another population
turtles -Neutral" would mean tliat a change in the size of one
3 Intense competition foi available herbi ore,: would result A. population has no effect on the size of another population.
the food supply was reduced. some carnivores might 2 No single answer car. be given to these questions. The
emigrate Others would weaken and become sus,,tptible, to irnriortant thing is for students to realize how much energy is
disease Many might die imported into a city and how much the biotic community
4 P-edators kill their prey parasites ,nay kill their hosts Tht depends on people Be sure the commensals of human
death of its host is a disadvantage and often a disaster for beingssuch as house mice, brown rats, and
the parasite When parasites kill. they usually kill indirectly cockroachesare not forgotten
5 A habitat tells where an organism hoes, a niche tells how an 3 This problem can lead a student in many directions It is a
organism lives Organisms -an live it the same plat yet good preliminary to the ecological concept of infectious
live in d fferent ways disease developed later Chestnut blight is an example of a
6 Space is limited but temperature is rot host-parasite relationship that has not evolved into a steady
state Immunity has not developed, and the parasite
Endotho parasitica has decimated the population of the
host organism On tne other hand, host immunity to the
parasite Borcietella pertussis has developed in the case of
whooping cough Hence, there is low fatality to the host.
Also, artificial immunization of the host can be used, so that
the disease is no longer a hazard to an entire population.

197
continued from page 65

Tatite'T3:1 Relative huthidity-(percentage)

Dry-bulb temperature (DC)
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
0.5 94 94 94 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96 96
1.0 88 89 89 89 90 90 90 90 91 91 91 91 92 92 92 92 92 92 93 93 93
Difference 1,5 82 83 83 84 85 86 C5 86 86 87 87 87 87 88 88 88 88 89 89 89 89
between 2.0 77 78 78 79 79 80 81 81 82 82 83 83 83 84 84 84 85 85 86 86
dry-bulb 2.5 71 72 73 74 75 75 76 76 77 78 78 79 80 80 80 81 81 82 82 82 83
and 3.0 66 67 68 69 7C 71 71 72 73 74 74 75 76 76 7' 77 78 78 78 79 79
wet-bulb 3.5 60 61 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 70 71 72 72 73 74 74 75 75 76 76
readings 4.0 55 56 58 59 60 61 63 64 65 65 66 67 68 69 69 70 71 71 72 72 73
4.5 50 51 53 54 56 57 58 60 61 62 63 64 64 65 65 6: 67 68 69 69 70
5.0 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 55 57 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 65 65 66 67
5.5 39 41 43 45 47 48 50 51 53 54 55 55 57 58 59 60 61 62 62 63 64
6.0 34 36 39 H 42 44 46 47 49 50 51 53 54 55 56 57 58 58 59 60 61
6.5 29 32 34 36 38 40 42 43 45 46 48 49 50 52 53 54 54 56 56 57 58
7.0 24 27 29 32 34 36 38 40 41 43 44 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
7.5 20 22 25 28 30 32 34 36 38 39 41 42 44 45 46 47 49 50 51 52 52
8.0 15 18 21 23 26 27 30 32 34 36 37 39 40 42 43 44 46 47 48 49 50
8.5 10 13 16 19 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 37 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47
9.0 6 9 12 '5 18 20 23 25 27 29 31 32 34 36 37 39 40 41 42 43 44
9.5 5 8 11 14 16 19 21 23 26 28 29 31 33 34 36 37 38 40 41 42
10.0 7 10 13 15 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 31 33 34 36 37 38 39
10.5 6 9 12 14 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 30 32 33 34 36 37
11.0 6 8 11 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 29 31 32 33 35
11.5 5 8 10 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 26 28 29 31 32
12.0 7 10 12 14 17 19 20 22 24 26 27 28 30
12.5 7 9 12 14 16 18 20 21 23 25 26 28
13.0 6 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 22 24 25
13.5 6 8 11 13 15 17 18 20 22 23
14.0 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 19 21
14.5 6 8 10 12 14 16 17 19
15.0 5 8 10 12 13 15 17
16.0 5 7 9 11 13
17.0 5 7 9
18.0 5
19.0
20.0

continued from page 74

Discussion 3 A superior competitor ofIen has a niche

included within that of a less competitive
1 (a) It is unlikely that E would be
decies FFR-B within FFR-Cs niche, yellow-
successful. If B and E are exactly equal
heads with n red-winces niche
competitors, B should persist simply because it
4 Obviously, the superior competitor
was there first.
persists because it is superior The inferior
(b) Chances are slim that such a species of
species also persists if it can use resources in
fish could establish itse:f in the lake. An
some way different from that of the superior
exception' might be if the new fish wer^ a very
competitor
aggressive competitor, more aggressive than
5 Some examples of specialization of
any of the fish species already established in the
services in commercial endeavors
lake,
2. Critical variables to investigate include clothing stores
nesting places and food, the location of nests, low v high quality
the means of finding food, and the types of food large v petite sizes
eaten. Almost any college biology book sportswear v formal wear
describes how species of wood warblers reduce men's v women's wear
competition by specializing in nests locations auto repair
and where they look for food. self- v, full-service stations
muffler v radiator repair
tune up ogly4y, general repair

.19V
The, craihing wave displays some of the energy of water.
 Teact ng strategies for this chapter, pages

CHAPTER 4 T19-21
Key ideas
chemical reactions as the basis of life,
the need for energy to do work and maintain
balance;
the release and use of small packets of
energy;
Matter and Energy the cycling of rarbon through all organisms,
the kinds of molecules found in living things,
in tha Web of Life control of the cell by nucleic acids.

Introduction
Living things are intimately tied together by the need of all organisms
for matter and energy. Producer organisms such as green plants make
their own food, using energy from the sun and absorbing matter from
the surrounding soil and air. Consumer organisms, on the other hand,
must obtain their energy and matter from other organisms. Humans, for
instance, eat plants and animals to get their food. This food is made up
of the biological moleculesthe molecules of lifefound in all living
things. We eat the biological molecules of plants and animals and rear-
range them to make our own biological molecules. In this chapter we
will look at these important molecules and investigate some character-
istics'lf matter and energy.

Matter and Energy Guidepost: How are matter and energy

related in the biosphere?
4.1 Atoms Are the Basic Units of Matter
We have learned that a biological community includes producers,
consumers, and decomposers. These organisms are tied together in the
web of life because matter and energy pass from one organism to an-
other. To understand bow this occurs, we need to look more closely at
some.characteristics of matter and energy.
There are many kinds of matter in the biosphere. Compounds can be O
broken down intoihet:lements from which they were formed. The com-
pound water, for example, can be broken down into the elements oxygen
and hydrogen, as shown in figure 4.1. Elements cannot be broken down
into other kinds of substances. Carbon, iron, nitrogen, gold, silver, cal-
cium, and ,,,:hlorine are elements with which you are probably familiar. The four elements common to all living systems
Carbon is especially important to life, as we will see later in the chapter. are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nit ogen,

95
Zoo
96 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 4.1 The compound water can be broken down into two elements
hydrogen and oxygen.

water molecule oxygen hydrogens

Figure 4.2 (a) Simplified atomic models of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen.
Electrons are shown where they are most likely to move around the nucleus.
(b) The "cloud model" of a hydrogen atom. The dots represent possible
positions for a single electron. The circle represents the area in which the
electron probably will be located 90 percent of the time.

,
,--
sct
,,-- S."

0 b,
'111.

, i
i

,
,/ , . /
,
vi 6
I;
,
hydrogen 0 b ',,, ,
a
la, -........___-- /
carbon oxygen

Elements are composed of atoms, the smallest particles that have all
the properties of the element. Atoms are themselves made of even smaller
0 particles. Each atom has a core or nucleus (NOO klee us) containing
positively charged particles called protons (PROH tahnz), and un-
charged particles called neutrons (NOO trahnz). Rapidly orbiting the
atomic nucleus are one or more electrons (ee LEK trahnz), negatively
charted particles. The number of electrons is the same as the number
of protons, so an atom is electrically neutral.
Elements differ in the numbers of particles their atoms contain. For
b example, an atom of hydrogen is made up of one proton and one electron.
(Hydrogen is the on:: element that does not have neutrons in its atoms.)
An atom of carbon contains six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons.
Oxygen atoms are composed of eight protons, eight neutrons, and eight
electrons. Models of these atoms are shown in figure 4.2.
Reactions between atoms depend on the number of electrons the atoms
have. Reactions may involve an electron moving from one atom to an-
other. That is what happens wiien atoms of sodium and chlorine react
to form table salt. Each sodium atom gives up an electron to a chlorine
atom as shown in figure 4.3. As a mutt, the number of protons and the
number electrons in the sodium atom are no longer equal. The sodium
atom has a positive charge, because it has one less electron than protons.
Such a charged particle is called an ion (EYE un).
The electron from the sodium has been captured by the chlorine atom,
which now has one more electron than it originally,had. The chlorine
atom has become an ion with a negative chargea chloride ion.

201
Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 97

Figure 4.3 When one atom of sodium and one of chlorine react to form a Figure 4.4 In a molecule of water, the oxygen
molecule, a single electron from sodium is transferred to chlorine. The atom forms an electron-sharing bond with each
compound formed is sodium chloride, or NaCI. By losing one electron, sodium hydrogen atom. Compare this model with figure
becomes a positive ion, and by gaining one electron, chlorine (chloride) 4.1.
becomes a negative ion.

sodium atom

,.e ----- -. H atom H atom

;4 si0 H2O molecule

0\105-s
chloride ion (C1)
chlorine atom
atom
sodium chloride

The positively charged sodium ions and the negatively charged chlo- Explain that a chemical bond is very specific and
ride ions are attracted to each other. When these particles of unlike charge involves electrons If conditions are right and
come together, they form molecules of sodium chloride, or table salt. interacting atoms, molecules are present, then a
The forces that hold the atoms together in a molecule are called chem- chemical aond is formed.
ical bonds.
Often, when atoms react, they do not gain or lose electrons. Litead,
they form a chemical bond by sharing electrons. For example, in a mol-
ecule of water, an atom of oxygen shares electrons with two atoms of
hydrogen (figure 4.4). Molecules of carbon dioxide, hydrogen gas, and
oxygen gas also are formed by shared electrons.

4.2 Chemical Reactions Are

Essential to Life
There are two basic types of chemical reactions in living cells. We
have seen how sodium and chlorine combine to form salt, and how oxygen
and hydrogen combine to form water. These are examples of synthesis
(SIN thuh sis) reactions, in which compounds are built up. Compounds
also may be broken down, in decomposition (de kom poh ZISH un) re-
actions. Digestion of foods involves decomposition reactions.
In order for chemical reactions to take place, the reacting substances
must come in contact with each other. That happens most easily when
they are in solution, that is, dissolved in water. Water is such a common
compound that we give it liale thought, yet it has unique properties that
make it essential for life. Our bodies, in fact, are about 67 percent water.
Cucumbers and watermelons are more than 90 percent water, and even
seeds contain about 10 percent.

202
0

98 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 4.5 Water molecules ionize into hydrogen and hydroxide ions.

(-)
%

1
1
. i i
t IQ, I

.. .r ,.
%

. .
------ water molecule '------ hydrogen ion (H4)

When salt dissolves in water, the sodium and chloride ions separate
Figure 4.6a. pH of several common from each other, or ionize (EYE uh nyz). Many other compounds also
substances. ionize in solution. Even water itself ionizes to a small extent. Only about
1 in 10 million molecules of water ionizes, but all life processes depend
14 sodium hydroxrie on this small percentage.
oven cleaner A water molecule ionizes into hydrogen and hydroxide ions. The hy-
13 hair remover
drogen ion is a single protona hydrogen atom that has lost its only
electron. The missing electron is held by the hydroxide ion, which con-
12 sists of an oxygen atom, a hydrogen atom, and the extra electron.
Hydrogen and hydroxide ions are involved in most of the reactions
11 housenold ammonia that occur in organisms. If, as a result of such reactions, more hydrogen
ions than hydroxide ions remain in solution, we say the solution is acidic
10 milk of magnesia (uh SID ik). If more hydroxide than hydrogen ions remain, the solution
is basic or alkaline (AL kuh lin). The relative levels of hydrogen and
9 bleach, hydroxide ions are very important to organisms because of their effects
phosphate detergents on chemical reactions.
8 sea water We measure the hydrogen ion level of a solution by means of the pH
eggs (PEE AYTCH) scale. As you can see in figure 4.6b, the scale ranges
neutral
(1-1* a OH-)
7 blood
milk
from 0 to 14. A solution with a pH of 7 is said to be neutral, because it
urine has equal amounts of hydrogen and hydroxide ions. As the hydrogen ion
6 level rises, the solution becomes more acidic, and the pH drops. Thus, a
normal rainwater solution with a pH of 2 is highly acidic. Solutions with a pH above 7 are
5 black coffee basic. They have relatively low levels of hydrogen ions, with correspond-
ingly high levels of hydroxide ions. The pH of several common sub-
4 tomatoes, grapes stances is shown in figure 4.6a.
Organisms have an internal pH that must remain fairly stable. Cer-
3 vinegar, soft drinks tain environmental factors affect that stability in a variety of ways In
investigation 4.1 you will discover how that internal pH is regulated by
2 gastric juice the use of chemicals called buffers.
Even when dissolved in water, most atoms and molecules react ex-
1 tremely slowly, if at all. Substances do exist, however, that promote
chemical reactions. Such substances are called catalysts (KAT uh lists).
0 hydrochloric acid They are present in very small amounts, and although they participate
in the reactions, they are not themselves changed or used up in the re-
actions. Catalysts make it possible for reactions to occur at rates high
Students who have encountered enzymes in
enough to sustain life. The specialized and highly specific catalysts
other science studies often have the idea that
enzymes act only in digestion This is a difficult
present in organisms are called enzymes (EN zymz). We will learn more
idea to eradicate The discussion of enzymes in about enzymes in section 4.13.
section 413, and investigation 4.3, should help
Emphasize that without enzymes, chemical
reactions in a cell either would not take place or
would be too slow to sustain life.
203
 Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 99

Figure 4.6b. The pH scale. Any pH below 7 is acidic and any pH above 7 is
basic.

hydrogen ion concentration decreasing

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1,1 12 13 14
0 acidic 7 basic 14
neutral

liweitigation 4.1 ORGANI$MS,L'AND":pH

Investigation 4,1
Introduction ORGANISMS AND pH

In chapter 2 you learned that there is a tendency for populations to This investigation demonstrates two of the
remain relatively stable. That process of stability is called homeostasis. 13SCS themes the complementanty of
Individual organiznis must maintain an internal homeostasis. There are many erganism. and environment on a cellular and
environmental factors to which organisms and cells must respond as part furb-tionai Levet and nomeostas.s in terms of
of maintaining that internal homeostasis. One of those is the relative con, internal regulation of p11 Using pH as the
centrations of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH') ions. Biochemical ac- erivirerimeriial vanatite, tht, student ouserves
tivities of living tissues frequently tend to change the pH. Yet life depends responses to pH changes As the inquiry
on maintaining the pH that is normal for each tissue or system. How do proo.lvds, the students are concerned with how
organisms survive and maintain themselves in spite of metabolic activities acidic or basic the substances are and w.th the
that tend to shift pH either toward acidic or basic ends of the scale? influcm e of pH on the individual cells Fror,.
these reactions, the students understand the
Materials control of pH (homeostasis) in living systems in
response to both the external environment and
pH meter or narrow range pH paper the acidic and basic mReeriais produced during
tap water
metabolism The idea of buttered systems and
small beakers or jars, 50 ml their importance in living organisms is Stressed
graduated cylinder, 50 ml in this investigation
dropping pipets
0.1 N NCI (CAUTION: hydrochloric acid is harmful to living tissue and Procedure
clothes.)
0.1 N NaOH (CAUTION: sodium hydroxide is harmful to living tissue and Part A
clothes.) All students. working together in pairs or
liver and potato homogenates, 10 g/ 100 ml of water fours if necessary. should do this part of the
egg white (diluted 1:5 with water) investigation A pH meter would be hie ideal
2% solution of warm gelatin method of determining pH Narrow range pH
sodium phosphate pH 7 buffer solution paper is adequate if the students use good
techniques and are critical when making color
comparisons
Procedure 5-6 Students may require help in setting uo
Part AWater and pH the graph The results vary with tap water, but
the graphs in figure 14 1 page 123 give typical
In order to compare the reaction of living substances to that of nonliving student results
materials in relation to pH charges, you will first use tap water as the so-
lution lo be tested.
Part B
Assign a specific homogenate to each team
Liver and potato homogenates, egg white, and
gelatin work well Table T4 1 lists other common
materials and their pH that can be usec, :)y the
class The number of materials te,,ed is limited
by the time available in the classroom

2O4
100 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

1. Prepare a table in your data book like the one below.

T.00-f§74
Material pH

Apples 2.9-3 3 Tests with 0.1 N HCI Tests with 0.1 N NaOH
Beans 5 0-6,0
Beer 4 0-5 0 Solution pH after addition of pH after addition of
Blood plasma, human 7 3-7 5 Tested 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 drops 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 drops
Bread, white
Carrots 4 9-5 2 Tap water
Corn 6 0-6.5 Liver
Ginger ale 2 0-4.0
Grapefruit 3 0-3.3 (etc.)
Lemons 2.2 -2.5
Limes 1 8-2 0
Milk, cow 6 4-6 8 2. Pour 25 ml of tap water into a 50 ml beaker.
Milk, human 6 6 -7 6 3. Record its initial pH by using the pH meter or dipping strips of pH paper
Magnesia. Milk of 10 5
into the water and comparing the color change to a standard color
Oranges 3 0-4.0
chart.
Saliva, human 6.0-7 6
Shrimp 6 8-7 0
4. Add 0.1 N HCI a drop at a time, swirling to mix after each drop. De-
Sea water 8 0-8 4 termine the pH after each 5 drops have been added until 30 drops
Peas 5 8-6 4 have been used. Record the pH measurements in your table. Rinse
Pickles. dill 3 2-3 5 the beaker thoroughly and pour into it another 25 ml of tap water.
Salmon 6 1-6 3 Record its initial pH and add 0.1 N NaOH drop by drop, recording the
Tomatoes 4 1-4 4 pH changes in exactly the same way as for the 0.1 N HCI.
Urine. human 4 8-8 4 5. Make a simple graph, plotting 2 lines for the change of pH in tap water
Vinegar 2 4-3 4 against the drops of acid and base solutions added. Use a solid line
Wines 2,8 -3.8
for acid changes and a dash line for changes with NaOH.
Water, distilled 70
6. Summarize the effects of HCI and NaOH on tap water.

The tissue homogenates are prepared easily Part B-Tissues from Organisms and pH
by using a household blender The amount of 1. Use the tissue homogenate assigned to your team by your teacher.
tissue used influences the buffering capak..ity of a 2. Repeat procedures 1-4 in part A but substitute your assigned tissue
homogenate 10 g of potato or liver blended homogenate for tap water. Record all your data.
with 100 ml of water gives good results Dilute 3. What was the total pH change for the 30 drops of acid added to the
egg white 1-5 with distilled water Prepare a tissue homogenate?
gelatin solution 4. For the 30 drops of base added?
Check to be sure that students understand 5. How do these data compare with the changes in tap water?
that they repeat the same procedures as were 6. Graph the results for your tissue homogenate on the same graph as
followed in part A The only :flange is the for tap water, using solid and dash lines of a different colored pen,i1
substitution of their assigned tissue homogenate for-each-line representing a change in pH for your tissue.
for tap water 7. Examine your graph and the graphs of teams who used a tissue ho-
Project the graphs on an overhead to help mogenate different from yours.
students with step 7 and questions 8 and 9 8. How do biological materials respond to changes in pH?
8 The pH changes for all tissue 9. What patterns do the graphs indicate for biological materials?
homogenates should be less than for tap water
(see figure T4.1 p 123).
9 The biological materials have the capacity Part C-Buffers and pH
to control the extent of pH changes as HCI and What accounts for the behavior of living tissues in response to changes
NaOH are added in pH? Why are the changes not as great as when nonliving material, such
as tap water, was used in the investigation? Frequently in biological inves-
Part C tigations, it is difficult to study living tissue. Investigators have found that
Buffer solution pH 7 can be purchased from
suppliers or prepared. To prepare, mix together
in equal proportions 0.1 M solutions of Na2HP0,,
and NaH2PO4.
0 1 MNa2HPO4. dissolvP 12.2 g NA2HPO4 in
distilled water in a volumetric flask and fill to the
1000 ml mark.
Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 101

they can learn as much, and sometimes more, by substituting a model for 0 1 MNaltP0, dissolve 12 017 ..pc% ua
the real thing. We will use a model to get data to help us answer the ques- distilled water in d volumetri,.. flack aria fill to the
tions asked at the beginning of this part of this investigation. 1000 ml mark
1. Test the buffer solution (a nonliving chemical solutiona model) using 2 Figure T4 1 is the type if data you should
the same techniques as used in parts A and B. The only difference will expect from your students
be to substitute the buffer solution for the tap water and the tissue 3 The nonliving system L.hariges the pH very
homogenate. Record all your data. httte
2. Graph the reaction of the buffer solution on the same graph used for
tap water and the tissue homogenate. Different colored solid and dash Discussion
lines should be used for clarity. 1 The change in the model is more similar
3. How does this nonliving system respond to the HCI ari NaOH? to those in the biological materials than those in
the water
2 The buffer solution shows the capacity to
Discussion limit the extent of pH changes in the presence of
1. Is the response of the nonliving system to change in pH more like that added acid or base In this respect, it is similar
of water or of the biological material? to the situation in the biological matenats
2. How does the reaction of the buffer solution to change in pH serve as 3 The presence of buffers in living systems
a model for the response of biological materials to pH changes? aids in maintenance of homeostasis walla, living
3. Would buffers aid or hinder the maintenance of homeostasis within a cells in a changing environment
living cell in a changing environment?

4.3 Energy Is Used to Do Work

and to Make and Maintain Order
Energy can be classified as either potential or
Chemical reactions usually involve energy. In general, synthesis re-
kinetic Potential energy is associated with
actions require an input of energy. Decomposition reactions usually re- position or arrangement of parts kinetic energy.
lease energy. What is energy, and how is it used in living systems? with motion Before work can be done, energy
Matter is easy to understand because we can see it, touch it, and weigh 0 must become kinetic. as in light, heat, elei-trical,
it. Energy is more difficult to understand. We define energy as the ability mechanical, sound. and nuclear energy, Water
to do work or cause change. It is work to move an arm, play tennis, heat JehInd a dam aid chemical-bond e:-.ergy are
a house, or build a skyscraper. We also can call growing a leaf or a wing forms of potential energy

Figure 4.7 Is this person working?

BSCS by Bob Wilson

102 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

"work" because energy is used in these processes. In a cell, energy is

used to move substances and to build organic molecules. This, too, is
work. Energy also is required to make and maintain order.
This discussion deals with the concept of 0 Living things are extremely complex. Their atoms and molecules are
entropy and the second law of thermodynamics arranged into highly organized systems. High levels of organization,
It is purposely kept very simple however, are very unstable. If left to themselves, all systems tend to be-
come simple and random, or disorganized. Buildings crumble, weeds grow
in the garden, and dead organisms decay. Organization can be main-
tained only by continual input of energy.
Students may suggest that a room can be Think about your room. When it is clean and neat, it is a very or-
ordered, locked up. and then remain organized ganized system. How long does it stay that way? The tendency is for
indefinitely. Given enough time. however, even your room to become disorganizedfor your books and clothes to be-
under these conditions. disorganization wilt come spread out in a random fashion. To get your room organized again
occur. requires energy and work.
Like your clean room, a living organism is an organized system. A
living frog, for instance, is highly organized. The frog remains that way
because it eats flies and other insects that contain energy. The energy
Ask students what is the source of energy and
raw materials required to keep them in a steady
from the frog's food keeps the frog alive. The energy also allows the frog
state Anything students eat may be considered to grow and to reproduce. If the frog does not get enough food, it dies.
as a source of energy However debates may Then the frog's body becomes disorganized as soil decomposers break
arise about junk' food These are discussed in down its body, converting cells into molt, Iles. The decomposers live by
chapter 15 using the matter and energy remaining in the frog's body cells.
All life processes work toward an organized state and against ran-
domness. That requires energy, just as it takes energy for you to keep
your room clean and neat. Where does the energy come from?

Self-Review

1. How is matter different from energy?

2. How are protons, neutrons, and electrons related within an atom?
3. How are chemical bonds formed?
4. In terms of pH values, what is the difference between neutral, acidic,
and alkaline solutions?
5. What is a catalyst?
6. Why do all organisms need energy?

Figure 4.8 The tendency toward increasing disorder of a system and its
surroundings.

From Living in the Environment, Third Edition, by G. Tyler Miller, Jr.

C 1982 by Wadsworth, Inc. Used by permission.

207
Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 103

Energy for Life Guidepost: What is the source of

energy for living organisms
and how is it used?
4.4 Photosynthesis Is the Source
of Your Energy
Biological activity, like all other activity, requires energy. Consumer Plants, animals, and most protests use
organisms get their energy from the food they eat, but what about pro- essentially the Sane Jiumi,als and pro,,esses
ducers? Their energy comes from the sun. You remember from chapter to obtain energy from their stored kw! Stress
this biochemical unity of living things
1 that energy can be found in different forms, such as light, heat, elec-
Chemosynthetic bacteria use inorganic
tricity, and mechanical, chemical, and nuclear energy. Energy also can
molecules as their energy source Indirectly they
be changed from one of those formS to another. In the process of pho- are dependent on plants and photosynthesis as
tosynthesis, green plants use light energy from the sun to form complex their source of oxygen
organic molecules that store energy. The energy stored in those mole-
culeschemical energyis used by the plants and by organisms that
eat the plants. Because no animal can make its own food, all animals
depend on plants foi their source of energy as well as matter. Directly
or indirectly, therefore, the source of energy for biological activity in
almost all organisms on the earth is photosynthesis.
In photosynthesis, plant cells convert light energy from the sun to the Plants grown in the dark or grass under an
chemical energy stored in sugar molecules. The first step in this process object on the lawn, exemplify the lack of
is the absorption of light energy by a green plant. The energy is absorbed chlorophyll production without light
primarily by chlorophyll (KLOR uh fil), a green pigment that gives plants
their color. A plant also takes in carbon dioxide molecules from the air
and water molecules from the soil. These are the raw materials used to The stable product of photosynthesis is actually
make sugars. The plant uses the light energy it has absorbed to break 0 a tnose sugar, not glucose
down the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen is
combined with carbon dioxide to form sugar molecules. The oxygen is You may find students saying th at animals use
released into the air as oxygen gas. Some of the light energy absorbed respiration to obtain energy but that green
by the plant is thus stored in the sugar molecules as chemical energy. plants use photosynthesis Plants, through
These events are highlighted in figure 4.9. photosynthesis, build up food reserves. These
food reserves are then broken down by
In the formation of sugars, several small molecules are linked to-
respiratim to release energy for the plant
gether by chemical bonds. The energy used to form the sugars is stored
in the structure of the molecules. Light energy is thus converted to Any chlorophyll-cotaining organism can use
chemical energy. When sugars are broken down in a cell, the energy light energy to make its own food Much of the
stored in the structure of the molecules is released. That energy then is photosynthesis on earth is carried out by algae
used by the cell to do cellular work. and cyanobacteria. The discussion here is
Life requires suitable temperatures, a source of water, and a source limited to green plants in the interests of
of energy. The sun is our energy source. However, no organism can use simplicity
light energy directly from -the sun as a source of food energy. First it In living systems, energy (except for heat) is
must be converted to chemical energy by a plant. Only green plants and never released, rather it is transferred to
other photosynthetic organisms can use light energy to make their own another molecule. Some energy is lost in every
food out of materials from the nonliving world. Thus, all organisms de- reaction as heat
pend on green plants as their source of energy and matter.
A distinction between breathing and respiration
can be made. Breathing is the process that
4.5 Energy Is Released as Food moves respiratory=gases to and from respiratory
Is Broken Down organs such as lungs or gills. Respiration is the
exchange of 02 and CO2 and, by extension, the
After sugars are made during photosynthesis, hr is the energy in chemical process that involves this exchange in
the structure of the molecules released? The major energy-releasing cells is known as cellular respiration
process is cellular respiration, a series of chemical reactions that occurs
in all living cells. In these reactions, sugars made during photosynthesis Fats are another energy-rich food used in
are broken down, and energy is released. respiration. Even amino acids from proteins are
occasionally broken down directly when they are
in excess supply, are damaged, or are needed
as food for a body suffering from malnutrition,

208
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 4.9 The energy in sunlight is converted to chemical energy during

photosynthesis.

energy from sunlight

likoe

chemical
energy stored
in sugar
molecules

CO2, 02 and H2O exchange

water from roots

209
 Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life

Energy to carry on a cell's work comes from the chemical energy in

food. The way in which energy is released from food is remarkably sim-
ilar among different organisms. Foods are carbon compounds that also
contain hydrogen, oxygen, and often other elements. Chemically, foods
are similar to fuels such as wood, coal, and oil. These substances serve
as fuels because they contain chemical energy. During the chemical re-
actions of burning, fuels are reduced to simpler compounds. The chem-
ical energy from the fuel is released in the form of heat and light energy.
Chemical energy, in food is likewise released by chemical reactions.
The "lost" heat of metabolism provides cells
In a cell, however, the chemical reactions are quite different from those
with an internal environment warmer (usually)
- in afire. During burning, a large amount of energy is released from fuels
than the external environment In general, this
in a short time. The sudden release of energy produces high tempera- allows the cells to carry on metabolic reactions
" tureshigh enough to provide heat for cooking. Cells would be de- at a greater rate. To some extent this is true of
stroyed bysuch high temperatures. Energy-releasing chemical reactions any organism. Animals that regulate bony
occur in cells at low temperatures. The same amount of energy is re- temperature have means to conserve metabolic
leased as in burning, but it is released gradually, in many small steps. heat. Conversely, such animals must have
The gradual release of energy is made possible by enzymes. means to dissipate metabolic heat when the
Suppose you just ate a hamburger for lunch. }low is the energy re- environmen.al temperature is high.
leased from it? FirSt, your food must be broken down by enzymes into
molecules that are small enough to pass into your cells. This is what your
digestive system does, as you will learn in chapter 15. Once inside the
cells, these smaller molecules are broken down further by other en-
zymes. The energy stored in the molecules of your food is released by
your Cells through respiration.

Figure 4.10 A comparison of energy released during burning and during cellular
respiration. How are they the same? How are they different?

fuel burning products

heat heat heat heat

digestion cellular respiration

fuel products

210
106 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

During respiration, the chemical energy in food molecules is released

Figure 4.11 The structure of ATP. in a series of reactions controlled by enzymes. This energy can be used
by the cell to move substances and to carry out other cell work. Carbon
dioxide and water molecules are the by-products formed as the food mol-
ecules are broken down. Notice that these are the same molecules that
the plant used to make sugars in photosynthesis.

4.6 Energy Is Used in Small Packets

A firecracker quickly releases a great deal of energy with light, heat,
and a loud bang. The release of energy by a cell does not occur in such
an explosion, however. If it- did, your cells would burst. Energy release
in a cell is a gradual, stepwise process.
If you had =a hundred-dollar bill, you might find it difficult to buy
Adenosine Triphosphate small things such as a hamburger, a pack of notebook paper, or a comb.
(A) (TP) It would be much easier if you had 100 one-dollar bills. So, too, with
the energy in a cell. The big bursts of energy from food molecules are
put into "small change." This "small change" is the chemical energy
stored in compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (uh DEN oh seen
try FOS fayt), or ATP.
ATP is the most important of several energy-transfer compounds found
in all organisms. These compounds are involved in all the energy -pro-
0 cesses of living cells: The energy released during respiration is tempo-
The commonly used phrase "high energy rarily transferred to ATP. Each ATP molecule is made up of a main
phosphate bohd" is an oversimplifica'don that is section to which are attached three identical groups of atoms called
not really accurate A good foundation in phosphates (figure 4.11). As food molecules are broken down to simpler
thermodynamics is really necessary to compounds, much energy is released. This energy is used to make many
understand the complexity of energy storage in ATP molecules. Energy is stored in ATP until its release from ATP by
ATP For the student the important ideas are
reactions that remove the third phosphate group. This energy then is
those presented here
used to help the cell do its work. This work might be to move a muscle,
to send a nerve impulse, to grow, or to form new compounds. ATP is thus
a carrier of chemical energy in the cell.
Each ATP molecule releases a- bit of energy whenever a phosphate
group is broken off. The remaining molecule, which has only two phos-
phate groups, is called adenosine diphosphate (uh DEN oh seen dy FOS
Figure 4.12 The ADP-ATP cycle. ATP fayt), or ADP. You cannot keep spending money from your pocket
molecules are continually rebuilt from ADP without eventually putting more money in. Likewise, a cell cannot con-
molecules, phosphates and chemical energy. tinue to "spend" its ATP without rebuilding that ATP. There is a con-
energy tinual ADP-ATP cycle Ogure 4.12). To make ATP molecules, an ADP
molecule and a phosphate group are needed, plus chemical energy to
combine the two. The energy comes from the breakdown of food mol-
ecules. That is one reason you need to eat food every day.

e!ive Self-Review

ATP ADP 1. What are the two products of photosynthesis?

2. In what way is photosynthesis important for all living organisms?
3. How are the reactions of photosynthesis and cellular respiration
similar? How are they different?
4. Is there more energy in one molecule of ATP or one molecule of
sugar? How do you know?
energy

No`

211
 Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 107

Life Is Based on Carbon Guidepost: What is the source of

matter for living things,
4.7 Carbon Is Found in All Living Things and what happens to the
matter?
'In chapter 1 we said that energy goes one way through a community,
but that matter cycles:In other words, the chemical substances that make
up the bodies of producers and consumers are exchanged between the
living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem. Although organisms are made
up of many different cheinical elements, we can follow the flow of matter Make a paper tetrahedron to explain the unique
through a community by focusing on the element most important to life structural comformation of the carbon atom and
carbon. its bonding pattern.
Four basic kinds of carbon-containing molecules are found in all or-
ganisms. These biological molecules are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
and nucleic acids. Biological molecules are essential to the life processes
cifall cells. They also can serve as food.
Carbohydrates (kar boh HY drayts) and lipids (LIP idz) are impor-
tant energy-storing compounds and also form partof the cell structure.
The sugars produced in photosynthesis-and used in respiration are car-
,bohydrates. Oils and fats are examples of lipids. Proteins (PROH teenz)
serve as enzymes and form part of the cell structure. Muscles ("meat")
are composed largely of protein. Nucleic (noo KLEE ik) acids are the
.hereditary, or genetic, material for all organisms. They also coordinate
the activities of the cell. We will look at these biological molecules in
more detail later in the chapter.
Carbon is the central atom in all living systems. All biological mol- O Figure 4.13 Carbon atoms can bond together
edules are built of chains or rings of carbon and other atoms such as in several ways. The unconnected lines
hydrogen-and oxygen (figure 4.13). Proteins and nucleic acids also in- protruding from the carbon atoms show that any
clude nitrogen in their chains and rings. one of a number of elements can bond with the
Because all living organisms contain the same kinds of biological mol- carbon in these positions.
ecules, you can get the molecules you need for life from another or-
I I I
ganism. In fact, that is the only way you can get the molecules you need 1

for life. You must eat a plant or an animal and rearrange their molecules
CC=CCC-
1 1 I I
and atoms into your own.
straight chain

4.8 Plants Make and Use Carbon-Containing

Sugars
Plants take up carbon atoms in the form of carbon dioxide from the
CCC-
I

1 I
I I

air. During photosynthesis, they use the energy of the sun to make sugars
from the carbon dioxide (and the hydrogens from water), as shown in
,figure 4.9. In this way the energy from sunlight and the carbon from
CCCC-
I

1
1

1
I

1
I

carbon dioxide are both stored in the sugars. The sugars can be used in
four genera;.. ways-by the plant. branched chain
'First, the plant may break down the sugar molecules immediately to
release the stored energy. This happens during respiration. The energy
that is released from the sugars then may be used by plant cells to con-
tinue all the activities of life. Second, a plant may use sugar molecules
,for growth. The plant connects many-sugar molecules together to make
the building material necessary for more cells. Cellulose (SEL yoo lohs)
is a major- building material in plants. Third, the plant may store sugars
for future use. At important storage compound found in many parts of
a plant is starch. Starch is a large carbohydrate molecule made by put-
ting together many individual sugar molecules. When energy is needed

212
108 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Cellulose is generally an undigestable molecule by the plant, starch is first broken down to individu7 1 sugar molecules.
Its function as 'fiber' in human digestion will be Then during respiration the sugars are broken down to release energy.
discussed in chapter 15 The termite is able to Fourth, sugar molecules may be converted to the other biological mol-
use wood as a food because of the presence of ecules needed for life.
flagellated protozoa in its gut

4.9 Carbon Cycles within an Ecosystem

As a plant grows, its body becomes larger. If the plant is eaten, the
c rbon in the plant is passed from producer to consumer. As the con-
sumer uses the food, it first breaks down the plant body. The carbon-
containing molecules are broken apart, releasing both carbon atoms and
energy. Much of the energy is used for the activities,of the consumer.
Some of the carbon from the bady of the plant is used to make up the
body of the consumer. The rest of the carbon is exhaled as carbon dioxide
back into the air. For example, you take in carbon in all the foods you
eat. You return carbon dioxide back into the air every time you exhale.
A plant also returns carbon dioxide to the air when it uses its own sugars
as a source of energy. In both these ways, carbon is returned to the air
from which it originally came. When another plant takes in this carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis, the cycle of carbon through the com-
munity is complete.
Dermestid beetles are decomposers that are Carbon dioxide also is returned to the air by decomposers. When pro-
used to help in preparation of skeletons ducers or consumers die, decomposers begin their work. As its source a;
Demonstrate their action by obtaining some energy, a decomposer uses the energy locked in the bodies of dead' or-
from local soil, a museum or college, or a ganisms. It uses the carbon from the bodies to build its own body. As
biological supply house
with consumers, carbon that is not used this way is returned to the air
as carbon dioxide. Eventually, almost all the carbon that is taken in by
plants during photosynthesis is returned to the air because of the activity

Figure 4.14 The carbon cycle. Use the text to explain the diagram. Where
would you place humans in this cycle?

ATMOSPHERIC
CARBON DIOXIDE
photosynthesis

respiration

ur
 Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 109

;of the decoMposers.-Long ago, however, many energy - rich -plant bodies
were buried Ltfore decomposers eould,get to them. When that happened
the bodies slowly changed over very long periods of time. They became
a source of fuelscoal, oil, and natural gas. Today, when these fuels are
dug up and burned by humans, energy is released. The carbon in the
7, fuels is returned to the air as carbott'dioxide. Thus, we see that even the
energy we get from fuels is a resutt of photosynthesis.
The process in which carbon is pasSed' from one organism to another,
then to the abiotic community, and finally back to pants is called a carbon
cycle. There are other cycles within ecosystems, including a water cycle,
a sulfur cycle, and a nitrogen cycle, that you will learn about in later
chapters.

Self-Review

1. Why is the element carbon so important to living things?

2. Of the four ways a plant uses the sugars it makes, which is the only
way that doenot add material to the plant?
3. How are producers, consumers, and decomposers involved in the
carbon cycle?

Investigation 4 2
COMPOUNDS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Introduction
Part A in the student materials is written as a
The compounds your body needs for energy and building materials are teach.4r demonstration to save time. The
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. These compounds investigation can be done in one cia5s period it
are present in the plants and animals you use as food. In this investigation the demonstration is done A demonstration
you will observe the tests for specific compounds. Then you will use those allows the students to t.orit.entrate on the results
tests to determine the compounds in ordinary foods. of a test rather than get caught up in the test
itself. The teacher can, during the
demonstration. highlight and confirm the test
Part ATest Demonstration results, you have students conduct the tests in
Materials part A and discover the results for themselves,
100/0.gelatin solution the investigation will take two class periods
10% glucose solution For instructions for pionr..ing W. reagents.
10% starch solution see appendix T2 (pp T73-77).
vitamin C solution In part B students will use the test results to
2% sodium chloride solution determine the presence or absence of the six
butter or vegetable oil compounds in foods If time is limited, each
1% silver nitrate team could test one food for the six
Biuret solution and powder (CAUTION: caustic solution) compounds Specific tests may be assigned to
Benedict's solution individual teams and the results recorded on the
Lugol's iodine chalkboard. The ideal would be for the teams to
0.10/0 indophenol solution test as many different foods as possible for the
brown wrapping paper six compounds
Frozen liver is preferable to fresh liver For
ease in handling the foods grind the foods in a
blender

214
110 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Results of Reagent Tests Procedure

1. The Biuret test gives a pink-to-purple 1. Prepare a table similar to the one below in your data book.
reaction in the presence of protein.
2. The Benedict's test shows a positive test
for simple sugars with a color change from Food Substance Reagent Test Results
green to yellow to orange.
3. The iodine test is positive for starch if Gelatin solution Biuret reagent
there is a color change to blueblack. Glucose solution Benedict's solution
4. Blue indophenol turns colorless in the Starch solution Lugol's iodine
Vitamin C solution Indophenol
presence of vitamin C. Disregard the
Sodium chloride solution Silver nitrate
intermediate pink stage.
Butter or vegetable oil Brown paper
5. Silver nitrate forms a white precipitate
when added to a solution of sodium chloride.
6. Fat makes a translucent greasy spot on
2. Scientists use reagents to detect the presence of certain compounds.
the paper.
Observe the six reagent tests your teacher will perform. After each
test, record the results in your table.

Part BCompounds in Food

Materials (per team)
6 test tubes, 13 X 100 ml
250 ml beaker
10 ml graduated cylinder
Bunsen burner or other heat source
Reagents in dropper bottles:
Biuret solution
Benedict's solution
Lugol's iodine
indophenol solution
1% silver nitrate
brown wrapping paper
egg white, liver, apple, orange, onion, potato, or other foods of your
choice

Procedur a
1. Prepare a table similar Ili the one below in your data book. Test the
foods you are assigned by your teacher for the six different chemical
substances. Indicate the presence (+) or absence () of each sub-
stance.

Substance Protein Glucose Starch VitaminC Chloride

-1
Fat
Egg Prediction

Test results

Potato Prediction

Test results

Etc. Prediction

Test results

1:
A, ...
215"
 Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 111

2. For each food you will test predict what substances you think you will Discussion
find by placing a ( +) in the proper space in the table you just pre- 1 Depends on students results
pared. 2 Depends on students' observations and
3. Protein test: Place 5 ml of the assigned food in a test tube. Add 10 the variety of materials tested
drops of Biuret reagent. Record a ( +) or ( ). 3 For example, a blue result may give a
4. Glucose test: Add 3 ml of Benedict's solution to 5 ml of the assigned green color on a yellow surface Color of a
food. Place the test tube in a beaker of boiling water and heat for 5 matena as tomato may mask the test
minutes. Record a (-4- ) or (). result If the foods have the same color as the
5. Starch test: Add 5 drops of Lugol's iodine to 5 ml of the assigned food. positive tests, they may appear to give positive
Record a (+) or (). results
6. Vitamin C test: Add 8 drops of indophenol to 5 ml of the assigned 4 Depends on materials tested,
food. Record a ( +) or ().
7. Chloride test: Add 5 drops of silver nitrate to 5 ml of the assigned food.
Record a (+) or ().
8. Fat test: Rub the assigned food on a piece of brown wrapping paper.
Hold the paper up to the light to uetect a grease spot. Record a (-4- )
or (). When food contains a very small amount of fat, it may not be
removed by the method just described. If no fat has been detected,
place the assigned food in 10 ml of a fat solvent such as isopropyl
alcohol. Allow the fat to dissolve in the solvent for about 5 minutes.
Then pour the solvent on brown paper. The spot should dry in about
10 minutes. Then check the paper for a grease spot.

Discussion
1. Which of your predictions was totally correct?
2. Which food contains all the compounds for which you tested?
3. How might the original colors of the teFfed maters affect the results?
4. On the basis of your tests, which food could be used as a source of
protein? glucose? starch? vitamin C? sodium chloride? fat?

The Molecules of Life Guidepost: How are carbon-containing

molecules important to
living things?
4.10 Carbohydrates Are Used for Energy,
Storage, and Building
The biological molecules contain many of the same kinds of atoms, Molecular models are useful throughout the
but they are present in different proportions. Simple carbohydrates con- teaching of this section. Kits are available from
tain only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Sugars, starches, biological and chemical supply houses, or
and cellulose are some examples of carbohydrates. Glucose and fructose models can be constructed from toothpicks and
are simple sugars, or monosaccharides (MON oh SAK uh rydz). Mono- 0 jelly beans, which students can eat afterwarcis
saccharides are sugars that contain only seven or fewer carbon atoms in
each molecule (figure 4.15a). Glucose molecules can be changed into
other biological molecules within the cell. Another carbohydrate is su- Not all sugars are sweet, most are not as sweet
crose, or table sugar. Sucrose has twelve carbon atoms and is formed in as sucrose, When eaten by humans, however,
a chemical reaction that combines a glucose and a fructose molecule they are all degraded by the human digestive
(figure 4.15b). Sucrose is a disaccharide (DY SAK uh ryd), because it system to the same monosacchandes,
is built with two simple-sugar units.

I. I-%
I: fr A. 216
112 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 4.15 Monosaccharides (a) can combine together to form disaccharides

(b). Starch and cellulose (c) are polysaccharides formed by linking together
many monosaccharide subunits.

CH2OH C H20 H CH2OH CH2OH

HO OH HO CH2OH HO CH2OH

H OH OH H

glucose huctose sucrose water

a (monosaccharides) b (disaccharide)

Ckt-°°-°13310 0
CH2

0 0
cellulose

starch

(polysaccharides)

Larger carbohydrate molecules are formed in synthesis reactions in

Figure 4.16 Cellulose fibers.
which many simple-sugar molecules of the same kind are linked to
gether. Each of the sugar molecules is a subunit, or building block of the
larger molecule. Compounds with many sugar subunits linked together
are called polysaccharides (POL ee SAK uh rydz) (figure 4.15c). The
0 polysaccharide starch is an important storage compound in plants. As a
plant grows larger, the polysaccharide cellulose is used to make the rigid
walls of new plant cells.

4 re414
Ali
;'11

. 4-
J. 0. litvayi VISUALS UNUMITED
.. -:"

217
Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life I'i3

Figure 4.17 A fat molecule consists of fatty acids joined to a glycerc ^lolecule.
To form a fat, one molecule of glycerol combines with three molecules fatty
acids. The fatty acids in one fat may be alike or different. The joining of these
fatty acids to glycerol releases three molecules of water.

acid group

HHHHH
1

H
I
H
- 11
I

(unsaturated fatty acid)

1 °.
H
It
HC--0CCCH
0 H H
t
Jr.

I 1

H H

H
HH
I I
HCOH
HCOH !lilt
OHHHHH
t I

I I
HCOH HI
I
HH
I

H H

0HH
H
I
H
I ",0 HC-0CCCH
II I I

I
H HI H
I I 'OH
H H

(saturated tatty acid)

fatty acids glycerol triglyueride water

4.11 Lipids Are Efficient Energy cats that are in the liquid state at room
Storage Compounds temperature (about 204C) are called "oils."

Like carbohydrates, lipids arc composed only of carbon, hydrogen,

and oxygen atoms. Lipids, however, contain fewer oxygen atoms than Figure 4.18 Diagram of cholesterol.
do carbohydrates. A fat is one kind of lipid. Fats arc synthesized from
two smaller molecules, glycerol (a carbohydrate) and fatty acids. Fatty HH
acids arc chains of carbon and hydrogen with an acid group on one end.
HHHHH
HCCCCCC/\ I
I I I
Formation of a fat is shown in figure 4.17. Both glycerol and fatty acids I I I I
can be formed in cells from glucose. All lipids are formed from fatty H H H H C\ H
acids, but not necessarily in combination with glycerol. H

Both carbohydrates and fats are found in organisms as storage com-

pounds. A gram of fat contains more than twice as much chemical en-
0 CH

crgy as a gram of carbohydrate. Hcncc, fats are better storage

compounds. As animals prepare for winter when food is scarce, they cat HO
large amounts of food. Much of this food energy is converted into fat,
and the fat level in their bodies increases dramatically. Lipids also are cholesterol
important parts of the normal cell structure in all organisms. Plant waxes
and cholesterol (koh LES ter ol) arc examples of lipids.Excess choles- In motile organisms food is usually stored as at
terol, though, has been linked to heart disease, as you will learn in chap- rather than carboi.ydrate. is an
ter 15. itapediment to locomotion, and so a lowweight
fuel is an advantage to a locomoting organism
Compare use of gasoline in airplanes to use of
coal in many stationary engines

218
114: Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Figure 4.19 (a) The formation of a dipeptide from two amino acids.
(b) Polypeptide chains are formed f'orri long strings of amino acids. (c) The
polypeptide chain in a myoglobin molecule is coiled and folded into a three
dimensional structure.

variable
group

acid
group

amino
group )4-

glycine alanine
(amino acid) (amino acid) glycylalanine
(dipeptide)

4.12 Muscles, Enzymes, and Many Cell Parts

Are Made of Protein
In human nutrition we speak of essential amino (9 Proteins form part of the structure of each cell. In addition, proteins
acids. What does this mean? These are the form enzymes, and muscles are formed largely of proteins. Usually, pro-
amino acids that cannot be made in human tein molecules contain thousands of atomssometimes tens of thou-
cells Therefore they must be obtained in foods () sands. The subunit of .a protein molecule is an amino (uh MEEN oh)
They are essential in human nutrition, just as are
acid (figure 4.19a). Amino acids always contain at least four kinds of
vitamins. Lack of the amino acid lysine in most
atoms: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Two amino acids also
corn protein causes serious health proolems
where corn is the major constituent of the
contain sulfur. There are 20 different kinds of amino acids that can be
human diet. Many animals, however, can change found in a protein molecule. Green plants can synthesize all of these
one kind of amino acid to another kind in their from inorganic materials. Animals, on the other hand, cannot make all
bodies. Human cells can transform about 10 their amino acids and must get some of them ready-made in the food
amino acids in this manner they eat. Unfortunately, not every kind of food contains all the amino
acids needed by animals. Therefore, animals such as humans need a bal-
anced uiet of protein sources. If we do not get all the amino acids we
need, protein-deficiency diseases may occur.
To synthesize a protein, amino acids must be linked together. First
two amino acids are linked together to form a dipeptide (DY PEP tyd),
as shown in figure 4.19a. When another amino acid is added to a di-
peptide, a tripeptide (TRY PEP tyd) molecule is formed. A long chain
Use strings of beads of varying colors to of amino acids is a polypeptide (POL ee PEP tyd). Some proteins are
demonstrate the coiling and folding action of made or only one polypeptide, but most are made of two or more poly-
proteins. peptides bonded together. Polypeptide chains are coiled and folded into
a complex three-dimensional structure to form proteins such as myo-
globin (figure 4.19c). This structure is essential to the functioning of the
protein, as we will see in the structure of a special kind of protein, the
enzyme. Thousands of kinds of proteins can be made. The 20 different
kinds of amino acids can be combined in many ways. It is as if you were
to combine 2C different letters of the alphabet in as many ways as you
mild. The possibilities are almost beyond imagination. Not all combi-
nations would make sense, but thousands do. Variety is important, be-
cause each kind of chemical reaction in a living organism is controlled
Refer to this again in section 8.15, and the one- by a different kind of nzyme. There are thousands of chemical reactions
gene-one-enzyme theory made possible by the production of many different enzymes.

219
Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 115

b polypeptide chain myoglobin

4.13 Enzymes Catalyze Cell Reactions

Enzymes are large, complex proteins made by the cell. Like other 0 Allenzymes are proteins but not all proteins are
catalysts, enzymes promote reactions but are not used up in the reaction. enzymes
They allow chemical reactions to take place at the temperature of the
cell. Enzymes are needed in only very, small amounts, because one en-
zyme molecule can complete the same reaction thousands of tithes in a
single minute.
The specific reaction catalyzed by an enzyme depends on the mo- The change in shape is somewhat III _ a glove
lecular structure and shape of a small area of the enzyme called the conforming to fit the hand
active site. The active site can attract and hold only specific molecules.
An enzyme and the molecules on which it actsthe substrates (SUB
strayts)must fit together closely as shown in figure 4.20. Sometimes

Figure 4.20 Substrates and enzymes combine at the active site to form an
enzyme-substrate complex.

active
site

enzym e- substrate
complex

220
116 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

the enzyme changes shape slightly to bring about the necessary fit. Each
enzyme can catalyze only specific chemical reactions because only a few
molecules are enough alike in structure and shape to fit the active site.
0 To act as a catalyst, an enzyme must temporarily take part in a chem-
ical reaction. The reacting molecules combine with the active site of an
enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme aligns the
reacting molecules precisely and makes it possible for chemical' changes
to be completed rapidly at low temperatures. Once the reactions are
complete, the newly formed' molecules break away, leaving the enzymes
the same as they were before the reaction.
Enzymes catalyze both synthesis and decomposition reactions. Usu-
ally a different enzyme catalyzes each reaction. In a synthesis reaction,
two or more,small molecules first combine with the enzyme. The proper

Figure 4.21 In synthesis, two or more substrate molecules join at the active
site, forming one larger molecule. In decomposition, the substrate combines with
the enzyme and is split into two or more smaller molecules.

substrates

product

active
site

Synthesis

enzyme-substrate complex

substrate

sok products

active
site

Decomposition
 Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 117

-alignment provided by the enzyme enables these small molecules to join

into one large molecule: In a decomposition reaction, the substrate com-
lbinet with the enzyme and then is split into two or more smaller mole-
cules. Both of these reactions are shown in figure 4.21.
. Two aspects of enzyme activity are very important to cells. Enzyme
,reactions are faster at higher temperatures but only within a narrow
temperature range. Above certain-temperatures, the enzymes begin to
.11ote their shape. Because fit is so important for proper enzyme action,
enzymes that lose their shape no longer function. Enzyme activity also
varies -with the acidity -of -the solution. Thus, the temperature and the
pH must be at the right level for enzymes to act effectively. In investi-
gation 4.3 you will observe some of the characteristics of enzyme-
controlled reactions.

Investigation 4.3
A STUDY OF BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
Introduction
Materials
Hydrogen peroxideAH,02) is a highly active chemical, often used for
It is essential that the 3% hydrogen peroxide
bleaching. It, also is used for cleaning minor wounds. H202 is formed as a
be freshdo not buy it until you are ready to
by-product of- chemical reactions in cells. Because it is toxic to cells, it use it It is available at most drugstores.
would soon kill them if not immediately removed or broken down. In the
Use only fresh liver, not frozen Fine sand
presence of an enzyme, the cells break down hydrogen peroxide into two
used in the tests and for grinding is available
harmless substances.
from supply houses, but washed builders' sand
In this investigation you will observe the activity of two substances, both
will do.
of .which .break _down hydrogen peroxide. One of these is manganese
It is not necessary for each team to have its
dioxide, an inorganic catalyst. The other is an enzyme, catalase, an or-
own boiling water. Have a couple of liters of hot
ganic compound.
water ready at two or three places in the lab. As
the work begins, bring these to the boiling point.
Materials (per team)
Procedure
pieces of fresh liver, each about 6 mm in diameter
pieces of fresh potato You should not need to do much more than
100 ml of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution (WARNING: irritant, avoid skin provide the materials and equipment If
and eye contact) everything is ready, the procedure can be
manganese dioxide powder completed easily in a class period.
distilled water
fine sand Discussion
2 test tubes, 18 X 150 mm No investigation in the course has tighter
small test tube rack reasoning frOm observations to conclusion than
forceps this one Guide the discussion along lines of
mortar and pestle
disciplined thought in order to take advantage of
hot plate this construction,
250 ml beaker
1. Test 3 establishes the lack of reactivity
Metric ruler
between Mn02 and H20. This is necessary
wax marking pencil
because the remaining tubes contain 97 percent
H2O and only 3% H202.
118 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

2. The only evidence is that there appears Procedure

to be as much Mn02 following the reaction as
1. Prepare a table similar to the one below in your data book.
there was before.
3. If, after the reaction, you can reclaim as
much Mn02 as was added, you might conclude
that the Mn02 was a catalyst rather than a
Test No. Substance Tested Reaction
reactant. Fast Slow None
4. Water and oxygen are the most likely
1 Sand and water
possibilities. 2 H202 - 2 H2O + 02.
5. A glowing splint bursts into flame when 2 Sand and H202
placed in the mouth of-a test,tube where oxygen
3 Mn02 and water
is being produced. You may have to supply
some`background at this point and repeat the 4 Mn02 and H202
.operation of test 4 during the discussion so that
5 Boiled Mn02 and H202
the splint test may be applied.
6. Catalase in the liver. 6 Whole liver and H202
7. Grinding liberates more catalase.
7 Ground liver and H202
8. To demonstrate that sand has no effect
on H202. 8 Boiled liver and H202
9. The enzyme in liver is destroyed by heat.
9 Whole potato and H202
10. The catalyst in liver is made inactive by
heating, but Mn02 continues to act as a catalyst 10 Ground potato and H202
after being heated. In addition, no black powder
11 Boiled potato and H202
is visible "In liver, but most students recognize
this as weak evidence.
11. Catalase is found in plants as well as in
2. Label the test tubes A and B. With a marking pencil draw a line 2 cm
animals.
from the bottom of each test tube.
12. Test 2 established the lack of reactivity
3. Pour distilled water up to the mark in tube A and hydrogen peroxide
between sand and H202. This is necessary
up to the mark in tube B.
because of the sand that is used in grinding the
liver and potato.
4. Add a pinch of fine sand to both tubes. Indicate the reaction in your
table for tests 1 and 2.
5. Add a pinch of manganese dioxide (Mn02) powder to tubes A and B.
Indicate the reaction in your table for tests 3 and 4.
6. Boil the coreents of tube A (Mn02 and water) and then add 5 ml of
H202 to this tube. Indicate the reaction in your table for test 5.
7. Clean out both test tubes. Pour fresh hydrogen peroxide up to the 2
cm mark in both tubes.
8. Add a pinch of sand to both tubes. Using forceps, drop a small piece
of liver into tube A. Indicate the reaction in your table for test 6.
9. Take another piece of liver of about the same size. Put it in a mortar
with a pinch of sand and 2 ml of distilled water. Grind the liver in the
mortar with the pestle.
10. Pour a sample of the ground liver (with sand) into tube B. Indicate the
reaction in yuur table for test 7. Go back and look at the data you
recorded earlier. Do you want to change any of your earlier reactions?
Do so if this is the case.
11. Clean out both test tubes. Pour fresh hydrogen peroxide into tube A
up to the 2 cm mark. Add a pinch of sand.
12. Put another piece of liver into boiling water for about 5 minutes. Drop
the boiled liver into tube A. Indicate the reaction in your table for test
8.
13. If time permits, repeat steps 7 through 11, using raw potato instead
of liver.
Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 119

;Discussion
1: What was the purpose of adding Mn02 to water in test 3?
2. Do you have any evidence that manganese dioxide is breaking down
the hydrogen peroxide instead of reacting with it?
3: What additional steps in, the procedure would be needed to confirm
this?
4. Conside: -the formula-of hydrogen peroxide and the kind of reaction
you observed in tests 6 and 7. What are the most likely products of
the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide?
5. How might you confirm your answer?
6'. What caused the reaction when you put the liver into the test tubes
for tests 6 and -7?
7. How do you explain the difference in activity resulting from the whole
Piece of liver and from the ground liver?
"8. Why is test 2 necessary for this explanation?
9. How do you explain the difference in a,tivity resulting from fresh and
boiled liver?
10. Suppose that someone compared test 4 and tests 6 and 7 and con-
cluded that liver contains manganese dioxide. What evidence do you
have.either for or against this conclusion? (Conside the reaction in test
5.)
11. If you did the tests with potato, what additional information do the re-
sults from tests 9 and 10 provide?
12. -Why was test 2 necessary?

4.14 Nucleic Acids Control the Explain that ribose and deoxyribose are 5-
carbon, non-sweet sugars.
Activities-of -the Cell
There are two kinds of nucleic acids: ribonucleic (ry boh noo KLEE O Obtain a skein of multicolored yarn Indicate to
1k) acid, or RNA, and deoxyribonucleic (dee OK sih ry boh noo KLEE the students that each color might represent
ik) acid, or DNA. Both of these nucleic acids are present in all cells and one gent or encoded message

are vital to cell function. An organism may be made up of billions of

cells, but each living cell has its own DNA and RNA. Information stored
in DNA controls all cell activities and also determines the genetic char-
acteristics of the cell and the organism. RNA is required for the syn-
.thesis of proteins, including enzymes. Figure 4.22 The parts of a nucleotide.
information stored in DNA determines the sequence of amino acids nitrogen base
in proteins and controls when each protein is made. By thus controlling
the synthesis of enzymes necessary for chemical reactions in the cell, NH2
DNA controls the activities of the cell. Before a cell divides into two
cells, it makes a copy of its DNA. During cell division, each new cell H-C' N

receives one copy. Thus, each new cell has ail the DNA of the original
cell. This ensures that all body cells in an organism have the same DNA.
During sexual reproduction, DNA from each of two parents is combined
within one cell. Thus the offspring receives genetic information from both
.parents.
-Both DNA.and RNA are made up of-individual subunits called nu-
,cleotides (N00 klee oh tydz). Each nucleotide, in turn, is made up of
three small molecules linked together: a phosphate group, a five-carbon
,sugar, and a nitrogen base (figure 4.22). The base may be one of five
deoxyribose

Nucleotide

224
 120 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

different kinds, each kind being made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

and nitrogen atoms. RNA nucleotides contain a monosaccharide called
ribose (RY bohs). DNA contains a slightly different sugar called deoxy-
ribose (dee OK sih RY bohs), which has one less oxygen atom than ri-
bose. DNA molecules are made of two strands with thousands of linked
nucleotides. The two strands are attached in a very specific way and
coiled to form a double helix. RNA molecules are usually smaller, and
may be single-stranded.
It is helpful to have models of DNA available.
These four biological moleculescarbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
They also can be made from Tinker Toys and
cardboard.
nucleic acidsare found in all living organisms. As we will see in the
next few chapters, they play very important roles within each cell.

Figure 4.23 A chain of nucleotides with sugars and phosphates forminci.the

backbone and the bases off to the side.

41".._116

;:

:, 1,F0
;Chapter 4 Matter and Energy in the Web of Life 121

Figure 4.24 Diagram of a small part of a DNA molecule, showing the double
helix.

adenine gig guanine deoxyribose

thymine NM cytosine Bo phosphate

Self-Review

1. What are the subunits of carbohydrates? of proteins? of fats? of

nucleic acids?
2. Name one important function of each of the four biological mole-
cules named in question 1.
3. How do enzymes work to catalyze a chemical reaction?
4. Whyiis fat a better storage compound than starch?
5. How is it possible for so many different kinds of proteins to be made
with only 20 different kinds of amino acids?

Summary
Energy is needed to do work and to make order. Without energy, highly
organized systems such as living things could not exist. The :wed for
energy is continuous, and therefore organisms must obtain and use en-
ergy throughout their lives. Organisms also must obtain matter to build
up their bodies: without matter, no organism would grow. Plants make
sugars from inorganic molecules in the process of photosynthesis. They
convert this carbohydrate into other biological molecules, including pro-
teins, lipids, and nucleic acids, all of which contain carbon. These bio-
logical molecules are used by consumers as food that provides their matter
and energy. Biological molecules are built up and broken down in many
different chemical reactions. All chemical reactions are catalyzed by en-
zymes, and many of them produce ATP as a temporary energy-transfer
Molecule.

226
 Section One The World of Life: The Biosphere

Application Questions Problems

1. How would the carbon cycle be useful to biologists 1. Make two lists: (1) all the ways you use energy in a
in making a study of food chains in food webs? day; and (2) all the different kinds of energy you
2. The proteins in the cells of a wheat plant are use (light, heat, mechanical, chemical).
different from the proteins in your cells. How can 2. ,A hundred years ago the carbon dioxide in the
the differences be explained? What must happen atmosphere was measured at 0.0283 percent. Today
when you use wheat as a nutrient for the formation the level is 0.0330 percent. What human activities
of your proteins? during the last 100 years may have contributed to
3. Many botanists believe that the concentration of this increase? What might be some possible future
carbon dioxide in the air was much greater during consequences if this trend continues?
the Carboniferous period, when most of the large 3. Many fats and cooking oils are called
coal deposits were being formed, than it is at "polyunsaturated." Find out what that means in
present. What might be the basis for their belief? chemical terms.
4. In what ways do you contribute to the carbon
cycle?

Suggested Readings
B. Alberts, D. Bray, J. Lewis, M. Raft; K. Roberts, and J. D. C. Starr and R. Taggart, 1981, Biology: The Unity and
Watson, 1983, Molecular Biology of the Cell (New York: Diversity of Life (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing). A
Garland Publishing). Ezplains the role of carbon more advanced discussion of carbohydrates, lipids, and
compounds on a cellular level. proteins.
'H. Curtis, 1983,Biology (New York: Worth Publishers). An C. A. Villee, W. F. Walker, and R. D. Barnes, 1984, General
entire section is devoted to the flow of energy in the web of Zoology (Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing).
life. Good summary of the organization of matter (atoms and
C. P. Hickman, L. S. Roberts, and F. M. Hickman, 1984, molecules).
Integrated Principles of Zoology (St. Louis: Times
Mirror/Mosby College). Contains discussions pertaining to
all topics in this chapter.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1. Understanding the pathway of carbon can help clarify 1. Answers will vary.
carbon transfers in an individual food chain in a complex 2. The increased use of fossil fuels has added vast amounts of
food web. CO2 to the atmosphere. If the trend continues, it could bring
2. What enzymes put amino acid building units in sequences about the greenhouse effect, causit.g the average
characteristic of wheat physiology. Through digestion, wheat temperature of the earth to increase. This increase might
proteins are reduced to amino acids, and these are then melt the ice caps, raising the sea level
synthesized into new proteins characteristic of human 3. In some fatty acids double carbon bonds occur instead of
physiology. Wheat proteins do not contain all the amino bonds with hydrogen. Such a fatty acid contains less
acids that humans cannot synthesize. Therefore, wheat is hydrogen than it could contain without the douule bonds
not a sufficient source of protein in the human diet. and is said to be "unsaturated" with hydrogen. Some fats
3 CO2 in the atmosphere produces the greenhouse effect, contain many double bonds in their fatty acids: they are
radiant energy from the sun penetrates the atmosphere to polyunsaturated and are liquids or oils at room temperature.
reach the hydrosphere and lithosphere, but the radiation of
heat from the earth is hindered. V. there were higher
concentrations of CO2 during the Carboniferous, this might
explain the warm conditions that apparently prevailed in
most of the middlelatitudes.
4. Humans contribute carbon dioxide directly as a result of
cellular respiration and breathing and indirectly by burning
fossil fuels.
 continuedfrom page 99

BUFFERING CAPACITY BUFFERING CAPACITY

12 12
11 Liver Extriact and Water 11 Egg White and Water
= 77 10 eglI111=
= Tn" 10 and NaOH
O. O Tap water
CO 9 and NaOH am 9
8 'Hate( 8 Egg volute and tfaCti
Neutral extr...actInd NaOH Neutral
6 6 Egg white and HCI
5 Liver extract and HCI 5
4- z2 4
0 a< 3
s9"C3
63
3
2 lOg aver Tap water 147 2
1 100 ml water . 1 1:5 dilution egg white
00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Drops of 0.1N HCI or O.1N NaOH Drops of O.1N HCI or 0.1N NaOH
12 12
11 Potato Extract and Water 11 Potassium Phosphate Buffer
and Water
sH
O.
10
el3
= 'a 10 Tap water
CO 9 la cd NaOH
404
am 9 and NaOH Potassium phosphate
8 Watt.
buffer and MOH
Na1-1
Neutral potato and Neutral 8
Potassium phosphate
6 6
butter and HCI
5 5

=0. 73 4 Potato
and 11Zo__. = 0 4
3 'IN"' 3
2 lOg potato Tap ware77Z7r..
CI -, 2 0:iket potassium Tap water and HCI
1 100 ml water 1 phosphate buffer
00 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 o 5 10 15 20 25 30
Drops of 0.1N HCI or 0.1N NaOH Drops of 0.1N HCI or O.1N NaOH
12
11 Gelatin
=7,,
O.
10
el3
CO 9 NaOH
Tap *ate( and
8
Neutral Warm gelatin andt2g.......

73
= .r, 4
6
5 ,, 410

Warm gelatin and CI

a.< 3 Nx.
2 ...7ap;;;;;;;"rd116...."11
1 5% gelatin
00
5 10 15 20 25 30
Drops of 0.1N HCI or 0.1N NaOH

228
141

,A.! et ..e;

ff4f
4,1t r

*0
^

41
-1-tt

,
V-,..,

I f i
,-

--`1. -,... A"

t'leet
eaallii;a"

229
 Section Two

Continuity
in the Biosphere

Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells

Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development
r'T Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution

.4"e,
*

Individual organisms exist in populations.

Through birth and death individuals come
and go, but populations of organisms exist
for ages. Evidence from fossils indicates
that the biosphere itself has endured for
more than 3.5 billion years. Thus there is
continuity in the biosphere. There is also
change. The fossil record indicates that
change has been slow and, in general,
orderlythat homeostasis exists between
organisms and their abiotic environment.
How do populations achieve
continuity? How are individuals
replaced? How are characteristics
maintained generation after generation?
And how do characteristics change over
many generations, so that ecosystems of
today are recognizably different from
those, of past ages? Those are some of the
qztstions we will consider in Section Two.

to°

441.0*-101T/VOuiiififtimiTED

125
230
 Teaching strategies for this chapter, pages

CHAPTER 5 T21-23.
Key ideas.
cells as the basic units of life,
the nistory of the discovery of cells and of the
cell theory;
the use of energy for diffusion of materials
into and out of cells:
Continuity in Cells metabolism in cells;
control of a cell by the nucleus, with its
chromosomes and genes:
production of ail cells from pre-existing cells.

Introduction
We have been looking at large-scale living systemspopulations, com-
munities, ecosystems, and the entire biosphere. In order to learn more
about these complex systems, we have also gone to the other end of the
scale of life. In the last chapter we were introduced to some of the im-
portant biological molecules that make up organisms.
We already know that there are many different types of living beings,
called species. Biologists have described more than 3 million different
species. No one knows exactly how many there are, for new species are
being discovered each year. Each species is distinctive in its own ways,
and each species is made up of a number of individuals at any particular
time.
Each individual is an organism. Organisms are organized to solve the
problems of staying alive and of passing on their distinctive natures to
their offspring. At least some of them must be successful in reproduction
if a species is to persist.
One does not have to be a biologist to realize that A organism (such
as yourself) is made up of many different kinds of parts, each doing a
special job. Some parts function to take in food, others to permit move-
ment, others to detect our environment, still others to permit us to re-
produce.
Thus, there are many different parts, and many different activities
among these parts of an organism. Biologists study all these different
parts. They try to learn how they function, how they interact, and how
they permit life to continue.
In this chapter we will learn about cellsthe basic units of life. We
will see how they are constructed, how they work, and how they repro-
duce themselves.

127
128 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Guidepost: How did scientists come to Cells

understand the microscopic
structure of organisms?
5.1 Cells Are Studied
with Special Equipment
Humans and all other organisms are made of tiny units that are too
small to be seen by the naked eye. Lenses, built into microscopes, have
been used since the seventeenth century to study these otherwise invis-
ible structures.
This is a good point at which to bring out the Lenses have been known for 1-Indreds of years. By 1650 the art of
mutualistic relationship between science and grinding and polishing pieces of glass into lenses had greatly improved,
technology The technology of lens grinding led making it possible to build good telescopes and microscopes. Even though
to the discovery of microbes, and that discovery these microscopes were simple (see figure 5.1), the best ones could mag-
eventually led to the technology of sanitation
nify objects more than 200 times. (What magnification can be obtained
through the lenses of microscopes used in your classroom?)
0 Antony, van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), a Dutch civil servant, learned
how to make excellent lenses as a hobby. He placed these into simple
microscopes.: He had no scientific training, but he was very curious. He
looked at everything he could think of with his microscopespond water,
circulating blood in frogs and rabbits, plant and animal tissues, hairs,
and sperm cells. Van Leeuwenhoek found an amazing, invisible world

Figure 5:1- Antony van LeeirvvenhOeic using one of his microscopes.

parke.pailippiisicli* waiiceit4;iinit*Cod. Mogrii.phiini. NJ 07950

233
 Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells 129

through his new "eyes:' He not only studied the little "wretched beas-
,ties" (as he called them), but he made careful drawings as well. Over a
O Figure 5.2 One of Robert Hooke's
-period of 50 years, he described bacteria, some tiny creatures that lived microscopes. Try to determine the function of
each component of this instrument.
.between his own teeth, detailed structures in small insects, and even sperm
cells from humans, dogs, -frogs, and insects. Pictures of parts of living
organisms have always been useful to biologists;Drawings are still made
today,.but photographs and motion pictures are often more accurate and
1,piovide more information.
:During the late- 1600s, an Englishman, Robert Hooke, also made mi.
?scopes. -:(figure 5.2) and looked at tiny objects. He studied the cork
a
'layer of bark from an oak tree. He made thin layers of cork with a sharp
knife, -and observed- -neat rows of thickwalled compartments. They re-
Minded him of the small- cells where:monks lived in medieval monas-,
Aeries. Hooke therefore called the compartments cells. Figure 5.3a shows.
Cork cells as Hooke drew:them. Compare his drawing with the scanning
electron- micrograph -in b.
'Even though many scientists studied these cells and van Leediven=
hoek's "little animals;' fevi understood them. What did they tell about
living creatures? At one time cork was living, but now was dead. In living
substance, however, some biologists Observed that cells were filled with
fluid. What was this fluid in living cells? Were the walls o_ f cork cells the
remains-from once living substance?

5.2 The Cell Theory Unified Information

about Cells
It was not -long- before scientists began to realize that cells are the
fundamental units of living organisms. Plant cells were somewhat easier
to study than animal cells, because of'their thicker cell boundaries. By
1838, however,-both animal and plant biologists agreed on an important
principle. In that year two Lerman biologists, Matthias Schleiden, a plant
biologist or botanist (BO .f un ist), and Theodor Schwann, an animal
biologist or zoologist (zoh OL uh jist), proposed the cell theory.

'.Trusties of the British Museem (, rdon)

Figure 5.3 (a) Cork cells as,seen and drawn by Hooke, and (b) scanning
electron micrograph of corccells.

Linde Heti Library b Dr. Delbert E:PhIlpott. NASA, Ames FteseerchC;mter. Moffett
Field. CA 94035.

rt%
k) lr 204
 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

The cell theory joined botany and zoology into

the unified science of all lifebiology. The word Figure 5.4 The microscope structure of small parts of animals as seen by
itself had already been originated in its French Schwann. The group of six cells at the right is from a fish. The oval cell is from
-form by Lamarck in 1802. the nervous system of a frog. The long cell at the bottom is from the muscle of
an unborn pig. The spindle-shaped cell at the left also is from an unborn pig.

Figure 5.5 The diversity of cells: (a) human nerve cells, (b) red blood cells from
a frog, (c) cells of an elodea leaf.

Ed Reschke
b Ed Reschke C BSCS by Doug Sokol!

The cell theory stated that all organisms consisted of cells and cell
products. It held that one could understand how Hying creatures are built
and how they function, if the cells themselves could be understood. Bi-
ologists have been pursuing that goal for about 150 years. Even today
The development of the cell theory illustrates
we are still trying to understand the very complicated ways in which cells
how more accurate understandings frequently live and reproduce.
depend on technological developments. Use of After the cell theory became a part of biology, studies of organisms
dyes and of phase-contrast and electron advanced rapidly. No longer were plants and animals thought to live by
microscopes has revealed increasingly detailed different rules. Schwann wrote: "We have overthrown a great barrier of
information about cells, sepafation between the animal and vegetable kingdoms."

23 "a
 Chapter-5 Continuity in Cells 131

The fluid that filled cells, however, was colorless and difficult to study.
Then* was discovered that certain dyes made from plants would stain
0
the interiors of cells. With these dyes one could see that there were even
, smaller structures within cells. In fact, there were many different kinds
Of these little organs within cells. They were named organelles (or guh
NELZ). In, the 1880s, the work of French and German scientists showed
how hew cells arise from existing cells. If all cells arise from cells already
-living, then it must follow that there has been no break in the continuous
It is a theory because it not only accounts for
:line of descent of cells from other cells, ever since the beginning of life.
Today the cell theory is summarized in three main ideas: (1) cells are
the units of structure in liVing organiiths; (2) Cells are the units of func-
0 observations and extends them to parts of
organisms not examined but states the
prediction that cells are continuously descended
tion in living organisms; and (3) all new cells come from cells that al- from preexisting cells. (The latter relates cell
ready exist. theory to genetics and the theory of evolution.)

Self-Review

1. .In what ways did van Leeuwenhoek contribute to the study of the
invisible.world of life?
2. 'How has the meaning of the word cell changed since the time of
Robert Hooke?
3. What are the main ideas of the cell theory?
4. How did the discovery of staining techniques advance the study of
cells?

Cell Structure Guidepost: What main features do

cells have in common?
5.3 Microscopes Enable Biologists
to Study Cell Structure
Cell biologists use many different techniques to study cell structure.
Dyes of various kinds are often used to stain certain organelles, which
then cars be studied through a microscope. Many dyes kill cells, however,
so other methods are used to study living cells.
The light microscope, based on those invented hundreds of years ago,
is still used in laboratories for many basic tasks (see figure 5.6). The
light waves pass through a small organism, or thin slices of a larger or-
ganism, and the structures are magnified"through the lens system.
Very small organisms, such as protozoa and some algae and bacteria,
can be studied in the living state. The many interesting creatures you
can find in a drop of pond water illustrate the complexity of life in an
aquatic ecosystem. Colonies of bacteria and many organisms used in
studies of inheritance can be identified or counted with a low-power light
microscope. The better light microscopes, with fine quality lenses, can
magnify structures up to 1500 times.

t.,1*. 236
132 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Some manufacturers now have phase-contrast Q The phase contrast microscope is a special light microscope used to
microscopes at prices intended for schools You study living cells. This microscope depends on differences in the way
may want to consider making the investment light waves pass through objects in cells. Some light waves are slowed
by passing through-structures within cells. The phase contrast micro-
scope can modify these.differences in light waves, so that transparent
cell structures appear as light and dark regions. Figure 5.7 shows the
same cells as seen under an ordinary light microscope and through a
phase-contrast microscope.
Electron, microscopes enable us to see cell parts at very high mag-
nifications. They use an electron beam instead of a light beam to Mu-
minate the object. On modern transmission electron microscopes, cell

You may want to discuss the two types of

electron microscopes-and display appropriate Figure 5.6 This modern light microscope works on the same principles as the
micrographs Point out that the main difference microscopes used by Leeuwenhoek and Hooke.
in the two types is that the transmission electron
microscope (TEM) sends electrons through
thinly sliced specimens, revealing internal
Aructures. Living organisms cannot be
'observed The scanning electron microscope
(SEM) bounces electrons off the surface of an
otherwise undisturbed, sometimes living,
specimen,

Bausch & Lomb. Rochester, NY'

237
 'fiapt et 5 Continuity in Cells 133

Figure 5.7 tos from a human cheek lining as seen through (a) ordinary light
:microscope and (b) phase contrast microscope.

Tom Stack/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES b Ed Reschke

Fifibie 5.8 ,(a) Transmission, electron microscope (TEM), (b) scanning electron
mOCiciscOrie, (SEM):

-2,fea-s`

BSCS

238
 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 5.9 Scanning electron micrograph of,the surface of a coleus leaf,

X 161,000. Note the many hairs and the stomates.

.
Carolyn Nobl, Armstrong:

structures can be enlarged as much as one million times, and provide

photographs that show remarkable detail (see figures 5.11 through 5.15).
Scanning electron microscopes allow detailed observations of the surface'
of biological objects, such as the coleus leaf in figure 5.9.

5.4 Cells Have both Outer and Inner

Membranes
Alert your students that many new terms will be A unicellular (yoo nih SEL yoo ler) organism consists of a single cell,
introduced in discussion of cell physiology which carries out all the many activities of that organism. Other organ-
Familiarity with these new terms are important at
isms are multicellublr (mul tih SEL yoo ler) and contain from dozens to
this time as well as in future discussions
billions of cells. Most multicellular plants and animals have a number
An adult human being is composed of about 60
of different types of cells; each type of cell has a certain role to play.
billion (6 X 10,'2),:ells Together these cells cooperate to make life possible for a complicated.
organism, which must solve the problemS of living in a changing envi-
ronment. In a large animal such as a human being, for example, there
The plasma membrane is only 7.5 to 10 are at least 200 different types of cells.
nanometers (nm) thick, and, therefore, too thin Although there are many types of cells, they are similar in basic pat-
to study with a light microscope Early tern..Depending on their roles, however, they may differ in some details
researchers hypothesized its presence, but only from other cells. Figure 5.10 shows the basic structures present in most
with the advent of the electron microscope was plant and animal cells. Referto it as you read the descriptions of those
the existence of the membrane confirmed structures.
An important feature of all cells is their outer membrane. This plasma
membrane encloses the cell contents. It is a very thin but very active
structure. It controls the passage of materials in and out of a cell. The
plasma membrane has a particular chemical nature. It is made of two

23J
,Ohapter 5 Continuity in Cells

`thin layers- of lipid Molecules, arranged in a definite way. In addition, O

protein molecules floating on and within the lipid layers perform special
' functions, such as helping molecules -moVein and out of the cell. These
proteins, as well is. their fundlions; vaiyquite a bit in different tyPcsOf
.cells.
The electron microscope has revealed; the detailed structure of the Make it clear that the organelles do not float
.plasma; Membrane (see, figure 5.10a). The plasma membrane encloses about randomly in the cytoplasm Some may be
the cytoplasm (SYT.oh plaz um), which in turn contains the organelles. anchored or moved about in controlled ways
Organelles' often have their own membrane structures. The cytoplasm Cytoplasmic structures associate closely with
-thiis has a very-complex structure with many membranes. There is much one another, and, therefore, cannot be
haphazardly located,
.the- cytoplasin that wostill. do not understand at all, including the
:mechanisms :that' allow communication between the various compart-
Merits of the cell: There is evidence that small structures called vesicles
.(VES ih .kulz). proVide a sort of shuttle service'between cell" compart-
thents.
The fluid portion of the cytoplasm is called the cytosol (SYT oh sol).
It is somewhat jellylike. Within the cytosol (figure 5.10j) are suspended
the organelles, some of whiCh also are complex, as we will soon see. Many
of the chemical reactions of a cell take place in the cytosol, which makes
up about half the cell's volume.

5:51 CellS Contain Different Kinds

Of Organelles
In many cells the ost obvious organelle is a rounded body, the nu-
cleus (figures 5.10b and 5.11)..lhe entire nucleus can be seen most easily
between cell divisions. During cell division, however, the nucleus changes
dramatically. Later in this chapter we will study thosochanges.
In cells that have a nucleus, the nucleus is surrounded by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope. It is continuous at several points
with a complex network of other membranes in the cytoplasm called the
-endoplasmic reticulum -(en doh PLAZ mik reh TIK yoo lum). That
long term simply means the network ( reticulum) within (endo) the plasm,
Of living substance, of the cell: The endoplasmic reticulum (figure 5.10h)
is often called the ER for-short. Along the membranes of the ER are Another important function of the ER is that it
-often found large numbers' of tiny bodies called ribosonies (R.Y boh divides the cell into compartments, separating
sohmz), which can be seen in the electron micrograph in figure 5.12. the many chemical processes occurring
Proteins are 'made on the riboSomes. simultaneously within the cell,
The nucleus contains most of the genes of a Cal, organized into long
strands called chromosemes (KROH moh sohmz), which are visible only
during nuclear division. The genes control the basic functions of the cell.
For that reason the nucleus is considered the control center of the cell.
The chromosothes contain DNA-and proteins. As we have just seen in
chapter 4 (review section 4.14, p. 119), DNA consists of long chains of
'nucleotides. Those nucleotides contain the basic instructions that tell the
cell how to function. The nucleotides direct the synthesis of protein mol-
ecules in each cell.

240
136 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 5.10 An animal cell and a plant cell, and enlargements of the major
organelles.

a. Plasma membrane. 0.004-

0.005 pm thick; 2 lipid
layers; surface and
embedded proteins with
attached carbohydrates.
Semifluid cell boundary;
controls passage of
materials into and out of
cell.

b. Nucleus. 5-10 pm;

control center of cell;
contains most of cell's
genetic information in DNA,
which condenses to form
chromosomes during
mitosis. Nuclear envelope
with pores, formed of 2
membranes. Contains one
or more nucleoli, sites of
synthesis and assembly of
rRNA and tRNA.

c. Microtubules. 0.028 pm
diameter, variable length;
'armed of globular protein
subunits that can assemble
and disassemble rapid!: in
the cell; with microfilaments,
form cell skeleton and
provide shape, internal
organization, and
movement.

d. Lysosome. 0.25-0.5 pm;

site of intracellular digestion;
formed by budding from
Golgi complex. Lysosomes
fuse with vacuoles
containing food particles
ingested by the cell.

e. Centrioles. 0.15 pm
diameter by 0.5 pm long;
tubular structures formed of
microtubules; occur in pairs
during interphae quplicate
prior to mi.kleis )rm
organizing centers tor
mitotic spindles in protist
and animal cells.
 Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells 137

t. Cell*all. 0.1-10 pm thick;

formed by living plant cells
of cellulose fibers
embedded in a matrix of
protein and polysaccharides;
provides rigidity to plant
cells and allows for.
development of turgor
= pressure.

g. Mitochondrion. 2-10 pm
long by 0.5-1 pm thick;
enclosed in double
membrane; inner membrane
much folded; most reactions
of cellular respiration ccur
in mitochondrion; contains
small amounts of DNA and
RNA; several hundred per
cell.

h. Endoplasmic reticulum
711). 0.005 pm diameter;
tubular membrane system
that compartmentalizes the
cytosol; plays a central role
in biosynthesis reactions.
Rough ER is studded with
ribosomes, the site of
protcm synthesis; smooth
ER lacks ribosornes.

I Golgi complex. 1 pm
diameter iv; I .71 of flatterhAi
sacs,thut
sort,., and packages
macromolecules for
secretion or for deli,,ery b
other organelles

. Cytosol: Space outside

the cell organelles; highly
organized material I. Vacuole. Variable size;
.containing enzymes that large vesicle enclosed in
catalyze cellular reactions single membrane; usually
and ribosomes where occupies more than 50% of
proteins needed for cell volume in plant cells; stores
growth and maintenance nutrients and waste
are synthesized; products.
Chloroplast. 5 pm long by
0.5-1,pm thick; enclosed
by double membrane, with
third 'membrane system
.forming thylakoids;
thylakolds stacked to form
grana. All reactions of
photosYhthesis occur in
Achloropitists.
242
138 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 5.11 Transmission electron micrograph of a mouse liver cell nucleus,

X10,640. Note the double membrane that makes up the nuclear envelope. The
dark round body at the right is the nucleolus.

.0 te .1.
-"its;k:i"

t^tA
N.6.10 "et

K. G. Murat VISUALS UNLIMITED

Figure 5.12 Rough endoptasmic reticulum in a mouse liver cell. The dark bodies
are mitochondria. Note the ribosomes free in the cytosol at the bottom.
Transmission electron micrograph, X43,500.

L
ra
rr ttN t
A."s. t f$
!.
'A ;
+J

K. G. Murli/VIEUALS UNLIMITED

243
Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells 139

Within the cytosol also are found other kinds of organelles, each with 0 areas with the greatest energy requirementsa
Recall that mitochondria are most abundant in
a particular job to do. The mitochondria (my toh KON dree uh) (sin-
gular, mitochondrion (my toh KON drec uhn)) are often called the pow- muscle in an animal, or a growing root tip of a
plant.
erhouses of the cell. They function in the very important task of releasing
energy from nutrients. A whole series of important chemical reactions
occurs within the mitochondria. As you learned in the last chapter, those
reactions provide new supplies of ATP, the energy "currency" molecules
of the cell. This ATP "small change" then can be "spent" on all kinds
of cell activities.
Mitochondria are rounded structures about as large as bacterial cells.
They have different shapes in different cells, but their basic structures
are similar. They consist of two layers of membranes, an outer mem-
brane and a folded inner membrane. You can see their structure in figure
5.10g.
In plant cells there is another important kind of organelle, the
chloroplast (KLOR oh plast). These structures contain the pigment
chlorophyllessential for capturing the light energy of the sun.
Chloroplasts (figure 5.10k) have an even more complicated membrane
structure than do mitochondria. It is in these membranes that photo-
synthesis takes place. You may remember that photosynthesis is the pro-
cess whereby the energy of the sun is captured and stored in the structure
of biological molecules. It is this chemical energy that is later released
fo1 use by cells.
Most plant cells also contain a large central vacuole (VAK yoo ohl)
surrounded by a single membrane (figure 5.10 1). The vacuole is filled
with fluid and may occupy as much as 95 percent of the cell's volume.
Vacuoles store and transport nutrients and waste products. You may want to introduce to your students the
The Golgi (GOHL jee) complex (figures 5.10i and 5.13) helps package terms Golgi bodies and Golgi apparatus, as they
cell products for export from the cell. Materials synthesized on the ER may encounter them in other readings

Figure 5.13 Transmission electron micrograph of a Golgi complex, X21,930.

Part of the nucleus shows at lower lett. Note the vesicles around the complex to
the right.

,
,,,
#

David M. Phillips/ VISUALS UNLIMITED

244
 140 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 5.1'; Transmission electron micrograph

0 are transferred to saclike structures that are formed by the membranes
of lysosomes from a mouse kidney cell, of the Golgi complex. These products are then packaged in tiny secre-
X45,000. tory vesicles. The vesicles then make their way to the plasma membrane
where they release their products to the extracellular environment, or
environment outside of the cell.
Other kinds of vesicles remain within the cell. These are called ly-
sosomes (LY soh zohms), and they contain digestive enzymes of various
kinds. These enzymes help break down large molecules and worn-out
cell parts. Lysosomes are shown in figures 5.10d and 5.14.
Microtubules (MY kroh TOO byoolz) are tiny tubes composed of
proteins. They are organized in a complex network that forms the cell's
skeleton. Microtubules (figure 5.10c) enable the cell to maintain its dis-
tinct shape and internal organization, and they are important in many
kinds of cell movements.
Centrioles (SEN tree ohlz) are present in the cells of animals and
protists. These tubular structures (figures 5.10e and 5.15) are formed
of microtubules. They are present in pairs and play an important role in
mitosis, as we shall see.
By now you should begin to see how important membranes are in
cells. The cell can be viewed as a highly organized system, divided by
membranes into smaller compartments. Each compartment has its own
job to do. Molecules pass back and forth across these membranes within
ny a cell, and also move between the cell and its outside environment.
Some kinds of cells have still other kinds of organelles. You have been
studying the major kinds of organelles in figure 5.10, which also sum-
marizes their main functions. A somewhat different view of a cell is shown
r in figure 5.16.
K. G. Muds./ %SU ALS UNLIMITED Not all cell structures lie within the plasma membrane. In plant cells
and in some other cells there is also a cell wall (figure 5.I0f) outside the
plasma membrane. That is what made plant cells easier to see than an-
Figure 5.15 Cross section of a centriole, imal cells for early biologists. The cell wall is made of materials secreted
X210,000. The nine microtubule triplets that by the cell while it grows. That is done largely with the help of the mem-
form the centriole show clearly_in this branous Golgi complex. The cell wall provides strength and protection.
transmission electron micrograph. When the cell dies, the cell wall often remains behind.
' r When Robert Hooke looked at thin slices of cork under his micro-
scope, was actually observing the cell wails of the bark of a cork oak.
T*:
Most of the of a large tree consists of nonliving cell walls. The
r 147 living cells of the tree are found in a thin band just underneath the bark
of the trunk.

Self-Review

1. What is the function of the plasma membrane?

2. What is an advantage of the phase contrast microscope?
3. What is the role of the nucleus?
4. Name two organelles of a cell besides the nucleus and describe their
functions.

.
Ds4.t M. Phillips / VISUALS UNLIMITED

ud.

245
Chapter 5 Continuity in Ce!ls 141

Figure 5.16 The organelles of a cell must communicate and work together. This
is one artist's view of the inner workings of a cell.

Blackwell Sclenka, ,.I.ca lions LIC'ed

246
 142 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Investigation 5.1
OBSERVING CELLS
Introduction
This investigation is purely observaonal. The Although scientists have not observed all kinds of cells, many cells nave
emphasis is on living cells that students can been described and photographed. In this investigation you will use some
directly associate with whole organisms. of the techniques for observing cells.

Materials,
Materials (per student or per pair of students)
Cut an onion into pieces like orange
several 1-cm2 pieces of onion coverslips
sections. Do this at the beginning of the day and
iodine-potassium-iodide solution (12KI) fine-pointed forceps
keep the pieces under water in finger bowls. A
physiological saline solution scalpel
student can remove a piece of the fleshy leaf
methylene blue solution 4 dropping pipets
from a section and bend it backward until it
elodea leaves 2 dissecting needles
snaps. This usually leaves a ragged piece of
frog blood paper towels
epidermis. Remind students to throw away Me
monocular microscope toothpicks
onion piece after they have removed the
microscope slides
epidermis. See page T75 for preparation of
Elodea is easy to maintain in an aquarium if
direct sunlight is excluded. To increase the Procedure
likelihood of 'observing cyclosis in cells, plan
1- On the inner, concave: side of each piece of onion, the epidermis (ep
some of the material under a bell jar and
illuminate it for at least 12 hoofs uefore using
ih DER mis)skinis easily peeled off with forceps. Place a small
piece of epidermis (much smaller than a coverslip) on a slide. Avoid
The frog material should be as fresh as
overlapping or wrinkling it. Add 1 or 2 drops of water and a coverslip.
possible. Pith the frog. With a medicine dropper
2. Examine the onion epidermis under low power of your microscope.
obtain blood from a large vessel, and place it in
Look for cell boundaries. Draw a small part of the field of view to show
a small container of physiological saline solution
the shapes and arrangements of the cells.
or amphibian Ringer's solution (see appendix
-T2, page 176; Or flush an area of bleeding with
3. Place a drop of iodine stain along one edge of the coverslip. Pull it
the solution. You may wish to obtain blood under the coverslip, using the technique shown in figure A-6 (page 967).
Record any-changes that occur as the stain spreads across the onion
samples from a slaughterhouse cr human blood
epidermis.
bank instead of pithing a frog Directions for
4. Switch to high power and draw a single cell. Include as much detail as
preparing methylene blue solution are in
you can see. Save your drawing for reference in the next text section
appendix T2, page T75.
on cell structure.
Procedure, 5. With forceps remove a young leaf from the tip of an elodea plant.
Place it upside down on a clean slide. Add a drop of water and cov-
At least 60 minutes are required to erslip.
accomplish the full procedure satisfactorily If 6. (a) Observe the leaf under low power. By slowly turning the fine ad-
your class periods are shorter, devise a suitable justment back and forth, determine the number of cell layers in
breaking point. the leaf.
If a piece of elodea leaf is placed in 3% urea (b) Switch to high power. Select an "average" cell and focus on it
solution, the cell membrane will pull away from carefully. Is there any evidence that the call is living? If there is
the cell wall. You may want to set this up as a what is the evidence?
demonstration. 7. Make a drawing of the leaf cell, including as much detail as you can
Place stains and the materials to be see. Label any parts you can identify. Keep this drawing too for later
observed in one or a few centrally located reference.
places where students can go M prepare their 8. Using the blunt end of a toothpick, gently scrape the inside surface of
mounts. your cheek. You should obtain a small amount of cloudy material. Rub
Demonstrate the techniques of removing the this material on a clean slide.
onion epidermis and transferring cheek cells to 9. Add a drop or two of methylene blue and a coverslip. Find several
a slide: Remind students to use small pieces of cells, well separated from the others, and draw 1 or 2 of them. Include
material. as much detail as you can see.. Label any parts you can identify.
Have students avoid using circles to frame 10. Place a drop of diluted frog blood on a clean slide. Add a drop of
their sketches. Such figures suggest the whole methylene blue and a coverslip.
field of view and would require the drawing of 11. Examine tinder low power. Find an area where the cells are neither
everything seen in that field. Only a small section too crowded nor too scarce. Center -it in the field of view. Switch to
of the field of view needs to be drawn to show high power. Draw 1 or 2 cells and label any parts you can identify.
how c3Ils'are arranged.

247
 'Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells 143

,Diticussion Cell drawings should be large enough to

Construct a Chart in your data book. In the first column, list all the kinds indicate clearly the details of structure Draw en
of, Oells you observed. Head the other columns with,the names of cell parts example on the board to help get `Ns idea
'that .you identified: Review,your. sketches and notes. For each kind of cell across, but use a kind of cell not t
-iikamiried, place an X beneath the name of each cell structure observed. observed by the students.
Caution students to clean slides and
1. Does theleck of an X indicate that the structure was not present in
covershps thoroughly between steps of the
the cells observed? Why or why not?
procedure.
'2: On the basis of'your observations, which kind of cell (plant or animal)
seems to have more angular, less-rounded shapes? Which has more
Clearly defined boundaries? continued on page 163
3. who structure may be involved in determining a cell's shape?

Cell Functions Guidepost: What principles from the

physical sciences help
explain the functions
'5.6, Cell Activities Require Energy
of organisms?
All the different cell parts introduced in the last section are important
in the life of the cells. -Each part has a particular role to play, but bi-
ologists cannot always tell what that role is just by looking at a structure.
To understarid how each cell part fits into the life of a cell, biologists use
Many different methods, some of which come directly froM the physical
sciences.
Let us suppose that you take a watch apart (the type with hour, minute,
and second hands), and spread all the cogs, wheels, springs and bearings
on a table. Just by looking at its parts, you might have trouble in un-
derstanding exactly how that watch works.
Biologists are in much the same position, hey can describe the var-
ious parts of a cell and even separate them, but they might not be able
to figure out how the Orts all fits together, or how they enable the cell
to work. That is a challenge of modern biology. In tackling these prob-
lems, it is often More useful to study living cells than nonliving ones.
All cells have the ability to release energy from certain organic mol-
ecules, such as sugars. The energy of a molecule is released in many
.small steps. As mentioned in section 5.5, mitochondria are the organelles
mainly involved in energy release. After a cell has taken in energy-rich
molecules that can be used as fuel, they are channeled into pathways
that lead to the release of that energy. The more active a cell is, the more
mitochondria it needs to provide enough energy.
Metabolism (meh TAB oh Ili um) is the sum of all the chemical re- O
actions in a cell or organism. Biologically important molecules are pro-
cessed, energy is transferred to ATP, and the waste materials are released
from thexell. Excess carbon atoms may be released as carbon dioxide
(CO2). Extra nitrogen atoms are often released in ammonia molecules
(NH3), or as parts of urea molecules. Such wastes must be expelled, in
fact, because they become toxic to the cell.
Some cells, for examplo:those in green plants, also are able to store
energy directly in organic molecules such as sugars. These molecules
.then can be transformed into other kinds of useful molecules such as
.amino acids, lipids, or nucleotides. Such molecules are used to maintain
.the life of the cell. They also are used for growth, and they can help build
new living substance.

248
144 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

If you have students with some chemical 5.7 Substances Move In and Out of Cells
sophistication, they should be cautioned to
differentiate between steady state of a cell's
in Several Ways
composition and L.hemical equilibrium, in which O Even though living organisms have complex rules of their own, they
no material is entering or leaving the system also abide by all the rules of physics and chemistry that apply to the
nonliving world. Atoms and molecules and small particles, fOr instance;.
The diffusion section assumes that high school
tend to wander about from places where they are highly concentrated
students usually have some knowledge of
to places- where they are less concentrated. That- happens in gases,
molecular theory Find out how much
background your students have and supply any
liquids, and-even solids in- some cases. Such movement, which is com-
missing information pletely random, is called diffusion (dih FY00 zhun).
Scientists summarize the movements of diffusion in a rule: substancei
Recall again that concentration and density both tend to move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower con-
refer to number (amount) per unit of space centration. This difference in concentration between,two places is called
a diffusion gradienta measure of the steepness of the difference.
For a simple demonstration of diffusion, drop a Many substances can move in and out of eels bydiffusion alone. Once
large crystal of potassium permanganate Into a- they have passed into a cell through the plasma membrane, they con-
small beaker of water and allow it to sit tinue to diffuse throughout the cytosol. Because diffusion is a random
undisturbed A white card behind the beaker process, it aids in the even distribution of materials within a cell, as dia-
makes observation easier A somewhat more grammed in figure 5.17.
elaborate method Lightly rub very small It is important to realize-that a living cell is about 70 percent water.
amounts of dry crystal violet, eosin. and
Therefore, living substance is essentially an aqueous (watery) system.
methylene blue into the surface of bond paper
Many kinds of molecules may be dissolved in th:5-atrueous cell interior, -S./ z
(Use a second, small piece of paper to do
this it will keep stains off your fingers ) Shake Others that cannot dissolve may be suspended in the cytosol.
lightly to get rid of large particles Hold paper The cell wall, if present, allows free diffusion of most substances. The
with dye side down over a plate of 1,51v agar plasma membrane, however, permits only certain molecules to diffuse
Tap hard to dislodge stain particles and to freely. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are examples.
permit them to fall on the agar surface Diffusion
takss place very quickly, and different dyes
diffuse at different rates. Figure 5.17 Diffusion (a) without, and (b) with, differentially permeable
To demonstrate quickly and effectively the rr.mbrane. In (a), the large particles can move freely and become evenly
diffusion of gas molecules, crumple a paper distributed in the water. In (b), the particles are too large to diffuse through the
towel in a dish and saturate it either with a plasma membrane. At first there is a lower concentration of water inside the cell
fragrant cologne or with ammonium hydroxide than outside. Water molecules then move to the inside, causing the cell to
expand.

.
..i.... ;
.
. .
. .
. *
. . .,
. . .
.
. . .
4!
r . .
.
. . .
.
.

. -1. .
. . . . .
. . .
. ..0 . . -.N. . .
e 44-'4=.."\\
- 411.<
\ . . e .
.

01
.

-24,9
'.Chapter .5 Conlin:jay. in Cells 145

The environment outside-a cell also must be aqueous. Otherwise the

water: in the cell would 'diffuse out, and the cell would dry out and die.
Many cells-Hire in an aqueous environment all their lives. Other cells are
:usually- bathed -in a film of water. The amount of water surrounding cells
'''Must.be
.
"sufficient to *Vent; water within the cell from diffusing out-
:Ward.
BecauSe- water is essential -for living celli, life can exist only where
At* is enough water. Some animals and plants:however, are able to
live'iii dry enVitonmenti,.such as desetts, where water is scarce. They
have special' means of conserving water. Some of these methods will be
,discussed in:later chapters. Seeds and spores of some.organisms have
"very hard capsules that prevent loss of water for long periods, sometimes
Years.
When a substance is able to pass-through a membrane, we say that
the membrane-is permeable (PER mee uh bul) to that substance. Mem-
0 The term differentially permeable preferred to
semipermeable The latter is lodii_aliy faulty, and
branes may be more petmeable to some substances than to others: they the former is more descriptive
are said to be differentially, permeable. In other words, these membranes
:have different permeabilities to different substances: perhaps a small urea
'moleCule will pass easily, but not a-large starch molecule. Sometimes
membranes do not permit substances to .,pass- through at all: then they
-are Said tote impermeable'(im PER mee uh bal),to that substance.
Some substances are just too large to pass through a membrane. Others
'have an electrical charge that makes -diffusion impossible. That is be- The energy for diffusion comes from the system
.cause, the plaStna membrane itsctiNs ,olectrically chatged. Other ways itself In part, this is indicated by the fact that
'are used to admit such subStances to a cell, Oilo get rid of them. addition of energy to the system increases the
rate of diffusion If a discussion of this note
One important method a cell uses to traiispott Such substances across
arises, take the opportunity to point out that in
g'iiiembrane is active transport. In other words, the cell actively moves
cells diffusion does not cost anything in the
these substances across its membrane by using energy. Sometimes a sub- sense of extra energy All cell activity results in
stance can be-moved across a membrane, even though the structure is loss of energy as heat Since the heat must be
already more concentrated within the cell than it is outside (see figure dispelled anyway, that whiull is used to move
5:18). Thus, the substance is actively transported against a diffusion gra- molecules is not really a drain on a cell s energy
dient. supply
A good example of such active transport is seen in root cells. Minerals
the plants require for growth may be- present in the soil in very low
.amounts. Root cells use active transport to accumulate the minerals in
relatively high amounts. Because of active transport, the minerals are
available to be transported to all parts of the plant.

Figure 5.18 Comparison of diffusion and active transport. By using active

transport, a cell can continue to accumulate particles even though their
concentration is already greater inside the cell..

_
11 4.

'9 A.
co

a.Diffusion b. Active Transport

 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

5.8 Water Follows the Rule of Diffusion

This discussion may give the impression that To understand the movement of water in and out of cells, it helps to
living cell membranes function exactly like remember that water also follows the basic rule of diffusion. It moves
nonliving membranes You may want to go from the side of the plasma membrane where it is more concentrated to--
beyond this simplification to point out the the side where it is 'ess concentrated.
changing permeabilities of living membranes and
Water is a solventa substance in which other substances can dis-
the passage of large, fat-soluble molecules
through them
solve. The movement of a solvent through a plasma membrane, when
the concentrations of substances are different on its two sides, is called
osmosis (os MOH sis). Figure 5.19 shows how osmosis works.
The Concentration of water outside a cell depends on many factors.
Primarily it depends on the concentration of solutes (SOL yoots)salts
or other substancesin the water. If water contains only salt, and the
salt-concentration is 1- percent, for example, then the water concentra-
tion is 99 percent.
With freshwater organism, inLreasing the salt Cells normally have an inside salt concentration (mainly sodium chlo-
content of the enoroni-nurital water sets up a ride) of about 0.9 percent. If the outside concentration of water is lower
diffusion gradient from organism to environment than thz.;,c9ncentration of water inside the cell, then water will diffuse
Refer to investigation 23,3
out of a cell, and the cell will shrink. On the other hand, if the concen-
tration of water is'higher outside the cell, water will diffuse into the cell
(study figure 5.19 again).
Distilled water contains no salts at all; it is 100 percent water. There-
fore, cells immersed in distilled water will take in water. Sometimes so
much water flows into the cell that the pressure on the plasma mem-
brane increases, and the cells may even burst. Red blood cells, in-
stance, will burst if they, are left in distilled water. The hemoglobin pours
out, leaving behind the empty plasma membranes. In the blood vessels,
the salt concentration of the liquid portion of blood is maintained at about
0.9 percent. The blood cells, therefore, maintain their normal shape and
function, because the concentration of salt is the same both outside and
inside the cells.

Figure 5.19 A diagram of osmosis. When water concentration is higher inside

the cell (left), the cell loses water and shrinks. When water conconitatoi; is
higher outside the cell (right), the cell takes in water and swells. In the diagram,
salt is represented by one kind of particle for simplicity, but ,n water it ionizes into
two kinds of particles, sodium ions and chloride ions.

salt' I o water
0 60 6 0,00 0
GO°
O 000001'00
_0 00 0 O 0 0 00
9 000 60 0,,-000004
o o 400 0 0
0
eo
°IQ 40 0 0 0
a r60 0
0..v00000
O _ ea° "-111. a 0 e 7
o 0 0 000 0 Doo 0`y

el,
o (01 ft 0 01o.,90 O 6 0 /OAP° per=
-.4-'10 0. .0 0 0 0 °
00 'IV 0 10 9 O 0 I Qo \?b,0
o
isi- 0 6 6 00
° 46
00
000 00 00,10e
0.0
'' 0 ao 01000 0- Dww0 0°0 O 0 01300

06 ,0
O

0
9
1

6? 0;1000 "9o 2..._.... ,

I 0 000,..6 :13 O0 6 a°a 0 9 0 ) °
0o 0 a\ ere. 47:-'0'
00\°
- "0 O 000 0 00
.0;/ o OM% 0 II.% (1). 0 0 000 1.:7- 0 00
0 00
9 0..0`6.20`.7' 0 ° 040-00 40
+ 0 '4"" 00 0 0-0j0 0
0
o0 O0
o00 w
o 000 0
O 0 ft V0
.AL 000
gte
00°w0e00 ° 00 9
-..=--'01
0
oa 0 0.0 0 0 000°
glow
e eee
if concentration of water is higher inside if concentration of water is higher outside
the cell, waterpasses out of the cell the cell, water passes into the cell

251
Chapter:4 Continuity in Cells 147

High. School BiO logy Teacher team teaching situation. Although they teach their
own classes individually, It's/ have found it very
Pat Huwa ie, a biology-teacher at Cherry Creek
economical, both in time and in expenses, to
High School in Colorado: She is the Colorado
prepare labs, tests, computer assignments, and
recipient of the Outstanding Biology Teacher
other activities as a team. All of: the team
AWard=for 1986.
members feel that the quality of their work
Pat was raised in,Milliken, Colorado ;.where her
improves from the direct input of four people.
;parents owned a small grocery store. She
Referring to the team members, Pat says that
graduated from high school in a class of eight
Raylene is the organizer, Russ the computer whiz,
graduates. That was quite Ifferent from the
and that Sally makes sure materials are ordered
school in' which she currently-teaches, with an
and available. Students have the advantage of
enrollinent of-More than 3400 students.
knowing all four teachers, and if they have a
A high school counselor recommended that Pat
question or a problem, they go to any of the team
study science because of the varied employment
members for assistance.
opportunities available to,scientists. Pat had
Biology teachers can take any area of biology
studied biology and physics in high school but her
and make it relevant to the everyday world the
small high school had not offered her the
students live in. Examples of this include having
opportunity to study chemistry. She decided to
students investigate why cities ask people to
Major in biology, and earned a. bachelor's and a
restrict driving andto refrain from using fireplaces
master's degreain biological science. She feels
during high pollution days, and having students
very lucky to be, in a profession she enjoys so
identify risk and preventive factors of heart
much.
disease, sexually transmitted diseases, and
Pat knows that it is very important for teachers
various genetic diseases.
to be aware of current trends and changes in
Because being in class and working with
bioiogy and education. In addition to taking
students is Pat's first priority, at times she
college and university classes, Pat feels one of
becomes frustrated with record keeping,
the best ways to keep up to date is.to be active
classroom interruptions, and grading papers.
in professional organizations, such as the National
However, she realizes that these activities are vital
Association of Biology Teachers, the National
to her interaction with students in the classroom.
Association of Science Teachers, Colorado
She feels very fortunate to be teaching in a school
Biology Teachers, and Colorado Science
where she has the support of other teachers, the
Teachers.
science coordinator, the administration, the
At Cherry Creek-Pat teaches with Russ Doren,
parents, and the students, and she enjoys
fiaylene Owen,.Ind Sally Swartz in a modified
teaching as much today as when she first started.

"'SSDr_by,Doug Sokell by Doug Soketl

148 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

You can easily and quickly illustrate a ,,hal lyt Cell walls help protect plant cells from bursting due to the inward
turgidity by touching the leaves of a Mimosa
movement of water 'by osmosis. The cells simply become rigid. This is
plant, causing them to wilt Another example
what causes well-watered plants to stand upright. Many plants wilt and
students may be familiar with is the Venus's-
droop when their cells have lost water.
flytrap A change in turgidity causes the leaf to
spring shut his not hard to see, therefore, that when a cell is in balatice with its
environment, the salt concentration inside the cell is about the same as
the salt concentration outside the cell. Cells removed from our bodids,
such as blood cells, must be suspended in a salt salution that is the same
as that within the cells. This concentration is said to be "normal." The
solution into which the cells are collected is called normal saline, that
is, the concentration of saltlhat is normal for the interiors of those cells.

Self-Review

1. What is metabolism?
2. What do cells use for fuel?
3. Why do cells constantly take in and get rid of substances?
4. How does an understanding of physics and chemistry help explain'
diffusion?
5. Why are membranes said to be differentially permeable?

Investigation 5 2 164#611tOtio*5: T.HR.QVG :;MEMBRANE.

DIFFUSION. 1PROUGH A MEMBRANE
Introduction
Presenting this invstigatiori as a How do things get in and out of cells? In this investigation you will use
dernonstratiun is possible However, ti a model of a plasma membrane (cellulose tubing) to observe the move-
equipment is simple and inexpensive, and, when ment of water.
the investigation is done by groups of 4
students, everyone is dose enough to see the
results
Materials (per team)
15 ml soluble-starch solution
Materials 15 ml glucose solution
iodine solution
Cellulose tt.hing with a diameter of 1 cm is
convenient, but larger tubing may be used
Tes-tape or piece of Clinitest tablet in test tube
Students may have some difficulty in opening the
2 lengths of ceLlose tubing, 20-cm each
tubing; be ready to demonstrate
2 beakers, 1000 ml, with water
glass-marking crayon
Soluble starch solution Add 10 g soluble
string
starch to 500 ml water. Stir or shake, and then
filter If you cannot obtain soluble starch, try
laundry starch. Filter it through cloth and then Procedure
through filter paper It is desirable but not
essential that the starch solution be clear Some
1. To open the cellulose tubing, first moisten it ana'then rub it between
brands of soluble starch are reported to diffuse
your thumb and forefinger. Tie each piece of tubing tightly with string
about 1 cm from 1 end.
through cellulose membranes, so the starch
should be tested betore being used by students
2. Into 1 tube, pour soluble-starch solution to within 5 cm of the top. Pinch
tree top of the tube together tightly. Rinse the tube under running water
The glucose solution should be strong
close to saturationbut the exact concentration to remove any starch from the outside. Tie the top of the tube tightly
is not critical, Glucose is often sold under the
with string not more than 2 cm above the top of the liquid.
name of dextrose

253
,Chapter 5 dontinuity in Cells 149

Iodine-potassium-iodide solution may be

:Ficure 5:20 used for the iodine reaction with starch (see
p 175) Any kind of wide-mouth s may be
used in place of beakers
Tes-tape or Clinitest tablets, used by
diabetics to test for sugar in urine, can be
purchased at drugstores
Two setups are employed because iodine in
the water sometimes interferes with the use of
Tes-tape or Clinitest tablets It burners are
iodine solution available, Benoritct s solution or Fehling s
solution may be used to test for glucose. In this
case only one setup is necessary, and both
starch and glucose solutions can be placed in
one tube
You may want to have 4 team of students
set up a demonstration of the diffusion of water
(osmos,$) into a cell model, as in figure T5 1. Fill
cellulose tubing
containing d Lelloptiane tube with a LunGentrated sucrose
starch solution solution dnd fasten a long pied of ylass tubing
to the bag Suspend the tubing in water and
hold the glass tubing vertical with a ring stand
and clamp Students can measure the rate of
the liquid moving up the glass A color dye can
water in beaker
be aaded to the sucrose solution to aid in
seeing the liquid
In order to draw any concluskii w from this
investigation, students must know the reactions
between (1) starch and iodine, (2) glucose and
Tes-tape, (3) starch and Tes-tape. (4) water
and Tes-tape, (5) glucose and iodine Before
3: Place the tube in a beaker of water. Mark the beaker A. Add enough tudents bt:tjtri thtil Arvrk, perform quici silent
iodine solution to give the water a distinct yellowish color. See figure demonstrations vt thost combinations that are
5.20. unfamiliar to your students
4. Into the 2nd tube pour glucose solution to within 5 cm of the top.
5. Repeat procedure 2. Place the tube in a beaker of water. Mark this
beaker B.
T5.1
6. Allow the tubes to stand for about 20 minutes. Dip a piece of Tea-tape
into the water in beaker B (or pour a small quantity of the water into
a test tube containing a fragment of Clinitest tablet). Record the color
of the tape.
7. Observe the tube in beaker A. Record any changes, including color,
1 ml pipette
that you see in either the tube or the water in the beaker.
8. Let beakers A and B stand overnight. The next day record any changes cork
observed. damp

Discussion
1. On the basis of the chemical test for starch, what mist have happened
cellulose tubing
to the iodine molecules in beaker A? containing
2. On the basis of the chemical test for glucose, what must have hap- concentrated
pened to the glucose molecules in beaker B? glucose solution
3: From the-evidence obtained by allowing the beakers to stand over-
night, whit -other substances must pass through the membrane in
beaker B?
water

ring stand

254
 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Have the cellulose tubing Lut flu ptecu:, ul 4. Which substance did not pass through a membrane? How do you know
the proper length and soaking in water, and that it did not?
have all solutions and other materials
Physicists can show that the molecules of any one substance are ail
conveniently available when students arrivE in
about the same size but that the molecules of different substances are
the classroom. The setup should be completed
different in size. Measurements show that iodine molecules and water mol-
quickly. About 20 minutes later, the glucose test
ecules are very small, glucose molecules are considerably larger, and starch
can be made The reaction of iodine with starch molecules are very large.
should be visible by the end of the period, but it
will be more striking on the folluwing day 5. On this basis, suggest a hypothesis to account for the observations
that were made :n this investigation.
6. What assumption did you make about the Structure of the membrane?
continued on page 163

Guidepost: How do cells duplicate Cell Reproduction

themselves?

5.9 The Ra.. of Diffusion Limits

the Size of Cells
The third major- idea of the cell theory is that cells arise from cells
that already exist. At one time scientists thought that organisms could
come from nonliving matter. Three hundred years ago it was not hard
to believe-that worms, insects, and molds might have come from de-
caying or other-n9pliving matter.
It was not until the 19th century that Louis Pasteur (figure-5.21),
working with yeast cells, was able to prove that microorganisms cannot
arise from completely nonliving matter. Soon his conclusions were shown
to apply to all other kinds of organisms as well. Organisms come from
existing organisms, and their cells arise from existing cells.
In the last section we studied how substances diffuse. Diffusion is very
helpful in supplying the interiors of cells with the materials they require.

Figure 5.21 (a) Louis Pasteur at work in his laboratory. (b) In his experiments,
which showed that microorganisms do not arise from nonliving matter, Pasteur
used flasks such as these. No microorganisms grew in the sterilized yeast
infusions even though they were open to the air.

Per^ ",t.

b,He left all the flasks open,

yet all remained sterile
indefinitely. Air without
a. Pasteur prepared and boiled its impurities did not
four yeast infusions in flasks affect the infusions.
to whictile had given long
S-curved necks to trap particles
entering the open end.
Pific*Diivii6141tkin of WirniiCornifort 07850
 'Chapter5 Continuity in Cells 151

Italso helps to rid the cell of unwanted waste products such as carbon
-''dioxide and urea. It, is important to note, however, that diffusion is ef-
'fective only over short distances. It takes a long time for substances to
'diffuse great distances.
If 'a cell is to function well, then, it cannot be too large. There is a
totell sin if diffusion is to work well. When a cell reaches a certain
size, it begins a series of changes that permits it to divide into two cells.
Actually, some cells are quite large and are visible with the naked
eye. A hen's egg is actually a single cell, but the living part of a bird's
,egg is very tiny indeed. The rest of the egg consists of stored food in the
I)
form of>yolk.

14E_ DIFFUSION Investigation 5.3

CELL SIZE AND DIFFUSION
Introduction
When cells reach a certain size, their r to of growth slows down. Then The inodei used in this lit,lp
they stop, growing. Each cel, divides into two smaller cells, which begin to students understand II-kill), biviv9t,..i'
,grow. What causes cells to stop growing and then to divide? One way to phenurnena, SUL,t1 d.. dtl.zutptisdl, d;Lt
investigate questions such as this is to build a model. A model is often a growth rates, heat IUoa, drill wUWJI
small copy of something large. In this investigation we will reverse the pro- reproduct,on
cess and build a large model of something small. Before class. prepare about 1 I cf
phenolphthalein agar blocks per class Mix ;20 g
agar with 1 i water Bring to a boil stirring
Materials (per team of 2 students)
continuously Let the mixture cool Before it
block of phenolphthalein agar solidifies, stir in 1 g phenolphlhale.in powder for
100 ml 0.4% sodium hydroxide (CAUTION: corrosive; avoid contact with each Iitet ut water It tl it, 1111XtUlt w pinK
skin or eyes) few drops of dilute HCI until the pink disappears
250 ml beaker, or culture dish Pour mixture into a square or rectangular fiat
mm ruler pan a little over 3 crn deep When the agar has
razor blade solidified, cut into 3 X 3 X 6 cm blocks Add
plastic spoon 4 g NaOH to 1000 ml distilled water for the
plastic knife Na011 solution
paper towel
Part A
Part A Procedure
Procedure 1 Any hypothesis the student can defend is
acceptable Encourage divergent thinking
1. With the razor blade, cut the dock of phenolphthalein agar into 3 cubes.
The isi-should be 3 cm on each side, the 2nd, 2 cm on each side,
Discussion
and the 3rd, 1 cm on each side. Measure carefully and trim away any
excess agar. Think of the cubes as large models of microscopic cells. 1 Yes Materiab ruuvt in ail id OUI Of the.
Which of 'your 3 model cells do you think would be most likely to sur- cell through its surfaces
vive? Why? 2 Surface area of 3-cm cube -- b4 cm"
2. Place the cubes in the beaker or culture dish and pour in enough so- 2-cm cube = 24 ni 1 LW ,ubt 6 .11,
dium hydroxide to cover them. 3 The 3cm cube
3. Record your starting time and use the plastic spoon to turn the cubes 4 Volume of a 3 LI-11 ,7
often for the next 10 minutes. Be careful not to cut or scratch the cube = 8 crn'. 1 cm cube 1 chi
surface of the cubes. 5 Some students will modify predictions
others will not

Discussion
During the 10 minute period consider the following:
6-> 1. Materials used during cell activity and growth enter the cell from the
outside. Waste products go through the cell surface to the outside.
Do you think the cell with the greatest total surface area will do the
best job of moving materials in and out of the cell? Explain your an-
swer.

256
 152 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

2. Calculate the total surface area of each of your 3 models by using the
following formula:
surface area = length X width X number of surfaces
3. Which cell modelthe 3-cm cube, the 2-cm cube, or the 1-cm cube
has the greatest surface area?
4. Calculate the volume of each cube.
volume of cube = length X width X height
5. Do tnese calculations change your answer to question 1? Why or why
not?

Part B Part B
Discussion Procedure
I The pink zone is the same thicka ss on 1. At the end of 10 minutes, use the spoon to remove the cubes from
all cubes (The smallest cube may be cc`ored all the beaker or culture dish.
the way through )
2. Blot them dry with the paper towel. Allow them to dry completely.
2 1-cm cube was most efficient 3-cm least
3. Slice each cube in half with the plastic knife.
(less interior was reached) 4. Measure the outer colored zones with the mm ruler.
3 No Cell with greatest surface area was
least efficient Cell with smallest volume also had
the least surface area Discussion
4 Surface area -to- volume ratios for 3 ,,rn 1. What similarities did you notice when you measured the colored zone
cube. 54 : 27 = 2 : 1. 2 cm-cube. of each cube?
24 : 8 = 3 : 1-cm cube, 6 . 1 = 6 . 1 2. Which "cell" was apparently most efficient in receiving materials from
5 The greater the surface- area -to- volume, the outside?
ratio, the greater the efficiency of movement int,. 3. Recall your calculations of surface area and volume. Does either cal-
the cell
culation explain what you have observed in your cell models? Why or
6 Small cells have a greater surface -area- why not?
to- volume ratio
4. Calculate a ratio of surface area to volume i'or each cube. To do this,
7 Surface area = 0 06 cm" for each cube, divide its surface area by its volume. For example, a
volume 0 001 cm' Surface-area-to-volume
24
ratio r- 60: 1 surface area of 24 cm2 divided by a volume of 3 cm3 =
3
= 8 =
1
8 High surface area to-yot_me ratio would
8:1 (a ratio of 8 to 1). Record the ratio of surface area to volume for
make this cell very efficient
each cube.
9 To study processes and rtru_tures too
5. Relate your calculated ratios to what you observed with the cell models.
small to be seen or too difficult to study in hying
6. How do your observations and your calculations relate to the question
organ.sms To look for general principles in
of why cells are usually very small?
simplified systems
7. Calculate the ratio of surface area to volume in a cell model that is
0.1 cm3.
8. What predictions can you make about the cell model in question 7?
9. In what other ways could models be used in scientific research?

5.10 One Cell Divides into Two Cells

In preparation for cell reproduction, special events take pine both in
the nucleus and in the cytosol. These occur only when the cell is about
ready to divide. First, most cells increase in size.
New cells usually contain the same structures as their parent cells.
That means that the chromosomes, the organelles in the cytosol, and the
plasma membrane all must be dup!icated. Otherwise the offspring cells
would be incomplete and unable. to survive. The duplication of organelles
takes place before the nucleus divides.
Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells

First thc. nucleus oduces, by a complicated series o! events called S rriuLti att0-itiori ham bteri Ovt.ti II
of nuk..itfer., diosioh that tht, ,..,nit for 3, mito:i.ir;
mitosis (my TOH sis). The word mitosis is derived from the Greek word
is often in,orrectly applied to tht: wholt. pro e
for thread. The chromosomes are very threadlike in appearance, espe-
of cell division
cially between cell divisions. Toward the end of mitosis the cytosol, with
its organelles, divides. That part of cell division is called cytokinesis (syt
oh kin NEE sus), which means cell motion.
A cell spends most of its life between divisions in interphase (INT er
fayz). Cells appear to be inactive in interphase. Appearances can be mis-
leading, however, for these cells are chemically very active. Much is going
on, in both the nucleus and the cytosol.
In the nucleus the long, thin chromosomes are being duplicated. This
duplication results when new nucleotide molecules (look again at section
0
4.14) are fitted together with the old ones in a special way. Thus, the
genetic information in the chromosomes is copied exactly. This new in-
formation is exactly the same as the original informationa replica, in
other words. This key process of making a copy of the genetic infor-
mation is called replication (rep lih KAY shun).
You can think of this information, replicated each cell generation, as
a program that the cell can call on as needed. Not all genetic information
is needed or used by all cells in a higher organism, but all of it is rep-
licated in all cells. In unicellular organisms, each new cell generation
needs all the information.
Other events are taking place in the cytosol. New proteins are being
made. Other molecules needed for the new cells are being gathered. The
organelles are also duplicated in preparation for cell division. The mi-
tochondria and chloroplasts, in addition to their complicated membrane
structures, also have some genes of their own. These are replicated. All
theseIctivities require energy, raw materials, and enzymes.
Thus in its life a cell passes through two main stages: interphase and
cell division. In interphase cells carry on their normal metabolic activ-
ities. They also prepare for the next division. During the preparatory
time, the chromosomes, the organelles, and the cytosol become very ac-
tive. After a complex set of events, cell division results in two offspring
cells. The new offspring cells then enter interphase again and begin to
prepare for the next division.
This repeated drama of cell division, over and over, is called the cell
cycle. In a multicellular organism it continues until each cell achieves
its final role in development. In unicellular organisms the cell cycle could
be repeated forever, or until the species becomes extinct.

5.11 Cell Division Is a Continuous Process

Once it begins, cell division is a continuous process, beginning with
mitosis and ending with cytokinesis. In studying cell division, however,
-we freeze the action at intervals. This is similar to looking at a single Mitosis lb a continuous PrOL.Cb4 Therefore. it
frame in a motion picture film. Biologists have given a special name to cart Le adequately illustrated only by utuLou
each phase of cell division. pictures Make every effort to obtain such
The details of cell reproduction are described and shown in fig- illustration The. BSCS inquiry Cdr Mr/oNs
ure 5.22. suggested (See AV listing on page T22 )

258
154 Section Two Cont:.,uity in the Biosphere

Figure 5.22 The cell cycle.

After cytoliinesis is complete,

new nuclear envelopes are
completed. Each new cell
enters interphase. During
this relatively long and
active phase, the genetic
information is duplicated,
materials needed for the
next cell division are
synthesized, and organelles
are made. The cell grows.

As prophase begins, the

long, thin chromosomes coil
into shorter and thicker
In telophase, the bodies. Each chromosome
chromosomes approach the consists of two chromatids,
poles and group together. A and appears as a double
new nuclear envelope structure. Except in plants,
surrounds them. The the two centrioles begin to
cytoplasm begins to divide, move to opposite ends of
and a new plasma the cell. a
membrane forms.

The centromeres divide and

the two chromatids Later in prophase, the
separate in anaphase. The nuclear envelope breaks
new chromosomes are down. The chromosomes
pushed and pulled to cont:act to their shortest
opposite ends of the cell by lengths. Spindle fibers
the spindle fibers. stretch from pole to pole,
and between each
centromere and the nearest
pole.

In metaphase each chromosome (two

chromatids) aligns itself on the spindle
midway between the poles. The
chromosomes lie on an equatorial plane.
Chapter 5 Continuity in Cells 155

The first stage of mitosis is called prophase (PROH fayz). Compared 0

to the other stages, it can last for quite a long time. In the nucleus the
,:hromosome strands slowly begin to coil, like tiny springs. In this way
they gradually become shorter and thicker (figure 5.22a). The nuclear
envelope begins to disappear. At this time, the thin chromosome strands
are just barely visible under the microscope. Only then can we see that
the chromosomes are double structures (figure 5.22b). This shows that
the chromosomes have already replicated.
In the cytosol, meanwhile, the centrioles have duplicated and have
started moving to opposite ends of the cell. They provide an organizing
center from which a diamond-shaped structure of microtubules forms.
This is called the spindle, because it resembles the spindle on old spin-
ning wheels of the past. The spindle determines the direction of the fu-
ture cell division. Some microtubules stretch from pole to pole, Others
attach to the chromosomes and later guide them to opposite ends of the
cell.
The rest of mitosis involves the orderly separeqon of the two strands
of each chromosome. After the chromosomes have reached their shortest
0
length, they move to the center of the cell. This stage (figure 5.22c) is
called metaphase (MET uh fayz). You can imagine that the chromo-
somi lie in a plane perpendicular to the spindle. Each chromosome strand
becoMes attached to the spindle at the centromere (SEN troh meer), the
special region of the chromosome that holds the strands together.
Eventually the cell enters anaphase (AN uh fayz), shown in figure
5.22d. The centhomeres divide and the chromosome strands separate.
They are pulled in opposite directions along the spindle toward the two
-soles of the dividing cell.
Now the final events of mitosis occur. This last stage (figure 5.22e)
is called telophase (TEL oh fayz). The chromosomes gather at the poles.
Two new nuclear envelopes form, surrounding each group of chromo-
somes. Thus, two new nuclei are formed.
Meanwhile, the other organelles, which reproduced themselves during
interphase, segregate. The cytosol now divides into two parts, more or
less equal in size. The new offspring cells become separated by a new
plasma membrane that forms between them. Cell reproduction has.bcen
completed. The two new cells now have exactly the same genetic infor-
mation as their parent cell.
The events of cell division in piants are about the same as in animals,
as you can see in figures 5.23 and 5.24. The presence of a cell wall in
many plant cells does complicate the proc.tss. The old cell wall must
grow with the cell before division, and a new cell wall must be formcd
between the two offspring cells.

260
 156 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

,Figure 5.23; Diyidirig celld-in onion root tip (X600).

af a ... a. a. _
a.

a CàroliniBiologicI Supply Co
b C$.thnBiologlc& Supply Co.

C Carolina Biological Supply Co. bi!ou;030 iogirca sup1;1; Co.

Carolina Biological Supply Co: CarolIna Biological Stipply C6

g Carolina Biological Supply Co.

h Carolina Biological Supply Co.

(.1

2 61.
 , '' .. . ' -.".' 'T i ' 4 14
4
" ,
*".'
' Ik
'; ..
, . 1. , 4 ..fr
^5 4 ''
,,,,, F A $10.,.. t,,,, I
' 0 4.... ..,/ 1,1
.

4
.-
.-,6, 4:, -,? i "4-$., . "S''''' :rk''.'"-,fffefl! 4,4.,
eti, s.,,,"
4
'
'
.t 4t, ',/ or,;, .
,,.
' '"j ,4g *. A :. ' 1% ,
i',4)..s. 4 .....!
, f.,
'>,..
.,

- ' ' ,, .. ', ,,, ';'.., , . . III

.

94 ,1 ',1"r . *o *o
.4A
'' " ' 4.,
;')' V` ''':"
,..

7,t, ,..- , '''''t , s

, . ..'''', , .,*
lc.; * -t. tii, ., , --. Oa S'....,4 .4
. -
a . ,.. ,.
,

.,..it
,,,,V .. , ,. ,.. .; N.

. * ","
,c$.,;'
,.' .,
....t '
e.. :'. ,,..4. .,; 4.11,..: .,. .
.
.4
-4.1,-,' .
: ,,.

., i' .4 P . ,''. ". ,,

ri
'
'. ,
,.,",,,,' ,'' ,.., .
' ,,t ,"
. A., ,,, ,,,,',
...

- 4
y A - 4#
.*.
-,.,:, I t.
..., .
5

,.,.,.: ,4.....,..
,' ,
4..
-,..
.
,
Ot.',o 'o ..
.,.
7,
P 4, . V
A

' ''''''
0.:"Y ''''14iti l'''' v
r
' ;40 l'0':,..*:,,, 14.T 4y .
.
..... ,
. Ntd. k . ' ,,
.
,
401a. 0114
. : 4. .., , ..,

,,. zelotr, t . ,, , r 4:,...,,,X*;,,s, , .

g,
* 'e e t`,. , . " ;, -, " X' ,..;;i' t, ,,,,, , , .04. 4,14

V,,Iiii'Ai ,tf,),4`
14'. ',"'
, ,V?"...' 1 /..;:::''; ,..a: -;ii . :: i ,.e -.5.'-' ..
,,,, ,..,:'''' ,.,;."- e ..,4
, .
.,
'1,,
.* -It: ,.,
,
,
,', f
,e,.....
'
,,,;;.
l'
...1.,,w,
to .

0.
-Cu
151 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Investigation 5.4
Investiga
MITOSIS AND CELL DIVISION IN PLANTS

Use of prepared slides may not have the

Introduction
impact for students that squashes of fresh root If an onion is placed in water and kept-in the dark for several days,
tips have. It is often difficult to harvest root tips slender white roots sprout from it and grow into the water. This growth
at the time of maximum mitosis. however, so a occurs partly by repeated duplication of cells. You might expect, therefore,
great deal of time might be spent for dubious to see cells in mitosis at the end of a root. Because mitosis is only a small
results. If you make certain that students segment of the cell cycle, cells in the root tip are not always dividing. It is
understand what they are looking at. the easiest, therefore, to examine the stages of mitosis in stained, prepared
prepared slides are adequate. It also is slides that have been sliced very thin longitudinally.
important to have students observe a film of
mitosis if at all possible. If prepared slides are
not available, you can use the mitosis model
Materials
presented below. prepared slides of Allium root tip
microscope
Procedure
1. (a) Compare cell size in embryonic tissue Procedure
with size of cells observed in older tissue farther
away from the root tip to develop the idea that
1 Scan the entire length of the slide. Study each section first under low
root growth depends on both the increase of
power, and then under high poser.
number of cells and their enlargement after cell (a) In what region of the root tip are most of the cells that are
division.
undergoing mitosis?
(b) Further discussion, concerning changes (b) How does the shape of cells undergoing mitosis compare with
in shape as well as size, will lead effectively into
that of cells in other parts ul the sections?
the text's next considerationdifferentiation 2 Study a number of cells in different stages of mitosis, plus several which
2 Emphasize that drawings should be large
do not appear to be dividing. Sketch at least 5 entire cells, each in a
enough `o show all detail observed. different stage of mitosis. Number your drawings in the order in which
you think the stages occur during mitosis.
Discussion
Emphasize similarities, but not the formation Discussion
of the new cell wall and the absence of 1. Refer to the illustrations of dividing animal and plant cells on pages
centrosomes in plant cells Ask students why 156 and 157. What differences, if any, can you find in the ways mitosis
plant cells do not pinch in during division, as do and cell division occur in animal and plant cells?
animal cells. An explanation could be the
presence of the rigid plant cell wall.
For Further Investigation
Mitosis Model
1. Suppose you suspected that frequency of mitosis in onion roots varied
In the rneiosis model, invest.gation 6 2, with the time of day. How would you go about getting data to confirm
modeling clay represents chromatids. For the or refute your suspicion?
mitosis model, modeling clay also can be used, 2. Do all the events in mitosis take about the same time, or do some of
but pipe cleaners will serve just as well, because them occur faster than others? Design an experiment to answer the
it is not necessary to show nnombinalion question.
Thread 2 pipe cleaners (chromosomes) through
a small bead (the centromere), or use a short
piece of pipe cleaner for the centromere.
Make up 6 chromosomes: 2 of them long,
with the centromere in the middle; 2 medium-
sized, with the centromere 1/4 of the way from
the end; and 2 short, with the centromere in the
middle. In each pair you can make 1
chromosome of one color and 1 of another
color. (See figure T5.2.) At this point the
distinction between maternal and paternal
chromosomes is not necessary, but there is
something to be said for anticipating future
developments (if such action does no obscure
the present point).
continued on page 163
263
?Chept .41- 5 Continuity in Cells 159

5.12 Cells Become Specialized

in Development
'Complex organisms, such as yours,If, develop from a single cell, as Students have no difficulty recognizing the
We Shall See in the next chapter. The cell divides, forming a tiny embryo. distinct differences among cells in various
As the embryo graWs and develops, the cells increase in number and tissues and concluding that differentiation is a
beconie more and: more different during development. This process is realty They are less Wel to see that the
called' differentiation (dif er en chee AY shun). During development, a characteristics of a cell are to be expected in its
Jitinfaa being May, form some 200 different kinds of cells by differcntia- offspring cells Help your students recognize the
paradox.
iion. Each kind of cell has a specialized function.
As cells become specialiied, their divisions may become more dis-
, tinctive.For instance, different kinds of cells may require different
-amounts of time to complete cell division. Some bacteria divide very rap-
idly and produee,a new cell ,generation every 20 minutes or so under
ideal conditions.-In complex organisms, however, Cell divisions take much
lo-nger. Some cells divide about every eight hours, but others divide only
once every several .nonths. Certain kinds of cellssuch as muscle and
nerve cellsalmost never divide in adults. You have all the nerve cells
you will ever get.
AlMost all normal cells give rise to a limited number of divisions In many ways canc. cells act as rejuvenated,
usuallyno more than 50. There appears to be a brake on cell division, undifferentiated cells If it can ty; learned why
although the reason is.not known. Some cells seem to lose this control, and how cells differentiate, a way may be
however, and divide rapidly and abnormally, often at the expense of the determined to stop the process of
organism. These are cancer cells, shown in figure 5.25. They have lost undifferentiated growth and reproduction of
their control over growth and cell division and divide again and again. cancer cells.
If cancer cells are not controlled or removed, they may cause the death
of the entire organism.

Figure 5.25 Scanning electron micrograph of dividing cancer cells, X6000.

' Davici M:Ohillipti/VISilACD UNLIMITED

,

4*

0
264
Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

5.13 Cell Division Is Essential to Life

Cells live for a limited time, and life can continue on earth only through
repeated cell division. The complex events of cell division ensure that
there is accurate reproduction of chroma omen, including their genes..
Chloroplasts and mitochondria and their genes also must be reproduced.
and transmitted to the next cell generation. Although accidents do
happen, most cells receive complete and correct genetic information. The
genes of both chromosomes and organelles help regulate the activities
of a cell.
We can conclude, therefore, that accurate cell division is essential for
the continuation of life. When the processes of cell reproduction are in-
terrupted or interfered with, abnormal cell activities (such as are seen
in cancer cells) result, or death of cells occurs.

Self-Review

1. What is one factor that limits the size of cells?

2. What is the role of the spindle in mitosis?
3. In cell division, what does the term replication mean?
4. What are the two main events of cell division?
5. What happens to the new chromosomes at the end of mitosis:
6. In your own words, describe the whole process of mitosis.
7. What do you think is the biological importance of cell division?

Summary
Cells are the basic units of organisms. Knowing about - Ills helps us
to understand how organisms are built and how they wt .. Since most
cells are invisible to the naked eye, microscopes are used to study their
structures in detail.
A cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane that helps control the
passage of materials in and out of the cytoplasm. Substances move by
diffusion, or by active transport, which requires energy. Within the cell.
is its control center, the nucleus. There are also a number of other 1:inds
of organelles, each with a certain job to do. Metabolism, the chemical
reactions of a cell, takes place both in the organelles and in the cytosol,
the fluid part of the cytoplasm.

265
 1Chapter'52 ContiriUity "44 Cells 161

TheritieteuS'contains most of the genes, which control the basic func-

'-tiOnsef a cell: The genes in the-nucleus are loCated in long, thin chro-
*toknes-, .E.seh chromosome ,replieates Itielf in interphase of the cell
z.Cycle:touring,initosis and cell-division the doubled chromosomes sepa-
-r4`te;-theeytoplasm divides, and two new cells are formed from one ex-
; isting #11:

All'eell:§ arise 'from existing cells. Each cell thus receives genetic: in-
, ktriictions frotnits parent cell. In the developthent of complex organisms
.niany different types of cells are formed. Each type of cell has a specific
'Structure and function. Life continues through cell division.

':Application Questions Problems-

L.During,the late 19th century most knowledge of 1. Examine various kinds of cells from multicellular
-detailed cell structure was gained by studying dead organisms, either under the microscope or by means
cells. Sortie biologists objected to many conclusions of photomicrographs in books. Discuss the
drawOont such observation. They argued that the relationships between the structural forms of the
-processes of killing;_Staining, and mounting slides different cells and their functions.
!night cause cell Structure-to appear very different 2. This chaptei describes mitosis in cells that have
from that in living cells. WhattindS of evidence are single, well-defined nuclei. Investigate what is
available today to meet at least'some of these_ known about what happens to nuclear material
objections? (chromatin) during division in (a) a cell that lacks
2. While working in a police laboratory, you are given a nucleus (a cyanobacterium, for example), and
a.tiny sample of material and asked to identify it as (b) a cell with more than one nucleus
either,plant or-animal matter.-Hew couldyou- (Paramecium, ekahlple).
decide which it is? 3. In unicellular organisms, cells usually separate
3: On the-basis of your. imderstanding of the diffusion shortly after division. In some, however, they
water, describe what would happen to (a) a remain attached, forming colonies. In multicellular
marine jellyfish placed in a freshwater stream and organisms they remain attached, but more strongly
(b) a frog placed in ocean water. Some fish (for in dome cases than in others. Investigate the ways
example, Shad and striped bass) annually swim in which the cells are held together.
from the ocean into freshwater rivers and back.
How-are they able to do this?'
4. One standard form of therapy for cancer is
radiation. Why is radiation effective against cancer
cells? (Hint: radiation is also harmful to a
developing human in 'the uterus.)

266
162. Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

SuggestedReadings
C. deDuve,,"Microbodies' in the Living Cell" Scientific E. Rubenstein, "Diseases Caused by Impaired Communication
AMerican (May-1983). Describes the several different among Cells" Scientific American (March 1980). Good
types of §ubcellular.organelles that are linked by superficial explanations of mediators and receptors, how substances
Structurarsimilaiitie§. enter and affect cells, and how mediators produce their
L.liayffick,_"The Cell Bioko of Human Aging" Scientific effects.
American (Januaty.1980). Cell cultures reveal the Scientific American (October 1985). This issue, entitled "The
processes:ihailiMit the human lifespan. Molecules of Life," contains several articles relating to
K. R. Porter and J. B. Tucker; "The Ground Substance of the cellular activities.
'Living Cell" Scientific American (March 1981). High-
resolution electron microscopy has revealed the
microtrabecUlar lattice: a system of filaments that support
and.qive the Cell organelles.

Answers to `Application Questions and-Problems

1 Phase-contrast microscopy has made it possible for more 2 In division of a cyanobacterium, presumably equal portions
effective examination of living, unstained cells of chromatin material find their way to each of the two new
2 Seen with a microscope, the presence or absence of cell cells In a paramecium the macronucleus merely pii!ls apart,
structures such as chloroplast. cell wall, centrosome but the micronucleus divides by mitosis.
would be evidence that the material is either plant or animal 3. In multicellular animals a wide variety of connective tissues
Chemical tests for cellulose would _onfirm the identification holds cells together. All these have an extensive matrix of
3 The jellyfish would swell up if placed in fresh water, and the extracellular material containing fibers. Such extracellular
frog would dehydrate it placed in ocean water Fish that live material is manufactured by the connective tissue cells and
in both fresh and salt water maintain water balance in their h.f.Alds these cells together. In turn, the connective tissue
tissues through various mechanisms In salt water. th, holds other tissuessuch as muscle and nervein place.
continuously drink, void very little urine, and excrete salts Plant cells are held together primarily by the adhesive
actively through their gills In fresh water, they take in only a qualities of cellulose cell walls.
little water by drinking, absorb salt through their gills, and
excrete-much water as urine
4. Radiation damages DNA. DNA is being synthesized in
rapidly dividing cells. such as cancer cells and those of a
developing fetus.

continued from page 143

6. (a) From pi ;vious use of the microscope. Discussion

students should have some concept of depth of
1. Remind students of limitations in
focus. It not a chalkboard diagram may be
magnification and resolving power of their
needed.
microscopes. Moreover, adjustment of light
(b) Cyclosis (if seen) is usually considered by
intensity and special staining procedures may be
students as evidence of life. (The term cyclosis
required to reveal cell structures.
is not used in the text You may wish to
2. The rigid cellulose cell w3I1s of most plant
introduce it at this time.)
cells are usually associated with definite cell
During this inveso;ation a dernJnstration to
boundaries and angular shapes.
show ciliary action 'nay be set up Or you may
During the postlaboratory discussion, use
want to have some of your students set this up
either projected prepared slides or pictures to
when they have finished the other parts. Cut
increase your students' ideas of cell variability.
away the lower jaw of a pithed frog; then cut out
Invite students to identify cells shown as either
small pieces from the lining of the mouth cavity
animal or plant cells.
in the region between the eye bulges and the
throat. Slice as thin a piece as possible with a
razor blade and try to set it on its side on the
slide. Mount it in Ringer's solution.

267
 continued from page-150

;Discussion of diffusion pressure, but you also may wish to

It iimPortant that the results' of :his demonstrate how diffusion pressure can support
. ir;',4stigatiori; which involves purely physical a column of liquid agains the force of gravity as
,SysW'ns,be related to living things. Therefore, mentioned earlier. The apparatus shown in figure
the.questiOnS at the end of the investigation T5.1 can be used for this.
,rhuSt be given special attention. Glucose, starch, 4. If starch passed through the membrane,
::and wafer are common substances in living then the water in beaker A should be blue.
,ThingS; iodine, on the other hand, is merely used Actually, after 24 hours the water in beaker A is
'aS'an indicator. The diffusion of glucose and usually clear, because nearly all the iodine has
water and the lack of diffusion of starch can be moved into the tube, where it has been bound
linked to storage of starch in plant cells, the to the starch molecules.
heed to digest starch, the possibility of feeding 5,6. The simplest hypothesis is that the
'Ow* by. direct injection, and many other tubing contains submicroscopic pores of such
'biological matters. size that molecules of iodine, water, and glucose
3. The turgidity of the glucose tube after 24 can pass through, white molecules of starch
-hours not only indicates the diffusion of water cannot. This hypothesis merely assumes one of
but also dernonstrtes diffusion pressure. Turgor the points of the molecular theory: that even in
-is perhaPS the most important biological effect solids there are molecular-sized spaces
between adjacent molecules.
continued from page 158

Begin with chromosomes lying at rando on

75.2 the spindle. Bring them from their position into
line at the equator. To represent the splitting of
the centromere, uncouple the chromatids and
-provide each pipe cleaner with a separate bead.
Now move 1 pipe cleaner of each pair
toward 1 pole of the spindle and the other
toward the other pole of the spindle. If 6
students are lined on one side of the table
and 6 on the other side, all the pipe cleaners
can be moved simultaneously, just as the
chromosomes move in mitosis. The pipe
cleaners should be bent at the bead to
represent the shape of chromosomes as they
Using a crag n, draw a spindle on a large migrate to the poles of the spindle (figure T5.2).
piece of wrapping paper spread out on a table. Fir Illy, compare the makeup of the set of
The spindle should be. large enough to chromosomes at each pole with that of the
accommodate the chromosomes when they original set of chromosomes. If you use 2
are arranged c-t its equator. different colors of chromosomes, point out that
either color of a pair could go to either pole.
 Teaching strategies for this chapt6r pages

6
T23-24
Key ideas
CHAPTER the reliance of populations on re: production
the variation made possible by sexual
eproduction
the: events in gamelogenesis
the stages of meiosis
Continuity through the. haploid-diploid yclt iii plants and
animals

Reproduction

Introduction
lastchapter you learned how cells arise from existing cells. When
cells reproduce, life continues from one cell generation to the next. In
this chapter you will see that cell reproduction is only one aspect of the
Some students may have heard a said that
continuity of life on earth.
unicellular organisms that reprodu e by fission
Most kinds of cells reproduce fairly directly, such as when one amoeba are immortal This merely means that they divide,
divides to form two offspring amoebas. In organisms that are larger and rather thou dye Uortunateiy tot thy- world the
consist of many cells, reproduction is more complicated. You are now grtat niajority die iu ounie Way before dividing
ready to look at some of the ways that organisms reproduce themselves. Iii fd_t f ther,c orgalle,m,,ert pie velited from
We will give special attention to human reproduction. reoriAu_ing, most 01 It-1%AI) jA-'11USc,t, aid die

Reproduction Guidepost: Why is reproduction

essential for all living
beings?
6.1 Reproduction Is Essential to Life
All organisms alive today arose from preexisting organisms. A new The. ability to re:product a tunddinuital
organisni grows and do `ops. Eventually it becomes large enough and unique diaracteristiu of liviiig
mature enough to repro,' ce. Some organisms, such as bacteria, repro- Throughout thIS Chapter sties Ulu yutittit.
duce after 20'minutes or so of life. Others require months or years to t;,UltIr ig Iiurn t;xudi rtpuduLLuu as
become matUre. weA as the ways that new comt»nations help
Unsure survival of a spec let,
For many .mall organisms, reproduction is a one-time event. On the
,other hand, complex organisms may continue to reproduce for days,
months, or years. These reproductive periods may form a large part of
their life cycle. The life cycle of an organism includes all the events that
:occur between the beginning of one generation and the beginning of the
next one. Life cycles are continuous, and in a diagram they often are
shoWn as circles.

2 70 165
 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 6.1 Reproduction in a variety of

organisms. (a) strawberry, (b) planarian,
(C) Bryophyllum, (d) hydra (e) bacterium
X72,000.

b c

L
d Richard CampbefliBPS/TOM STACK e Courtesy of Dr. Mercedes R. Edwards.
& ASSOCIATES NY 3tste Dept. of Health

271
Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction 167

Some organisms, such as humans, may live longer than their repro- The fundamental biulugik,a1 pruUlem ut aging is
ductive periods. Other organisms with long lifespans continue to repro- inUedbilig attentiun ham lesearUiers
duce. The giant tortoises of the Galapagos Islands may live for 125 years. It is a biological problem of great social
sugnificanct
Amazingly, some bristlecone pines living in California are almost 5000
years old; they were alive at the time the great pyramids were built in An asexual offspring is essentially d .upy of its
Egypt. single parent and has the characteristics of that
Even though some organisms live for a long time, no organism lives parent Sexual repruduk.tion guarantees surne
forever. The lifespan of an organism is part of its genetic program. Not variability Many L.urnmen,ially valuable plant
all organisms live out their genetic lifespans, however. Some die because varieties do not come true to seed
of infections, other diseases, or accidents. The secret of biological suc-
Asexual reproduction in higher organisms is
cess is to reproduce and leave offspring before a fatal illness or accident
commonly regarded as an evolutionary dead
occurssuch as an animal being eaten by a predator. When organisms
end In the case of microorganisms, however,
do reproduce successfully, their species will continue into fulure years. asexual reproduche- does not inhibit change
A species will become extinct if its members do not reproduce or do not because enc.rnous numbers of mutant
leave enough offspring to allow for accidents and disease. individuals can arise rapidly following a favorable
mutation (e.g., antibiotic resistance in bacteria).
Nevertheless, many microorganisms have sexual
6.2 Reproduction May Be Sexual or Asexual as well as asexual means of reproducing.
In larger, more complex organisms, reproduction involves two dif-
ferent cells, usually from two parents, and is called sexual reproduction.
0 Asexual reproduction of potatoes is easy to
demonstrate, Watch out for market potatoes
Haman beings reproduce sexually.
that have been treated with sprout-inhibiting
On the other hand, many organisms are able to produce more of their
chemicals
own kind by nonsexual means. In asexual (AY SEK shoo ul) reproduc-
tion new individuals originate from a single parent. That sir ;;le parent Among other vegetatively propagated crops are
either divides into two (or more) individuals, or else new individuals arise bananas and pineapples Arid solve fruit trees
as buds from the parent's body. are grown from root cuttings of selected trees
Many kinds of plants reproduce a-lxually by a process called vege-
tative reproduction. Potato farmers in Maine or Idaho, for example, plant Several planters containing spider plants and
other trailing species might provide inquiry
their crops in the spring. They cut potatoes into small pieces, but each
material about vegetative reproduction for the
piece must contain an "eye." Each little eye, which appears to be a small
entire school year Bryophyllum is evy to grow
indentation or bump, is actually a small bud. in the laboratory The related Kalanchoe
You may have noticed that if potatoes are left in a dark, cool, moist verlicillata also produces foliar plantlets and is
place the buds will sprout and begin to grow. In the same way, when equally easy to grew where there is plenty of
potato eyes are planted, they will sprout in the soil and begin to grow. light Older favorable t.onditioli wiiI also
Eventually the bud will produce a shoot and roots, and an entire new flower, demunstrating both sexual and asexual
potato plant will appear. .ceproduction

Figure 6.2 (a) Sprouting potato. (o) A piece of potato bud containing a bud will
produce an entire new plant when planted.

a BSCS by Doug SoMell b

272
 168 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

=11M1111,

Investigation 6.1 In:vtisticiEitioli6.1' VEGETATIVE:: REPRODUCTION

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
Introduction
This investigation is concumed -th Coleus is a plant that usually does not reproduce vegetatively. However,
eApenmental design, ousel- vatiun, gardeners often cause it to do so. In this investigation you will explore the
the drawing of conclusions Students should be conditions in which vegetative reproduction occurs.
able to explain the rationale behind th, design
and to discuss the concept of control Does
every experiment require a control? (Cutting A is
Materiels (per team)
as near to being a control as any cutting in this live coleus plant
investigation ) shallow flowerpot, 15- to 20-cm diameter
stone or piece of broken pot
Materials enough sand to fill flowerpot
Almost any container that allows good
saucer or shallow pan
4 pot labels
drainage may be used A saucer permits
scalpel
watering from below, so that the plasts bag
need not be disturbed.
plastic bag
string
You may substitute vermiculite lo.r sand If
possible, the medium should be heat-sterilized in
an oven before use Procedure
Coleus is a common plant that is easy to
obtain and that is likely to give good results 1. Place a large stone or a piece of broken pot over the drainage hole
Tradescantia (wandering Jew) also works well in the flowerpot. Pour sang. '..to the pot to within 2 cm of the rim. Place
Household geraniums (Pelargonium) may be
the pot in a saucer or shallow pan.
used, but result appear more slowly, and there 2. Water the sand thoroughly. Pour excess water from the saucer.
is likely to be more difficulty with molds The 3. Using a pencil, divide the surface of the sand ;nto quarter sec
plants from which the cuttings are taken should Mark 4 pot labels A, B, C, and D. Place a label along the outer
be young and vigorous, with several side
of each section (see figure 6.3).
branches The directions mast be modified 4. Using a scalpel, take 4 cuttings from the coleus plant. Three of thee...,
slightly if geraniums which have alternate (A, B, and C) must each have 3 pairs of leaves and a terroinal bud.
leaves, are used You might like to have some The 4th cutting (D) must be at least 5 cm long. It must be taken from
students use willow twigs between pairs of leaves. If possible, obtain D and 1 of the other cut-
tings from the same plant.
Procedure
To provide for comparison and replication,
Figure 6.3
have ,.ie teams in each class use different
species of plants, or have all teams in each
class use the same species but have each class
use a different species
pot label
It teams must be large, be sure students on
a team share responsibility for setting up the
cuttings
11 Wounds on coleus and must other sand A A
Kva,
plants neal quickly unless the damage has beeii 4,1,4,-t 0-, 4.
extersive At the terminal portion of the branch,
not asst one but several new branches may
grew
flowerpot
12 In all probability, all 4 cuttings wit' still be
alive D is more likely to die than A or B Student
evidences for whether.tho part is alive of not will
be varied and may form the basis for some
discussion saucer
13 Cuttings A and B (a) If roots develop,
they come either from the callus (a mass of
poorly differentiated cells covering a wound) at
the bottom of the branch or from the stem
immediately above it They first appear as

2 73
Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction 169

5. Remove the bottom pair of leaves from cutting A. With a penoi!, make ..orrit.wt,at sh ly ...:AtIlings or, the stun and later
a hole in the sand in the center of section 4. Insert cutting A nto the brt Jr( through the epidel resemble
hole so that the lower pair of leaves is just above :le ,and. Press the ordinary roots
sand together around the cutting. (b) The cut surface at the bottom of the
6. From cutting B remove the tip of the branoi uppermost branch is most likely to t:e coveted with a layer
pair of leaves. Make a hole in the center 4.1 plant as of callus
you did cutting A. (o) Depending on the situation. the tip of the
7. Prepare cutting C just as you did B. Plant it in section C. Then remove tutting Indy have wilted. ur it Mid), be in the
its remaining pair of leaves. process of growth in cutting A In cutting B. the
8. Place cutting 0 so that at least 5 ram prolect above. the level of the ,ut bUridt will probobly bt dried out. ar...1 the
sand. Cut tip may even shrink back to the noe.; where
9. Cover the cuttings with a plastic bag. Fasten the bag's open end around the haves dribt Any new gruwth of stem or
the rim of the pot with a string. branches occurs horn axial buds, but this
10. Set the po's containing the coleus plant and the cuttings in a place yrowth dots not usually ants well
where they will receive abundant light. Add water to the saucer when- developed roots have formed
ever necessary. Root development is unlikely in cuttings C
11. After about 3 weeks, examine the plant from which the cuttings were anc.. D
taken. What, if anything, has happened at the points where cuttirr
were removed? Discussion
12. Remove the plastic cover from the pot cc ntaining the cuttings and ex-
1 The healing of a wound (callus formation)
amine them. Which ones seem to be alive? In each case, what is the
on . le surface 01 a living plant involves
evidence for your decision?
regeneration This may not be very obvious to
13. Loosen the sand and remove the cuttings. Examir.e them carefully.
students, but if new branches have grown (a3
Answer the following questions about each one.
usually occurs in cutting B) the new growth
(a) Have toots developed? If so, at what points on the cutting? should be clear evidence of regeneration
(b) What, if anything, has happened to the cut surface? 2 This question must be answered with
(c) What, if anything, has happened to the tip of the cutting?
espect to the experimental cuttings Winch
types of broken branches have the best chance
Discussion of survival if they become imbedded in the
earth?
1. First consider only the plant from which the cutting: were taken. What Present the following statement to Students
evidence do you have that coleus has the abilry lo regenerate parts for discussion Vegetative reproduction as a
lost by injury?
result of accidental fragmentation is prob 'bly
2. Now consider the evidence from the cuttings. To what extent might
not important to the coleus population, but it is
the accidental breaking up of a coleus plant (by a hailstorm, for ex- important to strearnsicie willows ana to many
ample) result in the reproduction of coleus plants? plants that grow in shallow writer
As a result of the first reading assignment in
For Further Investigation the chapter and this laboratory investigation.
Students may he led to a definition of asexual
Use tNs pmcedure to investigate and compare the abilities of other plant
reproduction The oehnition makes use of the
species to t eproduce vegetatively. Plants su ch as tomato, household ge-
term meiosis which will not be infrodut...ed until
ranium, begonia, bean, pepper, marigold, and zinnia can be used.
the following section of text The definition is
Asexual reproduction is any method of
producing new individuals that does not involve
6.3 Some Animals Show Both Kinds the fusion of the nuclei of f two Lens and that
of Reproduction does not involve meiosis

It is interesting that some animals and plants can reproduce in more

than one way. For instance, some organisms that usually reproduce sex-
0
C.,uidfabi sexual V tibWkUtti S.:PRAM/1W ititeffilb
ually also may be able to reproduce asexually and, as a result, increase of dddiAdbility d tihdngtng
their chances of survival. Other organisms may have asexual reproduc- viriiimult In juitral a txudl teprodudiu,1
tion as their main method. threatens survival because d ri.sults to uniformity
Starfish, which usually produce sexually, illustrate this feature. To
obtain food, starfish may invade oyster beds in coastal water. Starfish
cal; open the oyster shells with their powerful arms and then feast on
the oysters inside.

274
 170 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

To protect the oysters, scuba divers at one time collected the starfish
Fiqure 6.4 This starfish'is regenerating an
entire new bocly`from.the long'arrkorilhe right.
in the oyster beds. Then they "destroyed" the starfish by cutting off their
arms and throwing the pieces back into the water. What they did not
.realize at the time was that a starfish arm can regenerate an entire star-
fish if part of th.c central body is attached to it. So, in their efforts to
eliminate starfish from the oyster beds, the divers actually increased the
starfish population.
c

Self-Review

1. What is the main difference between sexual and asexual reproduc-

tion?
2. What do vegetative reproduction and regeneration have in common?
3. How do some organisms use two different kinds of reproduction?

enan Parker/TOM STACK, d ASSOCIATES

Guidepost: = How -do gametes differ Sexual Reproduction

from other cells?

6.4 Gametes Are Reproductive Cells

Sexual reprothiction is very important in the continuation of life on
Earth. It affects the behavior of organisms, their genetic natures, and
their evolution. Because it usually combines genetic material from two
different organisms, sexual reproduction increases the amount of genetic
variation in a population. This variation is very importantto the evo-
lution of populations by natural selection, as you will see in chapter 9.
We will be studying sexual reproduction, in animals. Sexual reproduction
in plants is similar in principle.
The main point of sexual reproduction is quite simple. A new indi-
vidual begini as a union of nuclei from two different parental organisms.
Usually each parent of a new organism produces a different kind of spe-
cialized reproductive cell. Each reproductive cell contains a mitletis. Oiie
parent may produce relatively large, stationary cells. The other parent
may produce smaller cells that can move about. In some organisms, the
reproductive cells of both parents are similar and motile.
In sexual reproduction only certain kinds of cells can unite to form a
new individual. These cells are called gametes (GM tets). They usu-
ally differ in appearance from other cells of the body, and they contain
fewer genes.
0 There are two main types of gametes: sperm cells and egg cells. Sperm
cells are produced by males, and they are usually quite small. (The word-
sperm can be used to refer to one sperm cell or to 'many sperm cells.) A
sperm cell consists of little more than a nucleus, a tail that can move the
cell about, and an energy generator in its mitochondria.
The term egg should probably be to the The other kind of gamete, produced by females, is an egg cell, or
ovum plus o "'er substances, as is the case with ovum, An ovum ma;' be large, smetimes thousands of times larger than
'a bird's egg, BiLegg is frequently used a sperm cel,. In addition to its nucleus, it often contains a reserve food
ambiguously.
supply. Ova, and sperm of several organisms are compared in figure 6.5.
ftz

Figure 6$ Eggs and sperm of severdi organisms. Note that the sperm are
enlarged mu-eh more than the eggs, and direct comparison between the two is
not possible. In chicken, snake, frog and fish;the ova are surrounded by other
iateraIs (shown in outline).

'Eggs (X2.8) Sperm (X602)

.
,

.. ...

. .

..-----C-7-1
......0"
-----

. -

x1.4
.---------,-------
,

chicken chicken

,. ,,--

....,
-7

. . .

snake snase

...----_--_ .......---
frog frog

fish fish

. . 0,.........,--
human human

___-----------
rat
rat .

-..-'
...
. .
..
1 fern fern S

j
9 P7,0
u
psi, .1
 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

The attempt here is to get students LI II It is mainly these differences in size and function of gametes that
about maleness and fernaler,,, in a defie sex. An organism (or part of one) that produces ova is called fe-
fundamental way
male. An organism (or part of one) that produces sperm is called male.

6.5 Gametes Contain Genetic Information

The nuclei of gametes, like those of all cells, co nain chromosomes.
Each chromosome in a gamete carries gcnes from the parent organism
that produced the gamete. When parents form sperm or ova and repro-
duce, they pass genetic information to their offspring. The new individ-
uals then develop in response to these genetic instructions.
Gametes do not contain as many chromosomes as are present in the
other cells of the parent organism. Instead,. each gamete contains only
half as many chromosotnes as a typical body cell. The particulat chro-
mosomes (and genes) a gamete contains is partly a matter- of chance.
The precise timing of the production of
We will soon see how this game Of genetic dice is played.
gametes, fertilization anJ formation of the
zygote varies onsiderabiy in the lite cycle of A sperm and an ovum unite ir. a process called fertilization. A sperm
different species fer dizes an ovum by penetrating the ,outer membranes of the ovum and
emering its cytoplasm. In that way the sperm introduce.s its genes into
Here, and in later dis,ussioris emphasize triat the ovum. Each new fertilized egg is car d a zygote (ZY goht). A zygote
he new individual is unique as a rt-,.uit tht joins together the two gametes. In this way, genes from both parents also-
combination of genetic.. matt:nal from ech.h are joined together in the zygote, and the development of a new -indi-
parent, who were in turn unique vidual can begin.

Figure 6.6 Sea urchin egg covered with sperm. Scanning.eleation micrograpk.
X 1600.

7qF

it

tOr:t.flo Toper. Serippi Institution of Ocespography,

 :Chapter 6 .Continuity through Reproduction 173

'6.6- Gametes Are Unusual Kinds of Cells

Late in tIel9t1 century, biologists learned how to stain the long, thin
,chromosomes in the nucleus. The name chromosome, in fact, means col-
,brod-body. AftechromosoMes were stained,,cull biologists were able to
study and Count, the chromosomes of many-kinds of plants akl
They alsO worked out the detailed steps of cell division_ , which were de-
-scribed in-chapter 5.
=Cell biologists learned that the body cells of each species contain a
definite number-of chromosomes. Now we know, for example, that the
-body cells of corn plants ha,.e-20 chromosomes. The common fruit fly,
-used in 'genetic research, has- 8 chromosomes. Human beings have 46
obioniosemesin each body cell.
Another important fact was discovered: each chromosome in a cell
has a Partner of the same length and appearance. It became clear that
'fiiromoSomes occur pairs. Because genes are in the chromosomes, genes
also occur pairs. This information is essential for understanding how
characteristics are inherited.
.:Thetotal genetic content-of the chromosomes of a cell:is called its
-;gettOpe'(.1EE nohm). In human cells the genome consists of 23 pairs of
rehrOinosomeS.
.Each member of a chromosome pair is called a homolog (HOH moh
In-other- words, a pair of chromosomes-conSists,of-two homologs
=that are similar in appearance; they also usually contain the same kinds
oftenes.
'Biologists- learned that one homolog of each pair comes from the
sperm, and the_otherone.from the ovum..In otherwords, of-the 46-chro-
,2-Mosornes of a human-zygote, 23 came from the sperm and 23 from the
.:wum.'Eaeh parent contributes half the chromosomes of the total number
In -the

-Figure 0.7 metaphase chromosomes in a rc..:t tip cell of the hyacinth,

Hyacinthus ori.:3-ntaliS, The chromatids and dentromeres are clearly visible. Root
tiOS are first -f' dated for several hours with a chemical that disrupts the spindle
and allows the chromosomes to spread. Then they are fixed in a solution that
preserves cell structures, softened acid so the cells can be spread, and
stained:

BSCS by Worm Heim

278
114 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 6.8 Gametes unite in the process of fertilization. The new individual has
a combination of chromosomes from the two gametes.

sperm cell egg cell fertilized egg

(haploid) (haploid) (diploid)

0 We now can think of zygotes as containing two 'sets of very similar

chromosomes. Each gamete thus contains one set of 'chromosomes. ThiS
set has the haploid (HAP loyd) or N number of chriiposomes. The ga-
mete is, therefore; a haploid cell; when two gametes unite in
two haploid cells join together (figure 6.8).
o The total number of chromosomes in the zygote, and in all body cells
of an individual, is known as the diploid (DIP loyd) or 2N, riumber.,A
human ti:xly cell contains a diploid number of 46 chromosomes -23 pairs.
In the life cycle of each sexually reproduc. ; organism, the diploid
3 is important that students understand the number of ch othosomes. in, the reproductive cells must be-reduced-by
necessity of meiosis The importance of halving one-half, to the haploid (N) number, before reproduction. Otherwise the
the number of chroMosomes in each gamete number of chromosomes would double in each generation, and soon they
may not be obvious to some students at first. would fill the cell completely.
It is this reduction of chromosome number to one-half the total ON
to N) that permits sexual reproduction to occur We shall Pte that it also
introduct.. another element of chance into life, because it permits great
numbers of new combinations of genes. This reduction of chromosonie
number takes place in a special cell division process c^tled meiosis (my
OH sis).

Self-Review

1. How many pairs of chromosomes does the human genome contain?

2. Name the two main types of gametes.
3. What is the biological distinction between male and female?
4. How do gametes differ from other cells of the body?
5. How many sets of chromosomes does each gamete contain?
6. How many sets of chromosomes dots each body cell contain?
7. How is a zygote formed?

479
 :Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction 175

Meiosis Guidepost: What are the main

differences between mitosis
6.7 Gametes Are Produced arid meiosis?
iiOpecial Organs
The nuMber of chromosomes is reduced from diploid to haploid when Meiosis .s sometimes called reduction division,
gametes are fOrmed..This reduction in chromosome number takes place
during meiosis. Meiosis requires two cell divisions, one after the other. Mitosis and meiosis are unfort,inateiy confusingly
At the end- of the second cell' division, a _gamete contains the haploid similar in both name and process. Challenge thy:
fitlitiber of- throinosoines: class to invent some mnemonics to help '
'The stages of meiosis are similar to those of mitosis, but there are alleviate the confusion that inevitably occurs
-important differences. Because the phrases have similar names, -it is
sometimes easy to, get confused. Review the-stages of mitosis in section To distingu,sh meiosis from mitosis, students
01 and figure5222 before you study the next sections on meiosis. Then can he asked to model both processes, using
1011.viti'be prepared to recognize the differenees between meiosis and colored or dyed pipe cleaners or modeling clay
. as chromosomes. The chromosomes can be cut
-mitosis.
to diffelent lengths so that both their colors and
`Meiosis occurs in special reproductive organs. Such an orgy ", where 0
their lengths will key !hem for "ontinuous
ig*Otes are produced, is called a gonad (GOH nad)'in animals. In male identification during the processes. Both
animals the are testes (singular, testis) and in females they are chromosomes of a homologous pair should be
" ovaries (singular,-ovary). The ort,'ans that produce male and female ga- the same length. if students are to identity all the
metes in_plants:have various names, depending, on thelind-of plant. possible combinations that can occur in meiosis,
Ovaries and testes .aremade of-the-usual kind. of diploid(2N) body `tie chromosomes of a pair should be different
At atertain time in- the-life cycle of an animal, hoWever, some of colors.
,the cells in-a- gonad-enter .meiosis. They begin a series of chromosome
and cell..changes, that lead eventually to the formation-of haploid (N) The modeling process is very helpful to many
-sperm or ova. students, some of whom are further helped by
If we study these changes under the microscope, we can see how having a cell in which to put the chromosomes
Very long colored rubber bands (which constrict
meiosis differs from mitosis. All the steps of meiosis can be viewed in
naturally at their two folds if turned inside out)
?the testis of an animal such as a grasshopper. Grasshopper chromosomes
make useful dividing cells. Also cirLdlar bands of
:are larger than human chromosomes and, therefore, easier to study. strong twine or cord may be used.

6:6 Meiosis Requires Two Nuclear Divisions You may want to contrast biparental
reproduction with parthenogenesis and
-13eforeAhey enter rheio:s, the-fututi.-. reproductive cells continue to hermaphroditism, and invesTigate the rare
-divide by Mitosis. In each cell cycle before meiosis the DNA is rep;icated instances of parthenogenetic development in
-during interphase,aS usual. This synthesis of new DNA results in twin mammals (See section 14 14 )
-structures. Each chromosome at this tithe consists of two threadlike
-= stntcfures, -Whith- are still connected at the single centromere (figure It is presumed that meiosio #s a form of nuclear
'6.10a).. We call them twins because they contain identical DNA; -they Civision that has evolved from mitosis, DNA
-are genetically the same. Each twin is called a chromatid (KROH muh replication occurs before both of these
lid) at this Stage. activities, and a cell begins meiosis with four
times its 's,ploid DNA content Thus, two cell
After meiosis begins in a cell, no more DNA is made. The DNA al- O divisions
are necessary to reduce the DNA
ready present is disiributed by- meiosis to the reproductive cells. This content to haploid. Meiosis tends tr a a more
;happensin two different nuclear divisions, one after the other. The first complicated process than mitosis, otti.:n taking
nuclear division is cJled Meiosis I, and the second division, which usu- day- to complete instead of hours of minutes as
ally follows immediately, is called Meiosis H. in mitosis.

:6:6 Otirornosome'Nsurfiber Is Reduced

by-Hai. in-Meiosis-.l-
. At the start of meiosis, just as in mitosis, the long, thin chromosomes In order for the material oh genetics in later
chapteh to be meaningful, students need to
.ShOrtenand-thicken. This shortening takes place during-prophase of the
understand the reduction of meiosis and the
:firSt,ivision of meiosisprophase I. As-,the chromosomes thicken, increase at fertilization Discuss each step
something very different from mitosishappens. Each honiolog finds its O thoroughli

0 280
 Section Two Continuity hi the Biosphere

Figure 6.§ Early (a) and late (b) prophase of the first meiotic division in
fornicition 'of pollen grains in (Sim anthers.- Note the homologs twisted around
each other in (b).

John D. Cuirin2lisim /VISUALS UNLIMITED John o: CwrwnyhinVISl1ALS UNLIIMTEDY

,
Tariner, and they pair witlYbne another along_their entire lengths. Be ,
Figure 6;10 Events of crossing over in /ocause of that action, one nov: 'Sees N pairs of chronioseines -instead-of
prophase L_(a) Tetrad of homologous 2N- separate chromosornes.,In ,a ,hurrian,oVaryfor-- eiampie, wouId.,,
chromosomes: (b) libinOlogs twisted around
each other. (c) Recombination ha,; occurred.
see 23 pairs of chromosoMes, instead-of 46 separate chromosomes. The,
following sections ciesciibe meiosis in the formatiOn of sperm eells;:the
chromosome accompanying photographs show meiosis in the formation of pollen grains
in the lily.
-BeCause each chromosome is now made_up of two chroMatids, each
pair of-chromosomes actually consists of a bundle of four chromatids,
as shown in figure 6.10a. This is sometimes called the tetrad stage (tetra,
centromere meat s "four" 'in Greek). Knowing about the tetrad stage is the secret
to understanding what happe, in meiosis.
During this time the two ho.-iologs lie very close, and often are twisted'
around one another (figure 6.10b). Their chromatids actually can break
at various places and join with broken chroniatids from the other
r-homeitog. Breaks first occur at the same place in two chromatids, fol= -

lowed by jdning and healing of the breaks (figure 6.10c). Because chro-
matid segments are exchanged, this process is called crossing-over, and
tetrad results in recombination of geifeS. the genes in the new chromatids ar`e
often in new combinations and much new genetic variation results from
this process of in prophase I.

Figure 6.11 Metaphase I

The number of possible meiotic outcorr,3s is 7

equal to 2, where N = the number of
chromosome pairs In humans, N = 23, so the John D: Cunningham/ VISUALS UNLIMITED

number of possible combinations of

Toward the end of prophase I the chroMosOme pairs (still ertradsl
chrdmosomes m e gamete is 22i, or 8,388 608
move to Ihe equatorial plate, just as in Mitosis. Metaphase I (figure '.11).
mfr c their -arrival -in the center of the-cell,
404
 "Chapter 6 Continuity through Argoduction 177

.Figure 6.12 Ariaphese, I

John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED

-Now another, important event takes place. In anaphase I (figure 6.12)

the homologs of each pair separate and begin to move toward opposite
pOles of the spindle. Remember that each_ chromosome still consists of
`tWoChromatids; attached at the centromere. in huMan meiosis, 23 chro-
. ;motomei move toward each_pole of the spindle.

Figure 6.13 Telbpha6e I

John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED

The, homologs, one from each pair, "continue to move in opposite di-
-rectiOns. As -they approath the pores in telophase I, cytokinesis occurs,
.and,twoLeells are formed (figure 6.13). The homologs are now in dif-
Arent celli=for,the first fiine since they were brought together by fertil-
":-zation in, the zygote. Each new cell now has only half as many
chromosomes-as,in a body cell. That means that each cell has only half
the parent cell's total genetic information.
This series of events,,from the start of meiosis to the formation of two
:cells, is Meiosis I. Because the amount of genetic information has been
reduced by one -half, this division is often called the reduction division.
There is still one more nuclear division before meiosis is complete.

6:10 Chromatids Separate in Meiosis II

In each new cell foriped at the end of Meiosis I, the second meiotic
Usually begini almost" immediately. There is no new replication
,,415NA- in the period-betweon Meiosis I and Meiosis II. In its main
:featiireS Meiosis II is very much.like a mitotic division.
178' Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 6.14 Prophase II Figure 6.15 Metaphase II

John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED

In prophase II (figure 6.14) the remaining chromosomes move to-

.Figure 6.16 Anaphase II ward the equatorial plate on a new spindle. The two chromatids of each.
chromosome are about to separate at the centromere.
The chromosomei align themselves on the new equatorial plate in
metaphase II (figure 6.15).

Figure 6.17 Telophase II

John D. Cunningham /VISUALS UNLIMITED

The centromeres divide and the two chromatids of each chromosome

separate and move toward opposite poles. This takes place in anaphase
II (figure 6.16). Each chromatid is now an independent chromosome
from this time forth.
The chromosomes gather at the poles and are enclosed by a new nu-
This description is of a typical spermatozoan. clear envelope.. The cytoplasm now divides again. Afterwards the cells
Sperm in animals are much more diverse than undergo further cytoplasmic changes, such as developing a tail. The DNA
are ova. Human sperM is 50 to 70 Am long, is concentrated in the head of the sperm cell. Mitochondria are packed
some toad sperm may exceed 2 mm in length into the midd1: piece of the sperm. The mitochondriairovide energy for
Most sperm are microscopic the tail, which moves the sperm through the female reproductive tract.
When those changes are completed, the cells will be fully formed sperm.

283
 'Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction 179

Figure'6:18- Comparison of mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis Meiosis

DNA replicates

chromosomes duplicate

).

Chromosomes condense

Chr6mosomes chromosomes
orient singly orient paired

chromatids chromosomes
separate segregate

.Chromosomes chromatids
unwind separate

chromosomes
unwind

Each cell entering meiosis in the testis ha,% thus become four mature 00
s'prin,cells. Each one is capable of fertilizing an egg cell, and each has
,the haploid (N) number of chromosomes.
Figure 6.18 compares the processes of mitosis and meiosis.

Self-Review

1. What iS a male gonad called in animals?

, 2.. What kind of gamete is produced by ovaries in animals?
3: How many cell divisions occur in meiosis?
4. Iii!a.huilian cell about to enter meiosis, how many chromatids are
:present?

284
"). %Xi
180 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

5. Name two important events that occur in Meiosis I.

6. How many mature sperm cells are produced from a single diploid
cell tnat enters meiosis?
7. How many chromosomes are there in a human sperm cell?
8. Why is meiosis I sometimes called a reduction division?
9. What do the chromosomes do in Meiosis I that they do not do during
mitosis?

Investigation 6.2 In?iestiga #ion 6'2' A; MODEL ',OF MEIOSIS

A MODEL OF MEIOSIS
Introduction
If you used the model technique in Many biological events are easier to understand when they are ex-
..onnection with mitosis In investigation 5.4, the plainru by models In this investigation you will use a model to duplicate
general scheme of the procedure will already be the nuclei.' events of meiosis.
iamiliar to your students Otherwise, take same
time to familiarize your students with the model
Materials
materials
modeling clay (red and blue)
Materials pipe cleaners (6 cm to 8 cm)
piece of wrapping paper
You will need modeling clay or Play-Doh of
different colors (red and blue are suggested)
The pipe cleaners (centromeres) can be Procedure
fastened around the chromatids to form
1. Use the clay to form 4 chromatids, 2 of each color. They should be 6
chromosomes or pressed into the clay to hold
cm long and about as thick as a pencil.
the rAtromatids together Pipe cleaners could be
2. Form 4 more chromatids. These should be 10 cm long, 2 of each
used a^ a substitute for the clay, but they are
color.
not as suitable because they have to be cut and
3 Use the pipe cleaners to represent centromeres. With 1 pipe cleaner
the pieces twisted together to show
fasten 2 similar chromatids together to form 1 chromosome, as shown
recombination If pipe cleaners are used in this
in figure 6.19. Form 3 other chromosomes in the same manner.
manner, they must be of 2 different colors
4. Draw a spindle on a large sheet of wrapping paper. Make it large
enough to contain the chromosomes you have made. Assume that the
early events of the 1st division have already occurred. In other words,
Figure M9 the spindle and chromatids have been formed, and the nuclear mem-
brane has disappeared.
5. Pair the 2 short chromosomes. Pair tile 2 long ones. Assume that 1
chromosome of each pair (the red one) was derived from this organ-
ism's male parent. Its homolog (the blue chromosome) came from the
female parent.
6. Arrange the 2 chromosome pairs along the equator of the spindl',.
Show the overlapping of chromatids by overlapping the strands of clay
of each homologous pair.
7. To show the possible exchange of chromatid parts (figure 6.10), ex-
change a snil part of the clay from 1 chromosome with an equal pal t
from its homolog The colors make the exchange visible throughout
the rest of the investigation.
8. Begin to move the chromosomes of each homologous pair toward
opposite poles of the spindle. Move them by grasping the centromeres
and pulling. (Note that either 2 red or 2 blue chromosomes or 1 red
and 1 blue chromosome can move to each pole.)
9. Draw 2 more spindles. Center these spindles on the poles of the 1st
division. Their axes should be perpenHicular to the axis of the 1st. The
model is now ready for the 2nd division of meiosis.
BSCS by tioua Soken

285
 Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction 181

10. Place the chromosomes along the equators of the 2 new spindles. Procedure and Discussion
Unfasten the centromere of each chromosome. Grasp each chromatid
The manipulation of the materials achieves
at the centromere. Pull the chromatids to opposite poles of their spin-
the purpose of this investigation, but a number
dles. If there are 4 members on your teams, all the chromatids can be
of points can be made in discussion One worth
made to move at once, as they do in a living cell.
considering (because of its bearinj on chapter
11. Reassemble the chromosomes as they are shown in figure 6.19. Use
8) is the random distribution of paternal and
the other side of your piece of wrapping paper and repeat the process
maternal chromosomes during synapsis
of meiosis without referring to the directions printed here.
Because no directions are given for arranging
the colors, there is likely to be considerable
Discussion variation among teams when chromosomes are
placed in homologous pairs The consequent
1 How would a mitosis model differ from this one?
separaticY) of paternal and maternal
2. What are some advantages of using a model to visualize a process?
chromosomes may be pointed out without
3. What are some disadvantages?
necessarily developing any genetic implications
at this time

continued on page 191

Fertilization Guidepost: What factors influence

fertilization?
6.11 Millions of Sperm Cells Are Produced
in Testes
Meiosis and gamete formation take place in the gonads. In humans Students might now be introduced to the
and other animals, male and female gonads look alike in easily devel- similarities that exist in embryos of the opposite
opment. It is not until the embryo is about eight weeks old that the go- sex in early stages of development or every
nads are clearly different in the two sexes. They then can be called testes reproductive. structure present in one, there is .1
and ovaries You will study more about the development of the embryo homologous structure the other, which initially
is identical in both sexes
in the next chapter.
In section 6.10 you learned that in testes certain diploid cells give rise
to four haploid cells in meiosis. Each of these then is transformed into
a mature sperm cell.
The testes develop in the abdominal cavity of an embryo, just as the In mammals produLtion of live sperm seems to
ovaries do. Before birth the two testes move downward and then to the deptnd on maintaining the testes kin humans.
outside of the abdominal cavity. There Ciey are housed in a pouch called tustik.le.$) at a temperature lower than that of the
the scrotum. The scrotum is located just below the external male organ, body In many mammals the testes de.sk..und into
the penis (see figure 6.20). the scrotum only during the breeding season
The penis is used both for reproduction and for discharging urine from
the kidneys. Its role in excretion will be discussed in chapter 16.
If a testis is cut into very thin slices, it can be studied under the mi-
croscope. Each testis is made up of thousands of tiny tubules. Meiosis
occurs in these tubules. Figure 6.20c shows a cross section of one tubule.
The diploid cells that will enter meiosis are located around the outer
edge of each tubule.
As meiosis proceeds, the new cells are formed toward the center of
the tubule. For that reason, the phases of meiosis can be followed in
order, from outside to the inside central canal. You can see cells in the
various stages of meiosis in figure 6.20c. The last stages are at the inner
edge of the canal. Around the edge of the canal you can see the dark
heads of mature sperm, with their long tails extending into the center
of the canal.

266
 d

182 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 6.20 The human male reproductive system.

F-4;.1.....,....1111
kidney

ureter

bladder

prostate
gland

urethra

vas
deferen

testes

Ed Rischke
Cross section thrc.gh a seminiferous tubule,
X 100. Around the edge of the central canal
are the dark heads of the sperm, with
their tails extending into the canal.
Each testis is composed of packed coils of
seminiferous tubules in which sperm
develop.

.),....,,A

287
 Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction 183

The sperm move out of these canals into a special collecting duct near
the testis, he epididymis (ep ih DID ih mis). This structure, which would
be about 50 cm long if uncoiled, can hold billions of sperm. The sperm
remain there until they are released in sexual activity, or until they are
reabsorbed by the body.
Meiosis and the formation of sperm cells takes about 72 days in hu-
The number of ova produced is related to the
mans. Mature human males can produce huge numbers of sperm. A male probability of young being corn and reaching
may release from 200 million to 500 million sperm cells at one time. In maturity. In light of this, compare the enormous
human females, on the other hand, only 400 to 500 ova will be produced number of eggs produced by some fish with the
during an entire lifetime. Clearly there are important differences in ga- relatively small number produced by most
mete :ormation between males and females. mammals

6.12 Meiosis Is Interrupted in Female:

The formation of ova in human females provides a fascinating look
into the life history of certain cells. Millions of ;',tential ova form in the
ovaries of a female embryo. Most of these soon disappear, but hundreds
of thousands still remain at birth.
Gametes are not produced until puberty in males, but in females
meiosis begins in the embryo. Certain diploid cells of the newly formed The importance of the interaction of hormones
ovary enter meiosis. The first cell division is soon interrupted, however. 0 in the various stakes of reproduction, especially
The potential egg cells actually stop developing in prophase I, right in in the female, crrinot be understated. You may
the midst of a complicated cell division. They remain in suspended an- wish to introduce this topic with the subject of
imation for a period of years. ovulation
Meiosis does not resume until later in life, when a young women en-
ters puberty. The potenial ova remain in prophase I all th ,t time. Then,
at monthly intervals, one cell will resume meiosis, and the potential ovum
continues into Meiosis II, where the process stops once more. Later the
cell is released from the surface of the vary, a process called ovulation.
In humans one ovum is usually released each month, though sometimes
two (or more) may be released. In many other animals it is usual for a
number of eggs to be released at the same time, and a litter of offspring
may be produced.
The reproductive span of human females may extend from puberty
(which usually begins sometime between ages 10 and 14) until age 45
or 50. Therefore, some of the partly mature egg cells may take as long
as half a century to complete meiosis.

6.13 Hormones Control Reproductive Cycles

Many organs in the body produce chemical messengers substances Point out that the hormonal egulation of the
that influence other organs. These substances, called hormones, travel 4.;,,roductive cycles is so similar in mammals
in the blood to all parts of the body. A hormone from one organ may that m..st knowledge we have of 'n cycles
affect another organ, which responds in striking ways. The first organ, was del ived from studies of laboratory anima,
in turn, can be influenced by other hormones. A complex set of inter- such as the white rat
actions occurs, a network of stimuli and responses. This is one way the
-various parts of the body communicate.
Hormones are very important for sexual reproduction in both males
and females. The hormone interactions often are more complex in fe-
males than in males.

288
184 Section Two Continuity in ;he Biosphere

Under the influence of hormones produced in the brain, the testes and
ovaries are stimulated to produce distinctive sex hormones. These in turn
help bring about the secondary indicators of approaching sexual ma-
turity: changes in voice and body proportions, growth of hair, and in-
creased interest in sex. In females, the brain and ovarian hormone initiate
Other primates of the subfamily hurninOttied aiso a regular monthly cycle, the menstrual (MEN stroo ul) cycle (after the
have a menstrual cycle Latin word mensis, meaning "month").
It is clear that the gonads have two major roles: they produce sex
hormones, and they form gametes. To understand how hormones affect
reproduction, let us look in more detail at the functions of the female
reproductive system, which is shown in figure 6.21.
The two ovaries are located low in the abdominal cavity, one on each
side. Each ovary is located close to a short tube, the oviduct (OH vih
dukt). The oviducts serve as passageways, and ova travel through them
Only in the higher primates is the uterus a single on their way to the uterus. The uterus is a muscular organ that protects
structure. representing a fusion of tht lower and nourishes a new individual while it develops. A tiny embryo becomes
ends of tilt oviducts Mcst .nammals have at attached to the inner lining of the uterus, and there it remains and grows
least a somewhat bipartite uterus that refltts its as it is nurtured by the mother during pregnancy (see figure 7.11, page
origin. 207).
Each potential ovum is enclosed in a follicle, a small oblong sac of :.)

cells on the surface of the ovary. Study figure 6.21b. As an egg cell ma-
tures, its follicle increases in size. The follicle reacts to hormones from
the brain, and produces a hormone, estrogen (ES troh jen). During the
10 days before an ovum is released, estrogen from the follicle stinii?lates
tl--: inner layer of the uterus. That layer fills with blood vessels arid fluids
and becomes much thicker.
The events of fertilization and implantation An ovulated ovum has not completed meiosis and will not do so unless
institute a new sequent-e vi controls, causing it is fertilized. After its ovum is released, the follicle cells are converted
cessation of the menstrual cycle and to another role. They fill the follicle cavity, and appear yellow in color.
maintenance of pregnancy, If opportunity arises, The structure is now called a corpus luteum (KOR pus LOOT ee um),
this is a good place to mention the hormonal meaning yellow body. It produces still a different hormone. That hor-
bases of some birth control procedures mone, progesterone (proh JES teh rohn), helps maintain the thick layer
of the uterus for two more weeks. That is enough time for an embryo to
You may wish to discuss the reprodactive attach itself to the uterus wall. If an egg has not been fertilized, the thick
patterns of mamm.,Is with estrus cycles Many layer disintegrates. Then the corpus luteum stops producing proges-
students have experienced the ordeal of having terone. The inner layer of the uterus breaks_away and passes through
a pet dog or perhaps a pony or horse in heat the vagina, a muscular passageway that connects the eterus to the out-
Those who have will attest to the strength of the side. These hormonal interactions are shown in figure 612.
reproductive urge The bleeding that occurs in This loss of blood and tissue from the uterus is called menstruation
dogs and cattle while in estrus is caused by red (men stroo AY shun). The flow usually lasts for four to five days. The
blood cells passing through the vaginal wall not first menstruation indicates that a young female has become capable of
by sloughing of the uterine lining.
producing ova, and of having them fertilized. Young women who have
begun to menstruate are able to become pregnant.
Another comparison with aquatic vertebrates
can be made here Most have no need for a
penis, as the sperm and ova are simply 6.14 Only One Sperm Fertilizes an Ovum
simultaneously released into the water, where
fertilization occurs. Only reptiles and mammals How does an embryo begin? You will recall from section 6.5 that it
have a true penis, and in soffit mammals there develops from a fertilized egg, or zygote. In order for fertilization to take
is a bone in the penis to assist in the rigidity place, sperm cells must enter the body through the vagina. Usually this
necessary for suc.cesstui inter;ourse takes place by means of sexual intercourse. Under sexual excitement the
penis of the male fills with blood and becomes rigid. The sperm cells
Even though both spent', and urine leave the begin to move from the epididymis into a special duct, the vas deferens
budy via the urethra, contamination of sperm by (VAS DEF eh renz). The vas deferens, after connecting with several
urine is prevented by a sphincter that closes off male glands, enters the duct of the penis.
the bladder.
Chapter 6 , Continuity through Reproduction 185

Figure 6.21 The human female reproductive system.

-_ ct

ureter

fimbria

oviduct
ovary

uterus

bladder

cervix

vagina

The ovum begins to enlarge and The follicle continues to enlarge. Mature follicle just before ovulation.
additional tissue layers are formed in
the primary follicle.

If fertilization does not occur, the The remaining follicle cells undergo
corpus luteum shrinks and is rapid change and become the corpus The follicle ruptures and the ovum is
reabsorbed. luteum. expelled in ovulation.
186 Section two Continuity in-the Biosphere

Figure 6.22 Hormonal changes in the human female reproductive cycle.

FSH = follicle stimulating hormone; LH = luteinizing hormone.

_pituitary gland e,5---

-,,,, pituitary gland pituitary gland

N1
estrogen
o t-s%
6,
estruct,..,

1 III
MI
O i CD gi1/4 (3) 44 .

developing follicle

a b c
0
FS_ H stimulates developing follicle. Follicle produces estrogen; FSH Estrogen stimulates pituitary's
production stops, uterine lining production of LH.
builds up.
11

e.5....__.pituitary gland opituitary gland ) C.-- pituitary gland

1/4-i.....
voi
tra Q4
OD
nr, :-,.2-,(1,-t!
V.
V V0(
no e-,trogeri 0 ti
ovum
.2
TA
iek w.
w
1\ 1. 1, -
cD 10

IC
1;..
progesterone
no
4
corpus progesterone
luteum
d e f
LH causes ovulation; ovum moves to Follicle becomes corpus luteum. If ovum is not fertilized, then hormonal
fallopian tube. Estrogen production Progesterone from it maintains productions return to a low level. Uterine
stops. uterine lining. lining cannot be mainta;ned and is
sloughed off.

After further stimulation, such as by the walls of the vagina, the male
Once again, the importance of the interaction of reproductive system responds by expelling 3 to 4 ml of semen (SEE men).
various glands is Ilustrated. These glandular This whitish fluid contains the secretions of the male glands (prostate
fluids provide food and lubrication for the sperm gland, seminal vesicle, and Cowper's gland), as well as hundreds of mil-
and counteract the acidity of urine, which may lions of sperm. The relationships of these structures in males are shown
be harmful to sperm. in figure 6.20.
After they are released into the vagina, the sperm cells swim in all
directions. Many of them swim up along the moist linings of the female
reproductive tract. They enter the uterus and swim into the two oviducts.

:1,
29
Chapter16 Continuity through Reproduction 187

Figure 6.23 Humarl'stierm fertilizing an egg. Scanning electron micrograph, Figure 6.24 Formation of polar bodes
X 17,000.
egg
Mir& formation
AIL

first meiotic
0
division

N'o- 1st polar

body

second
meiotic
division
_rk 24
2nd polar
body

1st polar
body
divides

David FA:Phill;ps/VISUALE UNLIMITED

After an ovum is 'released, it moves into the nearest oviduct. Once

released from the ovary, an ovum will live about three to five days. If
sexual intercourse occurs during this period, the ovum may meet many
sperm cells there. One sperm may penetrate the outer membranes of the
egg
egg cell. The membranes react immediately and become a barrier to
other sperm cells. Only one sperm cell fertilizes an ovum (figure 6.23),
and only the head of the sperm, which contains the genetic material,
enters the egg. If only one sperm actually fertilizes the ovum, why are Figure 6.25 Whitefish egg with a polar bor4,
so many sperm released in the semen? One answer is that sperm secrete formed in the first meiotic division
an enzyme that helps break down the layer of cells that surrounds an
ovum. Apparently, many sperm are required to provide enough enzyme.
You will remember that the ovum has been released without com-
pleting meiosis. Fertilization stimulates the ovum to complete Meiosis
II. Meiosis in ova differs from that in sperm in a very important way.
During meiosis in egg cells, the division of the cytoplasmcytokinesis
0
is unequal. During each of the meiotic divisions, most of the cytoplasm
goes to only one of the offspring cells, along with one haploid set of
chromosomes. The other sets of chromosomes produced in meiosis have
been expelled as tiny cells with very little cytoplasm. These polar bodies
cannot give rise to a new individual. At the end of meiosis the ovum will
have one haploid set of chromosomes, just like a sperm cell. These events
are diagrammed in figure 6.24. Figure 6.25 shows a polar body on a
whitefish egg.
Thus we see that in females each diploid cell that enters meiosis even-
tually forms only one haploid ovum, not four haploid cells as in males. eft:
Virtually all the cytoplasm of the original cell is preserved in the ovum.
John D. CunninghanVVIEUALE UNLIMITED
Additional cytoplasm is produced in the periods between divisions. The
cytoplasm provides the material and energy needed for the early cell
divisions of development. The supply can last only until the embryo im- Students should understand the purpose of the
plants into the inner layer of the uterus. From that time on the embryo polar bodies and that oogenesis results in only
receives nourishment from its mother: one functional gamete instead of four as in
_spermatogenesis.

"2
J
188 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Development of a new individual usually begins in the oviduct. The

zygote divides into two cells following mitosis. From this time on, until
gametes are formed in the next generation, all cell divisions are mitotic.
Remember, each new gamete, male or female, contains new combi-
nations of genes. The random combination of gametes further increases
genetic variability.
In the next chapter we will follow the zygote as it develops into a new
organism and enters the outside world, leaving the dark, warm aquarium
within its mother's uterus.

6.15 Sexual Reproduction Is Similar

in Plants and Animals
If one merely looks at a higher plant, it is not always easy to under-
stand how it reproduces sexually. Yet plants share many features of sexual
reproduction with animals. They form haploid cells by meiosis, fertil-
ization occurs, and new individuals are produced by mitotic cell division
and differentiation, as in animals. However, there are important differ-
ences in the details, as you might expect.
We already know that plant cells have many of the same structures
as animal cellssuch as plasma membrane, cytosol, Golgi complex, en-
doplasmic reticulum, nucleus, and chromosomesas well as features
distinctive to plant cells. They divide in much the same way, and you
could study mitosis in plant cells even more easily than in many animal
cells.
After intense study of many plants, biologists learned that meiosis
also occurs in plants. However, the haploid cells that result are not ga-
metes. Instead they form a generation of haploid cells. You will learn
more in chapter 13 about this alternation of haploid and diploid gen-
erations in plants.
Even though there are a few extra haploid cell divisions, these cells
soon give rise to haploid egg and sperm nuclei. These nuclei are often
in cells with other nuclei. However, the egg and sperm nuclei do unite
in fertilization to form a zygote. In principle, the events are the same as
those that occur in animal fertilization. We will examine when and where
these events in plant reproduction take place, and how new plants come
about, in chapter 13.

Self-Review

1. Compare the numbers of ova and of sperm produced in humans.

2. How long might a human ovum remain in the midst of Meiosis I?
3. Describe what happens in the menstrual cycle.
4. What are some ways in which meiosis differs in males and females?

293
Chapter 6 Continuity through Reproduction 189

Summary
Reproduction is essential for the continuity of life on earth. Organ-
isms reproduce in various ways. Some plants and animals may reproduce
either, asexually or sexually. Sexual reproduction increases genetic vari-
ation in a population. This variation is important in the evolution of pop-
ulations.
In sexual reproduction two parents are required. Each parent con-
tributes a reproductive cell, or gamete, to the new individual. When the
two gametes combine in fertilization, a zygote is formed. Each gamete
contains only half the parental genetic information. By fertilization the
chromosome number is maintained from one generation to the next.
The reduction of the genetic content of a body cell by half is brought
about by meiosis. In meiosis genetic material is exchanged and reduced
to one-half in two successive cell divisions. A diploid cell in a testis will
give rise to four haploid sperm cells. In females it will produce one hap-
loid egg cell, because all the stored food in the cytoplasm is distributed
to only one of the four cells.
In principle, higher plants reproduce sexually in the same general way
as animals. Haploid cells are produced by meiosis, and these in turn give
rise to gametes after a short generation of haploid cell divisions. As in
animals, a zygote is formed by fertilization.

Application Questions Problems

1. Trace the stages of meiosis in a slice through a 1. Is human reproduction lacking in seasonality?
testis. Record by months the birthdays of the members of
2. What are the advantages to humans of propagating your biology class and of as many other classes as
plants by rooting portions of an older plant instead possible. If you can obtain the data from all the
of planting seeds? What is the relation of grafting students in your school, you will have a fairly
to this propagation by cuttings? satisfactory sample. Present the data in the form of
3. Mitochondria have their own, circular DNA. This a bar graphone bar for each month. What does
DNA differs from the DNA found in the nucleus. the graph indicate about the question?
Studies show that mitochondrial DNA is derived 2. There is some indication that, the age at which
from the female parent, not the male parent. Use human females reach puberty is declining. Collect
your knowledge of fertilization to explain this data on this phenomenon and on its possible causes.
phenomenon. 3. The environment of the female reproductive tract is
4. Explain how the behavior of chromosomes during slightly acidic, which can be harmful to sperm cells.
the first meiotic prophase differs from that during Investigate the components of semen and show the
prophase in mitosis. ways in which they help to counteract the acidic
5. Only one sperm is required for fertilization, yet environment in the female reproductive tract.
hundreds of millions are present in the semen. 4. There are two kind of twins: fraternal (dizygotic)
What function do the sperm play that do not and identical (monozygotic). Explore the cause of
fertilize the ovum? twinning in each case.
6. Describe the mechanisms by which sexual
reproduction increases genetic variability.

294
190 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
L. B. Andrews, 1985, New Conceptions (New York: Ballantine J. E. Lloyd, "Mimicry in the Sexual Signals of Fireflies"
Books). A "consumer's guide" to the newest infertility Scientific American (July 1981). Some of the females
treatments and alternatives, including in vitro fertilization, responding to male flashes are members of other species
artificial insemination, and surrogate motherhood. looking for a meal.
C. J. Cole, "Unisexual Lizards" Scientific American (January P. B. Stacey and W. D. Koenig, "Cooperative Breeding in the
1984). Populations of whiptail lizards consist only of Acorn Woodpecker" Scientific American (August 1984).
females and reproduce themselves by virgin birth Discussion of the unusual social system and reproductive
(parthenogenesis). methods of these birds of the souti.western U.S.
T. H. Clutton-Brock, "Reproductive Success in Red Deer"
Scientific American (February 1985). The reproductive
strategies of these deer, studied for 12 years on a Scottish
island, can be applied to other mammals as well.

295
 Answers to Application Questions and Problems
2 Principally, propagation by cuttings ensures offpsring that 3 Semen is composed of sperm and various fluids coming
have the same traits as the parent Because of genetic from the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and Cowper's
recombination, this is not necessarily true with seeds even if glands. This fluid is more than a simple suspending liquid for
both parents have the desired traits In addition, most plants sperm. It contains tuffers that neutralize the normally acidic
produced by cuttings mature faster than those produced environment of the female reproductive tract.
from seeds. In grafting, humans take advantage of
established root stocks to further quicken ea.ly growth of
cuttings from plants with desirable characteristics.
Frequently, varieties that have excellent root gr-mth have
poor fruit or flower characteristi. and vice versa. Grafting
combines the desirable traits. For example, most citrus
varieties are budded (a kind of grafting) on sour orange
stock. This is a large subject, and an interested student can
carry it far, both in the library and in the greenhouse or field.
3. A sperm carries a nucleus and almost no cytoplasm.
Mitochondria located in the middle section of the sperm to
provide power for the tail do not penetrate the egg during
fertilization. Thus, the only source of mitochondrial DNA is
the mitochondria present in the cytoplasm of the ovum.
4. In prophase of meiosis, homologous chromosomes come
together in pairs, but in prophase of mitosis, the
homologous chromosomes remain separate.
5: Sperm secrete an enzyme that breaks down the cell layer
surrounding an ovum. It appears that many sperm are
required to produce enough enzyme to allow the one sperm
to penetrate this cell layer and. thus, fertilize the ovum.

continued from page 181

When work with this model of meiosis is 3. The model has the disadvantage of all
complete, students should be able to contrast models. It is not the real thing. A model is a form
and compare the processes of mitosis and of analogy and has, in some degree, all the
meiosis as well as to review the usefulness of advantages and disadvantages attached to the
hiological models. verbal form. A simulated series of events cannot
2. Because the model is large and can be anticipate the variations in a living system, and a
manipulated, the events under consideration are model takes some liberties and shortcuts to
easy to observe. The action can be copped at show aspects of a process. At every point
any stage, reversed, or repeated for complete where a model differs from the biological
comprehension. This would not he the case with realityfor example, size, color, materials, and
living material. metabolic activitythere is a danger of
misunderstanding.

296
s s
4.) is -.4
 :fit,.
Development in many animals is siniiraf.T, his chick embryo is 72 hours old.
 Teaching strattgles for this chapter, pages
T24-26
Key ideas
CHAPTER development and differentiation of the
embryo,
aging as a continuation of development
--the growth of all organs from three embryonic
cell layers
Continuity through the importance of an aqueous k nvironment
for an embryo,

Development methods of birth control

the relationship between normal cell
development and cancer

Introduction
In most higher organisms the fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell Many nsider the problem of how a single.
initiates a complex series of events. The zygote formed is still a single middy nik.rosLvpiL ?utilized egg beLuthes a
cell. Yet that one cell contains all the genetic information needed to form augur.; luny developt persoi ristttng ,t
a complex organism with millions or billions of cells. Many of these cells thuu4.inds Of Whorls of as the major
are different in both structure and function. How can one set of genetic urisolved problem in ki101o,gy today
Communicating to your .tudents tht mysterious,
instructions determine so many different kinds of cell fates? The series
rt narkable nature of this process, as well as
of event5. that lead from the zygote to a complex many-celled organism
the importance of the question to the biological
is called development. Its very nature presents one of the most difficult community, will no out heighten interest in this
problems in biology. The answers to its many questions are being sought topic
at this moment.

Development Guidepost: How does a zygote become

a many-celled, complex
organism?
7.1 A Zygote Gives Rise to Many Cells
When a sperm nucleus approaches an egg nucleus, it carries one set Students may be triterc,steti ul edify theories of
of chromosomes. Its haploid set (N) joins with the haploid set (N) of development Letork- hit ide,r ,vas
chromosomes of the ovum. By fertilization the diploid (2N) of chro- akepte,d The. k,ottLtpt of prelormatio, was
mosomes is restored. The new zygote is now ready to begin development, prevalent into the elettt. radii _taut y sunk.
the process by which the zygote becomes a fully formed new individual. workers ever, claiming they zooid set a
miniature adult within the egg or perm
After fertilization, the zygote divides into two cellsby mitosis and O
cytokinesis. Each of those two cells divides again (to four cells) and again
Despite its obvious advantages. the amniotic
(to eight cells) and again. Soon the tiny embryo is made of dozens of egg is still vulnerable to (allure as evidenced by
cells. In animals there is no growth for a whileno new substances are the many animals who prefer eggs as one of
added. The cells just continue to divide, and new cells are smaller than it fdverite fuoas t the tirzA.worort rids not yet
their parent cells. The material stored in the egg is provided to new cells. yOu Indy Wish to IdiSC SLAM clUtISIIVOS
In some zygotes there is enough stored material to complete a major part c-oncerning the advantages of ir.torna.
of development. A fertilized chicken egg, for example, contains all the fertilization and development
instructions and materials needed to form an entire chick. After three
weeks of development it hatches, provided with eyes, feathers, and claws.
A chick already shows typical behavior in chipring its way out of its egg
shell. That behavior was part of the genetic program of the zygote. 298 193
 194 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

A chicken's development is not complete at hatching, however. The

Figure 7.1 Twocell stage of a human embryo. chick now begins to cat and grow, and its size and structure continue to
still showing one of the polar bodies from
meiosis.
change. In time it becomes a mature hen or rooster, with characteristid
behavior, and the lift cycle is repeated. The bird also ages, and even-
tually its lift comes to an end. Aging is one aspect of development.
Unlike birds and reptiles (which also develop within an egg shell),
many kinds of organisms do not have enough yolk in their eggs to de-
velop into an independent organism. They achieve only the earliest of
the long series of steps to maturity. In the human egg, for examplc, there
is only enough yolk to sustain the embryo through the first six or seven
days. By then it is an embryo of a few hundred cells, and must implant
in the wall of the uterus. Thcrc it receives further nourishment, delivered
to the merus by the blood of the mother, that permits development to
continue:

7.2 Cell Movements Help Shape an Embryo

After a zygote is formed by fertilization, it undergoes a number of
cell divisions. In animal embryos those early divisions arc called cleavage.
Landrum B. Sheittes As cleavage continues, a ball of cells results. Further divisions and cell
movements produce a holl'w ball of cells. Now the cells are able to ob-
These organisms exhibit indirect development, tain oxygen more easily and to rid themselves of carbon dioxide.
developing rapidly into larval forms that differ in
appearance and behavior from the mature adult.
This aids survivability of the young by reducing Figure 7.2 Drawings 01 early starfish development published in 1877 by Louis
intraspecific competition. Agassiz.

t. a
In direct development, the egg develops into an ;-11
immature form of the adult without passing
through a larval stage Direct development
normally takes much longer than indirect

r. K. 13

el tl
IP t4

BSCS

299
 V NI

Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 195

Thc hollow -ball stage of development is called a blastula (BLAS chuh

luh). Development of thc blastula is shown in figure 7.3. At this stage
0
the cells arc morc or less equal in sizc and function. In frog eggs, thc
cells on onc sidc of thc cmbryo arc larger, because they contain extra In humans. cleavage takes place, slowly. ever,
yolk. Bird eggs have so much yolk that cicavagc can only occur in thc as the fertilized -,:gg s traveling down the oviouct
tiny bit of living substance on top of thc egg, but thc process is thc satre for four to live days The Olastoi-yst does not
in principle. If thc yolk wcrc rc.novcd, cicavagc would resemble that of form until the cells are in the uterus
othcr forms.
Now onc side of thc blastula begins to push in. This is thc beginning
of a long series of eel/ movements and foldings. Thc outer layer of cells
folds inward, and other foldings will soon occur.
After onc sidc of thc blastula has pushed in, thcrc is thcn a sccond
layer of cells. It is insidc thc cmbryo and lines thc ncw cavity just formed.
Thc ncw cavity will bccomc thc digestive systcm. A porc is formcd that
connects to thc outside. Thc porc marks the future opening of thc cnd Differentiation is an intriguing and little
of the digestive systcm. Thcsc movements form thc gastrula (GAS truh understood process. Urge your students to
luh) stage, shown in fignre 7.3d. investigate this topic further

Figure 7.3 Development of the blastula and gastrula in a frog. (a) Cells in the
vegetal hemisphere of the blastula arc larger than those in the animal
hemisphere because they contain extra yolk. (b) Cells begin to push to the inside
through an opening called the blastopore. (c) As cells continue to push in, a new
cavity called the archenteron forms. The archenteron will become the digestive
system. (d) The blastula cavity gets smaller as the archenteron enlarges. The
embryo is now called a gastrula. (e) The three cell layei ectoderm, endoderm,
and mesoderm begin to appear. (f) The archenteron continues to enlarge an
the neural fold starts to develop.

.iimal hemisphere

vegetal hemisphere archenteron

a b

neural
told
blastopore
archenteron
blastopore blastopore

endoderm/
d e

300
0
196 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

One of the most is of i RA vuuo Eventually a third layer of cells also forms, and comes to lie between
system deVVIOPint I d ,,t,11 101111j tio, the outer and the inner layers. These three cell layers, often called the
and growth of nurvu ;,-,11$,J1t ,ixo I i hayi
germ layers, give rise to all the different tissues of the body. They contain
be a meter or more in length, but it originated the "germ," or potential, for future development
from a single cell. and grew to find its way to a
The origin of many kinds of cells from the germ layers is the result
precise predetermined destination
of differentiation. That term describes the process in development by
which new cells may become very different in appearance and function
Figure 7.4 Three-week human embryo, from their parent cells. We will now look at one example of differentia-
showing the neural folds and the beginning of tion. The nervous system is the first organ system to form. Similar ex-
segments along the mieiline. -amples could be found in any system of the body.

7.3 The Nervous System in Animals

Develops from the Outer Germ Layer
In the early gastrula the oute layer of cells is called the ectoderm
(outer skin). As the embryo gets larger, the ectoderm at the top of the
embryo begins to form two long, parallel folds of cells, which show clearly
in figure 7.4. At first the folds are small. Soon they become striking ridges
of cells, forming a groove between them. Eventually the groove rounds
into a tube, and other ectodermal cells close over it, as shown in the
diagrams in figure.7.5.
0 The inner tube thus formed by cell movement and folding is called
the neural tube. It stretches from one end of the embryo to the other,
and eventually gives rise to the brain and spinal cord, including nerve
cells and other cells related to nerve function. By studying development,
we learn that the nervous system, which allows communication among
all parts of the body, arises from the ectodermal layer.
Sometimes the neural tube does not close completely, and part of the
nervous system is exposed to the outside. This condition is called spina
bifida (SPY nuh BIH fih duh). In infants born with this condition, the
brain or spinal cord remains exposed. Knowing the way the nervous
system develops helps us understand this birth defect. Spina bifida is a
serious condition, and it often results in abnormalities in the function of
the nervous system. Infection also may set in. There are now tests before
4:
Carnegie Institution of Washington. Department of Embryology.
birth to indicate whether it is likely that the spinal cord is open to the
outside.
Davis Division

Figure 7.5 These cross sections through a frog embryo show how the
ectodermal layer of cells at the top of the embryo is shaped into a neural tube.

neural folds neural tube

archenteron

301
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 197

Recent knowledge about human development has led to a whole series

of tests that can be done during pregnancy to give information about the
condition of the developing embryo. These tests help physicians prepare
to treat such conditions. Some of these tests are described in the Biology
Today feature on page 212.

7.4 All Tissues Come from One

of the Three Germ Layers
We now can begin to view the development of an animal embryo as
the result of differentiation from the three pt imary germ layers, sum-
marized in figure 7.6.
The ectoderm, as we know, gives rise to the nervous system. It also
gives rise to many structures on the outside of the body: the outer layers
of the skin, the hair, and the nails. The ectoderm is the source of feathers,
scales, and other outer structures in animals.
The inner layer of cells, called the endoderm (inner skin), gives rise The endoderni is reoponoibit tor another
to the very inner structures of the body. The cells that line the internal interesting feature found u. tarty
organs, such as the intestines, the lungs, and various glands, come from statto of all ,ertebrate. gill dr,,ties hi fish,
these develop into the respiratory organs In
the endoderm.
The remaining structures of the body come from the mesoderm 0 terrestrial vertebrates, their purpose has been
shifted to assist in the development of the
(middle skin). These organs make up most of the mass of the body. The tonsils parathyroid gland and thymus
muscular system, circulatory system, excretory system, reproductive
system, and most of the digestive system (all except the lining cells), The formation of tne neartthe first functional
come from this layer. The mesoderm also gives rise to connective tissues organIS 1111pUridfli CVCti dt these eddy stautis
that play, many roles in strengthening tissues and organs, as well as the Further dvtioprrierit of the ktus Jcpends or,
connections between them. the circulation of food and oxygen and
Organ's may contain tissues from different germ layers. The digestive txpuls.on of arbor) dioxide and 4,1z.tt-J
organs are mainly of mesodermal origin, but have linings from the en-
doderm. The nerve cells and lens of the eye come from the ectoderm,
but the muscles, blood vessels, and related structures come from the me-
0
soderm.

Figure 7.6 Diagram showing the locations of the three primary germ layers in a
typical vertebrate embryo.

epidermal skin epidermis

ectoderm hair and nails
neural or enamel of teeth
nerve tube

brain
neural ectoderm spinal cord

muscles, bones
circulatory system
digestive system
mesoderm kidneys and ducts
reproductive system
connective tissue

lining of digestive
endoderm system
bladder

302
198 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Self-Review

1. How many cells does an embryo contain after the zygote undergoes
six mitotic cell divisions?
2. How long is the period of development for a chicken?
3. Why does cleavage appear to be different in a human embryo and
a chick embryo?
4. What is the name of the hollow-ball stage of early development?
5. What germ layer gives rise to most of the mass of the body?
6. What germ layers contribute to the formation of the eye?
7. What structures arise from the neural tube?

Investigation 7.1 1094.3.40110:_:. gYg.1=PRM,

DEVELOPMENT IN THE CHICK
Introduction
This investigation is designed to lead A fertilized hen's egg has all the materials and all the instructions nec-
students through most of the major stages of essary to form a chicken How does this process operate? Is there a very
chick development using a dry lab method tiny chicken in the egg, which simply grows larger, or are the events more
What is lost by students not examining actual complex than that? How does the developing chicken obtain necessary
chick embryos in their various stages of food? How does it get oxygen, and how does it get rid of water? What
development Is more than gained back by happens to the contents of the egg as the chicken develops? This inves-
seeing the vanoLs structures more readily in the tigation explores answers to these questions using drawings and photo-
various figures presented in the materials. graphs of various stages of development. A short description of the process
This investigation could be done as a accompanies each figure. Answer the questions in your data book.
homework assignment. Small groups could work
together or it could be a teacherdirected class
Procedure
activity.

blastoderm

cord of dense
outer liquid albumen
air space
layers of albumen
albumen:
inner liquid inner egg
membrane

eggshell shell membrane

Figure 7.7a
Procedure
1 (a) A fertilized egg 1. A new chick, like all organisms that reproduce sexually, develops from
(b) Internally and jest like in humans, in the a fertilized egg. After the hen lays the fertilized egg, she incubates it
fallopian tubes of the hen with the warmth of her body by sitting on it most of the time during a
(c) Various glands in the hen 21-day period. During these 21 days development proceeds from a
(d) Incubation small white spot, the blastoderm, located on the yolk, to a fully de-
veloped chick.
(a) What other name can you give to the blastoderm?
(b) Where does fertilization take place in a chicken?
(c) How are the layers of albumen and eggshell formed?
(d) What process is necessary for complete development and
hatching of a fully formed chick?

303
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 199

blood and blood vessels

are forming here

future eye

future brain heart

blood enters
heart here

somite

future spinal
cord in neck

body of chick
is still forming ,
here

All around the edge,

the yolk sac is growing
to cover the yolk. At 33 1 cm
hours, the yolk sac is
about 1 cm in
diameter.

Figure 7.7b

2. After 33 hours of incubation only the head and neck of the embryo 2 (a) Blood vessels will absorb food from
have formed. Blood vessels are developing on the yolk sac and are the yolk and transport if throughout the
beginning to grow over the yolk. These blood vessels will lead to and developing embryo
from the heart. (b) Blood must be moved to carry food and
(a) What connection can you make between the olood vessels and oxygen to, and wastes from, the developing
the yolk over which they are growing? chick
(b) Why should the heart be one of the first organs to function in the
developing embryo?

304
200 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

eye

future ear

lens
back end
of brain

front end
of brain

blood enters
heart here
heart

1
.,..,--..,,,,---
z....:

.-, -i.ect-41:*.
k,,,,,,e, ,.,.:,- t.:J.:,.:.:....;'-r."3,,,,,,.
,....:

,, --,-,
-. ,-.17: _::'
-,,,,,,,t--, i "^-11.:-:7.,..'
t 1:-.....-,-
;.:,..-;-...:-. - -- : "tzr -
i.,rs.t..-..7
...t:'..r

to yolk sac

tail bud
Figure 7.7c

3 Come will 'udy yts uti liu You Shouli 3. The embryo at 56 hours has a tail forming and has turned and is now
bring out the -oni_ept that at stage many lying on its left side. The brain is larger, and the heart can be seen
developing organim.,, hu i la: ii.Duk beating and moving blood through the blood vessels. Does the 56-
like this hour embryo look like it will develop into a chick?

305
Chapter 7 Continuity through DevelopMent 201

Figure 7.7d BSCS

4. The embryo in figure D is about 31/2 days old. It was removed from the 4 The wings and legs
shell, and all the membranes were removed lot, ore the embryo was
photographed. Note the distinct curve of the body bringing the head
and tail of the embryo close together. Note the bulges near the end
of the tail and near the center of the embryo. These are called buds.
What structures in the developed chick will these buds become?

Figure 7.7e BSCS

5. This embryo is about 5 days old. Notice the large size of the head in 5 An eye The limb buds are developing
relation to the rest of the body. However, the length of the entire em- elbow and knee joints
bryo is only a few centimeters. What structure can be seen in this 5-
day embryo?

306
202 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

embryo

amnion

allantois

yolk sac

: r.

yolk .

Figure 7.7f
6 (a) This was identified earlier as the food 6. Locate the 3 membranes that surround the 5-day-old chick. These are
soce for the developing embryo the yolk sac, the allantois, and the amnion. From the following de-
(b) The allantois is involved with absorbing scriptions, identify the functions of the 3 membranes.
oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide (a) The yolk sac is covered with blood vessels.
(c) Keeps the embryo most and protects (b) The allantois is a small, balloonlike membrane lying next to the
from shock.
eggshell and connected to the embryo by a thin stalk.
(c) The amnion completely surrounds the embryo and contains a
waterlike fluid.

Figure 7.7g BSCS

7 The beak is beginning and toes are 7. After about 7 days, what new structures are evident?
starting to form on the foot

307
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 203

Figure 7.7h BSCS

8. What 3 new structures can be seen in this 1 1-day-old chick? 8 Eyelids are developing Legs have form .J
and claws can be seen on the toes The skin is
covered by feather buds

.1

/7

'''-'

Figure 7.7i BSCS

9. This is an 18-day-old embryo. Compare the development between 11 9 Changes seem to occur much faster early
and 18 days with the development between 31/2 and 7 days. What in development than in the later stages
seems to be the biggest difference in development in the 2 time pe-
riods?

ao8
 204 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 7.7j FMCS

10 Stud, nts ,Lll 10. By 19 or 20 days, the development is almost complete and the chick
radual dift,_rentiatian =1 tiD,ut ma gl owt1 UI almost fills the shell. In 1 or 2 days it will hatch. Summarize briefly what
body parts happens, not only during chick development, but during the devel-
opment of any multicellular organism.

Guidepost: Why is water important for Animal Development

development in animal
embryos?
7.5 Some Animals Develop Independently
of Their Parents
You will remember how important water is to the life of cells. Zygotes
0 and embryos require adequate water in order to develop normally. Most
fish and amphibian females deposit their eggs directly into the water.
The eggs may have been fertilized already, or they may be fertilized by
the male after they have been released.
Sornn studu-its iiiay I etU ciaritkatioii of flit, Fertilization is one aspect of courtship and reproduction. When sal-
biologic 01 meaning of . ourt hip Fos n lo.t amanders or frogs mate, for instance, the male awaits the release of
animals it is an innatt bt.,hdvior an Important
hundreds or thousands of eggs by the female. Then he sheds large num-
part of tilt: We cycle, which ideally results in
bers of sperm over the eggs or nearby. Some of the sperm encounter eggs
mating
and fertilize them. However, the vast majority of sperm are diluted by
This is a good topi_. loi Many the pond water and lost. Although this process may seem inefficient, frogs
rciprodu,...tive fit tilt, crivirosiirient ill and salamanders have reproduced this way for millions of years. Their
which they occur That tnt organism still survival today is a measure of success of the method.
ourvlvc L, proof of the cffr tv rte of its Young amphibians develop as far as the tadpole stage within the egg.
reproductive methods (The photographs in figure 7.8 show development in a frog.) By then

309
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 205

Figure, .7:8 Stages of cleavage and later development in the frog: (a) a fertilized
,egg, (6) 2-cell stage, (c) 8-cell stage; (d) 32+ cell stage,,(e)`early blastula,
'(f) neurula, with eaOneurai groove, (g) tailbud embryo

Yl

t.

J.
0

f n Figure's a-g from Ciocfina Biological

papply Company

they can feed, and they have a tail and can swim. They hatch and be-
come independent, and further development depends on their ability to
find food for themselves. They also must escape predators, such as large
fish.
Reptiles and birds usually do not lay their eggs in the water. These
eggs must retain the water within the leathery or hard shell, which re-
tards evaporation. Reptiles, including those that spend most of their lives
in water, often bury their eggs in order to protect them from predators
and from the hot sun. Large sea turtles, for initance, come ashore, dig

0
 206 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 7.9 Sea turtle laying her eggs in a nest on the beach.

C. Man Mown

An interesting topic a student may wish to report a nest, lay their eggs, and then cover the nest carefully before returning
on is the mortality rate in this crucial stage of a to the sea (see figure 7.9). When the baby turtles hatch, they are on their
sea turtle's life What effect do humans have on
own. They waddle down the beach, swim into the sea, and begin an in-
the early life of sea turtles?
dependent life. Many of them soon become the victims of predators, but
enough survive to maintain the species.

7.6 Mammalian Embryos Develop

within the Mother
As we have already mentioned, a mammalian embryo cannot survive
very long on the small amount of raw material stored in the ovum. The
embryo is still only i hollow ball of cells when it sinks into the spongy
tissue of the uterus. This stage orresponds to the blastula in many other
At implantation, the blastocyst is about 6 days animals and is called a blastocyst (BLAS toh sist). After the blastocyst
old and is composed of about 100 cells implants, it begins to absorb nutrients provided to the uterus by the
mother's blood.
The blastocyst has a thick mass of cells on one side. Part of this inner
cell mass continues to develop as the embryo (see figure 7.10). Other
cells in the mass develop into important embryonic membranes: the am-
These terms need not be defined now, but nion (AM nee on), the allantois (uh LANT oh wis), and the yolk sac.
changes in purpose through time can be The thin-walled part of the blastocyst becomes the chorion (KOR ee
illustrated, The allantois becomes the umbilical on), which will function to nourish the embryo as it develops.
cord. The chorion forms most of the placenta
The human embryo becomes three-layered, as in the amphibian em-
bryo. Soon the chorion sends fingers of cells, called villi (VIL eye), into
the wall of the uterus. The villi are supplied with tiny blood vessels from
Because of the proliferation of the effective the developing circulatory system of the embryo, as shown in figure 7.11.
absorbing area of the placenta at term is about This is the embryo's contribution to the placenta (pluh SENT uh), its
13 square meters. 50 times more than the area lifeline to the mother's circulatory system.
of the newborn's skin, though its diameter is The placenta is a complex organ. The blood of the mother pools around
only about 18 cm the tiny villi of the embryo. To visualize this relationship, place your
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 207

hand, fingers spread, into a large pan of water. The fingers on your hand 0
correspond to the villi extending from the embryonic tissue. The water Figure 7 10 Human blastocyst The embryo MI
corresponds to the pool of mother's blood. In the Biology Today feature develop from the inner cell mass, the thicker
part on the left.
on page 212 you can rcad about how analysis of cells from these villi
can help diagnose genetic disorders before birth.
A bit later the growing embryo forms a flexible cord between its own
body and the placenta. This umbilical (um BIL ih kul) cord consists of
membranes and, especially, blood vessels that run to and from the pla-
centa. Those blood vessels show clearly in figure 7.12b.
About this time one embryonic membrane encloses the entire body 0
of the embryo. This membrane, the amnion, becomes filled with fluid,
and is dearly visible in figure 7.12d. The amniotic fluid has a salt con-
centration similar to that of sea water. Thus an cmbryo has its own small
marine aquarium.,It may swallow amniotic fluid, and also give off prod-
ucts into it. It does not drown, of course, because it is receiving oxygen
directly into its bloodstream through the umbilical cord.
Gases and other molecules pass by diffusion from the blood of the
mother, through the tiny blood vessel walls, imo the circulatory system
of the embryo. Carbon dioxide and other waste substances diffuse from Carnegie Institution 01 Washington. Department
01 Embryology. Davis Division

Figure 7.11 Developing human fetus in uterus, showing the placental

connection. Part of the placenta is enlarged to show the circulation of the mother
and the fetus. The two systems do not mix, and exchange of substances and
gases occurs between small pools of maternal blood and capillary walls of the
fetus.

chorion
amnion

uterus (tissue of mother)

placenta

umbilical exchange of materials

fetus cord between fetus
and mother
ainniotic uterus
cavity

umbilical vein
umbilical arteries

312
208 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 7.12 Stages in the early development of a human embryo: (a) 4 weeks,
(b) 6 weeks,' (c) 8 weeks, (d) 12 weeks, (e) 14 weeks, (f) 16 weeks.

Cititso to losOlollio Of Wiikikploo.DoporitooM Liao art Mem A CIOLD OS DONN. Dell

a Embrioisci. blots OW Isloi Pobllohiito Co.. loo. Ns Yolk ISIS

Roberto Pooh "Irmo r toctioliot b WM" 11Obotto Pooh "Promo COoceiMoo to Birth"
d

Robins ninth From Coneoption to Birth" Iendart Nilsson. A CHILD IS BORN. Del Publishing Co . Me. New
f Yor 1966

313
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 209

Figure 7.13 Prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders by amnioce lesis. Fetal

cells from the amniotic fluid are cultured for later chromosomal t. . biochemical
analyses. Biochemical analysis of the fluid also can reveal certain problems.

amniotic fluid:
placenta uterus biochemical analysis

abdomen
fetal cells wick determination
of fetal sex
amniotic sac with fluid
containing cast-off cells

fetus --11111 growth for about

4 weeks in culture

karyotype analysis biochemical

for sex chromosomes analysis for
or any ctromosomal presence of
abnormalities metabolic disorders

the villi into the blood of the mother. The mother's lungs and kidneys
get rid of the waste products. In these exchanges, the blood of the em-
0 .1:-,i+ethilly
t)rc,.11.c
Aiittin tt,e. 1,11 tild d
t.c.twk cAl trle tl.sc ccrccodtory
dl

bryo and the blood of the mother do not mix. f,ni*Ac111,, Itiot Ott ft' MI), tot cilrcc i c
bc.Iwc c.tt It,c blccuct, ul 0)c,Itic t ,1103 intsitit
If it is properly nourished, the embryo grows and its cells differentiate
3fpot3r r,itit imp°, tte_
into distinctive types. Cells z..f zimilar kind are found together in tissues.
&tic t 1.),Irk.ulart, m tht cliftc rim! Fitt
Tissues perform a general function for the body; muscle tissue contracts, ) A sfipj,
tyrws 111 w,1r11
for instance, and glandular tissue secretes certain substances. When sev- to irivc230.rito the, rc port to Inc Ltat,,,'
eral tissues are grouped together in a special arrangement to do a par-
ticular job, an organ is formed. A stomach is an organthe lining cells,
which secrete enzymes, are combined with layers of muscular tissue,
which causes the stomach to contract. The whole stomach is enclosed in
a thin layer of cells on the outside. Finally, several organs are related in
a general function to form an organ system. The digestive system, for
example, consists of a whole series of organs, arranged in single file, that
carry food from the mouth, through all the steps of digestion and ab-
sorption, and eliminate the undigested remains. All parts of the system
must work together if digestion is to be effective.
Often the amniotic fluid contains some cells from the embryo. These
cells are useful in testing the embryo for biochemical or chromosome
abnormalities. A sample of amniotic fluid is removed, and the cells are
grown in the laboratory. This process, celled amniocentesis (AM nee oh Tflt- St:X Of Pit_ tetu.
sen TEE sus), is used to test for the absence of chromosomes, for the ffifOLI0 arIMICIt.etnfeSr.

314
 210 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

presence of extra chromosomes, and for some genetic disorders of a bio-

chemical nature. We shall see later in the chapter what these tests some-
times reveal.

Throughout this section stress the importance of

proper care ,oth the mother and the 7.7 Embryos Are Affected by Substances
developing fetus Emphasize that the physical in the Mother's Blood
condition of the mother is directly reflected by
the fetus
The total time of development of a human being in its.mother's uterus
is about 39 weeks. Usually physicians divide the total development time
into three periods, or trimesters. After the first trimester, which lasts 12
If students obtain the gestation periods of
weeks, the embryo is called a fetus. By this time most organs are formed,
various animals, an interesting classroom
discussion can ensue Correlations between
and the skeleton can be seen clearly. Most of the last trimester is a period
birth size and length of gestation period can be
of rapid growth and maturation of organs and systems as the fetus ap-
proaches the time of birth.
made Generally, the smaller the animal, the
shorter the period of gestation, but there are 0 Because the fetus shares materials from the mother's blood, it can be
affected by materials taken in by the mother. For instance, if the mother
exceptions that can challenge students
ingenuity in providing possible explanations drinks alcoholic beverages, the alcohol in the mother's blood will diffuse
into the blood system of the fetus, and the fetus may be physically and
The placenta is never impervious to drugs in the mentally affected. Some children arc born with fetal alcohol syndrome.
mother's bloodstream It is sate to say the fetus These children have certain abnormal facial features (figure 7.14) and
is affected by drugs in the same manner that the the prospect of me -tal retardation. Most physicians recommend that
mother is Addictions of the mother, suLti as pregnant women consume no alcohol whatever during the period of their
heroin or alcohol, will be addictions of the pregnancy.
newborn infant
Other substances taken in by the mother also have been shown to
affect the normal development of the fetus. If the mother smokes cig-
The relationship of smoking and retarded birth
arettes, for example, the birth weight of the child is significantly less
size has been widely documented Recent
than normal, and the head size is smaller. It is probably accurate to say
studies have shown that this may not be the
only effect: the incidence of infant mortality and
that any substance taken in by the mother during her pregnancy may
heart abnormalities seems to be higher in be reflected in the fetus. Substances harmful to the mother are likely to
children born of a mother who smoked while be harmful <to the fetus as well. Even substances apparently harmless or
pregnant, and learning diftk.ulties may appear as even beneficial to the mother may turn out to be exceptionally harmful
late as age six or seven to the embryo.

Substances taken into the mother s body are

not the only threat to the developing fetus A Figure 7.14 Child with fetal alcohol syndrome at 1 year (left) and 4 years
diet deficient in any way will cause the plak-enta (right) Note the short nose arld the smooth, long, narrow upper lip, as well as
to pre`erentially take in scarce nutrients at the the narrow eye opening apparent in the 4-year old.
mother's expense, which of course eventually
causes further complk,ations Even in the United
States, where nutrition and medical care
generally are adequate, between 250,000 and
500,000 infants are born each year with some
kind of physical or mental handicap
Undoubtedly, many of these could have been
prevented with proper prenatal care

James W. Hanson. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Experience with Potty.

One Patients. J.A.M.A. 235:1458. 1978. 1-18.
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 211

Embryos in the earliest stages of development, during the first There is some evidence that even some
trimester, are especially sensitive to harmful agents. Around 1960 a sed- t.ommon substances. sui..h as i..affeirie,
ative containing the drug thalidomide (thuh LID uh myd) was widely considered harmless by must ptoplt. also may
cause damage to the fetus
prescribed for women who had nausea during their pregnancy. Unfor-
tunately, thalidomide interfered with early development at a crucial time.
More than 5000 children in European countries were born with very
short arms or legs, or limbs that were missing entirely. It was several
years before the cause of these developmental problems was traced to
Diseases contracted by the mother in the first
this drug. Thalidomide acted on the embryo just at the time the arm and O six weeks following fertilization may also greatly
leg cells were differentiating. Now a generation has passed, and some of affect the young embryo One of the most
the thalidomide victims have become parents themselves. Their children damaging is German measles In general, viral
have had normal limbs, because the absence of limbs was not a genetic diseases are much more dangerous than
problem. It was the result of a substance in the mother's blood that acted bacterial diseases in I ht early stages of
during a critical stage of development in the embryo. pregnancy

7.8 The Fetal Period of Development

Ends with Birth At the time the uterine muscle layers begin to
contract and relax, another hormone, relaxin, is
At the completion of fetal development, and sometimes earlier, a secreted by the corpus luteum This hormone
complex series of hormone interactions begins. The final result is birth, causes the t. arttlage between the two pubic
during which the fetus is propelled from the uterus by muscular con- bones that arch over the vagina to soften and
tractions. These birth contractions usually cause pain for the mother. stretch

Figure 7.15 Human birth. (a) Labor is beginning. (b) The uterus is contracting;
the opening of the uterus is enlarging; the amnion is still intact. (c) The baby is
being born, the head and shoulders appear first; the baby turns so it is face up.
(d) The doctor's hands receive the baby as it is born. After the baby is born, the
placenta and the lining of theuterus are pushed out.

St.
4,ST..tV 7!.
rit.",19..
41

Waternity Center Association Maternal. Center Association

a b

rtgli

Maternity' Center Association Maternity Center Association

d

316
212 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Progress in Prenatal Diagnosis

Among the most progressive areas of genetics is
research on the detection, prevention, and
treatment of genetic disorders in the developing
fetus. Two techniques are most prominent in
prenatal diagnosis.
Amniocentesis: This technique came into
prominence in the 1970s and is now widely used
throughout the world. The obstetrician first
determines the position of the fetus and the
location of the placenta with ultrasound. A long
thin needle is inserted through the abdominal
cavity into the uterus. About 10 ml of amniotic
fluid is withdrawn through the needle. The fluid
contains cells that have been sloughed off from
Based on art from Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center. Division of
the fetus. These cells are cultured for three to Medical Genetics, Chicago. IL.
four weeks. They then can be analyzed for
chromosomal abnormalities and for certain from enzyme studies in about a week. Because
enzymatic disorders. The fluid itself is analyzed for no amniotic fluid is obtained during CVS, analysis
increased levels of a substance called for AFP cannot be performed; otherwise,
alphafetoprotein (AFP). High levels of AFP can diagnoses from CVS are as accurate as those
mean the presence of disorders such as spina from amniocentesis. The procedure carries a
bifida, or open spine. Amniocentesis cannot be higher risk of spontaneous abortionabout 1 to 2
performed until about 16 weeks of pregnancy percentthan does amniocentesis, but it
because there is not enough room in the amniotic provides an earlier diagnosis of defects.
sac to allow safe withdrawal of fluid before that Prenatal diagnosis is routinely recommended
time. Amniocentesis is quite accurate and safe. for women age 35 or over. The risk of
The risk of spontaneous abortion after the chromosomal disorders increases with advanced
procedure is less than 0.5 percent (1 in 200). maternal age. Prenatal diagnosis is also
Chorionic villi sampling (CVS): This recommended for women who already have a
procedure was first introduced in the early 1980s child with a genetic disorder or who have a history
in China, the Soviet Union, and Italy. CVS can be of genetic disorder in the family of either parent.
performed as early as the 9th week of pregnancy, All detectable chromosomal disorders and more
considerably earlier than amniocentesis. A than 200 single gene disorders are diagnosable
catheter is inserted through the vagina into the using amniocentesis and CVS.
uterus and directed by ultrasound to a region The application of techniques from genetic
called the chorion frondosum. Small, fingerlike engineering has allowed the prenatal diagnosis;of
projections called villi begin to grow into the sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, muscular
uterine wall at this point. The villi are composed of dystrophy, and phenylketonuria (PKU). More
rapidly dividing fetal cells. progress is virtually certain as these techniques
Suction is applied to the catheter, and some villi are used in conjunction with amniocentesis and
are withdrawn. Because the cells in the villi are CVS.
actively growing and dividing, they can be
analzyed quickly. Results from chromosome
studies are available in a few days, and results

311
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 213

The fetus is born through the vagina, which becomes the birth canal at
this time. The vagina usually is able to expand to allow the hcad and Figure 7.16 A newborn t aby.
body of the fetus to pass through. After birth it returns to normal size.
Occasionally, the fetus is not in proper position, or the body of the
mother is unable to expel the fetus. In such cases the physician may
deliver the fetus by cutting through the body wall. The abdominal mus-
cles of the mother and the wall of the uterus are parted, and the fetus
is delivered directly. This major surgery is called a cesarean birth, or C-
section.
Modern medicine can stimulate ovulation in females who have dif-
ficulty in becoming pregnant. Because of this treatment, several ova may
be released at once, and four to seven fetuses may develop. Multiple
fetuses also occur naturally, of course. Occasionally the uterus cannot
accommodate the full development of the several fetuses. In such cases
the physician usually removes the small fetuses by cesarean section. Such
delivery is premature. Premature infants are placed in incubators to keep
them warm, and are given special care (figure 7.17). They are kept in
the hospital until they are able to breathe and feed without special at-
tention. Very small infants, those weighing 1 kg or so, may spend weeks
or even months in the hospital before they are large enough and strong Leonard Kamsler/Meduchrome

enough to go home.
You may wish to pursue the subject of multiple
births in humans Most students are interested in
Figure 7.17 Premature babies are kept in intensive care units so they can topics such as identical twins fraternal twins
receive the'speCial, round-the-clock care they require. and Siamese twins The frequency of twin births
IS dbout 1 WI Cit), 411-11CtS, 1 iti oto quadruplets l
Lin 86"

,t

ref

acs

David C. London/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

313
iJ
214 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Self-Review

1. What kinds of animals deposit their eggs directly in the water?

2. Explain how substances pass from the mother to the embryo in
mammals.
3. What membrane surrounds the fetus during development?
4. How does the fetus get rid of waste products?
5. What is the difference between a cell, a tissue, an organ, and a
system?
6. Give two examples of how substances in the mother's blood may
affect the fetus.
7. Why do children born to parents without arms or legs, due to tha-
lidomide, have normal limbs?
8. What are some reasons for a cesarean birth?

Guidepost: What are the methods used Control of Conception

to prevent or interrupt a
pregnancy?
7.9 Birth Control Depends on Preventing
The human population and its effects on the Fertilization
earth's ecosystem is a major theme of this
book. At this time, however, you may want to As we saw in earlier chapters, the population of the earth is increasing
use some current worldwide population growth at a rapid rate. Some countries are already overpopulated, and means
statistics to illustrate the necessity of birth are being taken to limit the number of children that can be born. These
control. methods depend on birth control.
When a sperm fertilizes an ovum, a conception occurs. In order for
As with most powerful drugs, the pill May cause conception to take place, an egg cell and a sperm cell must be in the
undesirable side effectsnausea, weight gain same place at the same time. Birth control methods depend on pre-
and swelling, headaches, blood clotting, and venting this physical contact between the two gametes.
elevated blood pressure
Some methods of bir :1 control, also called contraception, depend on
providing barriers between sperm cells and egg cells. Usually an effort
is made to interfere with the movement of sperm cells. For example, a
Figure 7.18 These contraceptive devices can
help prevent unwanted pregnancies. membranous sheath, or condom, can be placed over the penis prior to
intercourse. The sperm are thus prevented from entering the body of the
female.
O Another method makes use of a flexible cap, or diaphragm, that can
be placed over the entrance to the uterus. Since the uterus is a different
size in different women, a diaphragm must be fitted by a physician or
other health-care professional if it is to be effective.
Still another method of contraception in women depends on pre-
venting ovulation, the release of the immature ovum from the ovary. This
can be accomplished by taking synthetic sex hormones in pill form. These
must be prescribed by a physician.
0 There are also surgical procedures that provide permanent sterili-
zation (figure 7.19). In males the vas deferens, which carries sperm from
the epididymis to the penis, may be tied and cut. This simple procedure,

; . i
BSCS by Doug SO1. O

319
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 215

done on both sides, is called a vasectomy (vuh SEK tuh mee), and is
widely used in some countries. In females the oviducts may be tied and O Figure 7.19 Tuba! ligation (a) and vasectomy

j
(b) both can be used to prevent pregnancy
cut in a procedure called tubal ligation (ly GAY shun), which requires
small openings into the abdominal cavity. Both methods generally are viducts cut and tied
eggs are
considered irreversible. blocked
Effective contraception requires planning ahead. Once sperm have
entered the body of a female, there is little chance of heading them off.
That is because the sperm are able to reach the egg in the oviduct in a
very short span of time.
In some countries, methods of birth control are not readily available,
or their use is forbidden by religious beliefs.
Unwanted pregnancies in teenage girls is a serious problem. In some
areas of the United States as many as 50 percent of births are illegiti-
matethat means that the babies are born to unmarried, and usually
teenage, women.

7.10 Pregnancy Can Be Terminated

Pregnancy can be terminated involuntarily or voluntarily. Nature 0
aborts many fetuses before birth. If there is a major chromosomal or
genetic abormality that prevents normal development, for example, the
embryo might be aborted within the first few days of development. In
other cases the death of the fetus occurs later. These natural events are
called spontaneous abortions. They are thought to occur in some 70 per-
cent of all conceptions.
Voluntary termination of pregnancy occurs for several reasons. As we
shall see later, parents may feel there are genetic reasons for terminating
a pregnancy. If amniocentesis or chorionic villi sampling reveals a chro-
mosome abnormality or a genetic disorder in a developing fetus, the par- b
ents may decide to terminate the pregnancy. Certain birth defects can
be devastating to the parents, both psychologically and financially.
Spontaneous abortion is miscarriage This may
Unmarried women who find themselves pregnant may feel that having need pointing out to students indoctrinated by
a child at that particular time would have a distressing effect on their the mass media, in which induL,ed abortion IS
lives. Even married women sometimes find that contraceptive methods almost always meant when file Ovoid abortion IS
have not worked with 100 percent effectiveness. (It is often said that no used.
contraceptive method is "perfect" except abstentionthe complete
avoidance of sexual intercourse.) Married women, too, may want to ter-
minate a pregnancy because they are not able to support and properly
raise a child.
Some people and groups feel very strongly that human fetuses should
not be aborted under any circumstance. Others feel just as strongly that
the individual woman should decide whether she wants to continue or
terminate her pregnancy.
The debate that surrounds the abortion issue is very complex and
emotionally charged. It involves different opinions on such issues as the
quality of human life, and of whether an unborn fetus should have the
same legal (in this instance, life-saving) rights as someone after birth.
There are no clear-cut answers to such issues, and the debate is likely
to continue for a very long time.

3As 9 0

'
216 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Self-Review

1. Name three methods that could be used by females to prevent con-

ception.
2. What method would be used by males who want to be sterilized
completely?
3. What is meant by spontaneous abortion?

Guidepost: How can cancer be viewed Cancer

as a normal developmental
process gone wrong?
7.11 Development Is Usually Well Controlled
In setting the stage Nil disL,usiunb We have now studied a number of developmental events. They begin
emphasize the compltduty of DNA
with fertilization, which initiates a series of orderly cell divisions. The
mitosis, meiosis, and ,n general rcprodus:tion
increase in cell number, accompanied by growth, leads eventually to dif-
and development and the sheer r umbers of ;ell
ferentiation of cell types. Each kind of cell has a particular task to per-
divisions that occur even on a daily basis just in
humans alone Considering this most students
form in the development and life of a new individual.
will agree that it is arriazind LanLers do not Cells of the same kind make up tissues, and these in turn work with
occur more often other kinds of tissues to form organs. An organism consists of a number
of organ systems, each consisting of a group of related organs. The ma-
ture individual is able to perform all the functions of living, such as food
intake, survival against enemies, courtship, and reproduction. The life
cycle is completed when an individual attains maturity and gametes are
produced that can start another generation. This cycle has repeated it-
self for untold numbers of generations and in millions of different spe-
cies. Development thus provides continuity extending from gamete
formation in one generation to the gamete formation in the next gen-
eration.
0 This entire drama of development depends on a certain number of
cell divisions. When an animal reaches full size, most cell divisions cease.
Cells do continue to divide, but only to replace worn-out or lost cells.
Cells of the nervous system almost never divide after differentiation is
completed. Other cells, however, such as blood cells, have a limited life-
span. They are replaced by new cells on a regular basis. The lining of
the digestive system also wears away, and those cells are replaced con-
tinuously. Our outer skin cells are lost and are replaced from layers of
cells below. Normal life functions mainly require cell replacement ac-
tivities once maturity is reached.
As we mentioned earlier, aging is a normal part of development. At
the end of the aging process, an organism dies. This process is built into
By 1980, cancer, I iudi t distaoe, and Sul tUi dl e the genetic program, and is rather precise for each species. Most cells
hemorrhage replaLed the itilttidu:, are able to divide only a certain number of times. This fact seems to be
that were the leading Lcillat:, vt dt.alli in 19ui.1 true for organisms from protists to human beings. But in cancer, this
(pneumonia, tuberLulut.,is al ied) control over cell division seems to be lost, and cells begin to divide again.

321
Chapter 7 Continuity through Development 217

Figure 7.20 In cancer, abnormal numbers of certain cells are produced. These
photomicrographs of stained blood cells show normal human blood (a), and
blood from a person with leukemia (b). Note the large number of white blood
cells in (b).

AMA

Leukemia Society of America

a

ell a
Leukemia Society of America

7.12 Cancer Cells Divide without Limit

Just as organisms are mortal and have a certain lifespan, so do the GroWillg tUlliotS txert rift.0SUre un
surroul idu ty LtAIS niurfar i g with tllular
cells that make up the organism. Occasionally, however, a cell will begin
functions Cancerous cells do not grow at
to divide again. Usually this event happens in a single cell, which then
phenomenal rates, but they have lost the
undergoes a burst of cell division. The resulting cells form a growing
mechanism that directs them to stop
mass called a tumor. if the tumor remains in onc place, near its origin,
it is said to be benign. But sometimes the rapidly dividing cells spread
to invade other tissues. Small groups of these dividing cancer cells may
break off and move to establish themselves in other, more distant parts
of the body. Cell masses that continue to divide and spread at the ex-
pense of other tissues are said to be malignant.

32 A9.,
f AA.
218 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

There are many theories for the origin of cancer. Actually there are
many different kinds of uncontrolled cell growth, so there may be many
different causes of cancer. Cancers can affect many different organs in
the body. In humans, cancers occur in the lung, stomach, reproductive
organs, brain, blood-forming system, pancreas, liver, and still other or-
gans. Perhaps no organ is immune. That indicates that cancer is a very
widespread and general kind of condition. It may occur in people of all
ages, though more often in the late stages of life.
Some cancers may be caused by viruses. In others a genetic change
may occur. It appears that various factors are involved in releasing the
brakes on cell division. Many cancers are triggered by environmental
agents. When sensitive tissues are damaged over and over, a tumor may
form. A well-known example is the relationship between smoking and
lung cancer. Not everyone who smokes tobacco gets lung cancer, but the
majority of lung cancers do occur in smokers. It is also a cancer that is
almost impossible to treat after it has been discovered. The risk of de-
veloping lung cancer can be lowered significantly by the simple act of
not smoking.
At least 90% of all lung cancer deaths are the Some other cancers are more difficult to prevent. When discovered,
legacy of cigarette smoking Another insidious, they are treated in various ways. If a tumor has a well-defined structure,
very serious possible consequence of smoking
it may be removed surgically. Cancers that appear first as lumps in the
is emphysema Discuss the other health hazards
thought to be connected with cigarettes
0 breast often are removed in that way. Other cancers are treated with
Smoking is one activity that has no obvious high-energy radiation. Care is taken to try to kill the cancerous cells
benefits. without harming healthy cells that lie nearby. Chromosomes are sensi-
tive to radiation. In cancerous tissue, cells are in frequent division. That
means the chromosomes are short and thick at each mitosis and, hence,
provide a larger target for the radiation. Other treatments include chem-
0 ical treatments that interfere with cell division. This treatment is called
chemotherapy.
In cancer cells, some part of the control of cell division has gone wrong.
Some members of the class may want to The cells also may be less differeatlated than mature ones. Clearly the
investigate the latest advances In cancer solution to the riddle of cancer depends on understanding normal cell
research or topics such as immunosurveillance division and its role in development. It is only then that we will know
theory and interferon, what has gone wrong when a cell becomes cancerous.

Self-Review

1. For what main reason do cells divide in mature adults?

2. What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?
3. Why is radiation used in the treatment of tumors?
4. What is the purpose of the chemical substances used in chemo-
therapy?
5. Give a very brief definition of cancer.
Chapter 7 Continuity through Developthent 219

Summary
Development is the whole series of events that are initiated when a
zygote begins to divide and grow. Cells that are similar in early divisions
gradually become specialized to perform certain tasks. This process is
called differentiation, and it leads to a complex, mature organism. De-
veloping organisms continue to change throughout life. Aging occurs
continuously and eventually ends the life of an individual. The lifespan
is part of the genetic program set at fertilization.
Development is aided by cell movements and tissue foldings. In ani-
mals the blastula stage is transformed into an embryo with th-^e germ
layers. Each germ layer gives rise to specific tissues and contributes to
various organs. Much development can be understood in terms of germ
layer differentiation. In differentiation, like cells am grouped into tis-
sues. Organs consist of several kinds of tissues. A number of related or-
gans make up a system of organs.
Most animal development occurs in an aqueous environment. In
mammals the fetus is surrounded by a fluid-filled amnion. Early devel-
opment may be strongly influenced by substances in the mother's blood,
such as alcohol or drubs. Human conception can be controlled by various
methods of birth control.
Development is usually under strict control, and in mature organisms
most cells seldom divide. When cells resume cell division without limit,
cancerous growth results. Cancer cells that invade other tissues are ma-
lignant; tumors are treated by surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy.

Application Questions Problems

1. Differentiation leads to organization into specialized 1. Generally, the ability to regenerate missing tissues
cells, tissues, and organs. Initially, in the embryo, it or organs decreases as complexity and
involves formation of specific embryonic cell layers. specialization in body organization of animals
What are these embryonic layers, and what increases. Investigate why this is so.
structures in the mature animal are formed from 2. How can biologists hope to learn more about aging
each of them? and death by studying development earlier in life?
2. A human developmental disorder called phocomelia
results in arrested development of arms and legs.
How does understanding the way thalidomide
affects embryos add to an understanding of
developmental disorders?
3. How does a fertilized egg differ from a blastula?
from a gastrula?
4. In what ways is the medical problem of cancer
related to an understanding of developmental
processes?

3r 2
220 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Suggested i,,,,iadings
P. Beaconsfield, G. Birdwood and R. Beaconsfield, "The G. S. Stcnt and D. A. Wcisblat, "The Development of a
Placenta" Scientific American (August 1980). Interesting Simple Nervous System" Scientific American (January
article discusses this remarkable organ, and its usefulness 1982). Traces the pedigree of nerve cells in the embryonic
for research after delivery. growth of dwarf and giant leeches.
G. Corea, 1985, The Mother Machine (New York: Harper A. C. Upton, "The Biological Effccts of Low-Level Ionizing
and Row). Reproductive technologies from artificial Radiation" Scientific American (February 1982). What is
insemination to artificial wombs. the hazard to humans of low-level radiation from natural
G. Hardin, "Some Biological Insights into Abortion" and artificial sources?
BioScience (October 1982). Discusses nonbiological as well
as biological aspects of the abortion issue.

3
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1 The embryonic cell layers are thi., ectoderm. endoderm. and 1 The phenomenon of regeneration is distributed in varying
mesoderm. which give rise to the following structures degrees throughout the animal kingdom tram sponges to
(a) Ectoderm brain, spinal cord, nerves. outer layer of skin. man Apparently the capacity for regeneration is limited to
ano skin derivatives (hair nails, feathers and scales) relatively unspectalized cells In the course of development
(b) Endoderm lining of the alimentary canal, liver, lungs. from zygote to adult. a series of restrictive changes occurs
and pancreas in cell potentiality. Highly specialized cells, indeed almost all
(c) Mesoderm muscles. skeleton. circulatory and exactory of the cells found in higher vertebrates. have all but lost the
systems, inner layer tit skin, and gonads ability to regenerate easily
2 Because of the similarities in the effects of thalidomide arid 2 Aging and death seem to be related to the inability of cells
phocomelia, investigators can compare thalidomide with to continue to divide and replace worn-out cells Continual
abnormalities in the chemical environment of early embryos study of embryonic development may shed more light on the
and try to discover the cause of phocomelia actual mechanism of division and on the reason the process
3. A fertilized egg is a single cell A blastuia is a ball of of division stops
embryonic cells with a fluid-filled cavity. A gastrula is an
embryo in which cells horn the surface have pushed to the
inside forming a new type of cavity that eventually becomes
the cavity of the digestive system
4 Cancer is a problem that concerns abnormal cell division
and metabolism Rapidly developing cancer cells get the
raw materials they use for division and growth from normal
cells or organs. Because cell division is one of the four
basic components in development, cancer may be
considered a developmental problem A better
understanding of developmental processes may provide
Clues to help in curbing or preventing abnormal cell growths

326
 ;

Tom E. Miyors/ TOM STACK ICASSOCIATES

Offspring are like their parents. ReticulahlxiOraffe. Giraffe camelopardalis reticulate.

327
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages

CHAPTER 8 T26-29
Key ideas
the probabilities involved in genetic events,
Mendel's contributions to genetics.
recent modihcations in Mendelian genetics.
the connection betwe'n theoretical genes
and -Nat" chromosomes.
Continuity through Heredity X -forked inheritance,
the DNA RNA amino acid sequence in
cells

Introduction
Development is a very complicated scrics of events, as you have just seen. Suggestion Introduce the topic of inheritame by
It results from a genetic program that is printed out over a period of projecting a slid_ showing a human family the
time. Just what does this mean? In a very general way, it means that more diverse the children, the better Ask what
certain events in development occur at certain times and in certain places, characteristics have been inherited Ask what
and that these events arc controlled by genes. That must mcan that some inheritance is
genes arc active at one time or at one place, whereas others function at
a different time or in a different place. The imrortance of the roles of
genes in living organisms has been hovering in the background throughout
the earlier chapters. Now we want to have a closer look at gcnes and
how !hey function.

Heredity Guidepost: How does mathematics

help us understand the
rules of heredity?
8.1. Genes Are the Information Bank
of the Cell
Since the invention of computers and of modern ways of handling
data, our,understanding of information has increased. When data arc
put into proper form, computers can handle vast amounts of information
in seconds. Genes are the information bank of the cell.
Heredity is the transmission of genetic information from one gener- 0
ation to the next. Genes store the information in a molecular code. This
information then is used by cells and organisms at specific times during
the life of the individual. The genes thus provide a set of instructions, a
genetic program, for the development of an individual. Just as in a data
bank, stored genetic information can be used again and again.

328 223
224 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 8.1 Offspring resemble their parents.

114L
.44

1-41111111

t4.'Y

BSCS by Carlye Calvin.

In a sense, the primary tunLtion of an organism Reproduction provides the means for the inheritance of genetic in-
is to reproduce genus the organism Is MUrtly a formation. When reproduction is viewed in this way, sperm cells are seen
vehicle to transfer genes from one generation to to be little more than bundles of genetic information, properly packaged
its descendants Ask your students how they
for delivery to the egg cell. The egg in turn has its own genetic infor-
feel about this idea
mation, plus a certain amount of raw material stored in the cytoplasm.
The study of genetics has shown that all wing Genes thus provide the continuity between generations that is essen-
organisms list the wire intorinabuii _torage tial for life. They also control to a large extent the structure, function,
transfer, and translation system it provide an and development of an organism during each generation. Without such
explanation for the stability of life and its an information system, life would be impossible.
possible descent from a common ancestral
form
8.2 Genetic Events Are Often Unexpected
The main point of this section is that th,-
t,ombination of parental gametes is not A bouncing baby girl was born to a joyous young couple. The beauty
random, it is unpredit table and alertness of the infant were striking. By the time the child was six
months old, however, the parents were very concerned. The baby was no
longer as alert, and she had trouble keeping her balance while sitting.
The little girl was easily startled by noises. She was no longer as obser-
vant, and gradually she became listless. Sootr, she could only lie on her
back.
For this young couple, hope had turned to despair. The infant was
diagnosed as having a serious genetic disorder, Tay-Sachs disease. The
problem lay in the child's lack of ability to break down a chemical sub-
stance in the brain. When that substance accumulates in brain cells, it
causes degeneration. The gradual degeneration of the nervous system
continued, and by two years of age the infant was paralyzed, blind, and
could be fed only with difficulty. She died before she was three years old.
The parents were crushed by this genetic tragedy. They also were
angry and perplexed. This disorder had never been known to occur in
either the father's or the mother's family. How then was it possible for
them to have a child with Tay-Sachs disease?

329
 Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 225

Figure 8.2"Eaah flip of a coin is an independent event.

Dr. Harold Edgerton. MIT. Cambridge. MA

The genetic counselor in the hospital was able to explain the reasons.
She had to tell them that the gene had been there all the time, and in
both families. The fact that the genetic disorder appeared in their child
was a matter of chance.
How can we predict whether a particular hereditary trait will appear
in an offspring? To predict means to make a statement with a certain
0
amount of confidence. The skill of prediction is used in the study and
practice of genetics all the time. Prediction in heredity is expressed in
terms of probability. It is important to know about probability in order
to understand the rules of heredity.

8.3 Probability Measures the Chance

of Certain Events
When a weatherman predicts that it could rain tomorrow, he might
say, "There is a 50 percent chance of rain tomorrow." He means that,
in his best judgment, there is a 50 percent probabilityin other words,
an even chancetha. , it will rain tomorrow. Given the same atmospheric
conditions on any- number of ;:imiiar days, it is likely to rain on half of
those days. With this prediction in mind, we might take our umbrellas
just to be on the safe side. In a long series of such predictions, on half
the days we would need umbrellas, and on the other half we would not.
All this assumes, of course, that the weatherman is accurate. Each pre-
diction about the weather deals with a different, independent event. In-
dependent events are those that are unaffected by one another. For
example, one flip of a coin has no effect on other flips. Each flip is an
independent event.
The rules of genetics are much the same. Each time a particular It poszAblb to predk: the rnu6t pluLlatile
mating occurs; we can determine the probability that a specific trait will out_urnt in At t, ,.t.rt, but the
be preseht. We subtract that probability from 1, or 100 percent, to de- Pxpt, teed J lt.ornr raltAf'y
termine' the chance that the trait would not be present. The total of all resultt, Emphat-A,t that a pr i ti on 5 Linen Iittl -
the chances for a certain outcome must equal 1, or 100 percent. For mon, than a Ltucss basoi Of I u11.C1 VCd takis
example, if the probability that an event will happen is .25 (25 percent),
the the probability that it will not happen is .75 (75 percent).

:r
 226 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

The importance o. mathanat 110t For centuries it seemed that hereditary traits could not be predicted
limited to biology Nearly oily ,un,t.pt n 1,1 y be with any confidence. Eventually, in the 19th century, a set of rules was
expressed mathematically thin fa, t I io., discovered. These rules made use of some elementary mathematics. The
contributed to rapid adanc.ement 11-314
rules were so simple that no one believed they could be correct. In fact,
areas, especially with the advent of Lomputer
mathematics was not thought to be important in biology at all. Surely
models, or programs capable of ponderous
mathematical calculations necessary for
heredity was not just another game of chance.
predictions involving numerous variables

Self-Review

1. How are genes like an information bank?

2. What is a genetic program?
3. Why is probability important in genetics?

Investigation 8.1
Investigation 8.1 PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
Introduction
The ideas developed Ai triio iri.e.tigotion are The probability of a chance event can be calculated mathematically using
necessary for understanding genetics They are the following formula:
basic also to an understanding of all modern
number of events of choice
science Science deals largely some scientists probability
number of possible events
would say entirely) with probabilitiesnot with
certainties For example trit pnn0iplc. of What is the probability that you will draw a spade from a shuffled deck
probability are at work in the ikdritegi atiui Of of cards? There are 52:cards in the deck (52 possible events). Of these,
r...ioactive atomic nude, and the __41,-51o11,-. ul 13 cards are spades (13 events of choice). Therefore, tne probability of
molecules in gases, <14 v`,t.t1 it 1 Mi.. Jistitutiati choosing 1 spade from this deck is 13/52 (or 1/4 or 0.25 or 25%). Use
of genes from one gen _rJtion to the next the formula to determine the probability that you will draw the ace of dia-
monds. Again there are 52 possible events, but this time there is only 1
Procedure event of choice. The probability is 1/52.
6 Five heads in 10 tosses The observed
number may be different Materials (per pair of students)
2 pennies (1 shiny, 1 dull)
Discussion
cardboard box
1-4 Depends or student data
5 Increasing the number of tosses
decreases the average percentage deviation Procedure
Point out the relationship between this 1. Student A: Prepare a scoresheet with 2 columns. Label 1 column H
conclusion about size of sample and the (heads). Label the other T (tails).
practice, in several past investigation of Student B: Toss a penny 10 times. Toss it into a cardboard box to
combining team data prevent the coin from rolling away.
6 Two columns Both H arid Dull H Shiny T 2. Student A: Use a slash mark (/) to indicate the result of each toss.
7 4, is best to use decimal fractiori.
Tally it in the appropriate column on the scoresheet. After the 10th
8 Analogous item 6 toss, draw a line across the 2 columns and pass the sheet to student
10 Only 1 Botn H Note that the only use of B. Take the penny and make 10 tosses.
Both T is to calculate the total Student B: Tally the results of student A's tosses. Draw a line across
12, 13 It should be closest to the product the scoresheet.
Make sure students understand IN., 3. Students A and B: Continue reversing the roles until the results of 100
generalization The probability that 2 (10 series of 10) tosses have been tallied.
independent random events will occur
simultaneously is the product of their individual
probabilities

33.E
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 227

4. Student A: Prepare a scoresheet with 4 columns: Both H, Both T, Dull

H/Shiny T, and Dull T/Shiny H. (H = heads; T = tails)
Student B: Obtain 2 pennies-1 dull and 1 shiny. Toss both pennies
together 20 times.
Student A: Tally each result in the appropriate column of the score-
sheet.
5. Students A and B: Reverse roles once (resulting in a total of 40 tosses).
6. (a) How many heads does probability lead you to expect in a series
of 10 tosses of the penny?
(b) How many did you actually observe?

Discussion
Deviation is a measu. of the difference between expected and ob-
served results. It is not the t fference itself. It is the ratio of the difference
between expected and observed results to the total number of observa-
tions. To calculate deviation, 1st determine the difference between the
number of heads you expected and the number of heads you observed.
Then determine the difference between the number of tails you expected
and the number of tails you observed. Add these 2 numbers together. Di-
vide the sum by the total number of tosses. This will give you the deviation.
Thus:

difference between difference between

heads expected and + tails expected and
heads observed -tails observed
deviation
number of tosses

1. Calculate the deviation for each of the 10 sets of 10 tosses.

,2. Then calculate the deviation for your team's total (100 tosses).
3. Add the data of all teams in your class. Calculate the class deviation.
4. If your school has more than 1 biology class, combine the data of all
classes. Calculate the deviation for all classes.
5. How does increasing the number of tosses affect the average size of
the deviation? You have just worked out an important principle of
probability. What is it?
6. On the chalkboard, record the data on tossing 2 pennies together.
Total each column of the chart. In how many columns do data con-
cerning heads of a dull penny appear?
7. In what fraction of the total number of tosses did heads of dull pennies
occur?
8. In how many columns do data concerning heads of a shiny penny
occur?
9. In what fraction of the total number of tosses did heads of the shiny
pennies occur?
10. In how many columns do heads of both dull and shiny pennies appear?
11. In what fraction of the total number of tosses did heads of both pen-
nies appear at the same time?
12. To which of the following is this fraction closest: to the sum, the dif-
ference, or the product of the 2 fractions for heads on 1 penny at a
time?
13. You have just worked out a 2nd important principle. It is the relation-
ship between the probabilities of separate events and the probability
of a combination of events. What is this relationship?

332
228 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Guidepost: How did Mendel's Mendelian Genetics

experiments lay the
foundation for modern
genetics? 8.4 Mendel Did Experiments
with Garden Peas
The screntifk stud, 1,, rtgity 1,,t 1,,,a i.. w,11, The basic rules of heredity were discovered by Gregor Mendel, a monk
t,,lendel but tie mad, kV who was trained as a mathematician and natural scientist (figure 8.3).
brotbgtcal thiritNing
Mendel was born in 1822, in what is today Czechoslovakia, and as a
young man joined the monastery in Brno. The son of a peasant farmer,
Students are usuaIlty
Ti _
Mendel was especially interested in the inheritance of animal and plant
amused by early s,:ienrir,_ tap_
prevalent thinking Mn jtI tor,-
f-
features (traits or characteristics). When the parents showed different
Inhentanct AtdS that of blerninli tali
forms of a trait, their offspring seemed to be hybrid (HY brid)that is,
mat and shoal woman wiitaid rn-diuni they expressed traits from both parents. How did this happen?
height oft6prartg a wi ,,t,- !Jill, Mendel began a series of experiments to explore this problem. He
a gra\ foal This tar , ;I,. selected ordinary garden peas for his experiments and collected various
observable facts 41, J4 strains of peas from seedsmen. Then he tested each strain to make cer-
y

tain it was genetically pure. If all the plants appeared the same gener-
Mende,-1,:iondu,_ted to ation after generation, that showed the plants were pure b teding, or
years 1856 to 1864 using thias,ind- of that they bred true.
(a) Mendel's work, which we now call Mendelian genetics, provides the
A detailed ,,, ad ,I41, i basis for the modern study of heredity and variation. His experiments
fivtvrriny vu__, 1,, ,f If, 1, t,I

differed in four important ways from those of other scientists. First,_he

tiers the Intent is -,uttt_,,, it
1-, I,
concentrated on one trait at a time. Second, he used large numbers of
understanding to maF j_i -.
organisms so that his data were statistically sound. Third, lie combined
the results of many identical experiments. And fourth, he used the rules
In ihts section remind stu,ients that a pi-. d fd
is the hf,ainnalg of the next -a, rier;it,on Th,
of probability to analyze his results.
seed characteristics or tnt 1,ari-rt pl.int, Mendel chose strains that showed two different forms of the same
thOSe of the seeds I. If w Thr, , trait. Plants were either tall or short, for example, or produced either
noi,t to i aus. awl, if t 1
green or yellow seed colors. It was important to have distinct and con-
Lonsidered tov,,,ttit r trasting forms of a given trait, so that he could follow the differences in
the offspring. In all, he worked with the seven different traits in pea plants
shown in figure 8.4.
Figure 8.3 Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) Flowers of garden peas contain both male and female reproductive
parts, as shown in figure 8.5. Although the pea plant usually self-
pollinates under natural conditions, it is possible to interfere with the
process. One can collect pollen grains from flowers of one pea plant and
transfer them to flowers of another plant. Such cross-pollination results
in seeds that are the offspring of two parent plants, not just one.
In his first experiments, Mendel crossed pure-b, eeding plants that
grew from round seeds with pure-breeding plants from wrinkled seeds.
Would the offspring of that cross produce round seeds, wrinkled seeds,
or something in between?
Mendel found that all the plants from that cross produced round seeds.
The wrinkled form of the trait had somehow disappeared in the hybrid
plantsthe first generation. Today we call the parents of such a cross
the P1 (for parental) generation. The offspring are called the first filial
generation, or F1 generation.
Now Mendel allowed the F1 seeds to grow into plants, and then to
self-pollinate. The resulting seeds wen. planted and gave rise to the F2
(second filial) generation. In those plants, approximately 3/4 of the seeds
were round, and Vs were wrinkled. The form that had disappeared in the
F1 generation (wrinkled seeds) had reappeared in the F2 generation.

The-Bettrnan Archive

at at.

1.,
333
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 229

Figure 8.4 The seven traits of garden peas studied by Mendel.

constricted yellow terminal short

Figure 8.5 The flower and fruit of the garden pea. (a) The flower is normally
self-pollinating because its stamens and pistil are enclosed by modified petals
that prevent cross pollination. (b) The petals are shown opened. (c) An enlarged
view of the reproductive structures of the flower.

a
immature ovary
seeds
style
stigma

stamens
pistil

anthersv pollen

8.5 Mendel Explained His Results

In explaining these results, Mendel introduced two important terms !II I, q I I Ili I ft It, I \IVitt) (It

that we still use today. He called the characteristic seen in all the F1 .L.0 II 111i , it ',With-, 1110_1y111,1 Other

plants the dominant trait. The one that disappeared temporarily in the ,1, rvIt,11,1,1 - tht:
F1 but reappeared in the F2 generation, he called the recessive trait.
Mendel repeated this same two-generation cross for six other traits.
The data from the F2 generations, totaled for all his experiments, are
shown in table 8.1. He then calculated the ratio of dominant to recessive

334
230 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

This table should be a final point ,J.f ,f-.11:,DUI I

Table,13:1',9eaulta'n friSni MeridellS"experirnentiT
Students should knoo, what a iatio I. and
become aware of the significance of the data P, Cross F, Plants F2 Plants Actual
On the basis of later experimental work some Ratio
biologists have declare.] that Mendel must have 1. round X 5474 round
fudged his figures, More charitable writers have wrinkled all round 1850 wrinkled 2.96: 1
s iggested that Mendel intended his figures to be seeds 7324 total
illustrative only. However, error of detail does not
2. yellow X 6022 yellow
detract from the discovery of an inclusive
green all yellow 2001 green 3.01 : 1
principle, No degree of accuracy, however,
seeds 8023 total
wk.,uld have ,orripeli,,ated tut faulty tea.oiiiiiy
leading to insupportable conclusions, 3. colored X 705 colored
white all colored 224 white 3.15: 1
seed coats 929 total
4. inflated X 882 inflated
constricted all inflated 299 constricted 2.95 : 1

pods 1181 total

5. green X 428 green
yellow all green 152 yellow 2.82: 1
pods 580 total
6. axial X 651 axial
terminal all axial 207 terminal 3.14: 1
flowers 858 total
7. long X 787 long
short all long 277 short 2.84: 1
stems 1064 total

forms for each trait. In each case the dominant form appeared in about
3/4 of the plants, and the recessive form appeared in about IA of the F2
plants. All the experiments showed the same simple ratio (3:1), regard-
less of the trait being tested. What was the meaning of this result?
One of Mendel's insights of genius at this critical time was that the
parent plants must transmit, through their gametes, tiny "elements" that
control the development of traits. We now know that these elements are
genes, and we will use that term from now on.
Another important contribution Mendel made was to assign symbols
to different genes. Letters of the alphabet were chosen to represent each
trait. In our cross, the symbol R is used to represent the gene for the
dominant trait (round), and r is used to represent the gene for the re-
cessive trait (wrinkled).
Now study figure 8.6, which will help you understand Mendel's ex-
planation. We can use symbols on the diagram that represent the traits
0 in three generations of pea plants. The two different forms of one gene
that are paired, such as R and r, are called alleles (uh LEELZ). In a
plant that is pure breeding for round seeds, both alleles are the same in
every cell: RR. In the same way, plants that are pure breeding for wrin-
kled seeds also have two alleles that are the same, in this case rr. The
pure breeding round plants produce gametes with one R allele (plus, of
course, all the rest of the genes in their genome as well). Plants that
produce only wrinkled seeds form gametes with one r allele. (Review the
discussion of meiosis in chapter 6.)
ID Such pure-breeding plants, which have both alleles alike, are said to
be homozygous (hch moh ZY gus). That simply means that the two
members of a pair cf alleles present in an individual are the same (RR

335
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 231

Figure 8.6 One of Mendel's crosses, using round versus wrinkled peas. Note
that the genes of a pair segregate during gamete formation.

or rr). When the two paired alleles have different genetic information,
we say that the individual is heterozygous (het eh roh ZY gus)meaning
0
two different alleles (itr).
The genetic makeup of the organismsymbolized in this case by RR,
Rr, or rris called its genotype (JEE noh typ). The genotype does nut
tell us what the plant will look like, however. In the case of the genotype
Rr the dominant trait (R) will be expressed. The recessive trait (r) will
not. The description of the plant's appearance is its phenotype (FEE noh
typ). In this case, the phenotype being examined is round seeds. You can
study the relationship of genotype to phenotype in investigation 8.2.

100,Stigation 8.2 SEEDLING PHENOTYPESL

Investigation 8.2
Introduction SEEDLING PHENOTYPES

One variety of pea produces short vines and another produces tall vines. The nature-nurture argument in its various
A little observation show, however, that the size of plants is affected by forms has had a long history This investigation
the kind of soil in which the plants grow. Scientists can control this variable presents Mu problem in its modern context
by growing all test plants in the same soil. However, we may still raise these
questions: To what extent is the phenotype of an organism the result o: its Materials
genotype? And, to what extent is the phenotype influenced by its environ-
ment? Seeds of corn or sorghum may be used, but
tobacco requires very little space for
germinating large numbers of seeds This is
Materials (per team) particularly important in providing for darkness
60 tobacco seeds A single box on a window ledge will hold the
2 nonnutrient agar petri dishes petri dishes of several classes Moreover, the
2 forceps small size of the tobacco seeds often arouses a
hand lens or dissecting microscope great deal of student interest
glass-marking crayon
box (1 per classlarge enough to cover half the dishes used by e class)

336
232 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Procedure Procedure
Have the seeds counted out before the 1. Label the petri dishes A and B.
laboratory period and ,11 ail vial., 2. Sprinkle 30 tobacco seeds into each dish. Using forceps, arrange the
to the teams seeds so that each is at least twice its own length from any other.
Before i,uonting btgaiL., 6 1, 16 Jaw.: art 3. Cover the dishes and label with your team symbol. Put both dishes in
normally required If the cxptniiient s .tit up a warm place that receives strong light but not direct sunlight.
a Monday, the first tuu i t usually dl i ik.L.it 8 4. Cover the B dishes of all teams with a box that will keep them in dark-
days later (on a Tuesday), and the last count ness.
ocuirs on a Friday If tht eAuttitift it w t.t uu 5. Check the dishes each day. When at least 1/2 the seeds have germi-
on a Friday, the first i..out it Ili Lt. li.adt. Lai tilt.. nated (sprouted), examine them with a hand lens or dissecting micro-
10th day (a Monday) Other schedules Involve scope.
an in.orivenient breaK fur a w tl'tnJ 6. Each young tobacco plant has a colorless root and 2 tiny leaves, the
Teams of 4 art sugge,t1,1 pail of cotyledons (figure 8.7). Usually the root appears first, but in this ex-
students tan coot it it, al periment you are concerned only with the cotyledons. Some seedlings
the other pair, those ai.)i, have green cotyledons and some have cream-colored, or yellowish,
i,hekirig, the ,...1.4.1111 of or her pdrtlitt ones. Count the number of each kind in each dish. At least 2 members
Exchanging dishes bttwet,i1 purr , uti altLrnalt. of the team should make counts. Recount if there is disagreement.
days provides a further check and emphasizes
team responsibility
While counting is In progress, check the
Figure 8.7 Stages in the germination of a tobacco seed.
counts of dish B (on day 1 especially) The
distinction between the yellow and green
cotyledons is sometimes rather difficult to make tobacco seed seed coat
Take care that the white radicles, which emerge cotyledon
from the seed coat first, are riot counted

X 25

a b

7. Using a form such as the one below, record the counts opposite
day 1.

Dish A Dish B

0/0 0/0

Day Green Yellow Yellow Green Yellow Yellow

2
>< ><
3

4
>< >.<
8. Replace the lids. Return the dishes to the assigned location.
9. On day 2, make another count. Record the counts. Return the dishes
to the assigned location. This time do not cover the B dishes. Allow
all dishes to remain exposed to light.
10. Calculate the percentage of yellow seedlings. To do this, divide the
number of seedlings with yellow cotyledons by the total number of ger-
minated seeds. Make this calculation for each dish.
11. On day 3, count the seedlings again. Record the counts and return
the dishes to the light.
12. On day 4, make final counts and calculate th rcentage of seedlings
with yellow cotyledons in each dish.

337
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 233

Discussion Discussion

1. From the data obtained on day 2, compare the percentages of yellow 1 If all goes well there should be some
seedlings in dishes A and B. In what ways are they different? grilen seedlings in dish A and none in dish B
2. What experimental variable may be associated with this difference? 2 The only difference Lc the
3. Can this variable be considered the cause of yellow color in tobacco presenue of light ui dish arid the iauk of it in
seedlings? Why or why not? dish B
4. Compare the percentage of yellow seedlings in dish B on day 2 with 3 Nvt unless all the. seedlings di dish A are
the percentage on day 4. What change occurred? green
5. What experimental variable is associated with this change? 4 Thu percentage: of green seedlings on
6. Can this variable be considered the cause of yellow coloration in to- day 4 in dish B should bu greater than 0
bacco seedlings? Why or why not? 5 The change from dark to light
7. How can you account for the difference among the seedlings in environment
dish A? 6 Not unless 100 percent of the yellow
8. Do any data support the statement that the yellow color of tobacco seedlings became green
seedlings is caused by environment? If so, which data? 7 Because all the seedlings were: exposed
'9: Do any data support the statement that the yellow color of tobacco to the. same: environmental uonditiuris, it is
seedlings is caused by heredity? If so, which data? reasonable to curi,lude that the differences are
10. Try to formulate a statement that accounts for all the data. hereditary.
8 The data trom dish Bon day 2. taken in
isolation. might be considered as supporting ths
hypothesis
8.6 The Explanation Depended 9 The data from dish A. taken in isolation,
on Random Fertilization might be considered as supporting this
hypothesis
Mendel realized that the 3:1 ratio he. obtained in all his F2 crosses
10 Lack of chlorophyll in tobacco seedlings
must result from some common cause. There must be a reason to explain
can result either from a genetic or from an
the mathematical regularity in the way genes behaved. environmental factor Or, in ianguage less likely
A plant. homozygoile ''or a-particular kind of gene produces only one lv uume from students, the environment may
kind of gamete. We say tile probability is 1that is, it happens 100 greatly alter or even entirely suppress a genetic
.percent of the timethat a plant with the RR combination of genes will putential Indmdual phenotypes fridy bu diffeient
produce gametes containing the R allele. Likewise, plants with the rr even though their genotypes art the same
combination of genes can produce only gametes containing r. Atter conclusions have been reached by
When gametes carrying an R allele unite with gametes carrying an eacti twin separatt 1/, pool the data of all ttains
,r allele, all the offspring will have the combination Rr (probability on the chalkboard Calculate the ratio of green
to yellow and relate the ratio to Mendel's results
= 1). The new organism, represented by the symbols Rr in this case, is
Some questions for class discussion What
'called a heterozygote with respect to the genes for round and wrinkled
must have been the genotypes of the parent
sef,ds. Mendel found that all such F1 plants produce round seeds. There- plants'? What must have been their phenotypes'?
fore, apparently only one R allele is needed in =, pair of alleles to direct When investigating this trait, could you follow the
the plant to form round seeds. Rourhi 'eeds is the dominant trait. P1-F,-F2 sequence of generations?
Now the F1 flowers will tr,iif-pollinate to form the next generation of
plants. When the Rr heterozygous plants form gametes, rte will carry R, It is essential that the student read this section
and rte will carry r. That means that both the male and female parts of fully You will need to help them with the
the plant will f um gametes of two kines, because both are heterozygous, difficult concepts
that is, they contain R and r.
It now be times clear that the explanation of Mendel's results de-
pends on random fertilization among the gametesIn other words, any
sperm nucleus can fertilize any egg : ..zleus, regardless of genotype. The
chance of a union between any particular kind of °sperm or egg depends
on nothing other than the number of each kind of gamete available.
Now we can apply some well-known rules of probability. If two in-
dependent events occur, the probability that both will occur at the same
time is the mathematical product of the two separate probabilities. For
instance, if the chance of a penny landing heads-up is rte, and the chance
of a dime landing heads-up is 1h, then the chance of both coins landing
heads-up, when flipped at the same time, is 1/2 X th, or 'A.

33
 234 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

In discussing probabilities, it may help some In the same way, when an Rr plant self-pollinates, the chance of an
students conceptualize by saying the probability
R gamete (probability of being present = 1/2) fertilizing an R gamete is
(as in 1'2) is one in two instead of one-half
112 X 1/2 = 1/4. Likewise, rr individuals would be expected in 1/4 of the
cases. But the chance that an R gamete will fertilize an r gamete is' ,
not IA, because this event can happen in two ways. If the R gamete comes
from a male, and the r gamete comes from a female, then the probability
of that union is 1/4. But there is another way an Rr individual can come
about: when the R gamete comes from a female, and the r gamete comes
from a male. That probability is also 1/4. Because the Rr result can be
reached in two different ways, the probabilities of these two separate
events must be added together (not multiplied), giving a total proba-
bility of 1/2. In figure 8.6 you can see why these probabilities are correct.
Mendel made his experimental crosses both wayswith RR plants
serving as either the male parent or as the female parent. By combining,
the ideas of probability and random mating, as Mendel did, we can un-
derstand the mathematical regularity in such crosses. If more than one
trait is involved in the cross, the explanation becomes more complicated.
And yet the same principles apply.

This section may require some explication, Use 8.7 Mendel Also Crossed Plants
problems freely. Ears of corn that illustrate
that Differed in Two Traits
dihybrid ratios can be obtained from biological
supply houses. Later Mendel did make more complicated crosses. For example, he
crossed plants that were pure breeding for both round seed shape and
yellow seed color with plants that were pure breeding for wrinkled seed
shape and green seed color. Such an experiment is called a dihybrid cross.
Knowing that the round and yellow traits are dominant to wrinkled
and green, you might predict that the F1 seeds will be all round and
yellow. You would be correct. What kinds of seeds would you expect
when plants that grow from the Fl generation are allowed to self-
pollinate?
Do the genes for round and yellow always travel together into the
same gametes? Or do they separate into different gametes? If they travel
together, the result would be 34 round, yellow seeds and 1/4 wrinkled, green
seeds. If they do not travel together, more kinds of F2 offspring would
be expected.
This modification of a Punnett square provides The experimental results are shown in figure 8.8. When you count,
another approach to an understanding of a you will find four different phenotypes. They do not occur with equal
dihybrid cross It is graphic but contains the
frequency, however. The ratio of the four types is 9/16 to 3/16 to 3/16
danger (as does figure 8 6) that students may
count the gametes and peas instead of
to 1/16sometimes called the 9:3:3:1 ratio. Count the different kinds
to confirm this ratio.
interpreting them as ratios Note that the two
characteristics are both of the embryo Difficulty
These results can be explained. Suppose that both the stamens and
may arise if one attempts to combine embryo ovules produced not two, but four kinds of gametes. The R allele could
and mature plant traits, such as seed color and go into a gamete with the Y allele. It could, however, equally often go
vine length. into a gamete together with a y allele. With which allele for seed color
would you expect to find the r allele for shape in a gamete?
Emphasize that r can combine with either Y or When these gametes come together in random fertilization, 16 com-
.Y. binations are possible. Mendel correctly calculated that there are nine
(count them) different genotypes, as shown in table 8.2.

339
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 235

Figure 8.8 A dihybrid cross. R = gene for round seed; r = gene for wrinkled
seed; Y = gene for yellow seed; y = gene for green seed.

1/4 1/4
F
1

1/4 1/4

1/4 'Mt 1/4

male gametes female gametes

gI

F2

The symbols may be written different thdyS

3:410.10.4;2 Mendel one paragraph wrote
Fraction Genotype Phenotype Fraction AB AB
, and so nn--u symbolism
1/16 RRYY round, yellow AB fib
that takes on some meaning in connection with
2^1O RrYY round, yellow the chromosome theory.
9/16
2/ 16 RRYy round, yellow

4/ 16 RrYy round, yellow

1/16 RRyy round, green

3/16
2/16 Rtyy rotind, green /
1/16 rrYY wrinkled, yellow
3/16
2/16 rrYy wrinkled, yellow f
1/1O rtyy wrinkled, green 1/16

340
236 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

It is not hard to see that as the number of pairs of genes for different
traits in a cross increases, the number of possible genotypes becomes
larger. Thus, there will be many kinds of genotypes formed among the
offspring of two parents who differ in many genes.

8.8 Mendel Proposed Three Principles

In his publication reporting these experiments, Mendel clearly stated
three principles that explain his experiments:
Make dear to your students that aiitii a art: I wt 1. The principle of dominance: When there are two different alleles of
dominant or recessive Only traits arG Aibu, at a gene in an individual, the allele for the dominant trait will be ex-
the molecular level, butte allel s arc expressed pressed, whereas the allele for the recessive trait will not be ex-
However, the effects of the allele for the pressed.
dominance trait may mask those of the allele for
2. The principle of segregation: The two alleles of a gene are segre-
the recessive trait
gated (separated) during gamete formation, so a gamete carries only
one member of each gene pair.
3. The principle of independent assortment: When more than one trait
is studied in the same cross, the genes for each trait assort into the
gametes independently of the genes for other traits.
Review the sections on meiosis in chapter 6. Note that principles 2
and 3 can be explained by the way the chromosomes line up during
Meiosis I. Research since Mendel's time has shown that principles 1 and
3 are not universally true. In some cases both alleles of a gene may be
expressed. Exceptions tv principle 3 are obvious in studies that show that
genes for two different traits may be linked, that is, they are on the same
chromosome. For example, in humans the gene for the Rh blood group
and the gene for a disease known as PKU are both on chromosome 1.
A geneticist studying those traits would find no evidence of independent
assortment.
Although Mendel used garden peas in his experiments, his findings
are applicable to humans. Recall the young girl with Tay-Sachs disease,
from section 8.2. Medical geneticists now know that Tay-Sachs disease
is a recessive disorder. Assume that T represents the normal allele, and
that t represents the abnormal allele. What are the genotypes of mother,
Mother and lather Tt, L.11.10 tt Phatiatofity tut father, and child? What can the genetic counselor tell this couple about
child to have Tay Sachs diseube 25 the that their next child will have Tay-Sachs disease?

8.9 Some Traits Are Not Inherited According

to Mendel's Rules
In Mendel's experiments, one allele was dominant over the other. A
pea plant with a genotype YY (homozygous yellow-seeded) may look like
a Yy individual (heterozygous yellow-seeded). Geneticists now know of
many cases in which neither allele dominates the other: they are codom-
inant. Three phenotypes result. Hybrid organisms show an intermediate
degree of the trait. Their phenotype is different from that of both the
homozygous parents. An example is flower color in morning glories, rep-
resented in figure 8.9.
0 With codominance and just two kinds of alleles, three phenotypes are
possible. In some cases, there are more than two kinds of alleles for a
trait. They are known as multiple alleles, and result in more than three

341
 Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 237

Figure 8.9 Inheritance of flower color in morning glories, an example of

° codominance.

phenotypes. Normally, an individual has only two of these alleles for any 0 n., aanutatori used liege tut the biuod type
traitone gene from its male parent, the other from its female parent. ...onfusival that might result it A
A good example of multiple alleles is the inheritance of certain blood and B wen= r and P art; Lodornindr
characteristics in humans. In some cases, blood from one person can be both are dominant over I.
transfused safely to another person. In other cases, it cannot. A system
exists for distinguishing the types of human blood that are important in Genotype Blood Type
transfusions. These were designated Type A, Type B, Type AB, and Type (Phenotype)
0. Together they constitute the ABO system. PP or Pi
ABO types are determined by three alleles: J4, /8, i. Allele J4 causes PP or /8i B
the formation of blood factor A. Allele J8 causes the formation of factor
-4/B AB
B. Allele i does not cause either factor to form. The table shows the
genotypes that are responsible for the various phenotypes. ii O
Many traits do not have only two, or a few, phenotypes. Instead, they
vary continuously. Suppose you plotted on a graph the heights of all the
tenth graders in your school. Between the shortest and tallest person
there would be many other people that cover the whole range of height.
This kind of trait is different from one such as Tay-Sachs disease, which :JutAP:Xi Nut ...L.144 140(404 su==it wadi:Mo.;
is either present or absent. That kind of trait is called discontinuous or thdt dlustratrs hole+ Olt; tolvit co trite; it itifluttmlb
discrete. Such traits are generally controlled by a single pair of genes. tit:ruddy in humans Students mil ullet vanuus
Continuous variability is explained by polygenic inheritance. That is examit; Impruyed diet has Ceti tu aloe:abed
the interaction of multiple genes (many gene pairs) with a large number arc -rage height and weight fur U u 4..it=zens On
the negahvc safe, many harmful environmental
of passible environmental variables. This concept of multiple genes is
agents add to genetic tendencies to develop
very different from that of multiple alleles. Geneticists believe that most
disorders such as heart kind cacu story disf
human traits are determined by polygenic inheritance. Environmen. plays emphysema, ac so on Otner
a major in such inheritance. Some disorders such as cleft lip and envac =mental agents add to a genetic
spina bifida are polygenic. They are caused by a number of genes in dispusitivn tu devel ..ank.et ;1Idtiitb should
teracting with certain environmental factors in the mother's uterus during IA. able to name examples ut == = ut thu
pregnancy. pollutants and other harmful agent

342
238 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

A variety of genetics problems is available in the Self-Review

Teacher's Resource Book if you feel your
students need practice
1. What were the keys to success in Mendel's experiments?
2. How can you cross plants that normally self-pollinate?
3. What are alleles?
4. Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous.
5. How does a phenotype differ from a genotype?
6. What is meant by independent assortment?
7. Show how the 9:3:3:1 ratio is obtained.
8. How do multiple alleles and continuous variability account for the
presence of more than two phenotypes of a trait?

Guidepost: What is the relationship Genes and Chromosomes

between gene; and
chromosomes?
8.10 Genes and Chromosomes Show
Similar Behavior
The potential importance of Mendel's work at No one seemed to understand Mendel's work when he reported it in
the time of its publication cannot be 1865. In 1900, three botanists, after performing similar experiments,
understated, as it closely followed publication of found Mendel's scientific report. They immediately recognized the im-
Darwin's The Origin of Species Since then, the portance of his work and gave him credit for being the first to discover
science of genetics has expanded rapidly,
the rules of heredity. Mendel's work was 35 years ahead of the rest of
pa.ticularly in the last two decades, but
biology.
Mendel's basic conclusions are still valid
The details of mitosis and meiosis were worked out between the pub-
lication of Mendel's work and its rediscovery in 1900. The new field of
cell biology grew rapidly. Did cell biology have any relationship to ge-
netics?
Within a few years a young graduate student at Columbia University,
Walter S. Sutton, and a well-known European biologist, Theodor Boveri,
had an answer. They pointed out similarities between the behavior of
Mendel's "elements" and the events of meiosis and fertilization. They
proposed that the Mendelian genes were physically located in the chro-
mosomes. These parallel features are summarized in table 8.3.
The brilliant insight of Boveri and Sutton was not proved correct until
an important organism had been introduced into genetic research. This
was the small, complex fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster (droh SOF
it uh MEL an oh GAS ter), shown in figure 8.10. In 1931 the direct
relationship of genetic and chromosomal events was demonstrated in both
0 Drosophila and the corn plant. The chromosome theory of heredity was
firmly established. It stated that genes are small particles located in the
chromosomes.

The advantages of using D melanogaster in

laboratory (and genetic) researct are many. 8.11 Chromosomes Help Explain Sex
The flies can be gown in bottles and fed on Determination
rotten fruit or yeast; the life cycle is completed in
two weeks, females can lay hundreds of eggs in From 1909 to 1928, T. H. Morgan, the first person to win a Nobel
only a few days That means that nearly thirty 0 Prize for work in genetics, led a group that studied Drosophila. When
generations, consisting of thousands of flies, Morgan began his work, it was already knc Ain that Drosophila has four
can occur in the course of a year pairs of chromosomes. Three pairs are alike in shape and size, but one

343
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 239

Table:8:3 +kstitrimarit of the Bovei-SuttPti.theorY:

Figure 8.10 An adult fruit fly, Drosophila
Hypothesis of Gene Behavior Observations of Chromosome melanogastei.
Behavior
1. Gametes have half the number 1. Gametes have half the number
of genes that body cells have. of chromosomes that body cells
have.
2. The gene pairs separate during 2. Chromosome pairs separate
,gamete formation. during gamete formation.
3. In fertilization gametes unite, 3. In fertilization chromosomes
restoring the original number of unite, restoring the original
genes. number of chromosomes.
4. The individual genes remain 4. Individual chromosomes retain
unchanged from one generation their structure from one
to the next. generation to the next.
5. The number of possible gene 5. The number of possible
combinations can be calculated. chromosome combinations can
be calculated.

_ Peter J. Bryant /BPS /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Pair of chromosomes is different in males and in females (see figure 8.11).
Because these chromosomes determine the sex of an organism, they are
called sex chromosomes. Females have two similar chromosomes, called Figure 8.11 Chromosomes of Drosophila
X chromosomes. Males have one X chromosome just like the female's, arranged in pairs.
and one completely different sex chromosome. It is small and hook
shaped, and is called the Y chromosome.
This chromosome difference gave the first clue about sex determi-
nation. All eggs produced by the female in meiosis must contain an X
chromosome. Males, on the other hand, produce two kinds of sperm. One
'kind contains an X chromosome, Lad the other, a Y chromosome. They
0
are produced with equal probability. An X-bearing egg can thus be fer-
tilized by either an X-bearing sperm or a Y-bearing sperm. Half the
offspring, therefore, will be XX (female), and half will be XY (male).

8.12 Abnormal Development May Be Due

to an Unusual Number or Structure
of Chromosomes male
It took years of work (until 1956) before scientists knew definitely
that the diploid number of chromosomes in human cells is 46. Human
chromosomes are very small, and special techniques are used to stain
them and make them easier to study.
Good human chromosome preparations can be photographed. Then
the pictures of individual chromosomes are cut apart and pasted onto a
sheet of paper in order of size. This preparation, called a karyotype (KAR
ee oh typ), permits us to count and identify chromosomes. Any unusual,
missing, or extra chromosomes can be detected. Figure 8.12 shows a
karyotype prepared in a hospital laboratory, and you can prepare karyo-
types in investigation 8.2.

female

344
240 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 8.12 The upper portion of the figure contains the 46 chromosomes of a
human male. Each appears double because of duplication prior to cell division.
The chromosomes have been separated from the rest of the cell. The lower part
of the figure, the karyotype, is a display of the chromosomes arranged in their
homologous pairs. It was prepared by cutting the individual chromosomes out of
the photograph and arranging them in their 23 pairs. Note the X and Y
chromosomes.

4001Pallt

r
62'

1 2 3

(C I I1-1
6 7 8 9 10 11

1 !I-' I g) 11-1
13 14 15 16 17 18

--i
19 20 21 22

David Peakman, Reproductive Genetics Center, Oenvor, CO

rF

345
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 241

Biologists confirmed from karyotypes that human beings have the

same pattern of sex chromosomes as Drosophila. Females are XX and
-males are XY. When we subtract the sex chromosomes, the remaining
22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes (AWT oh sohmz).
Geneticists discovered that persons with some kinds of birth defects
may have abnormal numbers or kinds of chromosomes. These chro-
mosomal abnormalities are present from birth, and often from the mo-
ment of fertilization.
One such condition is Down syndrome. Persons with this condition A syndrome can be defined as a group of
have distinctive features of the eyes, mouth, hands, and sometimes in- symptoms associated with a parth,ular disease
ternal organs, as you can see in figure 8.13. All have retarded mental or abnormality Not at afflicted persons will
development, though the degree of retardation is highly variable. necessarily e4hibit all of the Syl.iptoms Down
When the cells of such persons are examined, it is found that they Osyndrome may be diagno.ed prenatally using
contain 47, instead of 46, chromosomes. The extra autosome is the tiny amniocentesis Mongolism is not -urrently an
acceptable name for this syndrome
number 21. Down syndrome results from trisomy-21which simply
means three number-21 chromosomes.
In another condition resulting from a chromosome abnormality, fe-
males have no functional ovaries. Thus they are unable to produce ova.
In addition, they usually have short stature, webs of skin from the neck
to the shoulders, and other characteristics as well. These persons have
Turner syndrome (figure 8.14). The cells of females with Turner Syn- Be L.ei fain ,tudents understand this notation of
drome have only 45 chromosomes. Au X chromosome is missing, and X zero, and understand that it is used to signify
these persons are said to be X0 in their karyotypes. a missing chromosome

Figure 8.13 (a) Chromosomes in Down syndrome. (b) A child showing

characteristic facial features of Down syndrome.

13
bA14 15 16
all17
U le'

AA6
21 22 XY
Margery W. Shaw. M D J D.. University of Texas Health Science March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation
a Center at Houston b

346
242 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

In still another example, certain males that are very tall but usually
unable to reproduce have Klinefelter syndrome. The cells of these males
have an extra X chromosome: they are XXY.
Nonchsjundion provide:, eviderk.e..upporting the. 0 These abnormalities arise when chromosomes do not disjoin (sepa-
chromosome theory A spe.LifiL ob.3ervable rate) properly in meiosis. This nondisjunction of chromosomes results in
chromosome conditioi Lan be baked to a the formation of abnormal gametes. Some sperm or egg cells get extra
specific phenotype fi c.),..,u16 pi n i ianly u i fel i idles chromosomes, and some are missing chromosomes. Such gametes usu-
and most frequently toward the end of the ally result in abnormal development.
reproductive period

Figure 8.14 Chromosomes in Turner syndrome. Note there is only one X

chromosome.

«,
we sermiss

t
I

1 2 3

1, I
_ ( I/ II
6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Ft1 I I.- I-14

13 14 15 16 17 18

h it "11 1-11 41 g-r--I

19 20 21 22 X

David Peakman. Reproductive Genetics Center. Denver. CO

34
 Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 243

It appears that there must be at least two of each kind of chromosome

in every cell for survival of the embryo. A striking exception is the X Figure 8.15 Deletion occurs when a piece of
chromosorite. Only XO persons, with Turner syndrome, can survive chromosome is lost entirely. The deleted
missing a chromosome. segment may become attached to the
homologous chromosome, resulting in
Extra sex chromosomes (X or Y) usually permit a fetus to develop, duplication. In inversion, the position and
although sometimes development may be abnormal. Extra autosomes, sequence of genes change, rather than the total
however, except for trisomy-21, rarely permit development to continue. number Translocation occurs when segments
When fetuses are aborted spontaneously, their cells can be examined. break and move from one chromosome to a
nonhomologous chromosome.
Most of them have abnormal chromosome numbers. These did not allow
for normal development, and the embryo or fetus died.
Some abnorma:ties result from altered chromosome structure. For
4111011.deletion _pmmil
example, a piece of a chromosome may be missing (deletion), or a sec-
tion of a chromosome may be reversed (inversion). We can conclude that
the proper number and kinds of chromosomes, as well as the proper
1111104110-duplication-s- I
structure, are essentiarfor normal development. 111100. in ve rsi on AIM.
Advances in medical genetics have allowed the detection of chro-
mosomal abnormalities in the developing fetus. Such diagnoses are now
possible as early as 10 weeks after conception (see Biology Today in (11.110 ,(111141111
chapter 7, page 212). teansiocation
104111 ICEDC
ARy0TXPES . Investigation 8.3
Introduction KARYOTYPES

The analysis of human chromosomes has led to an understanding of

Students will appreciate this investigation
the relationship of chromosome abnormalities to certain genetic disorders.
more if they understand the process by which
Individual chromosomes are most easily studied during metaphase. At that
metaphase smears are produced Discuss the
time, each chromosome is composed of 2 chi'omatids connected by a cen-
process with them before they begin the
tromere. It is possible to stop the process of mitosis in metaphase by procedure
chemical means, and to photograph the chromosomes. The resultant pho-
It is essential that students' have good
tographs are called metaphase smears.
metaphase smears with which to develop the
Geneticists have developed a system for identifying each of the 46
two karyotypes Metaphase smear A should he
chromosomes. The 22 pairs of autosomes are- numbered from 1 to 22
a normal female 06, XX) or a normal male (46,
according to their length. The sex chromosomes are pair 23. It is very dif-
XY) Metaphase smear B should be a male (it
ficult to arrange chromosomes exactly according to number. However, the
you used a female: in A) with Down s\ ndrome
23 pairs have been arranged into 7 groups according to size and location
(47 XY, +21) or a female (if you used a male
of the centromere. The table below gives this information.
in A) with Down syndrome (47, Xx,
Fine photographs of metaphase smears are
{Table, 8:4`; available from Ward s Natural bcitri,_e
Establishment and Carolina Biological Supply
Group Chromosomes Characteristics
Co , or you ,an uc,e, the drawing., of int,taphst,
A 1, 2, 3 very long; centromeres in center of smears from the Teacher's Resource Book
chtomosomes
B
Discussion
4 and 5 long; centromeres away from center of
chromosomes 1 One of the karyotypes should be a male
and the other a female
C 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, medium length; centromeres away from
12, X 2 The second karyotype will have an extra
center of chromosomes
chromosome number 21 Students may not
D 13, 14, 15 medium length; centromeres at or very recognize the extra one as a 21, but they should
near end of chromosomes determine that there is an extra chromosome in
E 16, 17, 18 group G
somewhat short; centromeres awai from
center of chromosomes 3 The chromosome abnormality will result in
sonic kind of genetic disorder, in this case Down
F 19 and 20 short, centromeres in center of syndrome This answer wilt depend upon your
chromosomes students' background in human genetics
G 21, 22, Y very short; centromeres at or very near
end of chromosomes

348
244 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Genetic Counselor
,Marie-Louise Lubs is a geneticist, a researcher,
and a genetic counselor. She was born and raised
in Sweden and went to college there. Though
Marie-Louise majored in chemistry at the
university, her real interest was genetics. She
earned her second degree in this field and
became an instructor of genetics. At the same
time, she did research on various projects,
including the inheritance of heart diseases and the
relationship of these diseases to smoking.
Marie-Louise presented the results of some of
her research on the inheritance of allergies at an
international meeting in Chicago. There she met
another geneticist whom she later married. Marie-
Louise and her husband decided to stay in the
United States. One of her first projects here was a
study the occurrence of birth defects and BSCS by John Thornton
cancer (such as leukemia) in the children of
parents who had been exposed to radiation. Marie-Louise is pleased that so many families
'Dr. Lubs has continued her study of inheritable have benefited from her counseling. She plans to
disorders. She was surprised to discover how few continue her research and expand her studies to
parents in this country know that many disorders, include some disorders that may have a genetic
such as hemophilia and many forms of muscular basis. Her research into the history of families with
dystrophy, are inherited. genetic disorders may help find new means of
When a genetic disorder such as Tay-Sachs is diagnosis and treatment.
known to have occurred in a family, young
couples must face the possibility that their children
could be affected. A large part of Dr. Lubs's job is
counseling such couples about their chances of
having a child with a genetic disorder. She
explains to potential parents the risks involved
with genetic disorders.
Dr. Lubs begins working with a couple who plan
to have a child by tracing the history of a genetic
disorder in the families of the man and the
woman. She then can determine the chances of
that couple's having a child affected by the
disorder. She gives them information to help them
decide whether or not to have children. Babies
affected by a genetic disorder may require special
care. Dr. Lubs tries to diagnose genetic disorders
in newborn babies, so they can receive immediate
care. BSCS by John Thornton

,Ne

349
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 245

Materials
copy of metaphase smear A
copy of metaphase smear B
2 karyotyping forms
scissors
pencil
tape or glue

Procedure
1. Work first with the copy of metaphase smear A ana i:len repeat the
procedure with B.
2. Circle each chromosome with a pencil.
3. Cut out the individual chromosomes.
4. Arrange the cutout chromosomes in pairs and decide to which of the
7 groups each pair belongs.
5. Use tape or glue to affix each chromosome to its proper place on the
karyotyping form.

Discussion
1. What is the sex of the individual whose chromosomes appear on
metaphase smear A? on metaphase smear B?
2. Compare the 2 karyotypes you have made. What specific difference
can you find?
3. How important is this difference?

8.13 X-linked Traits Show a Modified

Pattern of Inheritance
We have seen how important entire chromosomes are to normal de-
velopment and to the determination of sex. Each chromosome contains
many genes, each able to affect some part of development. Let us return
to Drosophila to see how individual genes are studied.
-Morgan grew pure breeding red-eyed fruit flies on banana food in
small bottles. Careful observation of later generations in these cultures
revealed some flies with striking differences. Some of these unusual flies
had white eyes instead of red, others had short wings instead of long,
and still others had yellow or black bodies instead of gray ones. These
flies bred true, se the changes were hereditary. Such flies are called mu-
tants, because they are different genetically from wild-type flies.
Lasting changes in the hereditary material are called mutations (myoo The terns metattuil bask ally refer.> to a
TAY shunz). Hundreds of mutations were discovered in fruit flies. Each phcsiotvpii., i,hariUt It urutturto atema tc retel
iki tl is pootulattd genetic that is
mutation was tested carefully by mating it with nonmutant flies. When
associated with the phic,notypic; char ige the
the inheritance pattern of lach mutation was worked out, the results
observable chromosomal change or the
agreed with Mendel's rules in most cases. However, work with the very
inferred gene change Normally, this does not
first mutation discovered in Drosophilaa male with white eyeswas seem to Interfere with student comprehension
one of the' exceptions. The mutation causing sickle-cell hemoglcbin is a
When Morgan crossed the white-eyed male with normal red-eyed fe- goud example kbeta i.,11c1111 position number 6
males, the F1 generation contained only red-eyed flies. This was not sur- substitution ut tot ylutdrnw acid)
prising: red eye color must be dominant to white eye color. Morgan then
mated the F1 flies with one another. In the F2 generation the ratio was Neatly all mutative is are potelitially harmful to a
3/4 red-eyed flies to 1/4 white-eyed flies. This looked like a Mendelian ratio. btk...aot they tiavt
However, all the white-eyed flies were males. Clearly the white-eyed trait evolvt.,1a,iJ ette.,lively utrvtcJ the caganism
was somehow related to sex. through many generations

1" 0
246 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Because the Y chromosome differs from the X chromosome in ap-

pearance, does it also differ in the genes it carries? If we assume that
the gene for eye color is located in the X chromosome, but not in the Y
chromosome, what would we expect in a breeding experiment?
Let W stand for the normal dominant gene producing red eye pig-
ment. Let w stand for the recessive gene that results in white eyes. If
these genes occur only in the X chromosome, three kinds of sex chro-
mosomes are possible: Xw, Xw, and Y. The genotype of the original white-
eyed male would have been XWY. The normal red-eyed females would
have been XwXw. Using these symbols, figure 8.16 shows the results we
would expect, according to our hypothesis. The evidence from the ex-
periment supports the hypothesis that the alleles for white and red eye
color are in the X chromosome, and not in the Y chromosome. Traits
that are related in this way to the sex chromosomes of an organism are
called X-linked traits.

Figure 8.16 Inheritance of the white-eye trait in Drosophila. Compare this with
the results of one of Mendel's crosses shown in figure 8.6.

xw Y Xw

lt
4

Xw Xw Y

..I

35j
 Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 247

8.14 Genes Are Arranged in Single File

Figure 8.17 Genetic effect of crossing-over.
Morgan's work with the white eye-color mutant supported the idea Crossing-over during mewls does not occur
that a gene is located in a certain chromosome. The gene whose action with most chromosomes. Note that only the
,resulted in white eyes was found to be in the X chromosome. Morgan combinations Ab and aB occur before meiosis.
found other genes that were also in the X chromosome. All of them were, Crossing-over between A and b results in the
recombinants AB and ab in the gametes.
therefore, X-linked. Genes not in the X chromosome might be in any
other chromosome. One group of genes was shown to be linked to the
second chromosome, another group to the third chromosome, and a few
to the small fourth chromosome.
But how are genes taranged in a chromosome? The X-chromosome
genes provided the answer, because they were easiest to work with. Males
have only one X chromosome. Therefore, recessive traits controlled by
X-linked genes are expressed in males. There are no alleles for the dom-
inant traits to mask them. In females, on the other hand, a recessive X-
linked trait does not appear unless there are two alleles for that trait,
one in each of her X chromosomes.
The knowledgn that chromatids undergo recombination in Meiosis I
was now put to use (review section 6.9). Two different mutant genes
such as a and b, each in a different X chromosome, can recombine. After
recombination the two genes will be in the same chromosome. Figure
8.17 shows how this can happen: the chromatids break and rejoin be-
tween a and b, and thus the two genes end up on the same chromosome.
This does not happen in all cells undergoing meiosis. The frequency with
which recombination takes place between a and b (and their alleles A
and B) depends on their distance apart. The farther apart two genes are,
the more often the chromatids are likely to break between the genes and
join together again. Recombination frequencies are thus a measure of
the distance between two genes.
By recombination experiments, Morgan showed that all known X-
linked genes were arranged in a row along the chromosome. It was al-
most as if the genes were beads on a long stringone behind the other.
This early idea, though too simple, turned out to be essentially correct.
Now we know that genes are, in fact, arranged in a single file along
a chromosome. Geneticists are able to construct maps of the genes in a
0
chromosome. Each gene has a specific location in the chromosome. Maps
of the lyosophila X chromosome and the human X chromosome are
shown in figure 8.18.
Each gene provides a set of coded instructions for building a specific
protein. That protein is essential to the normal life of the fly. If the in-
structions are changed, as by a mutation, then a different protein, or no
protein at all, is made. In the case of the mutation resulting in white
eyes, the protein that enabled the normal red eye pigment to be made
was changed, resulting in white eyes. Geneticists look for such devel-
opmental changes, resulting from mutations, in order to study genes more recombinants
closely. In the next section we will learn more about what genes do, and Evr,r111;,tudvnts L.afinot graop the mathumatik,s
how they do it. of recombination, you should strers the idea
that crossing over produces new combinations
of characteristics This becomes an important
point in the discussion of evolution (chapter 9)

The farther genes are apart on a chromosome.

the more potential breakage sites exist between
them Suppose that breakage sites occur at 1
pm intervals, then two genes located 8 pm apart
are more likely to separate by crossing-over
than two genes that are only 3 pm apart

3) ) e.)
248 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Map distances are calculated by the summation

of the frequelluus of aue..dily over ut..tm.t..ii Figure 8.18 Gene maps of (a) Drosophila and (b) human X chromosomes,
rather closely linked genes Thu reason for this indicating loci of some genes on the chromosomes.
is that the amount of crossing-over between two
a b
genes. no matter how far apart they may be on yellow body
a chromosome, cannot exceed 500 a value white eyes
that is equivalent to random assortment A value ruby eyes Xg (a blood group protein)
of 0 ;'o would int:icate complete linkage with no
recombination
crossveinless wings
ichthyosis (a skin disease)

cut wings
ocular albinism

angiokeratoma (skin
vermilion eyes growths)

(medial centromere)
miniature wings

sable body
deutan (type of red/green
garnet eyes color blindness)
scalloped wino
G6P0 (enzyme)
Bar eyes
fused veins protan (type of red/green
color blindness)
carnation eyes
bobbed hairs hemophilia A

(terminal centromere)

Self-Review

1. What similarities are there between gene behavior and chromosome

behavior?
2. What is the chromosome theory of heredity?
3. What are sex chromosomes?
4. Why do most species produce half males and half females?
5. How is a karyotype made?
6. What would the karyotype of a person with Down syndrome show?
7. What is nondisjunction?
8. What is an X-linked trait?
9. What does a genetic map show?

Guidepost: How is genetic information Genes and DNA

used by cells?

8.15 Genes Code for Protein Synthesis

The molecules of life were introduced in chapter 4. You will re-
member that carbohydrates and lipids arc important in the storage and
release of energy. They also provide important building materials for
cells. Proteins are key molecules in the structure of all cells. They also
provV.e the main part of enzymes, the catalysts that make possible most
chemical reactions in cells. Another important group of compounds is
 Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 249

the , nucleic a Genes are composed of nucleic acids. Other nucleic

acids are essential in protein synthesis. How do genes coordinate all this Figure 8.19 Neuruspora crassa, a sac fungus
that has been important in genetic research.
molecular activity and synthesis?
We often gain basic biological information from studying less com-
plex organisms. Already we have seen how pea plants and fruit flies have
told us much about genetics. A giant step toward understanding what
genes do came from studying a pink bread mold, Neurospora crassa
(noo ROS poh ruh CRAS uh).
In the early 1940s, G. W. Beadle and E. L. Tatum treated Neuro-
spora spores with X rays. The treated spores gave rise to defective molds
that no longer could grow in a simple medium containing a few salts,
some sugar, and one vitamin. However, when vitamins and amino acids
were added to the simple medium, most of the deficient molds could
grow. The complete medium supplied their needs.
Beadle and Tatum then devised a method for identifying which sub-
stance could not be made by a given defective mold. This method is shown
in figure 8.20. Radiation apparently had caused a variety of =cations-
in the mold spores. The mutations could block the synthesis of most sub-
0
stances the mold normally made.
How could the synthesis of a complex substance be blocked? Because
enzymes control biological reactions, including syntheses, perhaps de-
fective molds lacked an essential enzyme. The effects of lacking this en-
zyme could be offset by supplements added to the simple medium.
In time, each missing substance was linked to a missing enzyme. And
rThe technique developed by Beadle and Tatum
each missing enzyme was the result of a single gene mutation. Beadle has been as valuable for biochemists as for
and Tatum presented a hypothesis: a gene functions by providing the geneticists Suppose a substance, F, permits a
information for the synthesis of a specific enzyme. When all genes are mutant Neurcmpura to grow but that another
normal, all enzymes and essential substances are made, and the mold substam.e. A, does nut Suppube further that
lives. If a gene has mutated, however, the fact that it is missing an en- bluL.licin.)ts are, urisurt whaiu the; biu,yrithesis
zyme would prevent the mold from growing on a minimal medium. of F front A goes A BC F ur ADEF
lh many cases the proper pathway can be
determii led by supplying the mutant with either C
Figure 8.20 Procedure used by Beadle and Tatum. In this case the Neurospora or E if if grows uri C but not oi, E ttit pathway
spore has lost the ability to synthesize substance c. must be ABCr, ur else the mutation must
affect the enzyme that changes E to F Further
tests would distinguish between the two
Possibilities
.._

etc.

growth growth no rno no

growth growth growth growth

simp e complete mple simple+ simple + simple +

medium medium medium substance a substance substance c

li 354
250 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Later work with other organisms extended this idea. Perhaps genes
control the synthesis not only of enzymes, but of all other proteins as
well. We now know that idea is correct. Somehow a gene dictates the
way in which amino acids are attached to form very large protein mol-
ecules. How does this happen?

8.16 Genes Consisi of DNA

We now can combine several pieces of knowledge: (1) genes are lo-
cated in chromosomes; (2) genes direct the synthesis of enzymes; and
(3) enzymes are proteins. Genes therefore must code for protein syn-
thesis. This conclusion led scientists to look more closely at chromo-
somes. Could they learn the chemical nature of genes? Chromosomes
contained two promising candidates: protein and DNA. How could they
discover which one directs protein synthesis?
The first piece of evidence came from experiments with the pneu-
monia bacterium. Dead cells of one type (called S) can transform living
cells of a second type (R) into type S. The change can be inherited by
other cells. How could this happen? It was possible to take the dead cells
apart and out which substance caused the transformation. The pro-
teins separated from dead cells were unable to transform living cells.

Figure 8.21 Genetic transformation of pneumonia bacteria. What do these

experimental results suggest about heredity?

type .heat -kited S-type

Aleat4titled 8type ilving6400

MO* didthe
livincip-tijde get.
into the,trodae?-

11400404- ,tixpectedeioUie.to live but mouse died"

--Why did the n109410

Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 251

Figure 8.22 The experiments of Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed that
the hereditary instructions of viruses are carried by DNA. (a) Phages (viruses that
attack bacteria) with protein coats labeled with an isotope of sulfur (35S) were
allowed to infect bacterial cells. (b) Phages with their DNA cores labeled with an
isotope of phosphorous (32P) were allowed to infect bacterial cells. Later, the
bacteria and the phage particles that grew in them were tested for radioactivity.
The presence of radioactivity inside tla bacteria that were infected with 32F-
labeled phage showed clearly that on the DNA of the phage entered the
bacterial cell.

a
protein coat
labeled with
us

no radioactivity
in bacteria

no radioactivity in
Osage progeny

b
DNA labeled
with 32 P
radioactivity
In bacteria

radioactivity in
phage progeny

356
252 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

The DNA could do so, however. DNA was shown to be the substance
that. transformed R cells into S cells. This change was a genetic one. The
type S features were transmitted to future generations of pneumonia
bacteria.
Another important experiment used viruses that attack bacteria
(figure 8.22). These viruses have a core of DNA (or sometimes RNA),
surrounded by a protein coat. The protein was labeled with one kind of
radioactive marker, and the DNA was labeled with a different marker.
Careful experiments showed that the labeled DNA ent.ired bacterial cells,
but the protein did not. Once inside, the DNA took over the cell's ma-
chinery and materials, and made new viral particles. The new viruses
were like the original ones, and had newly made protein coats. Again
Before students get into dis.Luscion of thu nott
DNA performed the function of genes. It directed the synthesis of pro-
section, try to get them to see that to qualify as
tein. It also could transmit the virus features from one generation to the
genetic material a substance al.o must have
two other characteristics it must reproduce
next.
ai.,uurately generation after geilercition, and it it These two and many other critical experiments convinced scientists
should happen t.o tt i I{ t repiudu,,u eta that DNA is the genetic material. The next step was to find the structure
eltertil form as t,dithluil, it r,piodu,..d tho of DNA molecules. Only then would it he possible to understand how
original. they direct protein synthesis.

8.17 Genes Are Long Chains of Nucleotides

The story of the disLovury of CNA arki of IN,. In 1953, J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick, working in England with
race won by Watsoil dnd data collected by M. H. F. Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin, and E. Chargaff,
structure is both drankrt, and Ldu,atioridl proposed a structure for DNA. Using their model, it was possible to see
Intel ested students sliouiu urged to re,ad how DNA could act as a gene. The model of DNA structure was such
Watson's entLi taining ar,J, y poi soi id an outstanding contribution to science that Watson, Crick, and Wilkins
account, The Double Helix
were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962.
e Watson and Crick proposed that a DNA molecule is a long, twisted,
double-stranded structure. Each strand consists of a chain of smaller
units, nucleotides. You may remmber that a nucleotide consists of three
still smaller parts: a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing
base. There are four kinds of nucleotides in DNA. Each of the four has
a different base: adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine. The sugar-
phosphate parts join the nucleotides together and form the sides of a
ladder. A base from one strand pairs with a base from the other strand.
In this way, thousands of base pairs form the rungs of the ladder. Review
figure 4.24, page 121.
A crucial requirement of the model depends on the molecular shape
of each base. Because of its shape, each base can pair only with a par-
ticular complementary base. Adenine (A) can pair only with thymine
(T). Cytosine (C) can pair only with guanine (G). These AT and CG
base pairs occur along the entire length of a DNA molecule. The chem-
ical bonds that hold the bases together are weak, however. When they
are broken, two separate strands result. In DNA replication, a new strand
forms on each old strand. The result is two identical double strands of
DNA, each of them exactly like the original double-stranded molecule.
This process is shown in figure 8.23. This model makes it possible to
explain the replicationexact duplicationof the DNA molecule.

3 57
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 253

Figure 8.23 Replication of DNA. The strands come apart at the bonds between
the nucleotides. New nucleotides, which temporarily bear extra phosphates, are
added one by one. Eventually two new DNA molecules are produced.

adenine guanine cytosine thymine deoxyribose phosphate

1.1
358
254, Section Two Continuity in the Siospture

8.18 RNA Carries DNA Instructions

to the Ribosomes
The pieces of the puzzle are beginning to fall into place. The genetic
instructions are coded in sequences of nucleotides in DNA. Ribosomes
are the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. What is the link be-
tween protein instructions and protein construction?
The molecule that links the chromosomes in the-nucleus to the ri-
bosomes in the cytoplasm is RNA (ribonucleic acid), another kind of
nucleic acid. It is very much like DNA, and it also consists of chains of
nucleotides. However, the sugar in each RNA nucleotide is ribose in-
stead of deoxyribose. Another difference is that thymine does not occur
in RNA. It is replaced by a similar molecule, uracil. RNA is synthesized
by copying a strand of DNA. In eukaryotes it then moves from the nu-
cleus into the cytoplasm, passing through the nuclear membrane.
O Three different kinds of RNA occur in cells. One kind (ribosomal
RNA, or rRNA), makes up the ribosomes, along with a number of
Another kind is messenger RNA, or mRNA. It carries the DNA
message to the ribosomes. A third kind of RNA is transfer RNA, or
tRNA. It transfers amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes,
where they are added ts a growing chain of amino acids being built into
a protein molecule.
Proteins consist of long chains of amino acids. The 20 different kinds
of amino acids can be connected in any order. The order is important
for protein function, however, so a protein molecule must be built cor-
rectly. How do the DNA instructions guarantee this?
Perhaps each base in a DNA strand codes for one amino acid? No,
because four bases could code for only four amino acids. A code of two
O bases together could account for 16 amino acidsstill not enough. Bi-
ologists reasoned, and later proved, that a sequence of three basesa
O codoncodes for one amino acid. With four different bases, 64 groups
of three are possible.
Scientists have found out which triplet of three bases codes for each
amino acid. We now know that most of the 64 triplets code for some
amino acid. Some amino acids may be specified by two, four, or even six

Figure 8.24 The genetic code.

second base
-,
U ....., A .4

UUU i phe tr'U

UCC c.,.
UAU 1 t, UGU
UGC J ''''"'
1 ,
1 UUC
1 UAC J ''
"4 UUA UCA UAA STOP UGA STOP
UUG i leu UCG 'JAG STOP UGG tryp
C9" ) CUU CCU CAU 1 his CGU RI
- CUC ,eu CCC pro CAC J CGC ,,..,
arg
Z
CIJA CCA glun CGA '1'
CUG CCG I CAG 1 CGG
AUU
AUC ileu
ACU
ACC thr
AAU i aspn *AG
AAC AGC
9 ser
,4
1
AUA ACA AAA 1 1a AGA
P-1
AUG "''' ACG AAG J ' AGG J
1
''
GUU GCU 1 GP U i asp GGU
rl GUC val
` GUA
EAC I ala Sig SE gly >''.
GUG GCG I GAG i °u GGG

359
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 255

different codons. Others require a single codon before they will be added
'to an amino acid chain. The triplets that do not code for an amino acid
0 Tilt &ludo of niuit,ulai gtiietiL.0 need not be
rrw tJ nut all details at agreed
provide punctuation to the message. They signal when the chain of amino on The essential features are the self-
acids is complete. The generic code is shown in figure 8.24. repkating ability of DNA, 2) the ability of DNA
All the parts of the story are now in place. DNA codes for protein. to direct by way of mRNA, the synthesis of
proteins (3) tht use of a i,ode so that there is a
The coded instructions are transferred to RNA when it is synthesized
point by -point correspondence between the
on one of the two DNA strands (figure 8.25). In turn, mRNA carries
DNA and the drotein molecules Do not overlook
the instructions to the ribosomes. There a triplet of mRNA nucleotides that energy G require to synthesize proteins,
specifies which tRNA will bring in a particular amino acid. At the ri- energy is needed to attach amino acids to tRNA
bosome, the amino acids are attached, one at a time, to the end of the and to Join amino ands irk the elongating
growing protein chain. At the end of the process, a new protein molecule polypeptide chain
has been formed. These steps are illustrated in figure 8.26.

Figure 8.25 Formation of part of a strand of mRNA on one strand of a DNA

molecule.

0
deoxyribose ribose phosphate
UMW
adenine guanine
T
thymine
IMK
uracil cytosine

DNA messenger RNA

:yam
360
256 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 8.26 How DNA determines the formation of a protein.

nuclear membrane

Messenger

3. Each triplet of the

messenger RNA
selects a transfer
RNA with a specific
amino acid attached.

amino acid

361
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 257

4. The ribosome moves along the messenger RNA

as it "reads" the code. The amino acids are
joined to each other in the order coded.
A protein molecule isformed.

5. After delivering its amino acid,

transfer RNA can pick up another
amino acid molecule.

amino acid
chained with
other amino
acids to form
a protein

362
258 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Investigation 8.4
Ii ,estigatio ;8 4: FNE::MPTATION.:7
GENE MUTATION
Introduction
Procedure We know that the structure of DNA molecules is related to the structure
of protein molecules. Now it is possible for you to understand more clearly
2 c-g-a-a-a-g-g-u-c a u g a-u c
what is meant by gene mutations. You can most easily arrive at such an
3 codons cga 'aag guc 'aug auc amino
understanding by working out some hypothetical examples.
acids -arg-lys-val-met-ileu-
4 codons gaaiagg,`uca 'uga 'uc
5 (a) amino acids glu-?-ser-none new Procedure
codon arg (arginine)
1. Assume that figure 8.27 represents a part of a DNA molecule. The
(b) Because the diagram is limited to only
whole molecule is much longer, and the strands of deoxyribose and
part of the DNA molecule, only 2 bases of the
phosphate grops have been omitted. The key to the bases is:
last codon are shown
a = adeninc c = cytosine
(c) Every amino acid in this segment o' the
t = thymine g = guanine
protein chain has been altered
2. Assume that the lower strand is the one from which a messenger RNA
strand will be copied. Using paper and pencil, write the sequence of
Teible 8.5:A partial fistoicodonS, bases in an mRNA strand that would be formed on the DNA strand.
(Remember that in RNA, uracilsymbolized by ureplaces thymine.)
RNA Codon Amino Acid
3. Reading from left to right, divide your sequence of mRNA bases into
aag lysine code triplets, or codons. Then, using table 8.5, construct the protein
segmentthe chain of amino acidsthat is specified by your se-
aue isoleucine
quence of mRNA codons.
aug methionine The dictionary of RNA codons provided here does not include all the
cau histidine
amino acids. Even if it did, you would find that there are many more
possible codons than there are amino acids. (There is more than 1
cga arginine codon for some of the amino acids.)
gaa glutamic acid 4. Assume that by X-radiation a geneticist destroys and, thus, removes
the left-most base pair of the DNA molecule shown in figure 8.27. To
gga glycine discover the effect of this kind of mutation, construct the new mRNA
guc valine chain indicated by the remaining letters, starting at the new base on
the left.
uac tyrosine
5. (a) Again using the chart, construct the chain of amino acids speci-
uca serine fied by the complete codons of the new mRNA.
(b) What has happened to the codon on the right end? The codon
uga none
that does not appear in the chart specifies arginine. Thus, a single
uua leucine amino acid can be specified by more than 1 codon.
(c) Does the deletion in the DNA molecule change the resulting pro-
tein? If so, in what way? One codon (uga) in the altered mRNA
6 One amino acid (aryinint) vwould be does not specify an amino acid. Codons of this sort specify the
deleted, but the others (lys-val-met-ileu-) would ends of protein molecules.
bt Itft un_hanyed TI,c ammo and ,oinposition 6. Assume that X-radiation deleted the 1st three base pairs on the left
of the protein f fr)it: would have been instead of the 1st one. Would this kind of deletion have more or
Lharigt-i by just tilt 1 irk ted amino a,..,11 Evt-n less enect on an amino acid sequence than deletion of a single base
this chi ige, however, might destroy the function pair? Explain.
of the protein. if It were an enzyme
NOTE The, pa.ring of adtrvie w,tn triyrri,h,z
and of cytosine with guanine depends on the Figure 8.27
spatial relationships of these molecules and the
po,,ifion, of hydrogtsi atoiT6 3ytosiri. and
adenine, for example. do not normally pair
(figure T8 la) Rarely, however ,denine takes
, I 1. I

form that does permit it to pair with cytosine. as

in figure 18 Pairing attractions are now
esta'Ashed a, the spots indicated by dotted
lines Notice that in the adenine molecule, the
hydrogen atom moved temporarily from the NH
side chain to one of the nitrogen atoms in the

3G3
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity- 259

7. Occasionally, errors in DNA replication occurapparently without en- wally it would spring LiaLl into its usual
vironmental causes. For example, at rare intervals adenine pairs with posit., in having palled with Lytosit re, however,
cytosine instead of thymine. The consequence of this error is as fol- the Not. noltLular form 16 tempuraniy stabilized,
lows: 8 (a) DNA has been changed from tag to
After 2 replications, 1 of the 4 DNA molecules has the base pair Lag by the substitution of c for in the 3rd base
-g- pair from the right This changes the terminal
codon from auc to guc
(b) auc codes for isoleucine (lieu); guc for
valine (val) The mutation causes the substitution
-C- of valine for isoleucine
while the others have the original 9 One codon for glutamic acid is gaa, one
-a- for glycine rs gga Thus, the center "letter" has
been changed from a to g. which represents a
substitution in the DNA molecule of c for t This
could be explained by the mispairing of adenine
-t- with cytosine
as shown in figure 8.28.
An error of this sort, if it had occurred in the DNA molecule dia- Discussion
grammed at the beginning of this investigation, would substitute c for 1 Two
t at some point in the DNA strand. 2 gaa gua, gag gug.
8. Assume such a substitution occurs at the 3rd base pair from the right. 3 The probability of a single change is, of
(a) Show how this changes the mRNA. course. greater than that of 2 changes Further,
(b) Show how-it changes the an . acid chain. ...udents may remember from investigation 8.1
9. One of the changes known to oc....ur in this way involves the substi- that the probability of 2 random events
tution of glycine for glutamic acid at 1 site within the protein molecule. ,..orring simultaneously is the product of their
What error in the normal DNA molecule would account for this muta- separate probabilities
tional change?

Discussion Figure T8.1

Studies of amino acid sequences in hemoglobins show that there is only a

1 difference between normal hemoglobin and hemoglobin found in persons H H
who have a disorder of the blood known as sickle-cell anemia. This is the NH
substitution of one amino acid (valine) for another (glutamic acid). The sub-
H HN
stitution occurs in a polypeptide chain 146 amino acids long.
CC C--C
N
HC\ N
1. According to the codons listed in table 8.5, how many changes in base N--C deoxynbose
C-------N
pairs would be necessary to specify this substitution in amino acids?
deoxyribose
cytosine adenine
Figure 8-.28
b
first second
replication replication H H
NH
CC CC I
CAN
(a)
_t HC --HN
NC
a
pairing error
/ H
deoxyribose

(a)
c- (b) deoxynbose
cytosine adenine
-0 a_
(b) (c)

a
(d)
t-
36
260 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Because there are 4 codons for valine (guu, guc, gua, gug) and 2 for
Figure 8.29 Formation of eukaryote mRNA glutamic acid (gaa, gag), the change can be made by a mutation in only
intron exon 1 base pair.
2. What are the possibilities for such a change?
one strand 3. Which possibility is more likely. that the mutation involves changes at
of DNA
2 base pairs simultaneously or a change at just 1 pair? From such a
small difference in genotype arise the great differences in phenotype
between persons who have and those who do not have sickle-cell
is transcilbed into anemia.

precursor 8.19 In Eukaryotic Cells, Genes Occur

mRNA
in Pieces

enzymes rembie introns and

Research in the sciences never stops, and new discoveries often re-
splice exons back together quire that previous knowledge be modified. Such is the case with the
discovery, in the late 1970s, that eukaryotic genes are actually split. That
is, some segments of DNA, in the portion of the molecule normally re-
resulting in garded as a gene, are not translated into protein. These segments are
mRNA
called introns (IN tronz). The introns are copied and then cut from a
precursor mRNA strand in the nucleus (see figure 8.29). The remaining
piecescalled exons (EKS onz)then are spliced together into the
Steps 1 and 2 m figun- 8 20 r n 1, i
mRNA that leaves the nucleus. This mRNA directs the synthesis of pro-
Typically, in cells that have nuclei the RNA tein on the ribosomes.
anscribed from chi- om: ;ma' f,
0 Therefore, the mRNA strand that leaves the nucleus is shorter than
longer than rnRNA found outside th_ nucleus
Vie DNA strand that makes up the genes. This discovery of genes in
pieces changed the view that DNA and mRNA are colinear, that is, ex-
Molecular biologists have discovered that each
actly the same length.
gene in ONA responsible for RNA trarissnotion is
divided into segments by other segments of
Thus far, only one prokaryote has been shown to have introns. Split
fiNA in between them, which have no known genes, therefore, seem to be the rule only in eukaryotes.
function in mRNA coding for protein synthesis
The nonfunctional DM-. segments are sailed
introns The segments that carry messages for
8.20 Protein Molecules Can Be
mRNA coding for protein synthesis are called Manufactured by Genetic Engineering
exons
The genetic code is almost universal. The same genetic code functions
When RN!, is trans_nbed from DV inside
in bacteria and in human beings. Can the genetic instructions from one
the cell's nucteusi the RNA also contains both
introns and exons Fnzymes smiiar to ri, ;01 it
kind of organism be interpreted by another kind of organism?
41) The answer is yes. The protein-making machinery of a cell reads DNA
enzymes break the f-INA between ne introns
and exons The exons ar., tqi together by instructions even when they come from another 'rind of organism. By
using speciai kinds Of enzymes, DNA can be cut into small pieces and
"trier triZ}intS FA 1, , 011-iii 9U,11 Itor, IIlost Lift, I
added to the top c1.J v1 t,,i, soil .11,11,0 ,Af eJ d spliced into the DNA of another organism, as shown in figure 8.30. The
string of 150 to 2011 , resulting DNA is called recombinant DNA, because DNA from different
is added to the T , organisms has been recombined. (Note that this use of the term recom-
I

RNA is now the mf-r,, ti ly. 71

binant differs from that used to explain how chromatids exchange ge-
and codes netic material during Meiosis I.) Recombinant DNA techniques are
translation irl'o a protein widely used in genetic engineering procedures.
In some case the r I a been
K
Hundreds of applications of genetic engineering techniques exist. For
to correspond to different parts of a pr ;t1 in
example, people who have diabetes sometimes have an insufficient supply
Synih# '7Pd Fix example r,r), of
for hemoglobin codes for the I ntral part of the
of insulin made by their pancreas. For years diabetics have depended on
protein This is the part of the- rmih if" that insulin extracted from the pancreases of hogs and cattle. The animal
cairies oxygen insulin molecules are similar to human insulin, but differ slightly. Those
_J slight differences can cause problems for some diabetics.
0 Human insulin is now manufactured in large amounts. A fragment
of DNA coding for human insulin can be inserted into the DNA of a

3v
PJ
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 261

Figure 8.30 Techniques of recombinant DNA. To splice a human gene (in this
case, the one for insulin) into a plasmid, scientists take the plasmid out of an
Escherichia coli bacterium, break the plasmid open at a specific site by means of
a restriction enzyme, and splice in insulin-making human DNA. The resulting
hybrid plasmid can be inserted into another E. coli bacterium, where it replicates
together with the bacterium, making it capable of producing large quantities of
insulin.

plasmid

Co
E. coli

--nucleus

human cell

plasmid cut open strand of DNA

by cutting enzyme
at a specific site ,y huMan DNA cut
./ into pieces by
cutting enzyme

rx human gene

two pieces spliced together

recombinant DNA

hybrid plasmid inserted

into E. coli cell

bacteria with hybrid plasmid

replicate, creating clone capable
of producing human gene product

strai of bacteria. The bacteria are grown in large vats. The bacterial
cells 7ead the DNA instructions to make human insulin, and they are
0
able to make it in abundance.
Today diabetics can use a molecule that is exactly like the molecule
their own pancreas should be making. That achievement of genetic itn-
gineering is especially important for people who are unable to use animal
insulin. Other proteins produced by genetic engineering techniques are
becoming available daily.
The production of valuable biologic products is only one application
of genetic engineering. For example, genetic engineers have produced a

366
262 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Another example of ar, agri,..ultural use ut strain of bacterium that prevents the formation of frost on plants to tem-
recombinant DNA that would ha, worldwide. peratures as low as 6° C. This could save farmers billions of dollars
consequences Modifying strains of ,:orn and annually. Some people, however, fear the ecological consequences of re-
wheat to allow them to utilize Jtmosphenc
leasing such an organism into the ervironment. This is but one example
nitrogen, alleviating the need for expensive
fertilizers
of the complex scientific, legal, economic, and ethical issues raised by
research in geneti^ engineering. Genetic engineering also has been ap-
The ethical questions of recombinant DNA
plied to genetic screeningincluding prenatal diagnosisfor disorders
should become obvious to students when they such as cystic fibrosis, Huntington disease, and muscular dystrophy.
have a bask. understanding ut the prouess One Again, these applications involve complex ethical anti -legal issues.
of the biggest concerns is the possible esuape Genetic engineering has had many intellectual rewards for biologists,
from the laboratory of bacteria uarrying as well as practical benefits. The ability to study the exact base sequence
recombinant DNA at j puti..ntialty hazardous of genes has allowed evolutionary biologists to col :Tare DNA from dif-
sort Precautions against tIiia event ii i Jude the ferent organisms. That has permitted a better assessment of the degree
use of weakened strains that caniiut ourvive in to which those organisms are related. Techniques derived from genetic
the absence of special laboratory condition:,
engineering also allow molecular biologists to study how genes are turned
on and off. That is one of the mysteries in developmental biology.

Self-Review

1. What conclusions were drawn from the experiments with Neuro-

spora?
2. What functions of genes are performed by bacteriophage DNA?
3. Describe the WatEnn-Crick model of DNA.
4. What are the functions of the three kinds of RNA in a cell?
5. What bases are found in the nucleotides of RNA?
6. How many different combinations of three can be made of the four
bases in DNA?
7. How does protein synthesis take place in a cell?
8. Describe split genes and tell how they differ from genes in prokary-
otic cells.
9. How can bacteria make human insulin molecules?
10. What is genetic engineering, and what are some of its applications?

Summary
Genetic information is passed to the next generation by heredity. The
genes provide a set of instructions in molecular form. When a sperm
fertilizes an egg, their genes are combined to control the development
of the next generation.
Genetic events obey rules. These rules depend on biologic processes,
primarily meiosis and fertilization. Probability can be used to calculate
the approximate results of the biologic processes. Genes exist in different
forms called alleles. Normally, only two alleles for a given trait are present
in an individual. In meiosis these alleles segregate into different gametes.
Random fertilization brings alleles together in predictable ratios. Men-
del's rules describe the behavior of alleles in gamete formation and fer-
tilization. The principles of dominant:, segregation, and independent
assortment are the basis of Mendelian genetics.

367
Chapter 8 Continuity through Heredity 263

Genes are located physically in chromosomes. Their behavior in pat-

terns of inheritance is explained by chromosome behavior in meiosis. Sex
determination in many organisms depends on X and Y chromosomes.
Genes are arranged in single file in a chromosome. Each gene is a
'segment of DNA. Genetic information is coded in a sequence of DNA
bases. A triplet of three bases codes for one amino acid. in eukaryotes,
RNA is synthesized on the DNA in the nucleus, and moves into the
cytoplasm. mRNA transmits genetic information to the ribosomes, where
amino acids are accurately connected in chains to form distinctive pro-
teins. The sequence of DNA bases specifies the sequence of amino acids
in a protein. Eukaryotic DNA contains introns. pieces of DNA that are
not translated into protein. Most mutations in DNA cause changed pro-
teins to be formed.
DNA from one species can be spliced into the DNA of another species
using recombinant DNA techniques. Such genetically modified bacteria
can synthesize human proteins such as insulin.

Application Questions Problems

1. How do Mendel's three principles explain his 1. Investigate two discontinuous human traits.
results? Determine what is known about the genetics of
2. Barton Childs, a medical geneticist at Johns those traits. Indicate how the environment
Hopkins School of Medicine, has said the following influences the expression of those traits.
about the relationship between genes and the 2. Explore the relationship between advancing
environments: "Genes pr .tose; environments maternal age and the occurrence of chromosomal
dispose." What does that statement mean? disorders such as Down syndrome.
3. You learned in this chapter that most human traits 3. There are many opportunities for employment in
are polygenic. Will the distribution of such traits be the field of genetics. Investigate the educational
continuous or discontinuous? requirements for a particular job in this field, such
4. Review the material on meiosis (chapter 6, sections as a genetic counselor. Investigate the day-to-day
6.7 through 6.10). How does the behavior of tasks of a person employed in such a position.
chromosomes during Meiosis I explain the ratios 4. You learned that human DNA can be inserted into
that Mendel observed in his experiments? a bacterium and that the bacterium will express the
5. Cystic fibrosis is a common genetic disorder among human genes. You also learned that eukaryotic
Caucasians. The disorder is recessive; the gene is genes have introns; prokaryotic genes do not.
not X-linked. A young woman has a brother who Bacteria do not have the enzymes necessary to cut
has cystic fibrosis. The woman visits a genetic the introns out of human DNA. Investigate how
counselor to find out whether she carries the gene genetic engineers get around this problem. (Hint:
for cystic fibrosis. Before performing any tests, The process involves an enzyme called reverse
what can the counselor tell her about the transcriptase.)
probability that she carries the gene? (Hint: What 5. Many human genes have now been mapped to
are the genotypes of the woman's parents?) specific locations on individual chromosomes.
6. Genetic engineering involves the ability to transfer Investigate a current human gene map (from a
genetic material from one organism to another, even genetics textbook) and locate the genes for the
from one species to another. What does this tell you following traits:
about the importance of DNA in the biosphere? (a) Rh blood group
What does it tell you about the continuity of life in (b) ABO blood group
the biosphere? (c) Hemophilia
(d) Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
(These genes control the acceptance or
rejection of tissues during transplant
operations.)
(e) Huntington disease

t
264 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
I. Asimov, "The Union of Genes and Genius" Science Digest F. Fuchs, "Genetic Amniocentesis" Scientific American (June
(March 1983). An interesting discussion of possible future 1980). Discusw This prenatal procedure used to detect
Uses of biotechnology and genetic engineering. genetic disorders, and when it should be used.
G. W. Beadle, "The Ancestry of Corn" Scientific American A. G. Motu lsky, "Impact of Genetic Manipulation on Society
(January 1980). Traces the ancestry of modern corn to a and Medicine" Science (14 January 1983).
wild grass. M. Nomura, "The Control of Ribosome Synthesis" Scientific
M. Eigen, W. Gardiner, P. Schuster and R. Oswatitsch, "The American (January 1984). Excellent article about
Origin of Genetic Information" Scientific American (April, ribosomes and experimental techniques used to study them.
1981). In-depth article discussing the possibility of
discovering how early RNA genes interacted with proteins
and how the genetic code developed.

363
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1 The principle of dominance explains whi the peas For Down syndrome, an increase in !Mit with advancing age
yellow or green, smooth or wrInkled Fw exampi of the mother has been known ior fIldtly years The risk
for smooth seeds was dominant over Pit itay! does not change very much up to me a le of 29, but rises
seeds Therefore, in the first cross. ail steeply beginning with the ay' -i groups oi 35 to 39 At age
The principle of segregation explains to. 45 or over, the risk for Dow, i syndrome is 12 times as great
of alleles occur The two allele 4 a gene t4..gregaterf as at age 29
during gamete formation, so thi, different Currently. muriy studies are being ...onducted aimed at
(RR, Rr, rr) are possible The principie assessing paternal involvement in Down syndrorrl. as well
assortment allows for tit. expressior of c..erto4r, ttots without as environmental and constitutional factors
affecting the expression of otI tiers, such 4 Genetic engineers use reverse trariscriplasL, an enzyme
skinned pets v yellow ovtaiisteu ah.unt J pe ea The alleles that can synthesize DNA from eukaryuk. InFINA Because
controlling color are not .inked tJ the dlltio...) c Jr air *Alit ig skin the intruns have already Lean removed from the inRNA. the
type. DNA made from it contains only spliced exons It is this DNA
2 Genes and combinatioas thereof express the variations that that is inserted into the ba...terium
are possible: The environment, however, will determine 5 Traits and location of genes
which combinations survive An unfavorable trait or (a) Rh blood group chromosorr e 1
combination of traits will likely not survive On the other (b) ABO blood groupchromosome 9
hand, if the trait or traits do not adverbely affect the (c) HernophiliaX chromosome
individual, the organism probably will survive (d) MKchromosome 6
3 The oistribution of human polygeruc traits is continuous (e) Huntington s choreachromosome 4
4. In Meiosis I homologous chromosomes separate Each pair
of homotogs se:or-ales independently of the other pairs
Thus, genes present in one chromosorn r pair are assorted
independently of genes in other chromosomes pairs, giving
rise to Mendel's ratios
5 There is a 50 chance that She carries the gene Her
parents are heterozygous for the r tcesswe trait. t' is, Cc
and Cc. She has a 50 "i chance of being Cc also. out a
25', chance of being homozygous for the dominant trait, or
CC.
6 DNA molt be thought of as the basis on wh M different
organisms are built The structure of tt e DNA determines
the loan and characteristics of the organism In this respect
It is very important The continuity of life in the biosphere
depends on the DNA structure If left untampered, chances
are the riz;4,7iirity wJl continue, but if the DNA structure is
substfintially changed the continuity of life in the biosphere
c or.,d be disrupted
 Car 44 Calvin

Fossils such-as this ammonite are evislerickig past life on ecrth.

3,71,
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages

9
T29 -30.
Key ideas
CHAP 'ER the growth since ancient times of the idea of
evolution,
Darwin's contribution of natural selection as
the mechanism of populaticn,
the addition of Mendelian genetics to
Continuity through Evolution evolutionary theory.
genetic recombination and mutations as the
sources of variation in populations,
populations as the frith of evolution:
changes in populations brought about by
mutation, migration. recombination. selection
and genetic drift:
evolution as a central, unifying theme for
biology.

Introduction
The world is filled with an amazing variety of organisms. Nut only is the
earth teeming with a great diversity of life today, but evidence shows
the existence of at least as great a variety af organisms in the past that
are no longer present. Rocks show imprints of organisms that lived many
millions of years ago and are now extinct. These evidences from the past
are termed fossils. Fossil- remains enable us to reconstruct organisms Fossils not only reveal a diversity of life, but
from the past such as dinosaurs. The fossil record indicates the earth furnish abundant evidence for gradual (and
has continuously supported life for more than 3.5 million years. When sometimes rapid) continuous change through
one includes the past with the present, the diversity of life is almost too time The fossil evict-nue is extremely important
much to comprehend. How did that diversity come about? In this chapter, as one of the foundation- of evolution
we will discuss the theory of evolution, which accounts for the present
variety of organisms and explains how changes have occurred in popu-
lations over time.

Diversity, Adaptation, Guidepost: What do biologists mean by

"unity in diversity?"
and Evolution
9.1 Living Organisms Show a Diversity
of Type and a Unity of Pattern
Biologists note the diverse ways in which one group of similr.r organ- Four lines of evidence have been used as
isms, or species, is distinguished from another. At the same time, how- support for evolution The number of species,
ever, they are impressed with a unity of pattern among different t Gaps biogeography, the fossil record, and homology
of organisms. For example, organisms are made up of cells or cell prod- Use photos and charfs to supplement the
ucts, as noted in chapter 5. Cell functions are similar, even in organisms presentation of evidence in thi .napter
that are very different. The same cell componen., an be identified among

372 267
 268 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Top to bt,Attorc. the heads are whip-poor-Alit

heron, LI Figure 9.1 Diversity of types and unity of pattern. Though species of birds vary
whip poor Mt. pc,,,,., greatly, they share characteristics that group them together. Can you determine
which feet belong to each bird?

0 organisms from houseflies to whales 30 m in length. Reproductive mech-

anisms are similar, and common methods of development and heredity,
as noted in chapters 7 and 8, are found throughout many varieties of
organisms.
Hornolor strntor't,, oriJ Specific structures further demonstrate unity among groups of or-
position -is a top, of ,ntereot ,tud-i,t,> ganisms. Vertebrates, those animals -.pith backbones, provide a good ex-
Whales anc some .nakes retain vestiges ,f
ample. The limb pattern of even the most different types such as whales
pelvic and leg bones ,vhich are nun, f _aurae,
and bats are consistent, as shown in figure 10.7, page 316. Living or-
useless All vertebrates have sever, 7:ery al
vertebrae and tour limbs and all havi. gill
ganisms share functional features as well. Experiments using tissues of
pouches at sow. e tin ; i Jung their development
ot..e organism provide results that are found to apply to others. Studying
Similarities in embryos of ditlerent speues at the nerve cells of a squid tells us a great deal about how human nerve
early stages of devs.,:lupnient ale strikiny Line cells operate. Medicines tested on rate or guinea pigs produce similar
night say that the t lule 01 ev,utior, tilat results in humans. This ability to use one organism to understand an-
,.//1 organisms are r,,,itt.o ,thut other further indicates a functional unity of pattern in the living world.
therefore, share d lui i_t sty Diversity results in a great variety of species. Unity, however, groups
together species and even larger categories of organisms that share basic
characteristics regardless of their diversity. II, attempting to explain sci-
entifically the problems of diversity and unity, it becomes apparent that
organisms are related one to another. That is true no matter how dif-
ferent the organisms are in appearance. The exploration of this rela-
tionship led tc formulation of the theory of evolution.

3 73
 Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 269

Figure 9.2 People once believed that living organisms could arise from lifeless
substances, such as mud or the remains of dead plints or animals. These
misconceptions persisted until the end of the 19th century.

Figure 9.3 Each of these honey creepers, found on the Hawaiian Islands, has
an adaptation that helps it obtain food in its habitat.

X 1/2

Kauai akialoa Maui parrotbill

iiwi palila

apapane akepa

Kauai creeper

9.2 The Theory of Evolution Has

a Long History
Attempts to explain the diversity cf type and unity of pattern of living Thk, s,hular I It.1 dMITIctridtlr
'things are probably as old as humankind itself'. As early as 600 B.C., a 051 -547 B ) Latt,r. rnipt,d,)_1(-. )495-435
Greek scholar hypothesized a gradual evolt. tion from a formless con- 3 C ) tt rmulated a theory nt e,oiut$ ul
dition, such as mud, to one of organic coherence, such as a frog (see insight alone
figure 9.2). He understood what today we would call adaptation (ad ap
The concept of adaptation is an important on
TAY shun). An adaptation is any characteristic that improves an or- that recurs thr .ohout Ito- text Make sure
ganism's chance for survival in a pE ticular environment. Later Greek students understand wh an adaptation is
scholars developed a crude ouaine of an evolutionary concept. It hy- tvt' -10 aioute u )t ,rIty surv,vai but
pothesized that the development of life was a gradual process, that plants rrprodu,-,1161, ,t a sros4,o, 1/uti
were present on earth before animals, and that better-adapted forms re-
P:aced ill-adapted ones. Those insight; can be considered an early form
Of what we now call the theory of evolution.

3 74
270 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

There is no ct lain answer to this question, of

course In apptArance, the leghorn breed is Figure 9.4 An example of crossbreeding. The ed jungle fowl, a bird of
most similar to toe red jungle fowl Ir other Southeast Asia, is thought to be the species from which the many breeds of
matters, such as color and behavior, other domestic chickens have been developed. Which of the breeds shown retains the
breeds may retain more genes from the wild largest number of the wild bird's traits?
amestry. The outstanding ...nara..ter.stik, of the
Japanese ceremonia; breed is tail-covert
feathers that are never molted rnd may exceed
20 feet in length This may appeal to chicken
fanciers but certainly would be an extreme
handicap in ancestral jungle country During the
1920's the National Geographic published
illustrated accounts of various breeds of
domestic fowl as well as of horses, cattle, and
pigeons Many libraries have bound values of
old issues of this maga7o0 The U.S
Department of Agriculture publishers bulletins on
breeds of domestic animals, but these
emphasize commercially important breeds rather
than breeds that illustrate the greatest diversity
Darwin himself wrote a 2-volume work on
domesticated plants an animals, The Variation
of Animals and Plants under Domestication

From the time of the Greeks, observations continued on the structure

and development of organisms. Naturalists also studied the geographic
distribution of organisms, and variation in organism_s both in captivity
and in the wild. Fossils provided increasing amounts of data about types
of organisms that no longer existed.
Experiments in the crossbreeding of organisms resulted in offspring
that were different in many respects from both their parents. Further-
more, it was possible to breed animals and plants for specific traits: sheep
with longer, thicker wool; faster horses; cows that gave more milk; trees
that produced more fruit; and vegetables that reached maturity earlier.
For instance, the breeds of domestic chickens shown in figure 9.4 ap-
parently were ueveloped from the red jungle fowl.
Although Lanrrck's ideas may seem a bit Evidence continued to accamulate that organisms had changed
outlandish to us now, his was the first complete through time and were related one to another. Scientists began to un-
theory of evolution. He was the first biologist to derstand unity and diversity. By the latter half of the 18th century bi-
make a convincing argument that fossils ologists such as Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles, recognized
represent real animals and are not merely a struggle for existence among organisms as they competed for both space
chance imiP,tions of life and food. A contemporary of Erasmus Darwin, John Baptiste Lamarck,

1,1

375
 Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 271

proposed a theory in 1809 to explain changes in species. He felt that

environment played a major part in such changes. It was obvious that Figure 9.5 Lamarck's t,-.eory stated that the
athletes developed larger muscles by training and that well-fed animals giraffe developed its lorg neck, and made its
front legs longer than its hind ones, by
grew larger than poorly fed ones. Lamarck contended that such acquired
stretching for leaves over countless generations.
characteristics could be passed along to offspring by inheritance. How- What makes this theory unacceptable?
ever, decadtc of experimentation provided no evidence to support the
inheritance of acquired characteristics. Lamarck would have accounted
for-the long necks of giraffes by noting that they stretched to reach the
leaves on high trees (figure 9.5). The stretched necks would be inherited
by th6nexc generation and successive generations would have longer and
longer necks. Such inheritance would account for the evolution of long-
necked giraffes from shorter-necked ancestors that looked more like an-
telopeS.
By the mid-19th century, there was no question that organisms not
only have changed through time, but that they also share great numbers
of similar characteristics. The big question, however, was "What causes
this natural variation in the first place and how is such variation trans-
mitted to the next generation?" You can measure some of the natural
variation in organisms in investigation 9.1.

invertligatiow .

Introduction
Within populations of organisms, there are variations that n,ake each
individual different from others in the same species. Variations among fa-
' miller organisms are more obvious. You are more aware of differences
among humans than you are of those among ants. In this investigation, you
will study individual variations in size among Plant populations, and you will
interpret the data by statistical methods.

Materials
'metric ruler
graph paper
'50 objects of a kinddried bean seeds, carrots, peanuts in the shell, and
so on.

rro.ecries ,re ntten considered acceptable until

Procedure disproved. Lamarck's theory lost favor mostly
1. Divide into teams with 1 person to record the data. With a metric ruler, because of lack of evidence supporting it
measure the length of the 50 objects to the nearest millimeter. Record Geneticists in effect have recently disproved the
the measurements in your data book. I theory because no mechanism has been found
"2. Construct a frequency distribution table as follows: Jo make such a process possible
(a) Determine the range of the sample. This is the difference between
the largest and the smallest objects. Distinguish between anal,. lus structures anJ
(b) [-vide the sample into 10 intervals, selecting a convenient size. homologous structures A,ialogous structures
For example, if the range of the sample is 23 (16 mm-39 mm), it share the same function, such as wings on birds
could be divided into 8 intervals of 3 mm each as follows. 16-18, end insects Homologous structures share a
19-21, 22-24, 25-27, 28-30, 31J3, 34-36, and 37-39. common embryological ongiii, though 'he
functions may not be overtly obvious

376
272 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

(c) Assemble your data in a frequency distribution table where the

Investigation 9.1 intervals are listed in the X column and the number of individuals
VARIATION IN THE SIZE OF ORGANISMS falling in each interval (frequency) are listed in the f column, as
b 'own in the example below.
Aside from measuring variations within a
population, thy., exercise will acquaint the
students with mathematic treatment of data by X
calculating the mean, mode, and median of the
16-18 2
sample
19-21 7
Materials 22-24 4
Almost any object car be measured ire this
25-27 9
exercise Use your imagination to cow up with
a sample that may mean more to yot , students 28-30 14

etc. etc.
Procedure
1 You might want to have each member of
the team measure the items it nu" only gives 3. Construct a histogram from the frequency distribution table. A histo-
each person d chariot to pal out aiso gram is simply a bar graph with the intervals on the horizontal axis and
acquaints them witr usino , MCI( ruler dr,d the frequency on the vertical axis. Make the range of the intervals on
provides a double check on rr ie data the histogram 0.5 lower than you did on the table. The lowest interval
2 it might help your studelits understand would have a range of 15.5 to 18.5 instead of 16 to 19, as shown in
intervals if you put an example on the the example below.
chalkboard
3 You might wan' to put a sample bar graph
on the blackboard ;hanging the intervals by 15
0 5 is for convenience You could just as easily/
construct the new intervals by using 0 1, as in
16 0-17 9. 160. 20 9, 21 0 -239. and so on. 10
whichever is easiest for the students Usii,;.; 0 5
or 0 1 is a substitute for calcula'ino the lower
real limit of the interval
5 Depending on the number of modes data
may be unimodal, bimodal, or pctymodal For
clarity, treat the data as unimodal
Mean, mode, and median are measures of
15.5 18.5 21.5 24 5 27.5 30.5 etc.
central tendency the tendency of data to
congregate around a central ooint The student lengths of objects (mm)
should understand that these measures are
commonly used by arhi 4. Calculate the mean or average of your data. The mean is the sum of
different ways of using an id interpreting data all measurements divided by tne number of individuals.
Each is a valuable iru- it itr atriy 5. Find the mode, or high point, on the histogram. The value of the mode
different points is usually given as the midpoint of the interval with the highest fre-
qu _;ncy.
Discussion 6. Find the median, which is the value for the middle irdividual of the
Every population ha:, variation sample when the values (lengths) are arranged in order. If a series of
2 This answer will vary from group to group measurements is 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, the median would be 7.
3 This is a subjective question The
difference in size may be more significant to
Discussion
some students than to others
4 Generally, the answei nu, but it depends 1. Look at your data and your histogram. Is there variation within your
on the types of objects measured and the population?
student's outlook 2. What was the difference between the largest and the smallest cbjects
in your sample?
3. Given the overall size of the objects, is this difference significant?
4. Would ycu notice the difference if you had not measured them?
,MINMME11A0

t.

377
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 273

9.3 Darwin Formulated the Theory

of Natural Selection Figure 9.6 Charles Darwin as a young man.

Charles Robe, Darwin (figure 9.6) initinlly studied medicine at

Edinburgh University in Scotland. Darwin did .tot enjoy the study of
medicine and left to enter Cambridge University in England to prepare
for the ministry. He continued his interest in science.
In 1831, at the age of 22, he was selected as naturalist to accompany
Captain Robert Fitzroy of the Royal Navy on a survey voyage to South
America and the Pacific islands. On December 27, 1831, Darwin sailed
on the Beagle. He spent the next five years observing and collecting or-
ganisms and studying the biology of South America and the Pacific is-
lands, especially the Galapagos (figure 9.7). The route of the Beagle is
show-, in figure 9.8.
Darwin saw his first tropical forest in Brazil, found his first fossils in
Argentina, and observed th., primitive natives of Tierra del Fuego. In
Chile he witnessed an earthquake and saw its effect in raising the level
of the land and its connection to volcanic eruption. He went on dan- 1
Down House
sgerous, demanding, and long expeditions and on more than one occasion
saved the lives of his companions. Once he did so by running far and We have attempted to portray Darwin as a real
fast enough to alert them of a wave raised by a glacier fall that would person, with faurts as well as talents. Scientists
have destroyed their.boat: have been separated, in the minds of many,
The voyage of the Beagle is important because it laid the basis for from the rest of society Students who wish a
Darwin's subsequent thoughts about evolution. On his return he wrote furtherand very provocativeacquaintarLe
a journal concerned with the geology and natural history of the countries 'I with Darwin might read N Barlow. ed , 1969,
The Autobiography of Charles Darwin (New
.visited by the Beagle. He also wrote about coral reefs, volcanic islands, e
York W W Norton) Darwin's youth is described
and the geology of South America. He remained concerned by questions
in his own words in "Chronicle of a Misspent
such as why animals sharing many common characteristics lived so far Youth. Natural History (June-July 1958) The
apart geographically while adjacent areas were populated by simbr, BBC television film series Charles Darwin is a
though not identical, species. By 1839, Darwin had become convinced fascinating seven-part educatcnai TV program
that species were not unchangeable. They were not "fixed" as commor,ly first shown in the United States in 1979. This
believed, but rather could evolve, over time, into one or more new spe- seric,o vv)uls. std be appropriate and may be
cies. available on video cassette in your district.

An excellent account of Darwin's voyage on the

Figure 9.7 The Galapagos Islands. These seemingly desolate volcanic islands , given by I Shapiro, 1977, Darwin and
lying on the equator influenced Darwin more than any of the many places he the Enchanted Isles (New York. Coward,
visited.
McCann & Geoghegan)

rThe lourney of the Beagle turned out to be f_of-

of the most important voyages or the 19th
l 1 ntury It .s ironic that the s_lentific world would
be so greatly influenced by a naturalist serving
without pay sailing on a small vessel only about
30 m l.. length

A:NSISon/TOMiTACK & ASSOCIATES

V
378
274 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.8 The route of HMS Beagle during her

5-year oyage around the world.

It took another 20 years +ur an Live.r_autlou,., Thus, Darwin, by his extensive observations, came to the conclusion
Darwin to firialiy r11_, that current species had descended from ancestral ones. However, this
satisfaLituil with the I a, conclusion was unlikely to be accepted by the people of his day unless
Sperles Means of he could explain how change had occurred from ancestral species to cur-
1859
rent species.
The Galapagos Islands off the coast of Ecuador were especially in-
teresting to Darwin. Organisms suci. as mockingbirds and 'inches seemed
to be different on each of the islands. Darwin was particularly curious
about finches. They generally resembled those he had seen in Ecuador,
but there was a greater diversity among those of the Galapagos. Finches
normally are seed eaters, as were somo of the Galapagos finches. Others,
however, fed on the fleshy parts of cacti. One even used a cactus spine.
as a tool, holding it in its beak to extract insects from under the bark of
tree cacti. A woodpecker does this with its own bill instead of a cactus
spine.
The finches had adapted to every habitat. There were big and little
ones; some lived on the ground and some lived in trees; there were seed
eaters, fruit eaters, and insect eaters; and there was even a "wood-
pecker" finch (figure 9.9). These odd finches displayed a basic unity that
identified them as finches. At the same time each had some peculiar
characteristics of its own. How did such diversity occur among finches
Lye ll's Principles was published in the years on this small group of tiny islands?
1830- 1833 rie clLow 0 Darwin speculated about the origin of islands in the ocean and began
of a different sortthe priisiLal tvolutIon ul the to relate geological and biological problems. If rocks, islands, and con-
earth s crust Darwin took opy ut tl a boo, tinents could change, as Sir Charles Lyell pointed out in his book Prim-
on his journeys dbudrul tl It Beayi't ciples of Geology, might not time also allow for changes in living things?

\.f ;. 10' 79
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 275

13 ot the 14 Ualapagos finches are shown here

Figure 9.9 The Galapagos finches, today known as Darwin's finches. Which They differ mainly in bill shape and size and in
part of the body varies most? Find the finch that uses cactus spines to dig assoLiatud feeding hak,its The spees in the,
insects out of tree bark. iop illustration are tree species, feeding on
various insects or on `..uit and buds The 6 dark
specie. in the foreground in the bottom
illustration feed on seeds of different sizes or on
cacti About these various finches Darwin
commented in his journal one might really
fancy th, Dm an original paucity ot birds in this
Archipelago, one species had been taken and
modified for different ends There are several
publications on these birds, including D, Lack,
1961, Darwin's Finches An Essay on the
General Biological Theory on Evolution (New
York Harper) and Lack's article, "Darwin's
Finches," Scientific American (April 1(-83),
available as an offprint frc'.n W H Freman &
Co., San Francisco,

In 1838, Darwin "happened to read for

amusement" the essay by Malthus I, impr issed
on him at least one important ideathat a
process of selection in nature, a struggle for
existence because of overpopulation, could be
a powerful force for evolution of wild species

Figure 9.10 Brazilian rain forest. It was here

that Darw;n began recognizing that, for most
organisms, life is a constant struggle for survival.

If Darwin had known only the peaceful English countryside, he might

never have answered his questions concerning populations adapted to
their environment through the selection of variations. The environmelt
selects those variatiGns that best adapt organisms to it. Such selection
of variations creates diversity among organismssome ;elected for one
environment, some for another. L.)arwin's most prtssing question was
"What directs the selection of variations?" He recalled the teeming life
of the Brazilian rain forest (figure 9.10). The many plants seemed to
stru4le upw^.ed toward the light. Darwin began to detect in many hab-
itats the otruggle among individuals to obtain the necessities of life.
During this period he read a book by the sociologist Thomas Malthus,
An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus (figure 9.11) had
concluded that humans tended to product. more offspring than they can
support. If this were also true of organisms oth...r than humans, would

Prance / VISUALS UNLIMITED

..) 38
276 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

© this not result in a struggle for existence among them? Under such cir-
Figure 9.11 Thomas Malthus His Essay cumstances would not the offspring best fitted for Stirvival be those most
influenced Darwin's early ideas about the origin
li..zly to grow up to produce offspring like i'nemselves? Darwin looked
of species.
for more evidence to answer those questions.
O Darwin was familiar with the activities of breeders of domestic ani--
mals. These breeders selected as parents for their next generations those
individuals that had certain desired characteristics, and prevented these
with less desirable characteristics from breeding. This process was ar-
tificial selection. Darwin thought that the struggle for existence ii. na-
ture might be similar, removing from each generation the individuals
poorly fitted to live in their environment. Thus, only the more fit would
be left to produce the next generation. In short, just as plant and animal
O breeders practiced artificial selection, nature was practicing natural se-
lection, favoring those organisms best fitted to a given t nvironment. Ac-
cording to Darwin's hypothesis, the long neck of the giraffe would have
come about as shown in figure 9.12b. Compare this with the Law :ckian
e;sdlans *ion in figure 9.12a.
In investigation 9.2, you can simulate the process of natural selection.

The Bettnun Archive

Now is the time to ensure that the students

understand the fundamental differences between
the themes of Lamarck and Darwin

Figure 9.12 A comparison of Lamarckian (a) and Oarwinian (b) hypotheses of

the evolution of giraffes,

a. Lamarck's hypothesis Existing data do not support this hypothesis.

411L0411/.*
Ariabitraigiriffes probably had short The offspring had longer necks that Eventually the continued
necks that were subjected to frequent also were stretched frequently in the stretching of the neck gave rise
stretching to enable 'he giraffes to quest for food. to modern giraffes.
reach thc foliage of ...:es.

,b. Darwin's hypothesis Existing data support this hypothesis.

Ancestral giraffes probably had Natural selection isd to nurvival of Eventually only long-necked
necks that varied in length. The longer-necked offspring. giraffes survived.
variations were hereditary.

'4n'1
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 277

iiVeitigatioit9:2:;NATURAL SELECTION-, Investigation 9 2

NATURAL SELECTION

Introduction This investigation provides an opportunity for

Natural selection appears tube the chief mechanism of evolutionary ,,tudeit5 eXPO it n, tiovv oloration and
change. Biologists regard it as the process that has populated our planet I.di.,tat L.,peritt tuytttler Tn.: investigation
with diverse life forms and hat gave rise to humans. It continues today to tiill tAt at....ut 45 rrHnutt,,,. LkrytnjIng on the
shape the living world. In th:s investigation you will experience one way iutribr arid Int., number of paper
natural selection operates. chips used

Procedure
Materials (per team of 4 to 6)
Punch quarter-inch paper chips out of
Piece of fabric 3 feet X 6 feet construction paper, 500 each of 10 different
containers with 100 paper chips of assorted colors colors Use a wide variety of colors such as red,
small bowl orange. purple. green, blue, yellow, brown, pray,
black, and white To speed preparation. fold the
paper to 4 thicknesses before you punch it out
Procedure
Put chips of each color into separate plastic
1. Spread out the fabric habitat on a table top. vials and shake well
2. Appoini 1 team member as the keeper of your vial of paper chips. Remove 10 chips iron eac of the 10 vials
With your backs turned, allow the keeper to spread the chips uniformly to create populations of 100 each Place chip
over the fabric, making sure no chips stick together. populatiors in separate vials
3. imagine yourselves as predators, the paper chips as your prey, and c.fiuuse idUril, patterns that simulate natural
the fabric background as your habitat. One at a time, turn around and environments, such as floral, leaf, or fruit prints
select a paper chip using only your eyes to locate it. Do not use your The patterns should have several colors and be
hands to feel the chips. When you have a paper chip, place it in the of intricate design Test t colored chips
bowl. Take turns until only 25% of the paper chips remain on the fabric. against the material to make sure sume of than
Your teacher will help you determine individual quotas to ensure sur- blend well ,elect several designs, each with a
vival of 25% of the chips. different predominant color It then will be
4. Carefully shake the fabric to remove the survivors. possible to demon ate the evolution of
5. Group the survivors according to color. Arrange them in a horizontal different adaptive color types horn the same
row about -1 cm apart. Place chips of the same color together. Record starting population
the numbers of each color that survived. Dim the lights if possible Make sure all the
6. Assume each survivor produces 3 offspring. Using your teacher's re- participants btdrid with their backs toward the
serve supply, place 3 chips of the same color underneath each sur- habitat so they do not prematurely locate any
vivor. chips At a signal, have the predators take turns
7. Mix the survivors and their offspring thoroughly and distribute them as picking out chips
in procedure 3. Quota for each predator depends on team
8. Repeat the entire process of selection (procedures 3-7) 2 more times. size Signal the participants to stop when only
25 of the chips remain If more than 25 chips
remain have the predators select the overage
Discussion
Minor variations in number (2 or 3) are
1. Study your survivor populations. acceptable, and the survivor count need not ne
(a) Was 1 color of caper chip represented more than others in the corrected
1st generation of survivors? Other simulations are possible with these
(b) Were shades of that color also represented? materials By using 2 different sizes of paper
(c) What, if any, change occurred between the ist and 2nd, and be- chips, or by marking hall the chips with felt
tween the 2nd and 3rd generation survivors? markers, you can select for 2 or more
2. Compare the original arsJ survivor populations. Is there any color from dictralAtlilbtll.b at the baffle Nile You also can
the original population that is not represented in the survivor popula- use thicker and thinner chips. or whole and half
tion? chips To simulate mutation, have students add
3. Examine your survivor chips and the fabric from which you took them. several fit-3w (-hips to an adapted population
How do you think the colors of the survivors related to their habitat? and WrItirtue the sele,tion process
4. Assuming no new individuals migrate into the habitat, what do you think
the character of the population will be like? Will it change with time? Discussion
5. If new individuals with different colors do migrate in, what do you think
(3, b) The most abundant color or colors
the effect.cn the population will be, assuming the habitat and preda- 1

will be determined Ly the color(s) of the

tors remain the same? What will be the effect if the habitat and pred-
habitat(s)
ators change?

382
LI

278 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

(c) Succeeding cjenerat.r.,i is should show

greater adaptation to the habitat Figure 9.13 Darwin's study, in his home near London. It was here that he
2. The answer depends Uri the habitat organized the data collected during his voyage on the Bet ?le, and formulated
used and on the color of chips used his ideas on evolution.
3. The colored chips that most closely
duplicate the colors in the fabric habitat survive
most frequently The similarity in color prevented
the predators from selecting them as otien as
those, hat did not blend in
4 With no new genes entering the
population. it would be expected that the
poputatiui I would remain basiLally the same,
barring the effect of mutation
5. If the habitat and predators remain the
sarrit, the new colored population wuuld be
selected against as Wore A IS possible a few
new members will survive loiig enough to
reproduce, but eventually the camouflaged
,A
population would predorninatt If the habitat
changes. those individual;. must resembling their
new home might not be selected against The
charaLter of population would change over time
to reflect the new predatory pressure

Down House

Figure 9.14 Alfred Russel Wallace. His ideas

9.4 Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection
about evolution supported many of Darwin's Provides an Explanation
beliefs, prompting Darwin to publish his book On for the Origin of Species
the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection in 1859. Darwin was convinced that natural selection was the mechanism that
allowed certain variations to survive and others to die out. He began
ncarly 25 years of work, gathering evidence to support his idea of natural
selection. As a good scientist, he also examined contrary evidence and
reworked the flaws in oning. He formulated other hypotheses to
see if they would better account for the facts. In 1842 he wrote a sketch
of his results. He expanded this to an essay in 1844, but he showed it
only to a botanist friend. From 1846 to 1854 he produced four special-
ized books on barnacles, which provided him with firsthand experience
with the amount of variation found in species and the problems of clas-
sification. It was not until 1856 that he started to put on paper his theory
of natural selection. He did this as he continued to study the problems
of diversity and geographic distribution.
On June 18, 1858, Darwin received a scientific paper from a young
man who had been exploring in Malaya. This naturalist was Alfred
Russel Wallace (figure 9.14). Imagine Darwin's surprise when he dis-
covered in reading this paper that Wallace had worked out ideas almost
identical to his own. Darwin felt that he could not now, in fairness to
National Library of Medicine

Wallace became more famous for his later work

on biogeographical distribution. It is coincidental
that he. ke Darwin, was an avid beetle
collector.

' 33
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 279

Wallace, publish his own ideas. However, a few of his friends persuaded At the tnemoratlie Jury La ,riaeari
hia to summarize his theories and make a joint presentation with Wal- rnetting pope' 0,cto I !fed by
lace. On July 1, 1858, both papers were presented at a meeting of the Chark Lyt..11 and 4i- t papti t,y Ll,ast pit
Hooker f Jr :i0n1(..1 time DdrAln tied been
Linnaean Society of London. Neither Darwin nor Wallace was present,
corresponding with the Amen:. b:tanist Asa
and the presentation caused little stir among the scientific community.
Gray about evolution A short se- eti h emboo;inq
Darwin then prepared what he called an abstract of the full work on Darin in S evolutionary ideas had been sent to
which he was engaged. This abstract became the book On The Origin Gray in 5eptembe., 1857, and this was
of Species by Means of Natural Selection. In it Darwin presented evi- preserittd at the iatiniatan tv estatk
dence in support of the theory of evolution. His book was not directed the priority of Darwin Jut, I
solely to scientists, but rather to an intelligent lay population. It pre- meeting caused lithe stir TM. prLoidult ut the.
sented an enormous body of evidence, much of which was already fa- Lirinaeah Lu.)citty dt this time regretted In
miliar, to support the theory that evolution occurred through the natt,ral retrvspeLt that nu sighitiLaiit paw.. had been
selection of random variations. The weir of evidence was such that, presentee, during tilo term of office it wdb the
within a dee-le, significant numbers of biologists around the world -were liuLlivatwn 4.4 Ddivya, Look that
precipitated intellcctual tumult
convinced that the theory of evolution was as true as any theory can be.
Darwin's theory of natural selection, fr. -iosed to account for evolution, As with most 19th century literature, Darwin s
also was widely accepted. work had a prodigious title The Origin of
Darwin had collected facts on a large scale and used them as the basis Spt cit.. Aiatur,4 ar ^c Lon or the
for formulating a hypothesis to account for his observations. He deduced F'reserwtur. iayoured "J. Struggle.
from the hypothesis the consequences that should follow. Those deduc- tot L St The first printing ot 'Ltd. Lopes sold
tions could be tested to support or refute the hypothesis. A well-tested out the firot day
hypothesis that accounts for all the facts and that has the ability to pre-
dict additional facts is known as a theory. Darwin s bu ik started a lebatt that has never
The theory of evolution was supported by a vast quantity of data from ,orriplctely abated Decauee of ito effeLt vn
scientific and religious thought, it can be
a wide variety of fields. Furthermore, Darwin's theory of natural sele--
considered one cf the most influential intellectual
don provided a mechanism whereby the best adz )led variations would achievements of all time It is amazing that
be preserved. The next big question was "How are variations trans- Darwin s insights were so sound given the
mitted from one generation to the next?" For an answer to this question iingiame Itidt prevailed di the tome
we must return to the work of Gregor Mendel, which you studied in
chapter 8. Among his 00141 qualities Parwin was a ritielif
thinker, cap -toe of formulating a viable theory
from a huge (, lion i)l empirical data

Self-Review

1. What do biologists mean when they say there is "unity in diversity"

in the living world?
2. How was Charles Darwin influenced by the variety of organisms he
observed on the Galapagos Islands?
3. What caused Darwin to question the idea that all species were fixed
and unchanging?
4. How was Charles Darwin influenced by the work of Thomas M::
thus?
5. Compare the explanations of Lamarck and Darwin to account for
evolutionary change. Why was Darwin's explanation the better of
the two?
6. How did Darwin test his original hypothesis?

38 .4
280 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.15 Comparative embryology of some vertebrates. Zygotes are shown

on the left, adults on the right, and comparable embryological stages between.
Drawings are not to the same scale. The similarity between early stages in the
development of many different animals helped convince Darwin that all forms of
life shared common ancestors.

lungfish

salamander

chicks-)

chimpanzee

3
'Chapter 9 Continuity. through Evolution 281

Natural Variation and Natural Guidepost: What is the raw material

Selection for evolutionary change?

9.5 Mendel's Work Helped Explain How

Characteristics Are Inherited
Darwin had little knowleage of genetics. He did not know of Mendel's Mendel s work was the missing key to Garwin
work with garden peas, which was not rediscovered until 1900. That completion of his theory Though the work VMS
rediscovery led to the development of the science of genetics. In turn, published 14 years before Darwin's dea,h, he
evidently chose to ignore it A copy of th.. book
genetics influenced understandings of evolution, development, physi=
was found in Darw!n.s library after his death
ology, biochemistry, medicine, agriculture, and even social science.
Darwin's theory of natural selection acting on natural variations pro- O This is an important point not ail mutations are
vided a mechanism for evolution. Mendel's discoveries, which led to the unfit for survival in a ,ertain environment.
chromosome theory of heredity introduced in chapter 8, showed the way indeed, a mutation may be eery well suited to an
in which such variations could be inherited and maintained in a popu- environment that is changing, or to a new
lation. Darwin clearly understood that only hereditary variations would ecological habitat altogether This topic is
have any meaning for the evolutionary process. The hereditary traits of explored further in section 9.8
all living organisms are a product of their genes and chromosomes. Ob-
viously, then, when genes and chromosomes mutate or change, they af-
fect the characteristics of a species. How could the characteristics of a Figure 9,16 Hermann J. Miller. In 1927 he
species remain the same if its genes and chromosomes changed? That discovered that exposure-to X rays greatly
would be possible only if every mutation were to be eliminated. That is increases the rate at which mutations occur.
not the case in nature, however. Many mutations are eliminated, but as
time passes the hereditary makeup does change; that change provides
the raw material for evolution. That is one of the most important con-
cepts in all of biology.
Biologists can now subject genes and chromosomes to X rays or
chemicals and can produce mutations in large numbers. These can be
studied to determine their effects on viability and fertility. Mutations
Can be introduced into populations of organisms and the changes ob-
served. Such experiments provide powerful evidence for evolution. Bi-
ologists now have the power to speed up the rate of evolution or to alter
its course. Genetic engineering, discussed in section 8.20, makes it pos-
sible for biologists to create organisms so different from any existing that
the U.S. Patent Office issues a patent on them as unique and proprietary.

9.6 There Are Major Common Art ShayFortune Magazine

Characteristics of the
Evolutionary Process
Three major principles underlie the evolutionary process.
1. An evolutionary event involves a change in a population, not in in- One may cite the Galapagos finches as an
dividual members of that population. Individuals do not undergo example of variability arising from a single
evolutionary changes during their lifetimes. However, the makeup population
of the population changesover a long period of time. In other
words, the frequency of various kinds of individuals in the popula-
tion changes. That means that the frequency of different genes in
that population changes. We can think of evolutionary change as
changes in gene frequencies in a population.

386
282 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

0 2. Only one or a I'm characteristics change at any one time in an evo-

lutionary event. Organisms are systems of complex interactions. The
change in the frequency of one trait may bring about other changes
that are related. However, populations tend to be stable systems.
When we consider all the characteristics of a population, only a few
have changed.
3. An evolutionary event involves a change in a particular direction.
Genetic variations provide the raw material on which natural se-
lection acts. Environmental factors guide the selection.
The BSCS Inquiry Film The Peppered Moth A As an example of the application of these three principles, we can
Population Study is most effective if students consider the case of Biston betularia (BIS ten bet youo LAY ree uh),
have not read ahead, but it is useful in any the peppered moth. It is a common inhabitant of English woodlands. To
case.
a casual observer all peppered moths look alike, but if you examine a.
large population you will find many individual differences. For example,
a few have shorter antennae than most; some have longer legs. The most
notable difference, however, is in color: some individuals are light and
others dark.
Collecting moths has long been a popular hobby in Britain, and many
specimens collected over the last two centuries and from all parts of the
country are aveable for study. Biologists find that the variations among
moths caught in 1850 are mainly the same as those among moths col-
lected 100 years later. There is one startling difference, however. Among
moths collected in 1850 there were more light than dark ones; in 1950.
there were many more dark moths than light ones.
If biologists examine only the moths collected from rural, southern
England in 1950, they find the same ratio of light to dark as in 1850.
However, when they examine collections from the heavily industrialized
midlands of England in 1950, they find very few light moths. Why should
light moths predominate in one region and dark moths elsewhere? Why
should dark moths have been rarer in the past than now?
The biologists who investigated this matter developed a hypothesis
and proceeded to test it. In the midlands they placed both light and dark
moths on smoke-blackened tree trunks (figure 9.17). The moths were
placed in the positions they normally take during their daytime rest. The
biologists soon observed that birds ate more light moths than dark ones.
Both light and dark moths then were placed on trees common to southern
Englandsoot-free and encrusted with white lichens. Here the birds ate
more dark than light moths.
0 What conclusions can one reach from these observations? In the in-
As for the dark and light variations themselves, dustrialized midlands the tree trunks became cryered with black soot.
the black pigmentation of many organisms The soot made dark moths harder to see, so they survived predation better
seems to be related to absorption of solar than white moths on these trees. Moth coloration is controlled geneti-
radiation Low, broad valleys in Yugoslavia are cally. During the last century, therefore, natural selection favored the
inhabited by darkly banded snails On the upper moths whose color protected them best in the new environment. Mean-
slopes of the surrounding hills the snails are
while, white moths survived successfully in rural areas, where tree trunks
unbanded and pale Light snails that are brought
were not sooty. Thus, our first evolutionary principle is supported. The
down to the valley floors become active about
half an hour later than the dark forms. Cooled
makeup of the moth population changed over a period of time as the
overnight by the cold air that collects in the low- frequency of different kinds of individuals in the population changed.
lying valleys, the dark snails absorb radiant Some dark individuals occurred in the 1850 moth population, but they
energy and become warm. They are already were much more frequent in the 1950 population.
moving doout while the pale ones dre too cold The change in frequency of dark moths may have brought about some
to be active. less obvious changes in other moth characteristics. This would support

,:,`" r` 3Li 7
-Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 283

Figure 9.17 The basis for natural-selection in the peppered moth (Biston
betularia). Dark and light forths on a tree covered with light-colored lichens (a).
The two forms of the moth on a tree blackened by soot (b). Which moth in each
photo is most likely to be eaten by predators?

Aca

is

J. A. Bishop, University of Liverpool J. A. Bishop. University of Liverpool

a b

our second evolutionary principle. The studies, however, were dealing

only with changes in color, not with changes in a large number of char-
0
acteristics.
The 1850 population included both white and dark moths. This col-
oring is hereditary. An evolutionary event, such as the increase in the
frequency of dark moths, first requires genetic variation as its raw ma-
terial. The dark color became the foundation for a change in the pop-
ulation that resulted in a greater frequency of dark moths. Environmental
factors, such as the soot and the birds, guided this selection, which il-
lustrates the third of our evolutionary principles.

388
 284 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.18 In the life cycle of a leopard frog (Rana pipiens), the animal
changes rapidly (in the course of one to two weeks) from a tailed tadpole, with
structure and behavior suited for life in water, to a tailless adult frog, with
structure and behavior suited for life on land.

9.7 Living Material Is Able to Change

from One Form to Another
Some people find it hard to believe that living material can change
from one form to another. For example, how could a fishlike organism
become adapted to life on land? Yet one of the characteristics of living
material is its capacity for change. Imagine, for example, that the life
cycle of a.butterfly was unknown. Caterpillars and butterflies would then
be considered separate organisms entirely because of the great differ-
ences in their appearance and their life-styles. In the life history of a
given organism, early stages are frequently so different from the adult
that they would be considered different species or even different classes
were they not observed to change from one into another.
One can observe a change from an aquatic to a terrestrial life in a
single organism. Consider the tadpole of a frog: it is limbless and aquatic,
very fishlike in appearance. It breathes by means of gills. It is a herbivore
and its intestinal tract and mouth parts cre adapted to a plant diet.
Raising tadpoles in an aquarium allows you to see in a single species
some remarkable changes. As the tadpole develops into a frog it loses
its fishlike form and assumes the characteristics of an adult (figire 9.18).
Its tail is reabsorbed, it develops limbs, its gills are replaced by lungs,
The best known examples are the tadpole-to- and it becomes a carnivore with intestine and mouth parts adapted to a
frog and caterpillar-to-moth or butterfly diet of other animals. If one had seen only tadpoles and frogs and had
etamorphoses, but nearly 90 of all inseLls never observed the changes from one into the other, tadpoles would prob-
s through a larval stage Other examples ably be classified as fish and adult frogs as amphibians. What other ex-
iriLlude .ome salamanders, and the; tunik-atts amples can you cite that show the great ability of living material to change
(sea squirts) of subphylum Urochordata from one form to another?

389
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 285

Self-Review

1. What is the raw material for evolutionary change?

2. How did the rediscovery of Mendel's work provide support for Dar-
win's theory?
3. What are the three major characteristics of the evolutionary pro-
cess?
4. In what ways does the peppered moth illustrate natural selection?

The Forces of Evolutionary Guidepost: What natural forces direct

Change evolutionary change?

9.8 Mutations and Genetic Recombination

Increase Variability
In section 9.6 we showed how genetic variation in the peppered moth The rediscovery of Mendel s work on genetics
provided the kinds of raw material necessary for evolutionary change. at the turn of the century seemed to sound the
How is genetic variation brought about? There are at least two major death knell for Darwinian evolution, because the
sources of the variability required for evolution: mutations and genetic emphasis was on stability rather than on
recombination. change And De Vries' work (which is not
A mutation is a change in a gene. Frequently one hears that muta- discussed in the text) on macroinutations
evening primroses demonstrated great genetic
tions are both rare and harmful. The frequency of gene mutation is vari-
changes, rather than the minor changes
able. One of the genes that produces colored grains in an ear of corn necessary for the process of Darwinian
may mutate as frequently as once in 2000 germ cells. Other genes are evolution Only more recently tsince the 1930s)
So stable that they fail to mutate during millions of cell divisions. On an has it been appreciated that most genetic
average, however, a mutant form of any particular gene occurs about changes are minor and support Darwin b
once in 100,000 germ cells. This would seem to support the rarity of gene conception of evolution
mutation. Remember, however, that evolution is concerned with popu-
lations and with every gene within a population.
There may be thousands of genes in each individual germ cell, and
for each species there may be thousands or millions of individuals pro-
ducing germ cells in each generation. There are many generations over
the span of evolutionary time. Therefore, although any paticular gene
mutates rarely, there is ample opportunity for mutation. In human beings
alone there are probably more than 20,000 genes per gamete. Each person
results from a union of two gametes, so the probability that a person
carries a new mutation is about 2 in 5.
One would expect that an organism well adapted to a given environ-
ment would more likely be hindered rather than helped by further mu-
0
tations. The probability of becoming better adapted is simply far less
than the probability of becoming less well adapted. Even so, the oppor-
tunity for beneficial mutations is very large, as shown in table 9.1. The gene pools of large populations must be
Genetic recombination results from meiosis and sexual reproduction, enormousmany mutant alleles can ht
as we showed in section 6.8. Like mutations, recombination increases expected d t all gene loci Many mammals have
the genetic variability in a given population by bringing about different 10,000 loci It 1000 of thes. e were t.Ittgozygous,
combinations of genes (figure 9.19). This contributes to the variation in the anima. could produce 2""" genetically
the gene pool. The gene pool is the total amount of genetic information different kinds of sex cells, more than enough
al the allelesin a population. Natural selection sorts out particular material for natural selection to at upon Lyk.n
with no new mutations. reshuffling of existing
genes would provide sufficient variation for
natural selection to occur

'
390
 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.19 How mutation and recombination produce a wide variety of

first division of meiosis

possitle gametes a

aW

possible genotypes
in next generation

39j
 Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 287

Table.; alotilaliot0Eth§ipeOpOleTniiriikaff,6Cbehef0iarrhutations'.
T,Caft*Ouri.d(fririg.;the'iVol4Oritiry:lifelirrie,;-Of apeCles,!'
Estiniates Calculations
1. Mutation rate per gene 6. Number of beneficial mutations
1 /100,000 per individual per generation
equals no. 1 X no. 2 X no. 3,
2. Number of genes in the
or 1/100,000 X 1000 X
organism capable of mutating
1/ 1000 = 1/ 100,000.
1000
7. Number of beneficial mutali-ms
3. Proportion of mutations that are
in the species population per
beneficial
generation equals no. 6 X no.
1/1000
4, or 1/ 100,000 X 100,000,000
4. Population size of the species = 1000.
100,000,000
8. Number of beneficial mutations
5. Number of generations in the during the evolutionary life of the
evolutionary life of the species species equals no. 7 X no. 5,
10,000 or 1000 X 10,000 =
10,000,000.
!Based on conservative estimates of gene number, population size, and number of
generations during which the species exists.

gene combinations from this pool. Genetic differences can arise between
different subpopulations derived from the same gene pool because each
s..iected subpopulation has a smaller gene pool than the original popu-
lation. Thus, there is likely to be less variability in the subpopulation.

9:9 The Size of a Population

Affects Its Stability
Gene frequencies in a population remain stable unless modified by
some directing factors. Several kinds of factors affect gene frequencies.
First, mutations may bring about changes in genes and, thus, in gene
frequencies. Second, a population may migrate to a new environment,
which then will select the genes that best adapt the population to the
new situation. Third, one population may migrate into the territory of
another of the same species. The result will be a change in the frequen-
cies of alleles in both populations.
Evolutionary change in large populations is guided primarily by nat-
ural selection. In small populations, however, chance may play a role
and lead to some nonadaptive characteristics. For example, a new and
isolated population may be established when a small number of individ-
uals leaves the parent population. It is unlikely that these few individuals
carry all the alleles, and in the same frequencies, as the parent popu-
lation. They form an atypical sample, but this sample may migrate to
where it can live well and reproduce effectively. In time, it may form a
large population on its own. However, in the new environment the gene
poolalready,smaller than that of the parent populationmay be fur-
ther modified by' both selection and random genetic drift. Random ge-
netic drift is variation in gene frequencies that occurs in the absence of
natural selection. For example, the small population may losejust by
chancean allele with a low gene frequency. Unless that allele reoccurs
by mutation, or in a new im-nigrant to the population, it is gone forever.
 288 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere-

Figure 9.20 Genetic drift in MN blood groups. A Dunker group that by chance
1 had a relatively high frequency of the allele for M emigrated to Pennsylvania.
Because the Dunkers do not marry outside their group, they continue to exhibit a
higher frequency of allelBs for M and a lower frequency of alleles for N than in
West Germany or the United States.

gene frequency
Dunker isolate M.655 gene frequency
N.345 M.548
gene frequency N.452
of United States
M.540
N.460
Pennsylvania

West Germany

An excellent example of a nonadaptive Its frequency has become zero. This and other forms of genetic drift
characteristic being established in a small occur primarily in small populations, and the random changes can ac-
population to rare allele being overrepresented) cumulate from one generation to the next. Genetic drift can change sig-
is the combination of dwarfism and nificantly the gene frequencies in such small populations. As a result,
polydactylism (extra fingers) which occurs nonadaptive as well as adaptive characteristics can become established,
among the Old Order Amish of Lancaster,
provided that the nonadaptive characteristics are not actually harmful.
Pennsylvania. Sixty-one cases of this rare
deformity have been reported in this population
There are examples of genetic drift in human populations. The
since the 1770s, nearly as many as have Dunkers are a small religious group whose ancestors migrated from Ger-
occurred world-wide The Amish now number many to what is now Pennsylvania in the 18th century. The size of the
about 17,000, but the Order was begun by only population is only a few hundred. Outsiders are not accepted into the
a few couples. and has kept Itself virtually group, even by marriage. Thus, the gene pool of the group remains sep-
Isolated since then It is by unlucky chance that arated from the influence of outside genes.
one of the founding individuals was a carrier of In section 8.9, you studied the ABO blood groups. The MN blood
the allele responsible for this defect group is another one present in humans. Among the Dunkers, the fre-
quency of blood type M is much higher than its frequency either in Ger-
many or the rest of the United States (see figure 9.20). There is no known
advantage to having blood type M as compared to the other types (MN
and N) in this particular system. Thus, natural selection appears not to
be a factor in maintaining the high frequency of type M. The high fre-
quency is :a result of chancerandom genetic drift. The Dunker popu-
lation that emigrated from Germany had a higher frequency of type M
by chance. The limitations on the flow of new genes into the population
have allowed this frequency to remain high. If many new genes entered
the population, t:.e effects of genetic drift would be lost.

9.10 Events in the Natural World Are Not

Completely Random
0 Although many factors introduce random variation into the gene pool
of a population, not all events in the natural world take place at random.
Chemical elements, for example, do not combine in random patterns,
but, rather, in specific and limited Ones. For examp:e, carbon can form
four chemical bonds with other elements. Because hydrogen can form
only one, the expected combination of carbon and hydrogen is CH.,
methane gas. Oxygen can form two bonds and, therefore, oxygen and

3;3
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 289

hydrogen combine as H20, water. Thus, the combination process is not 0 If the gtr, ,..r,,tojt. or htutAtio, prutotand
random but fixed and predictable. (Review figures 4.3 and 4.4, page 97.) enough tht or+rioStn slily ,n the eat

In a similar way, the genetic patterns of organisms do not allow for stages of dev. iubillt;1 it LVVI r 1 the variant
random patterns of structure or function. Rather, structure and function or ganoti is onepttitiuli with superior
members of the spti,,es pri vent, mating and
develop within limitations imposed by the genotype of the organism. Ge-
perpetuation of the ui4-. variation
netic changes that vary greatly from the established pattern may result
in the death of the organism. Even if the variation does not cause death,
the organisin may be unable to breed with others of its own species, and
the genetic change will not continue.

In'veticiiitioh 9.3 GENETIC, STABILITY

Investigation 9.3
Introduction GENETIC STABILITY

Natural selection works to change the frequency of characteristics in a This investigation applies mathematics to
population. In this investigation you will study a population existing through problt iris of evo, tioit and empnasizes the
time with no selective forces acr.g on it. relationship between genes in populations and
Evidence for genetic stability was found when mitosis and meiosis were natura selection 11 students nave a good
linked with the inheritance of characteristics. Because these processes are background tri mathematics the investigation
so precise, it seems that organisms must conserve genetic characteristics may be assigned for home study and then
through many generations. discussed in class It may be advisable.
however to work with students cooperatively,
Procedure particularly if they are unfamiliar with algebraic
multiplier lion
1. Consider a hypothetical species of squirrel. Assume that among the
variations in this hypothetical species are 2 hereditary hair types. One Procedure
type is straight, and the other is curly. Assume that the trait is deter-
mined by a single pair of alleles. Straight (S) is dominant over curly 2 Straight 3 < straight straight 3 X curly
(s). Finally, assume that the species population consists of 1000 squir- cur!, . X straight c curly 6 X curly "i
rels, with equal numbers of males and females. Among the 500 squir- 3 4 SS Y SS SS, SS X ss Ss,
rels of each sex, 250 are homozygous straight haired (SS), and 250 ss sS, ss X ss ss. No
are homozygous curly haired (ss). 5 (a) 3 straight to 1 curly
ft)) No, it was then 1 straight to 1 ,urly
2. Use the symbols 8 for male and 9 for female. Identify all the r ossible
phenotype matings in this hypothetical population. 7 (a) 0 5 Sand 0 5 s
(b) Sin, e the probabilitie, t tht 4 kinds of
3. List all the possible kinds of matings in terms of genotypesfor ex-
ample, SS X ss. matings are equal and each produces only 1
genotype (items 1. 2 at,d 3). simply ,ount tht
4. Beside each kind of mating, write all the kinds of genotypes that occur
gync symbols in the 4 equally Irtgut.iit offspring
among the offspring. Does any cross produce more than one kind of
offspring? genotypes (SS, Ss, sS, ss) Time are 4 St
and 4 s's thtretort. the. fro guen,..its an: 0 b S
5. Assume that the offspring generation also consists of 1000 squirrels,
and 05 s.
Assume also that each kind of mating you listed for item 2 contributes
equally to this population. (c) The gent, trtAtitini.les foot the phenotype
frequencies) art tht ,.1r114:. In both gt fit tatioris
(a) What is the expected ratio of straight - haired squirrels to curly-
haired squirrels in the offspring? 9 (a) (05 SX 05 s)X (05 S+ 05
(b) Is this phenotype ratio the same as that in the 1st generation?
s) 0 25 SS f 0 50 Ss + 0 25 ss.
(Li) If the 3rd generation -A11;ist; 01 1000
6. The frequency of any particular characteristic within a group is ex-
pressed as a fraction. Thus, in a group of 100 marbles containing 20 indtvitIaals then 250 are SS ,500 S Qesit s) and
red and ,80 blue ones, the frequency of red marbles is 20/ 100 or 500 art Ss (500 S gtaes), totaling 1000 S
1/5 or 20% or 0.2. The frequency of blue marbles is 80/100 or 4/5 genes Also, 500 art Ss (500 s gtsir
are ss (500 s genes), totaling 1000 s .1t nos
or 80% or 0.8. Regardless of how the fractions are written, their sum
must always equal 1: Therefore, the frequencies are still 0 5 S and
20/ 100+ 80/100 = 100/100 = 1 0 5 s.
1/5 + 4/5 = 5/5 =1 (c) Yes
(d) Yes
20% + 80% = 100% = 1
0.2 + 0.8 = 1.0.

394
 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

10. (a) 200 male, straight-haired In this example, suppose each marble is_a gamete and gametes
squirrels = 400 S genes, 300 male, 6uriy-hared unite at random. Recall that the probability of two separate events
squirrels = 600 s genes, the frequencies are occurring at the same time is the product of their individual probabil-
0,4 S and 0.6 s. ities. Thus, the frequency of genotype red-red in the next generation
(b) The same as in the males would be 0.2 X 0.2 = 0.04. The,frequency of blue-blue would be
(c) (0 4 S + 0,6 s) X (0 4 S + 0 6 0.8 X 0.8 = 0.64. What would t.3 the frequency of the red-blue ge-
s) = 0.16 SS + 0,48 Ss + 0 36 ss notype? We know that the total of the frequencies of the genotypes
(d) If the offspring gewration consists of must equal 1.0. Therefore, 1.0 0.04 0.64 = 0.32. This means
1000 individuals, then 160 are SS (320 S that in the next generation of 100 individuals, we expect 32 to be het-
genes) and 480 are Ss (480 S genes), totaling erozygotes.
800 S genes. Also, 480 are Ss (480 s genes) 7. Now consider the 2 genes S and s.
and 360 are ss (720 s genes), totaling 1200 s (a) What were their frequencies (expressed as decimal fractions) in
genes. The frequencies are 0 4 S and 0.6 s. the original squirrel population?
(e) The calculations by the gene-pool (b) What are their frequencies in the offspring generation?
method are the same as in item 10(c) (c) How do the gene frequencies in the original population compare
with those in the offspring generation?
Discussion 8. Now make the same calculations for a 3rd generation. You could do
In a large, randomly mating population, this by mating every genotype with every other genotype in proportion
without selection pressure and without mutation, to their frequencies. You can obtain the same result, however, by using
gene frequencies remain the same from one the gene-pool method. Write the frequencies of all the kinds of ga-
generation to the next metes in the 2nd generation (in this case, the frequencies of genes in
Your students are not likely to put in the item 7b). Then assume random combination of those gametes. The
qualifications, but these are very impclant frequency of S plus the frec .;ency of s represents the total sperm pop-
evolution involves a change in gene frequencies ulation. (Likewise, the frequency of S plus the frequency of s repre-
It is only the existence of mutations and of sents the total egg population.) By algebraic multiplication of these
selection pressures that prevents the Hardy- frequencies, you can obtain the frequencies of the 3rd-generation ge-
Weinberg principle from stablizing gene notypes just as you cal with the red and blue marbles above.
frequencies, At this point you easily can show 9 Use the gene-pool method to answer the following questions:
students that the calculation: are based on (a) What are the frequencies of the genotypes in the 3rd generation?
random mating. Further, stuaents can see, when (b) Assuming that the 3rd-generation population is again,1000, what
it is pointed out to them, that mutations at a are the frequencies of S and s in the 3rd generation?
given locus will change gene frequencies (c) Is the phenotype ratio the same as in the 2nd generation?
The case of Hardy and Weinberg Is like that (d) Are gene frequencies the same as those in the 2nd generation?
of Darwin and Wallace and many others in the 10 Retaining all other assumptions, change the original population to 400
history of sciencenearly simultaneous homozygous straight-haired squirrels and 600 homozygous curly-haired
discovery of the same thing by two persons squirrels. Each group contains males and females in equal numbers.
unknown to each other. (a) What are the frequencies of the 2 genes among males in the pop-
Note that 9 and 10 could be expressed as ulation?
p2 + 2pq + q2, where p and q are gene (b) Among females?
frequencies, This algebraic expression might (c) By algebraic multiplication, determine the frequencies of geno-
help some students better grasp both situations types among the offspring.
and generalize from them (d) What are the frequencies of the 2 genes in the offspring popu-
lation?
(e) Calculate the frequencies of the genes in a 3:d generation.

Discussion
In a single sentence, try to state a conclusion concerning gene fre-
quencies in populations.
If you have been successful in formulating your sentence, you have stated
the basic idea of the Hardy-Weinberg principle. G. H. Hardy was an
English mathematician, and W. R. Weinberg WES a German physician. In
1908 they independently worked out the effects of random mating in suc-
cessive generations on the frequencies of alleles in a population. You have
just done the same thing.
You may have noticed that in many ways the hypothetical population
differs from real ones. Nevertheless, the Hardy-Weinberg principle is im-
portant for biologists because it is the basis of hypothetical stability from
which to measure real change.

395
 Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 291

9.11 Isolation Is Important for the Formation

of a New Species
Mutation, recombination, selection, migration, and random genetic
drift bring about changes in a population. If these changes are linked
by a large number of individuals that can interbreed, such individuals
are normally considered as one species. For example, one might think
that a Pekingese and a Great Dane would be different species of dogs
because they cannot interbreed. They do contribute to the gene pool of
the dog species as a wh ale, however, and can cross with intermediate
breeds, as shown in figure 10.2, page 313. -
A new species must be isolated if it is to remain a separate species.
Otherwise*terbreeding with any other species to a significant extent
could cause its distinctive character to disappear. Reprrductive isolation
may arise in several ways. The first is separation in idne. A species that
disappeared a million years ago obviously cannot-breed with a species
li'ring today. Even a species that becomes reproductively active in the
spring cannon interbreed with another that becomes reproductively ac-
tive in the fall. Thus, isolation by time prevents interbreeding, even if it
could otherwise occur.
A second origin of reproductive isolation is geographic isolation caused 1 hese barriers need not be as obvious as
by naturally occurring barriers such as mountains and rivers. Organisms mountains or rivers Organisms adapted to
that cannot come into contact with each other cannot interbreed. Dis- Arctic environments were arid are) isoiated by
tance; though not impossible to overcome, is itself a geographic barrier. the presence of the tropical belt along the
Large populations that spread over a wide geograph''. range often dem- equator Islands also can occur in other than the
literal sense ponds, lakes (even oceans),
onstrate marked variations from one end of the range to the other. Th
mountaintops, forest groves. Isolated clumps of
flicker population of North America is a good example (figure 9.21).
vegetation
There are three types of flickers that can interbreed. Their color is due
to a codominant trait. The yellow-shafted flicker is most common in the
eastern part of the United States. In the western part of the United States,
the red-shafted flicker is dominant. In between, heterozygous individ-
uals termed hybrid flickers are most abundant. Hybrid flickers have
mingled reddish-yellow feathers that look orange. If one did not know
orthe intermediate population of hybrid flickers, the red-shafted flicker
and the yellow-shafteeflicker would appear to be two distinct species on
the basis of their appeatince.
There have been numerous instances of populations described as dis-
tinct species that have later been found to be connected by intermediate
populations. Often a large, widespread species is divided into geographic
subspecies or races on the basis of distinctions of this kind. You may gain
a clearer picture by studying the salamanders in California, as presented
in investigation 9.4.
A third factor in reprodu ;tive isolation can be genetic or behavioral. A familiar and very vigorous but sterile hybrid is
Theie are conclusive isolating- factors. They can be illustrated by two a mule a cross between a malt: donkey 4ind
similar populations that inimot cross successfully with each other. A wild mare
coyote Ionics much like a domestic dog, but mating between the two spe-
cies is rare. Behavioral differences, particularly in the care and feeding
of the,yoting, result in.the early death of the offspring. This type of re-
productive isolation allows dogs and coyotes to exist side-by -side and
remain, distinct species.
Many si;;-,,,es are reproductively il.,elated in nature, but in captivity
,inayte crossed to produce vigorous, fertile hybrids. Mallard and
ducks (figure. 9.23), for example, are found in the same habitats

3(1"
t)
4.7
Figure 9.21 Distribution of flickers in the U.S. How has the history of the Great
Plains affected these flickers?

red-shafted flicker
Colaptes cater

X 1/3

hybrid flicker

yellow-shafted flicker
Colaptes auratus

X 1/3
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 293

Figure 9.22 .(a) Domestic dogs (Canis familiar's) and (b) coyote (Canis latrans).
Though distantly related, the two species are behaviorally isolated and rarely
interbreed.

a BSCS by Doris Strumbel Larry Brock/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Figure 9.23 Mallard duck (left) and pintail duck (right). Females of the two
species are much more alike than these males.

zf

throughout North America, but individuals intermediate between the Rarely, members of different speoes may
two are relatively rare. Their mating instincts and nesting habits are attempt to breed and e,i_ri sueed in doing so
very different. It is most unusual for a mallard and a pintail to be sex- but a number of po,,tmating isolating
ually active at the same time in nature. When they are put together in ITIdoritda genetic 1.solutiun These
include the following ta, the, sperm might not be
the same pen, however, they will mate with each other and produce fer-
able to survive in the female reproductive tract
tile hybrids.
(b) the sperm cell might not be able to fuse with
Courtship patterns also provide reproductive isolation. The male the ovum (44 unue fertilized, the ovum might not
grouse performs a dance that apparently stimulates the sex hormones in develop kJ) the young might t,ut survive to
the female, causing release of egg cells prior to mating. Males of other reproductive maturity ft} of4ring mgt. mature
species produce far less stimulation in front of a female grouse, and so but bt. sterile Of Lour.,e, tht greatest barrier to
there is little chance of fertile mating. interspecihc mating is the physiological and
Even ecological isolation can occur when two populations live in dif- anatomic-al difteresk,es between species
ferent habitats. In Michigan, for example, there are two populations of
the deer r..ouse Peromyscus maniculatus (figure 9.24). One inhabits the [payr oh MIS kus man ik yoo LAH tus]
shoreline of the Great lakes. The other lives in wooded areas. Between
the shore and the woods is a zone of meadowland that both populaf ons
avoid. Thus, individuals from the two populations rarely meet, even
though there is good reason to suppose that if they did, they could still
interbreed.
! ' 398
294 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.24 Prairie deer mouse.

s.

'LirriMasier. 7iiNature

Ask students how they think an adult salmon Figure 9.25 Spawning Kokanee salmon in a creek. The salmon seek out quiet,
can recognize the stream in which it was smooth, gravel-bottomed streambeds in which to deposit their eggs. Their usual
hatched The present theory, which is supported silvery color turns to red as they begin to spawn.
by a considerable amount of experimental
evidence, holds that a young fish is imprinted
with the chemical characteristics of the water in
which it is hatched, and, when It reaches
adulthood, it is guided to Its stream by these
chemical characteristics

Brian Piiiketi TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Finally, behavioral patterns can contribute to reproductive isolation.

Pacific salmon spend most of their lives in the ocean, but they do not
breed there. Instead, they enter rivers and swim upstream toward the
small streams in which they were hatched (figure 9.25). There they breed
and die. Thus, the new generation in each stream obtains its genes from
a preceding generation from the same stream. As a result, salmon that
have been living together for years in the open ocean do not constitute
an interbreeding population. Instead, they are genetically separated by
behavioral isolation.
In investigation 9.4 you can consider some of the factors that might
lead to speciation, or the development of new species.

399
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution' 295

Biology Today

The Cheetah On the Way to Extinction?

Wildlife Safari. Winston Oregon Wildlife Safari. Winston Oregon

Plant and animal extinction haS many causes. skin grafts between six-pairs of unrelated
Humans often cause changes in the environment cheetahs. They also grafted patches from one
that modify or even destroy habitats. These part to another of the same cheetah on all 12 as
changes reduce or eliminate food supplies, living . a control. As a second control, the researchers
space, and breeding grounds. Other factors may grafted skin patches from another species, the
be more important in the case of the cheetah, domestic cat, onto each cheetah. The photo on
which has been listed by the 'Convention of the right above shows one of the grafts after 12
International Trade in Endangered Species as days. The grafts between unrelated cheetahs, on
being threatened by extinction. Recent studies the left, and from one part to another of the same
have produced evidence that a "population cheetah, in the middle, are healing. There was no
bottleneck" has limited the cheetah population. rejection of the grafts between unrelated cheetahs-
An infectious disease or a natural catastrophe at or between parts of the same cheetah. The graft
some time in the cheetah's recent evolutionary from the domestic cat, however, shows acute
history must have caused its number to become rejection.
very small. The result was a reduction in the When there is a normal variation of alleles in
variety of alleles in its gene pool. the gene pool, one would expect rejection of
Transplants of organs such as the heart, grafts between unrelated cheetahs after 7 to 13
kidney, or liver from one human to another have days. The nonrejection of these grafts supported
become fairly common in the past 10 years. An the hypothesis that the population bottleneck
important factor in the success of those reduced the allelic variation in the gene pool of
transplants has been the development of drugs to the cheetah. The rejection of the grafts from the
prevent rejection, which occurs because the domestic cat indicated that the immune system
donated organ is recognized as "foreign" by the was responsive to genetically different
immune system of the recipient. The greater the transplanted tissues.
genetic variation between donor and recipient, the The skin grafts supported the hypothesis that
greater the possibility of rejection. In genetically all the cheetahs were closely related. The cheetah
similar individuals the chances of rejection are population is an example of a genetically uniform
greatly reduced. species that could be wiped out by a deadly
Researchers used this rejection mechanism to infectious disease. There would be natural
test the hypothesis that a population bottleneck selection against the population. Evolution of the
reduced the genetic variation in the cheetah and cheetah species would stop and it would become
was an important factor in the decline in the one of the many animal species that exist only in
cheetah population. The researchers exchanged books and museums.

400
296 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.26 Specimens of the salamander species Ensatina eschscholtzii.

_goria0:r
ilemi7 1741448

Investigation 9 4 Investigation 9.4 A STEP IN SPECIATION

A STEP IN SPECIATION
Introduction
In addition to showing tow ,-.,pe,iation may The small sala sanders of the genus Ensatina are strictly terrestrial. They
proceed. this investigation otiould emphaoize for even lay their ego on land. Nevertheless, these salamanders need a rather
students that a 3AtTitist a real work begin., when moist environmeA 'rid do not thrive in arid regions. In California, Ensatina
she or he starts to organize and anaiy,c data eschscholtzii has been studied by R. S. Stebbins of the University of Cali-
Dr Stebbins's research was published in fornia, Berkeley. This investigation is based on his work
University of California Publications in Zoology
46 (1949) 377-526 If you have this publication.
Materials (per student)
you can compare his interpretations with those
of the students outline map of California
colored pencils
Materials
A full-size map like the one in figure 9 27 will
be found in the Teacher's Resource Book Part A
Reproduce copies for each student Procedure
Imagine that you are working with Stebbins's salamander specimens,
Part A
some of which are pictured in figure 9.26. In the following list, the paren-
Procedure theses after each subspecies name contain a number and a color. The
Correct key colors and a.curate piottings number is the total of individuals that Stebbins had available in his study.
are necessary for correct Intel pretations The color is for you to use in designating the subspecies. Following this is
Avoid difficulties with pronuliuldt1011 by a list of collection areas. Each is indicated by a number/letter coordinate
referring to the subspecies by their 'lumbers on the map of California in figure 9.27. For example, 32/R means that 1
or more E. e. croceator specimens were collected at the intersection of
line 32 and line R.

401
Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 297

Figure 9.27 Map of California, with the grid to be used in plotting distributional
data.

2
IILLL111,11111
3
4 I I 'H R. MI

iiimmi
5
6
7
8
91 'HI
10

13 1 I
:45

17I-!! j
18
19
_I 14._
II it tit
1
20 1 1 1

21
I I 1 _I 1 -1 I _1 I

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
t
30
31

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41

42
ABCDEFGHIJK LMNOPQRSTUVWXYZab cdf ghij
1. E. e. croceator (15; brown): 32/R, 32/S, 30/1, 31/1. Discussion
2. E. e. eschscholte (203; red): 30/M, 32/0, 34/S, 35/V, 36/W, 35/Z, 1 The distribution in the state is not uniform
38/Y, 40/Z. In those areas where salamanders do not occur,
3. E. e. klauberi.(48; blue): 36/Z, 38/a, 40/a, 39/a. there orobably are specific limiting factors, for
4. E. e. oregonensis (373; pink): 9/B, 7/E, 6/E, 13/C, 10/C, 7/D, example, and or semiarid conditions
15/D. 2 When the distribution of salamanders is
5. E. e. pieta (230; yellow): 2/B, 2/C, 3/C, 4/C. compared with the physiography of California, it
6. E. e. platensis (120; green): 8/J, 10/J, 11/M, 13/M, 15/M, 15/0, is evident that the salamanders occur in the
17/M, 15/P, 20/Q, 24/S, 21/R, 25/T, 26/U. mountainous regions, except in the desert
7. E. e. xanthoptica (271; orange): 17/G, 17/F, 19/H, 19/0, 20/1, 20/ ranges.
J, 21/1. 3. The mere fact that subspecies are
Plot each collection area by marking a small X on an outline map that geographical variations within a species
has a grid like the one in the figure. Write with pencils of different colors suggests that there should be order to the
to indicate the different populations. distribution of these subspecies, Because of

402
 298 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

ancestral relationships, adjacent species should Discussion

be more like each other than widely separated
You now have a distribution map of the subspecies of Ensatina
subspecies. There are exceptions, as part of
eschscholtzii in California.
this investigation will bear out, but the
exceptions can be explained. 1,Is the species uniformly distributed throughout California? Use your
Stebbins postulated that subspecies 5, E e knowledge of the species' ecological requirements to offer an expla-
picta, is closest to the ancestral form and that nation for its distribution.
subspeciation has taken place southward along 2 Now consider the physiography of California (figure 9.27). Does the
the coastal and the inland mountains. This species seem more characteristic of mountain areas or of large valley
would explain the difference in pattern between areas?
coastal and inland mountain forms and similarity 3 Do you expect any order in distribution of subspecies? Why or why
among coastal forms and among island forms not?
At the end of the investigation, you may want to 4. Examine the salamanders in figure 9.26. Note that some subspecies
discuss with your students the most likely center have yellow or orange spots and bands on a black body. Some have
of origin of the species, including a fairly plain, brown-orange bodies. One has small orange spots on a
consideration of gene flow isolation black background. There are other differences as well. For example,
mechanisms. some of them have white feet. Now refer to your distribution map. Does
4. The spotted forms tend to be in the inlanu there appear to be any order to the way these color r_atterns occur
Sierra Nevada and the unspotted forms along in California? For example, do the spotted forms occur only along the
the coast, except in southern California, where coast? Do spotted forms occur in the north and unspotted ones in the
both spotted and unspotted occur together. south?
5. Populztions of E. e. eschscholtzu and E e. 5. Subspecies E.e. eschscholtzii and E.e. klauberi are very different from
klauberi occur in the same area in southwestern each other. What relationShip is there between their distributions?
California.

Part B Part B
Discussion Procedure
1. They represent genetic intergrades You may-wonder whether there might not be salamanders in Some of
(hybrids) between subspecies the areas for which you have no records. You also may wonder whether
2. These 2 subspecies are geographically there might be additional subspecies for which you have no specimens. A
isolated by several hundred miles, with another biologist faced with these questions would leave the laboratory and go into
subspecies occurring in between. the field to collect more specimens. Imagine that you do so, too, and rc'turn
3. To see if there were any intergrade with the following additional data:
specimens and to see if the 2 subspecies E. e. eschscholtzii (16; red): 36/Z, 41/Z, 33/M, 34/W, 34/U
populations occupied the same region. E. e. klauberi (23; blue): 40/b, 40/Z, 36/a
4 As it turns out, the 2 subspecies are Unidentified population no. 8 (44; black and green): 4/1, 5/H, 7/H,
intermixed with no intergrades. 7/F, 6/J, 9/F
5. Population E. e. klauberi. MIS is the only Unidentified population no. 9 (13; black and red): 28/T, 27/T, 26/T,
form for which you have not located intergrades 28/S, 29/T
with other forms. Students may wonder if further Unidentified population no. 10 (131, black and blue): 23/J, 24/K, 24/I,
collecting would turn up intergrades. A 29/M, 25/J, 25/I
provocative discussion might involve what such Unidentified population no. 11 (31; black and yellow). 6/C, 7/C, 6/B
intergrades would be between and why, Mark with an 0 the following places that were searched for Ensatina
Incidentally, many biologists formerly concluded without success:
that E. e. klauberi was a separate species.
6. Between E e, klauberi and croceator. 11/I, 14/I, 17/K, 19/K, 22/N, 26/0, 5/M, 32/U, 32/a, 35/f.
Note that the intergrade specimen has spots Specimens of nos. 8 and 9 are shown in figure 9.26. There are no il-
that tend to form bands. Individuals of E. e. lustrations for nos. 11 and 12.
croct a tor have definite spots; those of E. e.
klauberi are banded. Note also that the 2 spots
on the head almost form a band. The line is a
clockwise arc from, roughly, 32/U to 35/Z (from
the most southerly E. e. croceator around the
east side of E e. eschscholtzii to the most
northerly E, e, klauberi). These intergrades,
incidentally, were collected at 33/Y and 35/Y.
7. The map shows intergrades between all
the subspecies except the 2 that exist together
in southern California. It would seem likely that
subspeciation has taken place from a 4orrini4n

403
Chapter ,9 Continuity through Evolution 299

Discussion ancestor in the north (closely related to E e.

picta), down the 2 separated mountain chains,
According to Stebbins, the unidentified populations are not additional
The 2 subspecies that exist together without
subspecies.
intergrading must have become so different from
1. What, then, is the probable genetic relationship of populations no. 8, each other that they are reproductively isolated.
no. 9, and no. 10 to the subspecies already plotted on the map? You can see why these 2 were thought to be
2. Why is it unlikely that you would ever, find individuals combining char- separate species before all the information on
acteristics of E.e. picta and E. e. xanthoptica? the intergrades was available.
3. Now consider E. e. eschscholtzii and E. e. klauberi. Look at the dis- It has been pointed out that these species
tribution of the original collections. What reasons were there for trying "rings" and 'loops" are a nuisance to a
to collect additional specimens from extreme southwestern California? biologist who merely wants to classify objects,
4. How do the results of the additional collections differ from the results but are exciting to a stuaent of evolution.
in othei' places where 2 different populations approach each other?
5. Bear in mind the biological definition of a species and also the For Further Investigation
appearance and distribution of the named populations of Ensatina.
There are several possible explanations The
Which population could best be considered a species separate from
specimen may have been introduced
E. eschscholtzii? This population was, indeed, once considered by bi-
accidentally by humans, or irrigation in this .
ologists to be a separate species.
region may, have allowed the specimen to move
6. Now imagine that, while examining another museum collection, you
across the broad valley. More intensive
find the specimen shown in figure 9.26, no. 10. Compare its charac-
collecting in the valley might show more
teristics, especially the spotting pattern, with those of the named pop-
specimens in the inland mountains, with perhaps
ulations. Also consider the distribution of these populations. Between
a connection between the coastal and inland
which 2 is this specimen most likely a hybrid? On your map, draw a
populations in the not-too-distant past. In
line along which you might expect to collect other specimens like this
actuality, more than just this 1 individual were
one.
located in the inland mountains in this same
7. In a brief paragraph explain why Stebbins concluded that there is but
general region. Also, more intensive collecting in
1 species of Ensatina in California.
the valley might show that the subspecies
population actually extends all the way from the
For Further Investigation coast into the edge of the inland mountains:
This possibility emphasizes the importance of
Problem: What accounts for the 1 record of E. e. xanthoptica in the
collecting Complete data on which to base
Sierras, whereas the rest of the subspecies occurs along the-coast?
hypotheses.

9.12 An Alternate Hypothesis Suggests

that Speciation May Occur in a
Relatively Short Period of Time
A frequent misconception regarding evolution is that it always takes
a very long time for a new species to form. That is not necessarily so.
Speciation may occur in a relatively short period of time. The geologic
record shows that organisms are largely stable for long periods of time.
The record also shows, however, that many disappear dUring a shorter
period of time. That disappearance is accompanied by an increase in
frequency of fossils of new species.
The longer periods of stability, or equilibrium (millions of years) The important point about this view is that new
punctuated by short periods of greater change (thousands of years) gave species emerge suddenly, then remain relatively
rise to the hypothesis of punctuated equilibrium, proposed in 1972 by unchanged until they become extinct, and then
S. J. Gould and N. Eldridge. Briefly stated, the hypothesis says that major
genetic changes may have caused new species to evolve in relatively few
0 are subsequently replaced by a new descendant
species.

404
300 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.28 Diagram representing punctuated equilibriumlong periods of

relatively little change punctuated by shorter periods of greater change. The
letters represent species; A through 0, and F, arethe oldest species represented
in the diagram.

steps. According to the hypothesis these changes occur in small isolatal

populations. Gould has suggested that punctuated equilibrium reseml
bles a climb up a staircase, whereas the traditional notion of slow gradual
change is like a slide up an inclined plane.
Evolutionary biologists are still debating whether the development of
new species occurs relatively quickly, or whether slower, more gradual
change is the rule. Even the punctuated equilibrium model, however,
allows thousands of years for the formation of new species.
Biologists also debate exactly What constitutes a new species. In
studying extinct organisms scientists can observe only structures, not be-
havior. It is difficult to determine whether a new species has developed
if one studies only form.
Debates about the mechanisms of evolution are good examples of the
continuous refinement of scientific theories. Such debates indicate that
a particular discipline is healthy and progressing. New information leads
to new questions and hypotheses. The hypotheses then can be tested sci-
entifically to determine their validity.

403
 Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 301

Self-Review

1. Give ?it example that shows that events in the natural world are not
completely random.
2. ,,What is genetic drift?
3. How is isolation important for evolution? Illustrate with examples
of 'types of isolation.
4. In a well-adapted population, is a mutation more likely to be ben-
eficial or deleterious? Why?
5. How does sexual reproduction increase genetic variation?
6. How does the hypothesis of punctuated equilibrium differ from the
traditional view of evolution?

Darwinism Extended Guidepost: How has the theory of

evolution by natural
.9.13 Origin of Higher Categories Occurs selection been supported
by modern research?
by Operation of the Same Principles
that Create New Species
Darwin was concerned with the origin of species, but the origin of
genera and larger groups of organisms also is important in studying life
in the biosphere. Evidence shows that the origin of higher categories is
governed by the same forces as those responsible for the origin of species.
A new genus may result from the appearance in a species of a par-
ticularly successful combination of characteristics. Popnlr' 'Ons with this
successful combination may spread over a large area. Small groups within
the population may become adapted to different habitats in the large
area, leading eventually to the formation of several species. Each species
may retain the successful combination of characteristics originally in the
group.
In addition, new mutations and recombinations will continue to take
place. The origin of genera and higher categories makes use of the re-
quirements for new species. Those requirements are combined with
(1) the multiplication of populations that have a particular combination
of genetic characteristics and (2) the extinction of intermediate popu-
lations. Thus, diversity of species and formation of higher categories can
be accounted for by similar biological processes. That process is clearly
shown in the Drosophila in figure 9.29.

406
302 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Figure 9.29 Drosophila mutants. Compare the 8-legged fly (a) with the normal
6-legged one (b), and the 4-winged (c) with the normal 2-winged (d). The extra
appendages of the mutants are not functional, and the mutants probably would
not survive in nature. Nonetheless, these mutant flies clearly show that the
characteristics of organisms are all subject to genetic variation.

9.14 Research in Biology and Geology

Have Added Support to the Theory
of Evolution since Darwin's Time
Darwin's process of natural selection explained how variations are
selected in nature. This mechanism became the basic part of the theory
of evolution by natural selection. Darwin used the data available to him'
in the mid-19th century, and his contribution is all the more impressive ,
when one considers that he knew almost nothing of the mechanisms of
0 heredity. Every major biological discovery since Darwin's time has
strengthened the theory of evolution. None has called it seriously into
question. That is almost unique among scientific theories. Mendel's work
explained the inheritance of variation and was as supportive in its way
as was natural selection.

407
 Chapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 303

Figure 9.30 Phylogenetic trees based on (a) morphology and (b) biochemistry.
Note how similar the trees appear. Morphologic trees are based on similarities or
differences in physical appearance. In this tree, the short distance between the
branches leading to humans and chimps indicates that they are morphologically
similar. The great distance between the branches leading to humans and
kangaroos indicates they are not very similar. Biochemical trees represent the
degree of relatedness of organisms based on analysis of biochemical data such
as amino acid sequences in proteins or base sequences in iMA,

0
0N 0
0
8 C 0 N
0 0. 0 O C 0C 2 C
= Ea taE 0 0
0 0 CU (6 0. O C CU C
0 e .0 .0 0 C 7: 7 0 0. co
0 20. O Lo o-0 2
O .0 O
C 0 .0 .0 EE
O 0 0 "0 .0
(6 (6
co (6 O 1:b O O .0 0
CO
L. f_ CI Of 0 .0 0 0 O. "0 2 E -E
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Morphologic tree Biochemical tree

filch. W. and Langley. C. Protein Evolution and the Molecular
Clock. Federation Proceedings Volume 35. pp. 2091-2097 (1976).

Geologic discoveries have continued to strengthen evolutionary theory.

The ability to date the age of the earth has improved through the use of
,techniques such as radiometric dating. Those techniques show that the
long periods of time required for Darwinian evolution actually existed.
Molecular biology, a field not even anticipated by Darwin, has provided
evidence that is generally consistent with evideno: based on structure. Although still called a "theory- of evolution, so
much evidence has been gathered in support of
Using biochemical and structural data, biologists can construct pbylo-
the concept that, to the vast majority of
genetic (fy loh jeh NET ik) treesdiagrams that show the evolutionary
biologists, it is no longer a question of whether
relationships among major groups of organisms. The remarkable simi- evolution has taken place. The most challenging
larity of two such trees (figure 9.30), based on entirely different data questions now concern the details of the
sources, confirms a pattern of organismic relationships. processes of evolution.

408
;a!
304 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

The history of science is strewn with discarded theories made obsolete

or impractical by new discoveries. The theory of evolution, in contrast,
has been strengthened and confirmed by many discoveries since the pub-
lication of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in
1859. Although biologists may not agree completely on the mechanisms
of evolution, an overwhelming majority agree that diversity of type and
unity of pattern are best explained by the theory of evolution. Evolu-
tionary theory pervades all aspects of biology and provides a cornerstone
for understanding the discipline, much in the same fashion as the atomic
theory does for chemistry and physics.

Self-Review

I. What types of modern evidence support the theory of evolution?

2. How do the factors that govern the origin of species compare with
those that govern the origin of higher categories?
3. Compare a phylogenetic tree constructed on the basis of gross struc-'
ture (seen by the naked eye) with one based on biochemical eV''.
dence. What does this tel you about relationships of organisms?

Summary
Attempts to account ror the diversity of living things as well as their
similarities led to the statement of the theory of evolution. Since the time
of the ancient Greeks, and perhaps even before, attempts had been made
to explain differences and similarities among organisms.
It was obvious that there was variation in organisms, even of the same
species. It was further obvious that such variations were inherited. It
could be shown that organisms underwent change through time. Despite
their differences, organisms could be grouped according to similarities
among group members. Thus, both change and relationships were evi-
dent.
Until the time of Charles Darwin, there was no satisfactory expla-
nation of a mechanism for change and relationship'. With the publication
of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Darwin
provided a mechanism for evolutionnatural selection. Rapid advances
in evolutionary biology followed. Gregor Mendel showed how traits were
passed from generation to generation. The discovery of mutations pro-
vided an explanation of Km genes could change and introduce vari-
ability into living systems. Observation demonstrated the capacity for
change of living cells and tissues.
Events in the natural world are not random, but follow definite pat-
terns of change. Populations are the units of evolution. They are affected
by mutation, migration, recombination, selection and genetic drift. When

I;ep
J. am.

409
giapter 9 Continuity through Evolution 335

populations are isolated, changes can accumulate that separate them

further from one another. When reproductive barriers develoi such iso-
lated populations may form new species.
Today evolution forms a central unifying theme for biology. Without
it, the data of biology have no organizing principle and become only iso-
lated and unrelated facts.

Application Questions Problems

1. Trace the concept of evolution from thc Greeks to 1. Suppose no data had existed to support the theory
modern times. How does our present view differ of evolution until the 20th centucy. Using only data
from that of Darwin? compiled since 1900, how would scantists develop
2. How do you explain that the variability in a the theory of evolution today? In what ways would
domesticated species is greater than that in the it resemble Darwin's presentation? Vow would it
same species, or a similar one, in the wild? (For differ from natwin's presentation?
example, dogs v. wolves; chickens v. red jungle fowl; 2. Suppose species of organisms were not related to
pigeons v. rock doves.) each other and did not change through time. How
3. Polydactylylsm (more than the normal number,of would our view of biology then change? Would it be
fingers and toes) is caused by several different harder or easier to study?
genes. One type of polydactyly is dominant, yet thc 3. Using an imaginary population of organisms, detail
phenotype is rare in humans. Type 0 blood results how it could evoive into two distinct sp.-les.
from a recessive gene. Yet in some populations of Describe the environment of the population and the
North American Indians, as many as 97 percent of factors that led to its separation into two species.
the individuals may have Type 0 blood. Explain
these two situations.
4. In many species of birds, populations living at
higher latitudes lay more eggs per clutch than d J
those living at lower latitudes. Would you expect
the former gradually to replace the latter? Why or
why not?
5. What effects may modern medicine have on the
future of the evolution of humans? The facts
needed for investigating this problem are found in
biological science, but the interpretation of the facts
lies outside the realm of verifiable conclusions. It is
necessary, therefore, to distinguish carefully
between the facts and your interpretation of them.
6. In Cambrian rocks, fossilized brachiopods have
been found that are indistinguishable from the
modern Lingula (page 761). Modern cockroaches
arc very similar to those of the Carboniferous
period. Turtles of the genus Caretta occur in the
modern seas and as fossils in Cretaceous rocks. Yet,
during these same long years, other organisms have
changed greatly. How can you explain such great
differences in the rate of evolution among species?

410
306 Section Two Continuity in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
C. J. Bajema, "Charles Darwin and Selection as a Cause of R. Lewin, "Punctuated Equilibrium Is Now Old Hat" Science
Adaptive Evolution 1837-19A" The American Biology (14 February 1986). Mathematical models are used to
Teacher (April 1985). Interesting article dealing with the support traditional explanations for the rapid changes seen
processes of scientific discovery and the justification of in the fossil record.
scientific theories, using Darwin as a model. T. A. McMahon and J. T. Bonner, 1983, On Size and Life
S. J. Gould, "Free to P. extinct" Natural History (New York: Scientific American Books). Investigates why
(September 1982). informal discussion of the causes for living things are the size and shape they are.
extinction of species. B. Rensberger, "Bones of Our Ancestors" Science 84 (April
R. L. Hay and M. D. Leakey, "The Fossil Footprints of 1984). Illustrated with many fine photographs, this article
Laetoli" Scientific American (February 1982). A discusses the rare and extremely important early hominid
discussion of the Laetoli fossil sites in Tanzania. fossils that are protected in museums throughout the world.
R. A. Kerr, "Periodic Extinctions and Impacts Challenged" P. Shipman, "Baffling Limb on the Family Tree" Discover
Science (22 March 1985). The author refutes the theory (September 1986). Discusses characteristics and
that meteors or comets have been responsible for periodic implications of a recent, very important discovery of an
and large-scale extinctions. early human fossil skull.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 As early as 600 _ Greek scholars hypothesized a gradual 1 Genetic data alone would account for variety and changes
evolution from a formless condition to one of organic in organisms through time, and also shi...v relationships from
co:ierence The role of adaptations was recognized, which a theory of evolution could develop. Mutations change
Gradually the hypothesis was expanded with tht folluwaig the genetic makeup and are inherited. Genetic engineering
concepts development of lift was a gradual process. plants provides a opportunity for humans to manipulate the genes
were present on earth before animals, better adapted lilt and create new organisms The theory would resemble
forms replaced ill-adapted ones Darwin's, using molecular and genetic data. It would
Through the years evidence continued to be collected account for the origin of species and higher categories. It
Unity and diversity began to be understood A struggle for would differ from Darwin s presentation by requiring less
existence among organisms was recognized Baptists tirrit (punctuated equilibrium) and woold not be based on
theory was the first attempt to explain huw changes in morphology. embryology. geographic distribution, and similar
species occur This was later disproved Finally. Darwin fields.
propooed his theory of evolution in 1859 Though 2 If species did not change and were unrelated to each other
subsequently altered in many respects because of his lack there would be no way to classify them into various groups
of knowledge about genetics, Darwin s basic ideas arc still using common characteristics Evidence pointing to
accepted relationships would be false Fossil evidence would be
2 In domesticated species, humans select fur many diff erei it meaningless, and the adaptation of organisms to an
varieties, seeking those that can serve d particular function environment would be impossible Variations between
in our economy or those that are amusing or startling Wt populations would not exist or, at very best. only to a slight
then curtail or even prevent crossed between these degree Genetic data would be in error, and mutations and
varieties Natural selection, on the contrary, select, unly t' ,e genets, engineering would be impossible. Biology would he
set of traits best suited to survival in a particular harder to study because there would be no common
environment Wheie enviruniner ts differ within the elements among organisms Each species would have to be
geographical range of a species, some variation studied as a separate group Studying more than a million
(subspecies) may indeed occur individual species would be much more difficult than studying
3 Students may suspect that polydactylyisni is rut the only a few major phyla whose members have common attributes.
disorder caused by this dominant gent They are corrtct, 3 The population would have to be variable and be divided by
and the chief reason the phenotype :art that afflicted an isolated mechanism that prevents interbreeding within the
Individuals often have more serious disorders in a way, tl .> one population Thus, the species originally made up of one
suggests natural selection Other pulydactylys art uau.ed interbreeding population would become two populations with
by recessive genes that may also cause feeblemindedness a barrier separating the two gene pools In lime, mutation
and reduceo fertility Again the genes are not often pas.ed and selection would make each genetically distinct, When
on The i alb ie in the original populations of some North that distinction became so great that the populations could
American Indians apparently re.,ulted frurn their origin as a no longer interbreed, two species would exist where one
small population that by chance was homozygous for this had existed before
allele Isolation preserved it

411
4. There is generally a relationship between clutch size and
chances for survival. The important question is how many
eggs survive to become reproductive adults This number is
undoubtedly lower as latitude becomes higher. Even it
populations of adults at high latitudes were larger, this does
not mean that they would replace the populations of lower
latitudes. Atter all, the latter populations are probably
already in balance with the carrying capacity of the land
there.
5. Some medicines have been found to contribute to gene
mutations of chromosome rearrangements. Others alleviate
conditions that natural selection would have operated
against. (Thus, inere are more diabetics than formerly.) The
trend has been toward human populations with
abnormalities that are more prevalent and greater in
number. Yet medicine itself may end up dealing with some
of these. For example, future replacement of faulty genes in
gametes may become possible through gene-splicing (or
genetic engineering).
6. Ocean environments are much more stable in humidity
(100%), temperature, dissolved materials, pressure, and
other factors than land environments. Thus, many marine
organisms have shown little change through time Most land
organisms have undergone change more rapidly, but insects
provide notable exceptions, attesting to their remarkable
adaptations to changing environments.

412
4 ,.
a

.4
4104 t
k, t101.111.16,1:%j4
II. /,
a
S
 Section Three

Diversity and
Adaptation
in the Biosphere

Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the

Biosphere
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses
Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and
Fungi
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals

Wherever we go to observe living

creatures we come away with an
impression of incredible diversity.
Biologists have described nearly 3 million
types of organisms and more are
discovered every year. Why are there so
many different living things? What
adaptations have enabled all these
organisms to survive?
These questions provide the framework
for Section Three. We cannot describe
every type of organism, but we can
examine representative forms and see how
each is adapted to its environment. We
also can learn how biologists name
organisms and how they keep track of all
life forms and bring order to diversity.
Special adaptations enable the blennie
to find shelter in the tentacles of the sea
anemone without being stung.

309
Al 4
 A

Doug Sok.II

A diversity of wildflowers. How many kinds can you count? How wo'uld you keep track of them?

4 15
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages

CHAPTER 10 131-32
Key ideas
reasons for classifying organisms,
classification as based on similarities in
structure and biochemistry.
the 5-kingdom system of classification,
changes in classification systems,
Ordering Life in the Biosphere theories about the origin of life

Introduction
How many different kinds of organisms can you recognize? Tens?
Hundreds? A thousand? Biologists have identified more than 3 million
different types of organisms, which they call species. Some estimate that
we share this planet with as many as 10 million species. And that number
does not include organisms that have become extinct. How do biologists
keep track of such an overwhelming number of living things? How did
all those living things originate? In this chapter we will learn something
about how biologists classify organisms. We also will examine current
ideas about the origins of this great diversity of life.

Biological Classification Guidepost: What are the objectives

of the modern biological
classification system, and
10.1 Classification Is a Way of Creating on what characteristics is it
Order from Diversity based?
The diversity of the living world is awesome. It exists at every level
of organization, in the many molecules and structures that make up the
great variety cc-living organisms. It extends back in time beyond the
fossil record to the earliest forms of life. There is diversity in every aspect
of lifein size, from the smallest microorganism to the largest whale;
in habitat, from the deepest ocean bottom to the top of the highest moun-
tain; and in life-style, from a parasite to a rooted tree to a free-flying
bird.
From earliest times, humans have searched for order in the diversity
of nature. They have tried to imd ways to group the many kinds of living
things that would reflect relationships and help distinguish one from an-
other. From those efforts has grown the science of classifying organisms,
or taxonomy (tak SAHN uh mee).

311
416
Figure 10.1 Appearance may be unreliable as a guide to grouping individuals in
species. Above: These dissimilar birds are both indigo buntings. Below: These
dissimilar birds are both red-winged blackbirds. Right: These similar birds are
from populations that do not interbreed.

adult male
immature male

X 1/2

indigo buntings lir

Acadian flycatcher

X 1/2

least flycatcher

male

female

x 1/2

red-winged
blackbirds

41`
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 313

10.2 Biological Classification Begins

with Species
The basic grouping used in biological classification is the species. Or- Emphasize to students that the tunic speL,ies
ganisms may look very different from each other and still be recognized is both singular and plural .k someone. to look
as the same species. If we look at all dogs, we can easily see that there up the meaning of suet..le a di,tionary
are many intermediate mongrels between such different breeds as Great
Danes and greyhounds. That is so because breeds of dogs can interbreed. Dimorphism related to agt Land .ex) is quite
common in many species Birds ar.2 used as
That means they can mate with each other and produce offspring that
examples because they are colorful and
differ in various ways from both parents. Those offspring also can mate,
generally familiar Specimens of monarch and
and they may produce offspring even more different. Extremely different viceroy butterflies can be used to show somiarity
dogs, such as Ithe Great Dane and Pekingese, have difficulty inter- ur appearance even of two speues that are
breeding because of physical differences. They nevertheless are part of played in separate subfamilies
one related series, because they can mate with intermediate breeds. All
dogs, therefore, are grouped into a single species. On the other hand,
two groups of individuals that may look alike are considered separate
species if they do not interbreed and produce vigorous, fertile (FERT il) There is probably as much diversity among
offspring. Fertile offspring are those that are capable of reproducing. dogs as antony any other SPel.ICS of doinestk.,
The distinctness of a species is maintained in several ways, as we have animal, moreover, dogs are probably tan-altar to
seen in section 9.11. First, one species may be physically unable to mate most students Yuu also nnytit otitaln pk-tures tu
with another. Clearly, an elephant and a crab cannot mate and produce show diversity among hoists. SW1Ilt, aI ILI
offspring. Second, offspring may be formed but die when young. If the chickens

Figure 10.2 Five breeds of dogs. Beginning with the Great Dane, breeds are
represented by every other dog. Mongrel offspring are intermediate between the
breeds.

418
i
314 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figung 10.3 When a horse (top) and donkey

0 eggs of a bullfrog are fertilized by a leopard frog, they develop for a
short time, then die. Third, mating may occur and produce offspring that
(bottom) are mated, the offspring is a mule
(middle) which is sterile and cannot reproduce. are sterile (STEHR il), that is, unable to reproduce. Mules, which result
when horses and donkeys are mated, are almost always sterile.
Finally, individuals from two different species may be able to form
fertile offspring in captivity but seldom do so otherwise. In such cases,
distinctness of the species is maintained not by lack of ability to inter-
breed but by geographic isolation. Alaska brown bears and polar bears
in a zoo hae mated and produced vigorous, fertile offspring. In the wild
no such cross has ever been discovered. Because brown bears live in for-
ests and polar bears live on snowfields and ice floes, they rarely, if ever,
see each other in nature.
Although we characterize species as reproductively isolated groups,
we must take account of occasional exceptions. Plant species, for ex-
ample, often form fertile hybrids with other species, as shown with the
Indian paintbrush in figure 10.5. Bacteria employ unusual means of ge-
netic exchange. Plants utilize various forms of vegetative reproduction.
One-celled organisms reproduce by cell division, forming clones of iden-
tical cells. Nevertheless, we still can recognize species among those or-
ganisms.

Figure 10.4 Polar bear (top) and Alaska brown bear (bottom).
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 315

10.3 Classification Is Based on Homologies

Figure 10.5 'idian paintbrush: (a) Castilleja
Specialists in taxonomy use a variety of characteristics to classify or- O rhexifolia and (b) C. sulphuree, two different
ganisms. Those include structure, function, biochemistry, behavior, nu- specit.3, can form a fertile hybrid (c).
trition, embryonic development, genetic systems, evolutionary histories,
and ecological interactions. The more constant a characteristic is, the
more valuable it is in determining classification. For example, structures
such as skeletal form, internal anatomy, and reproductive parts of flowers
are less variable characteristics than size or color. Structure, therefore,
generally provides a consistent and useful basis for classifying organ-
isms.
Similarities of structure that indicate related ancestry are espec! ly
`important in classification. Such relationships are called structural hom-
ologies (hoh MOL uh jeez). For example, the flipper of a whale, the wing
of a bat, and the arm of a human have many homologies in their bone
and muscle structure, as you can see in figure 10.7. Similarly, fish, am-
W. D. Dreasfcidfte Ihe National WildloweS Research Corder
phibians, reptiles, and birds share that same limb pattern with mam-
mals. The limbs have the same relationship to the body, and they develop
in the same way in the young.
is
Biochemical homokjes have become increasingly important in de-
termining relationships. They include similarities in body substances,
such as blood, and in molecules, such as proteins and DNA and RNA.
Comparisons of DNA or RNA sequences have led to important changes
in our understanding of relatedness. The greater the similarities in DNA
sequences, the more closely related two organisms are thought to be. W.1
will be able to use DNA sequences to determine relatedness in investi-
gation 10.1. Sometimes studies of DNA sequences give results that differ
somewhat from more traditional studies of structural characteristics. For
example, DNA studies have indicated that chimpanzees are more closely
related to humans than are gorillas. Studies of structural homologies did W. D. IliseNerd slid the Netkiesd WII0lower RHatch Canter

not reveal that information.

Figure 10.6 A taxonomist at work.

W. D. Bransford and the National Wddlower Research Center

ti

lOn:+

8SCS by Oliver Ash

420
 316 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 10.7 Bones of the forelimbs of seven vertebrates. Follow the color key
to similarities; they indicate to biologists that these animals once had a common
ancestor. Also check the structure of each forelimb for its adaptations to the
animal's way of life.

U humerus IN ulna radius carpals U metacarpals and phalanges

handling
walking walking
swimming
flying .1.flying
Ahik
digging

mole

salamander
crocodile human
whale bat
bird

Although macroscopic organisms are t-lassitied Two factors, however, still make structural characteristics particu-
primarily on the basis of structural larly important. The first is that a taxonomist can observe structural
characteristics, behavioral and biochemical data
characteristics in preserved specimens or geological records, and those
are being used increasingly .n taxonomic
observations can be verified easily. In addition, structural evidence is all
determinations Biochemical data are important
in plant species determination, as well as in
we are ever likely to have for organisms known to us only from fossils.
some groups of lichens Among microscopic We can make some good guesses about the behavior of such organisms,
organisms, biochemieal data are used in but our guesses are based on structure. Organisms of the past may be
species determination in bacteria the ancestors of living organisms. Thus, knowledge of past organisms
can help us figure out the relationships of living ones.

Investigation 10.1 InvestigatIon-10.1 DNA SEQUENCES

DNA SEQUENCES AND CLASSIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

This investigation allows students to use a Introduction

model of DNA hybridization to (1) investigate the Biological classification is the process by which organisms are assigned
degree of relatedness of 3 organisms to specific groups. The group may be as large and encompassing as a
(chimpanzee, human, and gorilla), and kingdom, such as animalia, or as small and limiting as a species, such as
(2) explore how a tool such as DNA Homo sapiens, the species to which humans are assigned.
hybridization can be used to study questions dI Classification is not merely a method of assigning organisms to groups
evolutionary biology so that biologists can keep track of them. The groups to which organisms
It is most important to point out to your are assigned also imply the degree of relatedness between those organ-
students that this investigation only isms. Organisms that _hare smaller groups of classification are more closely
demonstrates how DNA hybridization can t) related than are organisms that share only large groups.
used The data the students ak.k.uniulate when Until the mid 1970s, classification was based largely on the comparison
using this model are not to be taken as atuae of observable structures in a given organism. For example, taxonomists
support for one hypothesis or another The might compare the structure of forelimbs in mammals. In recent years, they
questions raised in this investigation (ire still very also have been able to compare the structure of certain proteins.
active matters for debate in the biological

421
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 317

Modern research techniques now allow biologists to compare the DNA ;1'4,4elt riot he ied to tit
that codes for certain proteins. The comparison of the DNA sequences that the data in hos aeti,,it, Jr e definik
then is used to make predictions about the relatedness of the organisms Stthit-rita reignt be interet,ted the pru,ess
from which the DNA was taken. This investigation shows you a model of by vutmeh s..DNA. is syrittie.,zeu it toughly as
that technology. It might be helpful for you to review the relationship be- tOilo4S ini...eriger RNA vrifiNA) fur the gene in
tween DNA and proteins (chapter 8). question (in this case. hemoglobin) is isolated.
the mRNA then is exposed in culture to
activated nucleotides and the enzyme reverse
Materials (per team)
transcriptase (reverse transcnptase reverses the
plastic paper clips normal process of transcription so that DNA is
50 black synthesized off an RNA template, rather than the
50 white other way around) the mRNA is dissolved.
50 green leaving the single strand of new DNA that DNA
50 red then is exposed to DNA polymerase, which
synthesizes a new DNA strand that is
complementary to the original gene for the
Part AComparing DNA Strands
protein in question The 20-base sequence used
Procedure in this investigation is not actually a part 01 the
1. Consult table 10.1 below. hemoglobin gene Hemoglobin mRNA is often
(a) Which organisms share the most groupings? used in such 'Arches. however, and is readily
(b) On the basis of the data in the table, which organisms are least available in immature red blood Dells
closely related?
Materials
Poppit beads ,an be substituted ler plastic
Table 10.1 Examples of classification of animals paper clips
Human Gorilla Southern Katydid
Leopard Frog Part A
Procedure
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Arthropoda
I (a) Human and gorilla share the most
Subphylum Vertebrata Vertebrata Vertebrata groupings
Class Mammalia Mammalia Amphibia Insecta (b) Katydid is least closely related to the
others in the table
Subclass Eutheria Eutheria t'
8 (a) Chimpanzee cDNA hybridized to
Order Primates Primates Salientia Orthoptera human DNA 1 loop and 5 base differences
(b) Gorilla cDNA hybridized to human DNA 2
Suborder Anthropoidea Anthropoidea
loops and 10 base differences
Family Hominidae Pongidae Ranidae Tettigoniidae
Subfamily Raninae
Genus Homo Gorilla Rana Scudderia
Species Homo sapiens Gorilla gorilla Rana pipiens Scudderia furcate
Subspecies Rana pipiens Scudderia furcate
sphenocephala furcate
From C. P. Hickman, L S. Roberts, and F. M Hickman, 1984. Integrated Principles of
Zoology, 7th ed. (St. Louis: Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing), 148.

2. Working in teams of 4, synthesize the DNA strands indicated below.

Allow the paper clips to represent the 4 bases of DNA according to
the following key:
black = adenine (A)
white = thymine (T)
green = guanine (G)
red = cytosine (C)
Synthesize DNA strands by hooking together paper clips of the ap-
propriate colors. Stretch the string of paper clips out on the lab table
with position 1 on the left. Tape a small piece of paper next to the
strand and label it as indicated. Each strand will represent a small sec-
tion (20 bases) of a gene that codes for the protein hemoglobin.

422
318 Seution Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

3. Team member 1: Synthesize the following piece of DNA by hooking

together paper clips in this sequence.
pos. 1 pos. 20
A-G-G-C-A-T-A-A-A-C-C-A-A-C-C-G-A-T-T-A
Label the strand human DNA. This will represent a small section (20
bases) of the gene that codes for the protein hemoglobin in humans.
4. Team member 2: Synthesize the following strand.
pos. 1 pos. 20
T-C-C-G-G-G-G-A-A-G-G-T-T-G-G-C-T-A-A-T
Label this strand chimpanzee cDNA. cDNA stands for complementary
DNA. cDNA is a single strand of DNA that will match up with its partner
strand. Remember, the bases in DNA are complementary. That is, ad-
enine (A) will always pair with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) will always
pair with guanine (G). This cDNA was made from the gene that codes
for chimpanzee hemoglobin.
5. Team member 3: Synthesize the following piece of cDNA.
pos. 1 pos. 20
T-C-C-G-G-G-G-A-A-G-G-T-T-G-G-T-C-C-G-G
Label this strand gorilla cDNA. This cDNA strand was made from the
gene that codes for gorilla hemoglobin.
6. Team member 4: Synthesize the following piece of DNA.
pos. 1 pos. 20
A-G-G-C-C-G-G-C-T-C-C-A-A-C-C-A-G-G-C-C
Label this strand hypothetical common ancestor DNA. This strand will
be used in the second part of the investigation.
7. Compare the sequences of the human DNA and the chimpanzee cDNA.
Match the human DNA and the chimpanzee cDNA base by base (paper
clip by paper clip). Remember, black (adenine) must always pair with
white (thymine), and green (guanine) must always pair with red (cy-
tosine). If the bases are complementary (that is, if the colors match
correctly), allow the cps to remain touching, as shown in figure 10.8.
If the bases are not complementary, separate the clips slightly to form
a loop, as shown in the figure. Count the number of loops. Also count
the total number of bases that do not match. Record the data in the
appropriate columns in table 10.2 below.

fOilikatgattitl*OokitISWM;ST:'
Human DNA Chimpanzee cDNA Gorilla cDNA
Hybridized to:
Number of loops

Number of differences

Figure 10.8

BSCS by Bova WWI

 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 319

8. Repeat procedure 7, using the gorilla cDNA and the human DNA. Enter Discussion
the data in the appropriate columns in table 10.2
1 Based on the data collected, the
chimpanzee gene is more similar to the human
Discussion gene than is the gorilla gene
2 Based on the data collected, the
1. Based on the data you have collected for this one protein, is the gorilla chimpanzee seems more ctosely related to
gene or the chimpanzee gene more similar to the human gene? humans than does the gorilla The data do not
2. Does the gorilla or the chimpanzee seem more closely related to prove anything they simply lend support to the
mans? Do the data you have collected for this one protein prove your hypothesis t; tat the chimpanzee is more closely
answer? related to humans than is the gorilla.

Part 8An Evolutionary Puzzle Part B

Procedure Pfocedure

Scientists have determined that mutations in DNA occur at a regular 3 Common ancestor DNA hybridized to.
rate. They can use this rate to make some predictions about how long ago human '')NA-2 loops and 10 base differences.
in evolutionary history two organisms began to separate from a common cnirnpanzee cDNA-2 loops and 8 base
ancestor. In this part of the investigation, you will use your paper-clip model differences gorilla cDNA -1 loop and 3 base
to provide dE in support of 1 of 2 hypotheses about a common ancestor differences
for humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas.
1. Read the following information about a current debate among scien-
tists who study human evolution:
Most scientists agree that humans, gorillas, and chimpanzees
shared a common ancestor at one time in evolutionary history.
However, one group thinks the fossil record shows that gorillas,
chimpanzees, and humans split from one common ancestor at the
same time. Their model for this split is shown directly below.

gorilla chimpanzee human

common ancestor

A 2nd group thinks the fossil record sho i that there were 2
splits. In the 1st split, gorillas split from the common ancestor.
Humans and chimpanzees then. shared another common ancestor
for perhaps 2 million years.They then split again and evolved into
their present states. The model for this pattern of splitting is shown
directly below.

gorilla chimpanzee human

common ancestor
320 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

2. Use your DNA model and the DNA sequences from part A to investi-
gate this debate. First, you must use your human DNA as a guide to
synthesize a human cDNA. Do that as a team. Make certain that the
human cDNA is complementary to the human DNA strand.
3. The hypothetical common ancestor DNA you synthesized in part A is
DNA for hemoglobin extracted from a hypothetical common ancestor.
Now, match all 3 samples of cDNA (gorilla, human, and chimpanzee)
with the common ancestor DNA, 1 sample at a time. Again, allow the
paper clips to touch where the ,bases match correctly. Form loops
where the bases do not match. Record your data in table 10.3.

Discussion crE0100:341idililtiOriAatas:':gothrifor) lartAstOt::

1 Gorilla DNA is most similar to common Common Ancestor Human Chimpanzee Gorilla cDNA
ancestor DNA. DNA to: cDNA cDNA
2. Human cDNA and chimpanzee cDNA give
Number of loops
the most similar patit-rns of mat,-..hing and
looping when hybridized to the common Number of differences
ancestor DNA
3. The data support the 2nd model, which
shows 2 separate divergences, rather than a
single 3way split
Discussion
4, The findings using this model do not prove 1. Which cDNA is most similar to the common ancestor DNA?
tt.e validity of the hypothesis, but they do 2. Which cDNAs are most simile to each other in their patterns of
provide some direction for additional restar,h, matching and looping when matched to the common ancestor DNA?
sue, as comparing the genes for other proteins. 3. Which model in the evolutionary debate described above do your data
cr expanding the search for fossils that can support?
shed more light on the likely pattern of 4. Do your findings prove that this model is the correct one?
divergence

To most students, the wolf and coyote look 10.4 Species Are Grouped into Larger
most alike If some students think that either and More General Categories
resembles the fox more, call attention to the
forelimbs of the fox They are more delluately Based on homologies, organisms of different species are grouped into
constructed, and the whole animal is relatively larger, more general categories. For exampl.:. dogs, coyotes, and wolves
lighter Most of the structural are separate-species, but they are similar-in many ways. Species with
between Can's and Vulpes that are impar tant to many similar characteristics are grouped into the same genus (JEE nus).
taxonomists are not visible in the drawings The genus for dogs and doglike animals is Canis.
[KAY nus] Similar genera (plural of genus) are grouped together in a family.
Taxonomists place Vulpes, the-foxes, with Canis in the family Canidae.
[VUL peen] In some ways weasels resemble dogs and wolves, but they are less like
them than are foxes. Taxonomists express this difference by placing wea-
[KAN un dee] sels in a separate family, Mustelidae. Bears, which also are furry pred-
ators, are structurally different from weasels or foxes in several ways.
[muh STEL uh dee] So, taxonomists place them in still another family, Ursidae. Those three
families (Canidae, Mustelidae, Ursidae) are grouped with other similar
[UR suh dee] families into the order Carnivora.
Wolves, weasels, and bears have many differences, but they still share
[kar NIV uh rah] many likenesses. Certainly those annals have more likenesses among
themselves than they have with monkeys. Monkeys, therefore, are placed
[muh MAY lee uh] in a different order, Primates. But monkeysand rats, cows, horses, and
many other organismsdo share some characteristics with wolves, wea-
Students are probably larridiar with the base, sels, and bears. Those similarities are the basis for putting them all to-
uharacteristics of mammals This might bt. gether in the next larger groupingat the class levelMdmmalia.
good time to call on their previous knowledge

425
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 321

Figure 10.9 Some animals in the order Carnivore. Which two look most alike?

bear
wolf

coyote

VIM
fox weasel

Continuing with that method of grouping, taxonomists place the Thu technical form of each group name is used
classes containing birds, frogs, fish, and snakes with the Mammalia into here and in figure 10 10, but in class discussions
the phylum (FY lum) Chordata. (Botanists group classes of plants into you are urged to employ standard English
divisions instead of phyla.) And finally, chordates, snails, butterflies, and whenever possible Thus, say chordates.
thousands of other organisms are grouped into the kingdom Animalia. 'arthropods, mammals, even canids
That kingdom contains all the living things we think of as animals. Students should know technical forms exist, but
As we go from species to kingdom, the organisms that are grouped 0 they do not need to burden themselves with
exotic spelling and pronunciation
together share fewer characteristics at each succeeding level. At the spe-
cies level the individuals are so much alike they can interbreed. At the
kingdom level many fewer characteristics are shared among all the in-
dividuals.
We eau say that all dogs are of one species. Dogs and wolves do not
ordinarily interbreed, but it is not impossible. The two species %ad a
common ancestor not so long ago in evolutionary history. That is why
taxonomists put them together in one genus, as figure 10.10 shows. By
placing foxes in a separate genus, taxonomists indicate that foxes are
less closely related to dogs and wolves than these two are to each other.

0
i( f, n.
426
322 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 10.10 Classification of several animals.

Common Name Species Name

Mar Homo sapiens

Lion Fells leo

Coyote tsanis latrans

Wolf Canis lupus

Dog Canis lamiliaris

Ale-Gopher Thomomys bottae

Ground squirrel Spermophilus tridecemlineatus

age 14f
American robin

European robin
Turdus migratorius

Erithacus rubecula

Gopher turtle Gopherus polyphemus

get Green frog .ana clamitans

Bullfrog Rana catesbeiana

All this is somewhat similar to saying that you are closely related to
your sister, but you are less closely related to your first cousin. By placing
Characteristics of several animal phyla are the dog family, the bear family, and the weasel family together in the
presented in chapter 14 and in mpre detail in same order, taxonomists imply that all of those animals descended from
appendix 3, A Catalog of Living Things If it a common ancestral groupbut probably long ago. As we continue up
seems important to consider here what the list of levels, the relationships become more distant. Thus, when tax-
characteristics place a dog and a goldfish in th6 onomists place a dog and a goldfish in the same phylum but in different
same nhylum but in different classes, refer to the
classes, they imply a very distant relationshiOndeed.
appe
It is important to recognize that a taxonomic classification is not a
fact. It results from the interpretation of facts. It shows what the facts
mean to the person developing the system of classification. That cats and
eagles and alligators have claws is a verifiable fact. But whether those
three kinds of organisms should be grouped together is a matter of
opinion. There is no total agreement among biologists about the place

427
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 323

Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom

Homo Hominidae Primates

Fetis Felidae

Canis Canidae Carnivore Mammalia

Thomomys Geomyidae
Rodentia
Chordate Animalia
Spermophdus Sciuridae I

Turdus
Turdidae Passenformes Ayes
Erithacus

Gopherus Testudinidae Chelonia Reptdia

Rana Ranidae Salientia Amphibia

at which organisms fit into the classification scheme. That is true even
though all taxonomists base their classifications on a system of levels.
The more evidence taxonomists obtain, the more complex the rela-
tionships of organisms appear to be. Taxonomists also differ in how they
interpret the evidence. As a result, there are many schemes of classifi-
cation, all designed within the'same framework of levels.

Investigation 0 lisVg,11a1,0 'CLApisiFic,ATiotsv Investigation 10.2

Introduction LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION

You will investigate some of the structural characteristics that taxono-

mists use in separating animal groups at different classification levels. Be-
cause you will be using the observations of other persons (recorded as Procedure
drawings), your conclusions can be no more valid than those drawings.
In some cases explicit information concern-
ing the group in which a specific animal is clas-
sified is not in A Catalog of Living Things in
appendix 3.

-428
324 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Specific difficulties that may arise are given Procedure

below.
1. Prepare 4 forms like the one below.
Figure 10,11
(e) If the past 4 items have led students to
expect the chimpanzee and gorilla to be
Table
differentiated from humans on all counts, ttn
item may be puzzling The number of incisors is Animals
Characteristics
the same for all 3 species, Placement of 1. 2. 3.
chimpanzee and gorilla in the family Puligidae
depends on a student's interpretation of the .a.
word ape. Although a chimpanzee is illustrated b.
in appendix 3, it Is not explicitly idelitihed cIS di
ape c.
Figure 10.12 d.
(a) No picture is required for this
(c, d) Students should remember canines e.
and incisors from figure 10 11 Although no dog Classification level
is shown under the order Carnvora the ._,.
necessary information is included in figure 10 10
Neither is a cat (genus Fehs) shown, but lions 2. Label the 1st form Table 1. In the spaces under the word animals, write
are sufficiently catlike that most students will, by human, chimpanzee, and gorilla. In the spaces under the word chw-
inference. locate the order of the cat acteristics, copy the italicized key words in each of the following ques- .)
Figure 10 13 tions. These words should remind you of the full questions when you
(a) Your laboratory should contain a review the table.
specimen of a frog for students tc examine (a) How does the length of the arms of the animal compare with the
(b) No picture is required for this length of its legs?
Figure 10 14 (b) Are the canine teeth large or are they small as compared with
(c) Some students may say a bird s brain is other teeth of the same organisms?
small, but point out that the task here is to make (c) How many incisor teeth are present in the upper jaw?
comparisons, compared with the brain of a (d) Is the brain case of the skull large or is it small as compared with
crayfish, a bird's brain is large, even considering the brain cases of the other organisms in the table?
relative body size (e) Is there an opposable first toe on the foot? (An opposable toe is
(d) This is another case in which attention is one that can be pressed against all the others, just as your thumb
called to a point that does not make a can press against your other fingers.)
distinction, all have paired appendages, tl rougli 3. Study figure 10.11. For each of the animals, fill in all the spaces in table
some students may call aftentioll to a diffeitli,L 1 with your answers. Then, write the word family in the space following
in numbers "Classification level." Refer to appendix 3 to find the family into which
(e) All students recognize the tub! yuntt, each of these organisms has been placed. Write this information in
similarity between human and bird Some may, the spaces at the bottom of the table.
nevertheless, complain that they cannot 4. Label the 2nd form Table 2. Under the word animals, write human,
clefindely answer the queshoii witli resptt fu dog, and cat. Under the word characteristics, copy the italicized words
the crayfish They are right, of course in each of these questions:
(a) How many paired appendages (arms and legs) doer the animal
Discussion have?
1,2. Students may try to make these (b) Are nails or claws present on the toes of the foot?
questions more complicated than they are, (c) How does the size of the canine teeth compare with that of other
attempting to give reasons for the classification teeth in the lower jaw?
by repeating the structural features noted in the (d) How many incisor teeth are present in the lower jaw?
tables instead of merely the clasificatioi (e) How does the size of the collarbone compare with that of the
levels This results from misreading, The other organisms?
question is not concerned with the evidence
Itself but with the way the evidence is expressed
in the hierarchy of classification levels

i 429
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 325

Figure 10.11

v , I!,

6) incisors
cr-
,L.
A
canine 31
1.
rY

N.

t ; 430
326 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

3 Species C and D are more similar than 5. Study figure 10.12. For each animal, fill in the spaces in table 2 with
species A and B On the basis of the your answers to the questions. Write the word order in the blank space
information given, it is impossible to make any following "Classification level." From pages 991-994, select the order
other general statement. into which each of these organisms has been placed. Enter this in-
Be sure that details do not ohscure the basic formation in the table.
point of the investigation that lilt Nerarchy of 6. For table 3, use the information in figure 10.13 and the following ques-
classification levels is an expression of degree tions:
of likenessthe greater the level at which they (a) What kind of body covering (hair, feathers, scales, or none) does
are grouped together. At the species level, the animal have?
organisms to be grouped together must be so (b) How many paired appendages (arms and legs) does the animal
very much alike that they are capable of have?
interbreeding. (c) Do the ears project from the surface of the head?

Figure 10.12

f
e" \

Of
09

'

EM1

r
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 327

(d) Is the body temperature similar to the temperature of the envi-

ronment, or is it quite different?
(e) How many ventricles are in the heart?
7. The classification level for this table is the word class. Determl! e the
class for, each organism in figure 10.13 and write it in the table.
8. For table 4, use the information in figure 10.14 and the following ques-
tions:
(a) What kind of skeleton (internal or external) does the animal have?
(b) Is the position of the nerve cord along the back or along the belly?
(c) Compared with the rest of the nervous system, is the brain large
or small?
(d) Are paired appendages present or are they absent?
(e) Are there grooves behind the head region of the very young or-
ganism?
9. Write the word phylum in the space following "Classification level,"
and add the name of the phylum into which each animal in figure '10.14
is placed,

Figure 10.13

;.;
328 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 10.14
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 329

Discussion
1. There are more structural similarities between chimpanzees and go-
rillas than between chimpanzees and humans. How does the classi-
fication system you used express this fact? Focus on the levels in the
classification system into which these organisms are placed together.
2. How does the classification system you used express the following?
(a) There are more structural similarities between dogs. and cats than
between dogs and humans.
(b) There are more structural similarities between t umans and dogs
than between humans and frogs.
(c) There are more structural similarities between humans and birds
than between humans and crayfish.
(d) There are more structural similarities between humans and chim-
panzees than between humans and digs.
3. You are told that species A and B are classified in the same kingdom
but different phyla. You are also told that species C and D are alas-
. sified in the same phylum but different classes. What general state-

ment can you make about similarities among species A, B, C, and D?

10.5 Biologists Use a Binomial System

to Name Species
As long as there have been languages, humans have had names for
the organisms that were important to them. Before the time of written
history, probably the only plants named were those useful to humans as Figure 10.15 A carnation.
spices, medicines, and foods, or for religious purposes. 1 dose so-called
common names are still- r 4aful. If you go into a lumberyard and
ask for some Sequoia sempervirens fence posts, you are not likely to get
what you want. A request for redwood posts works much better. Why,
do biologists need any ether names than the ones in common use?
Biological names are necessary for scientific exactness. For one thing,
there is no other single, agreed on act of names available for all organ-
:
tyrt,..4.trther, different languages have different names for the same or-
gani%irscarrot (in English) is zanahoria in Spanish, and Mohrrube in
.7.;ria....'Worse still, the same word may-mfer to different organisms:
in Florida-';np:Ier refers to a turtle; in Kansas, to a rodent.
The first attempts to give names to all lo.own orgauisms, and not just
to those of special interest to farmer; and In :liters, were probably made
by,,the Greeks. At that tin:: Latin MP the language used among most
-eihicated 'peoplescholars, clergy, and physiciarq. Bezzuse they were
the only ones interested in all organisms, the gave the plants and ani-
mals Latin names.
During the Middle Ages efforts were made to fit the names used by
the Greeks to the plants and animals of the rest of Europe. That did not
work, because the plants and animals of England, Germany, and other
northern lands were often different from those of Greece. The differ-
ences had to be recognized. That was usually done by simply attaching
a new adjective to the old name of a similar plant or animal.
Then came the age of exploration. Year after year, explorers sent back
to European scientists strange new organismsfrom Africa, South
America, North America, the East Indies. The scientists kept adding
wits to names to indicate differences between the newly discovered or- [dy AN thus FLOR uh bus
ganisms and those already known. )3y the 18th century that practice sol uh TAR ee is, SKWAH mis
made names very long and difficult to use. The name used at that time kal ih SIN us sub oh VAY tus
for the carnation plant was dianthus floribus solitariis, squamis caly- breh VIS ih mis, kor OH fis
cinis subovatis brevissimis, corollis crenatis. That means "the pink (a kree NAYT is]

4., 434
 330 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

For biographical information about Linnaeus, general name for the carnation) with solitary flowers, the scales of the
see B. Gilbert, "The Obscure Fame of Carl
calyx somewhat egg-shaped and very short, the petals scalloped."
Linnaeus," Audubon (September 1984)
For many years both botanists and zoologists fumbled for an easier
The term "binomial" may be misleading. An system of nomenclature. The solution to the problem came in 1753 from
organism has one name made up of two words 0 a young Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnaeus. He used a system
Neither the generic word nor the trivial word of binomial nomenclature (by NOH mee ul NOH men klay chur), or
alone is the name. two-word naming, to name each species. The first word in each name
indicates a group of similar species. Linnaeus called that larger group
In addition to capitalizing the first letter of a genus, which we described in se. .ion 10.4. Thus all species of pinks
generic words and not trivial, custom also calls are in a group named Dianthus. (The first letter of a genus is always
for italicizing both those biological names in capitalized.) The second word in each name indicates.a group of similar
print,
individuals. It is the trivial name, and is usually an adjective describing
[dy AN thus] the species. For the common ca?-.ation Linnaeus picked the word car-
yophyllus. Neither the word indicating the genus nor the second word
[kar ee oh FIL us] is, by itself, the species name. The species name consists of both words
Dianthus caryophyllus.
Linnaeus established two rules that have made his system succeed.
The first is that Dianthus can never be used for any other genusonly
for pinks. The second rule is that caryophyllus can never be used for
any other Dianthus species. It might be used with some other genus but
that does not create duplication, because the scientific name of a species
always has two words. Thus the carnation plant is Dianthus cary-
ophyllus. As long as Linnaeus's rules are followed, no other species can
have this name.
Linnaeus's Species Plantarum (1752.) was the Linnaeus was not the first botanist to use a binomial system, but he
first book in which binomial nomenclature was is largely responsible for the present system of biological nomenclature.
consistently used With it. modern plant
That system has been used for more than 200 years to name hundreds-
nomenclature began Animal nomenclature
dates from the 10th edition of Linnaeus's
of thousands of organisms. Though there have been many refinements,
Systema Naturae, 1758 Nomenclatures of some
Linnaeus's two basic rules remain unchanged.
special groups that Linnaeus did not treat very Biological names are not a part of the Latin language. They are Latin
fully, such as fungi and bacteria, date from idter because Linnaeus and other early scientists wrote in Latin, and because
works of other authors. Latin is a suitably precise :dnguage. Although Latin and Greek word
roots are used frequently, the words may be from any language or may
be entirely manufactured. Tsuga (the hemlocks) comes from Japanese.
What prevents duplication of names? Basically
the answer is the rule of priority. The first person
Washingtonia (a genus of palms) is obviously not Latin. All such names
to publish a name establishes d as valid A are given Latin endings, however. Furthermore, the names always look
species may be named, and later it is found that the same. Thu's, in a Russian or Chinese biology book, biological names
the same species had previously been given a are printed in the same form as they appear in this book, though the rest
different name. The older one remains as the of the printing is different.
scientific name, and the new name becomes a Although biological names may seem strange, they are not always
synonym The system is simple, as the text long or difficult to pronounce (Rosa, roses; Poa, bluegrasses). Many words
says, but regulating it is complex, this is the for genera have been absorbed into the English language. As common
business of several international organizations of names, they are correctly spelled without a capital first letterfor ex-
taxonomists.
ample, iris, petunia, aster. The strangeness of words disappears as we
use them.
There is nothing wrong with using common names when you do not
need to be exact. Up to this point in this biology course, we have man-
aged to get along without biological names. Sometimes, though, it is
better to say "Pinus strobus" instead of "white pine." There are several
species of trees called white pines, and a biologist may need to state ex-
actly which species is being studied.

435
 I ; I I
II Oa

I. I s I I: , I I .
I I I IA, I .

I I I I I I.,
I I 1
I I I !......

II II I I I

. I . I I I: ..,.,
I.,,, ..... I :II
III I I II I I I I I
II I I I,
I I I I .
332 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Guidepost: What characteristics The Kingdoms of Organisms

determire how organisms
are grouped into kingdoms?
10.6 Biologists Separate All Organisms
into Two Major Groups on the Basis
of Their Cell Structures
From species to kingdom, each successively broader category con-
tains more organisms. The more organisms or species, the more difficult
it is to find homologies: among them. In addition, it is more difficult to
find features that set them apart from other groups at the same taxon-
omic level.
We learned in chapter 5 that all organisms are made up of cells and
cell prcducts. Just as the cell is a basic unit of structure and function,
0 it also contains clues about_the rleationships among organisms. On the
basis of cell structure, biologists can separate organisms into two major
groups: prokaryotes (pro KAIR ee ohti) and eukarydei (yoo KAIR ee
ohtz).
The differences between those two groups are profound. Cells of pro-
karyotes are distinguished primarily on the basis of structures they do
not have. Although they have internal membranes, they do not have nu-
clear membranes, and thus do not have a distinct nucleus. They also do
not have membrane-bounded organelles such as mitochondria or chlo-
roplasts. There does not seem to be any movement of the cytoplasm.
Most prokaryotes have rigid ceil walls, but the walls are made of pro-
teinlike chains, rather than cellulose as in plants. Their genetic material
consists of a single circular thread of DNA. Sometimes they have ad-
ditional, smaller, circular DNA chains called plasmids (PLAZ midz).
Mitosis does not occur. They move by gliding, or by means of long, hair-
like projections called flagella.
Cells of eukaryotes are generally larger than those of prokaryotes, as
can be seen in figure 10.17. They are distinguished by a definite nucleus
bounded by a membrane. Mitochondria, lysosomes, and other organelles,
also are found in eukaryotic cells. The cytoplasm often appears to move
or stream within the cell. Cell walls, when present, are m :Je of cellulose
or chitin, another polysaccharide. The DNA of eukaryotes is associated
with special proteins and is organized into distinct chromosome: within
the nucleus. There are no plasmids. Cell division follows mitosis.
The major differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes are sum-
marized in table 10.4. Biologists use those differences in cell structure
to group organisms into the two major categories. The many kinds of
bacteria and related organisms are all prokaryotes. The organisms with
which we are most familiar are all eukaryotesroses, monkeys, grass-
hoppers, frogs, ferns, and humans.

43'7
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 333

Figure 10.17 A prokaryotic cell (upper lett) compared with a eukaryotic cell
(below). The prokaryotic cell is a bacterium; the eukaryotic cell is an amoeba.
Prokaryotic cells are generally much smaller than eukaryotic cells.

cell wall

chromosome

tibosomes contractile vacuole

plasma cytoplasm
membrane mitochondria

chromosomes lysosome

Golgi complex
;-$ . .

11

4'1

vacuole nucleus
r.

,;

433
334 Section Three niversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

iT41400.:VM00iff0.*:03.',00.#000:Pr0141,(0te.00.40.061bteS';-,
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Mostly small cells (1-10 Am). All are Mostly large cells (10-100 Am). Some
microbes. are microbes; most are large
organisms.

DNA not membrane-bounded No Membrane-bounded nucleus

chromosomes. containing chromosomes made of
DNA and proteos.

Cell division direct, mostly by simple Cell division follows various forms of
fission. No centrioles, mitotic mitosis; mitotic spindles (or at least
spindle, or microtubules. some arrangement of
Sexual systems rare; when sex does microtubules).
take place, contributions of genetic Sexual systems common; equal
mate:ial are unequal. participation of both partners (male
and female) in fertilization.
Alternation of diploid and haploid
forms by meiosis and fertilization.

Multizellular forms rare. No tissue Multicellular organisms show extensive

development. development of tissues.

Many are killed by oxygel, others can Almost all require oxygen to live.
live with or without oxygen, still
others require oxygen to live.

Enormous variations in the metabolic Same pattern of cellular respiration

patterns of the group as a whole. within the group.

No mitochondria; enzymes for cellular Enzymes for most reactions of cellular

respiration are bound to plasma respiration are packaged within
membranes, not packaged mitochondria.
separately.

Simple bacterial flagella, composed of Complex flagella composed of the

the protein flagellin. protein tubulin and many others.

In photosynthetic species, enzymes for In photosynthetic species, enzymes for

photosynthesis are bound to photosynthesis are packaged in
plasma membrane, not packaged membrane-bounded plastids. All
separately. Various patterns of photosynthetic species have
photosynthesis, including the oxygen-releasing photosynthesis.
formation of end products such as
sulfur, sulfate and oxygen.

Adapted from Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, by Lynn
Margulis and Karlene Schwartz. Copyright D 1982 by W. H. Freeman and Company, San
Francisco.

43,9
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 335

10.7 Organisms Are Grouped

into Five Kingdoms
In section ,10.4 we stated that only a few characteristics are shared
among all the individuals in a kingdom. What, then, are the character-
-istics by which we sort all the diverse forms of life into kingdoms?
First, we determine whether the organisms are prokaryotic or eukary-
otic. Second, we consider their nutritional pattern. All organisms require
a source of energy and a source of food. Some organisms obtain energy
and produce food from nonliving substances. They are called producers
or artotrophs (AWT oh trohfs). Others obtain energy and food from
other organisms, either living or dead; they are consumers or hetero-
trophs (HET eh roh trohfs). Third, we consider whether reproduolion
is sexual or asexual, and whether or not the organisms develop from an
embryo; which is a multicellular structure formed by sexual processes.
Finally, we consider the general structure and function of the organisms.
'However, none of those characteristics resolves all the problems of clas-
. sifying organisms, and classifications change as we gain new knowledge.
Today, most biologists favor the five kingdom classification scheme shown
in figure 10.18, page 336-37.
All prokaryotes are presently grouped into one kingdom, the Monera As4 students how the question of prokaryotes v.
(moh NEHR uh). Monerans display a greater variety of chemical and eukaryotes brings the ancestry of organisms
functional patterns than do eukaryotes. Like plants and other eukary- into biological classification Ask the students to
otes, some monerans produce food by photosynthesis. However, photo- describe homologies among prokaryotic cells,
synthetic monerans use a wider variety of substances as raw materials then homologies among eukaryotic cells Stress
than do plants. Other monerans use energy obtained from inorganic that the variety they see in the world around
chemicals to Produce food. Many monerans are heterotrophs. Most mo- them in all the multicellular organisms is not as
great at the cellular level as the biochemical
nerans are unicellular, but multicellular forms exist as well. Reproduc-
variety in molecular structure and ways of life
tion is largely direct; by cell division. When sexual reproduction is present,
among the prokaryotes (which people cannot
the parents do not contribute equal amouno of genetic material. even see without microscopes).

Figure 10.19 Representative monerons include (a) cyanobacteria, Anabaena

circinalis; (b) purple photosynthetic bacteria, Rhodospirillum rubrum (stained);
and (c) nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
ft
14

!.1.4ff 4
Y
S. Ormerod! VISUALS UNLIMITED Ripon Mos:Wide& Inc.
b J. G. Zeikus

440
336 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 10.18 Currently all organisms can be classified in the five kingdoms
shown in this diagram. However, increased understandings of the prokaryotes
may lead to creation of more kingdoms for that group.

PLANTAE FUNGI

:BasidioinycOia

-(lichens)

Zifg6nijidtita ,
",(conjugation,
fungl),

PROTISTA

MONERA

441
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 337

ANIMALIA

Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes

442
338 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Most eukaryotes can be grouped according to whether they are pro-

ducers or consumers. Some of the microscopic forms, however, are both;
they make their own food at some times and use ready -made food Lt
other times.
Currently eukaryotes are placed in four separate kingdoms. The 0
kingdom Plantae (PLAN tee) includes all the organisms that develop
from an embryo that does not have a blastula stage. The vast majority
of plants are autotrophs that make their own food by oxygen-producing
photosynthesis. Plants have cellulose-containing cell walls and repro-
duce sexually (for some, also asexually). Their cells contain chloroplasts.
The bulk of the world's food and much of its oxygen are derived from
plants.

Figure 10.20 Plants include the (a) mosses and ferns, (b) conifers, and
(c) flowering plants. (b) is the Norway spruce, Picea abies; (c) is the waxflower,
Jamesia americana.

Snug Schell

:Dzcz,Sokell b Kartene V. Schwartz

443
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 339

All of the organisms that develop from an embryo that has a blastula
stage are members of the kingdom Animalia (an ih MAYL yuh). Ani-
mals are all heterotrophic, and they range in size from microscopic forms
to giant whales. They are the most diverse in form of all the kingdoms.
They generally must search for their food. Thus, most are motile. Re-
production is usually sexual, but some asexual reproduction occurs.
Organisins of the kingdom Fungi (FUN jy) develop directly from
spores; none form embryos. Fungi are heterotrophs that absorb small
molecules from their surroundings through their outer walls. Many are
decomposers and play an important role in the biosphere. Reproduction
may be sexual or asexual. lost fungi are haploid, rather than diploid
like plants and animals. Fungi have cell walls of chitin, and most are
multicellular. They range in size from microscopic species to large
mushrooms. All are nonmotile. The fungi include yeasts, molds, bracket
fungi, and mushrooms.

Figure 10.21 Animals exhibit great diversity of type. Shown here are (a) sea
slug, Hermissendra crassicornis; (b) dragonfly, Libullaria; (c) mallard, Anas
platyrhynchoc,platyrhynchos; and (d) blacktailed prairie dog, Cynomys
Iddoyicianus.

. ,
-sian ElemeiVISUALS UNLIMITED b. Illieiner W. Schulz

'Rod Planck /70M STACK & ASSOCIATES d BSCS by Cadye Calvin

 340 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 10.22 Typical.fungi include

(a) mushrooms, Lactarius fulvissimus; (b) jelly
fungus, Sacrymyces palmatus; and (c) hat
thrower fungus, PilObo lus.

AMON* 8rtIMII , t

a 'Athalle Barzee Kenneth D. WhitnnyiVISUALS UNLIMITED

Figure 10.23 ExaMples of ootists aft (a) slime molds, Physarum; (b) protozoa,
Amoeba proteps;.arid (C) algae, Tribonema aequale.

4'4 ,
IT
a :Karkine V. Schwartz Photograph by Carolina Biological Supply Company
b

445
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 341

All the eukaryotes not included in the three kingdoms described above Some biologists prefer the broader term
are grouped in the kingdom Protista (pro TIST uh). Many protists are ProtoLtista fur this kingdom to a,hnowledge
microscopic and unicellular. However, all of the groups in this kingdom that multicellular forms ouLui in must inalur
have multicellular members, and the giant kelps may reach 100 m in groups of protists, yet Iht:y are not animals
plants, or fungi In a sense, Prota:tista ,n,ludes
length. Among the protists there is great variability in cell organization,
the Protista We have used the name Protista in
, chromosome structure, mitosis, meiosis, and life cycles. Protists may be
this book because it is more familiar at the
producers, consumers, or decomposers; some switch from one form of present time
nutrition to another, depending on conditions. Despite their differences,
these organisms are probably more closely related to each other than
they are to members of the other kingdoms. Protists include all the algae,
the protozoa, the slime molds, slime nets, water molds, and many other
organisms.
Classification of an organism from each kingdom is shown in figure
10.24.

Figure 10.24 Classification of an organism from each kingdom.

Anabaena Amoeba Rhizopus Quercus alba Homo sapiens

blue-green bacteria bread mold white oak human being
ANN.

kingdom Monera Protista Fungi Plant Animal

phylum/division Cyanobacteria Sarcodina Zygomycota Anthophyta Chordata

class Eubacteria Lobosa Phycomycetes Dicotyledoneae Mammalia

order Oscillatoriales Amoebina Mucorales Fagales Primates

family Nostocaccae Amoebidae Mucoraceae Fagaccae Hominidac

genus Anabaena Amoeba Rhizopus Quercus Homo

species Anabaena Amoeba Rhizopus Quercus Homo

circinalis proteus stolonifer albci sapiens

446
Orr
 342 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

10.8 Classifications Can Change

This is a good example of how science works in We pointed out at the end of section 10.4 that a taxonomic classifi-
general New data require new interpretations of cation is not a fact. As our knowledge of the living world increases, we
existing knowledge You may want to reinforce
perceive new relationships among organisms. New knowledge often re-
this idea here
quires changes in the way we group organisms. That is especially true
at the level of kingdoms.
A classification should be exclusive as well as inclusive. That is, the
characteristics we select should allow us to form a group of similar or-
ganisms that are different from other groups of similar organisms. As
we have seen, monerans are prokaryotes; all other organisms are eukary-
otes. Plants are autotrophic; animals and fungi are heterotrophic. Ani-
mals develop from blastulas; fungi develop from spores. Those
characteristics serve to include similar organisms into one kingdom and
exclude them from the other kingdoms.
At one time it seemed that organisms could be classified in two king-
domsanimals and plants. As improved microscopes increased our un-
derstandinz a f microscopic organisms, it became evident that many of
those organisms did not fit well into either of the two kingdoms. The
kingdom Protista was suggested for some of those and certain nonmi-
croscopic organisms.
Electron microscopic studies made clear the profound differences in
cell structure between the prokaryotes and eukaryotes, as seen in figure
10.25. Taxonomists added the kingdom Monera for the prokaryotes. And
because the fungi do not share many characteristics with any of the other
groups, a separate kingdom was proposed for them.

Figure 10.25 Electron micrographs of prokaryotic (left) and eukaryotic (right)

cells. Notice the membrane-bounded organelles and generally more complex
structure in the eukaryotic cell.

Pd
*P;

fy
a BPS TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES W. Gordon %Wortley and American Journal of Botany
b

44
Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 343

The five-kingdom system of classification described in section 10.7 is

not accepted by all biologists. Some place multicellular algae with the
plants. Zoologists may include the heterotrophic protists in the animal
kingdpin.,Further studies of the bacteria may require the formation of
still other kingdoms.
Classification schemes also depend on the purposes of the person doing
the classifying. Grouping organisms as producers, consumers, and de-
composers works well for an ecologist but would not work well for a
biologist comparing the anatomy of worms, for example. Grouping an-
imals as worms and nonworms would not be useful in studying the evo-
lution of a four-chambered heart.
Classification systems are products of our knowledge of the living 0
world. Species, genera, families, orders, classes, and kingdoms do not
exist in nature; only individual organisms exist. Classification systems
are simply means that enable us to think more easily about nature. They
are human creations. Thus, they will continue to change as research in
the biologic sciences continues.

Self-Review

1. What is the most fundamental characteristic that separates organ-

isms?
2. What characteristics do biologists use to sort organisms into king-
doms?
3. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of each kingdom.
4. Why do classification systems change?

The Origin of Diversity Guidepost: How did life originate and

evolve into the many forms
found today?
10.9 All Spocies May Have Come
from a Single Ancestral Species
The cell theory states that cells arise from preexisting cells. The theory
of evolution demonstrates that organisms arise only from others of their
own kind. However, evolution often increases the numbers of species as
a result of variety among individuals in preexisting species. For example,
all of the Galapagos finches (see figure 9.9 page 275) probably de-
scended from the same ancestors. The pattern that emerges is that of
many kinds of organisms evolving from few. If that is true, we could
expect fewer and fewer species farther and farther back into the past.
Thus, all species could have come from the same ancestral species living
at the time when life must have originated.
Fossil studies have supported the hypothesis of one or a few initial
forms of life. The oldest fossil records reveal few species. That may be
due, at least in part, to the erosion, weathering, and recycling of the
oldest fossil-bearing rocks. However, only delicate fossils of microscopic
organisms are found in the surviving older rocks.

448
 344 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

The fossil record at later times reveals numerous examples of the idea
that many forms evolved from a few ancestral forms. One group would
flourish, then die out because of changes in the environment or because
of competition from other groups. Another group would then increase
to its greatest variety in numbcrs of species. For example, when there
were more reptiles, there were fewer mammals and almost no birds. When
there were more mammals, reptiles were declining and birds were
evolving into more species.
That pattern appears in each age in the fossil record, and in the his-
tory of each group. During the age of dinosaurs, there was a greater
variety of species than among reptiles today (figure 10.26). The greatest
diversity of mammals also appears to be past. Throughout the history
of life, new species have evolved and older species have become extinct.
Again and again, species have evolved from a smaller number of species
before them.
Thera was a remote time, however, when relatively few species of or-
ganisms apparently existed. Were those organisms ancestral to all later
ones? Were they themselves far from life's beginning? How did.the first
organisms arise?

Figure 10.26 The age of reptiles produced tens of thousands of species, from
small lizards to flying reptiles and giant dinosaurs. Turtles, alligators and
crocodiles, and snakes are the only surviving orders of reptiles today.
. .

first reptile
(aver' 280, million
years ago)

:feOtiles.tbchik:: -
,(fcitjr311040(ders:
.aeictso oo,sp:iclitS))

11,0'Or_crioeet'eliiiS4nct tehkOfAheihsatids'of,"speo,et,,
'OxtOndlngiliretiOti'kilrnost 200 rhillicin years)'

449
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 345

10.10 The Ori:-", of Life Must Be

Investigited Indirectly
Professor Elso S. Barghoorn of Harvard University discovered the O
bacteriumlike fossil, more than 3 billion years old, shown in figure 10.27.
Other investigators have discovered algalike or bacterialike fossils in an-
cient rock 3.5 billion years old. Fossil traces of the pond scum that the
latter organisms formed led to further evidence of the fossil micro-
organisms themselves.
The search is not as simple as looking for older and older rocks, with Again the fossil record and hypotheses about
older and older fossils. The ol( 'est rocks formed on the earth have not the first life on the earth are seen to coincide.
remained uncharged. If the fossil record once included traces of the first You may wish to point out to students that the
life forms on earth, it no longer does. Other, less direct methods of in- oldest rock formations not completely destroyed
vestigation must be employed. by subsequent change have been found in
Australia and South Africa By reference to the
The evidence derived from life today, as well as from fossil life ex-
maps of early Earth in figure 21,17, students can
tending 3.5 billion years into the past, is the most reliable evidence bi-
see that fossils of some of the earliest life are
ologists have from which to form hypotheses about the origin of life. expected to be preserved in Antarctica, too.
That evidence indicates a continuing evolutionary relationship between However, Antarctica drifted to the South Pole
past and present living things. If evolution is the thread that links life and has become covered with ice, making fossil
through the ages, then there is reason to investigate the origin of the expeditions there very difficult. Other ancient
first life as a part of evolution. That is, life itself may have originated rocks are in the rock shield around Hudson Bay
by evolu.ti9n. That hypothesis presupposes that the chemical substances ,n Canada The fossil bacterium in figure 10.22
necessary to form a living thing were present on the earth long ago. Bi- was discovered in the Canadian formaions
ologists have discovered that some investigation of this view is possible
inthe laboratory.
Evolution is, therefore, being studied as the process by which life not
only diversified, but first arose. Taking that hypothetical step also makes
it possible to predict what the first life was likeit was very small and
relas;4ely unstructured. The reason it would not include large organisms
with specialized body parts is that evolution cannot build everything at
once, but works in stages. Evolution works like a remodeler, not an ar-
chitect. Evolution could only have worked at first with whatever small
clusters of particles were present on the earth.

Figure 10.27 Electron micrograph of Eobacterion isolatum (left) and its imprint
(right). This fossil bacterium isf3.2 billion years old.
INIMMIN.,

Photograph by Elso S. Barghoorn. Halyard University

450
346 Section Three 7.;versity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Biology Today

intron
RNA As an Enzyme
Biology, like all other sciences, is an incomplete
body of knowledge. New information is added to
the existing store of knowledge .1n a continuing portion of Tetrahymena
basis. These continuous modification of the body rRNA precursor molecule
of knowledge separates science from other ways
of knowing such as religion. A dramatic example
of the revision of a long-held assumption in
biology occurred in the early and mid 1980s,
when a young University of Colorado biochemist
began to question the role of RNA.
You learned in chapter 4 that RNA is one of
two nucleic acids that store genetic information
and that proteins often act as enzymes. For many
years, biologists believed that the categories of The intrdn folds on itself, effectively
catalyzing its own removal.
information molecules and enzymes were mutually
exclusive. That is, an enzyme could not serve as
an information molecule, and an information
molecule could not serve as an enzyme.
In 1981 and 1982, Thomas R. Cech and his intron
colleagues, while working with the protist
Tetrahymena thermophila, discovered that RNA
The exon segments are joined,
can indeed act as an enzyme. Like all eukaryotes, excluding the intron.
I thermophila contains portions of DNA that are
not translated into messenger RNA or protein.
These segments, the introns, are cut out of the
precursor mRNA that is made from the DNA in the explained in a 1986 Scientific American article,
nucleus. The remaining segments of mRNA, the "the resulting RNA had never been near a cell
exons, then are spliced together to form a shorter and therefore could not be contaminated by
piece of mRNA. That mRNA is released from the splicing enzymes." Yet, when Cech and his team
nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it directs the tested the newly-synthesized RNA, the proper
synthesis of protein on the ribosomes. intron was still removed. The only conclusion
The removal of the introns and splicing pc3sible was that the RNA itself was acting as an
together of exons requires energy and enzymes. enzyme. That revolutionized completely the
Cech and his colleagues, Paula J. Grabowski and assumption that an information molecule cannot
Arthur J. Zaug, conducted splicing experiments in act as an enzyme.
the test tube. They used unspliced RNA with Zaug added another startling piece of
extracts from Tetrahymena nuclei, and also information in 1985, when he showed that
unspliced RNA without extracts. (The extracts Tetrahymena's self-spliced intron could organize
would supply the necessary enzymes.) They found short pieces of RNA into longer segments. RNA,
that a particular Tetrahymena intron was removed therefore, not only can act as a splicing enzyme,
even in the absence of nuclear extract. but also can organize its own replication in certain
The researchers thought there might be a situations. That discovery has implications for
nuclear protein bound together very tightly to the evolution theory, because a system for the
Tetrahymena's RNA. To eliminate that possibility, replication of information is required for the origin
they synthesized an artificial Tetrahymena RNA, of life. Cech and his coworkers had uncovered
using recombinant DNA techniques. As Cech just such a mechanism, all within RNA.

45-1
 fX

Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 347

Figure 10.28 These fossils, drawn 1250 times actual size, were found in the
Gunflint Iron formation along the shore of Lake Superior in Ontario, Canada.
They have been dated at approximately 2 billion years old. The organisms in (k)
and (I) have structures that resemble a nucleus, and could be eukaryotes. The
other-fossils are all prokaryotes.

0
0

From "The Oldest Fossils" by Elso S. Barphoorn. Copyright O May

1971 by Scientific American Inc. All rights reserved.
The fossil record supports that reasoning. Fossils of the earliest known
-life are all microscopic in size. Not a single exception has been found.
7igure 10.28 shows composite drawings of fossils about 2 billion years
-old. Notice the diversity of form as well as the microscopic size.
Biologists and other scientists arc studying the evolution of the earth,
the other planets, and the sun for many kinds of ciues. Space explora-
tions have helped to gather data in probes of the sun's other planets. The
data available thus far show that life is not likely on any other planet in
our solar system. Even planets around other stars are important to the
search, for if life evolved on Earth, it may have evolved elsewhere as
well. However, planets around other stars are very difficult to detect.
Only indirect evidence that such planets exist has been obtained so far,
as in the multiple objects obseived circling the star Vega. Sending out
space probes to the areas around such stars is not likely in the near fu-
ture.

10.11 Studies of Present -Day Stars Provide

Evidence for the Formation and Early
History of the Earth
Little about the evolution of the earth or other planets is established
beyond question. Studies of the birth of stars provide information about
how the sun might. have been formed. Other stars develop from a re-
volving cloud of gas and dust. Hydrogen is always the major element in
the gas, as it is in the sun today.

452
 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 10.29 A sequence of events that might Figure 10.30 A drawing of Miller's apparatus, in which conditions thought to
have led to.the first life. exist in the primitive atmosphere were reproduced in the laboratory. Does this
experiment prove how life originated on earth?

wires
carrying
electric
current

spark
discharge

to
vacuum line

water in

_- water containing
boiling water organic compounds
trap

Trailing arms can be seen in giant revolving clouds of gas in spacc.

When the sun condensed from the solar system's early gas cloud, some
of those arms probably condensed to form the planets.
Geological evidence suggests that the earth grew very hot after it first
formed approximately 4.7 billion years ago. Heat speeds up chemical
activity. At that time atoms must have been constantly combining and
recombining. They must have been forming many kinds of mole,mles.
Geological evidence also suggests that the early atmosphere of the earth
included methane, CH4, instead of present-day carbon dioxide, CO2. It
probably included ammonia, NH3, instead of present-day nitrogen, N2.
Most likely some hydrogen, H2, and much water vapor, H2O, also were
present, but free oxygen, 02, was absent.
With the energy of heat and lightning, the gases of the early atmo-
sphere might have combined to form substances such as amino acids.
Oxygen was present in the early atmosphere Amino acids are found in all organisms today. During millions of years,
combined in compounds, but students should such organic compounds might have accumulated in the very warm
understand that tittle or no tree oxygen gas, as oceans, lakes, and pools, forming an "organic soup." Along the shores,
0, molecules (or 0,, ozone), was present Free in tide pools, or on particles of clay, those simple compounds might have
oxygen appeared only after the t,yolutiuri of combined to become more complex molecules. Finally, those more com-
oxygenproducing photosynthesis.

s.
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 349

plex molecules might have united somehow to form a very simple kind
of reproducing "living thing." The ideas presented above are summa -
'rized in figure 10.29.
Are those speculations of origins reasonable? What would happen if
a simulated primitive atmosphere were exposed to an energy source? In
0 Such, at least, were the speculations ot A. i
Oparin about 50 years ago Oparin s The Origin
1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey, at the University of Chicago, of Ur is available in paperback. from Dover
decided to find out. Using apparatus like that shown in figure 10.30, they Publications, New York, ;1953)
passed electric sparks through ammonia, methane, water, and hydrogen.
The electric sparks simulated lightning, and the gases were like those on
the earth long ago. Nothing else was added. Whet) the substances were
analyzed later, it was found that some simple amino acids had been pro-
duced.
That experiment has been verified. Other inveaigators have used ul- The rationale for using ultraviolet radiation lies in
traviolet light instead of electric sparks. They have obtained the same the probability that this radiation penetrated the
kind of results. Since those first experiments, researchers have synthe- primitive atmosphere much more than it does
sized many other kinds of organic molecules, including nucleotides and today
carbohydrates.
Do those experiments suggest n way in which life might have origi- Different combinations of starting molecules and
nated in the distant past? Yes, but it is still a long way from complex different environments have yielded different
molecules to even the simplest of known organisms. How, then, might organic molecules For example, extreme
those simple organisms have arisen? pres3ure such as that caused by the movement
of ica at the poles can cause the formation of
simple amino acids from constituent chemicals
10.12 The First Cells Were Probably
Heterotrophs
As time went by, it seems likely that some amino acids in the "organic This account of proteinlike clusters of moiecuies
soup" formed pclypeptides and proteins. Other simple organic molecules is bei,e.,ed to be related to first-0e events but
also might have formed larger, more complex molecules. Eventually, some ma, be revised considerably as ft:search
of the larger molecules might have combined into clusters, and the clus- :ontinues F.)r example, an early microorganism
ters might have merged to form a primitive cell. could not have been immortal Sooner or later it
That is a far-reaching assumption. The formation of primitive cells would have been dashed to death by .torms or
from clusters of organic compounds is more difficult to e,:plain than the waves Hence, for life to evolve successfully, it
had to be able to reproduce The discovery of
formation of the organic compounds themselves under the earth's prim-
RNA that can both code hereditary instructions
itive conditions. The assumption is that at first, large organic compounds
and catalyze chemical reactions may indicate
in the organic soup were grouped together at random, forming many that RNA or DNA was present along with
types of aggregates. Those different types of aggregates might have proteisilike materials in the first precells
competed with each other for the organic molecules in the soup that
were needed for growth and reproduction. In that competition, some ag-
-gregates would have had a composition and an organization that made
them more successful than other aggregates. Eventually, natural selec-
tion crowded out the less successful ones.
Scientists have proposed different models for a pre-cell. A Russian
scientist, A. I. Oparin, suggested that pre-cells might have been like
coacervates (koh AS er vayts). Coacervates are clusters of proteins or
,proteinlike substances held together in small droplets within a sur-
rounding liquid, as shown in figure 10.31a Sidney Fox, of the University
-of Miami, thinks pre-cells were more like microspheres, cooling droplets We apply 9 . view of evolution a. a remodeler
from a hot water solution of polypeptides. Each microsphere forms its to explain why biologists believe the first
own double-layered boundary as it cools (figure 10.31b). organisms would have been no more advanced
The ancestors of primitive cells could easily have been of several kinus. than simple mii,,roscopie heterotrophs Plan to
Different kinds, with different capabilities, might have come together. go over with students the reasoning for the
In that way some of the features could have developed that are seen heterotroph hypothesis until they begin to
perceive how biologists think of evolution
today in the simplest heterotrophic bacteria. The cell ancestors formed
a billions-of-years-long sews of chance
a membrane that separated them from their external world. They began events, ibly without sudden great
to grow by using compounds in the surrounding environment for spare accol. , oiments Evolution is going on even
parts and energy. They evolved a process of reproduction, producing today anu usually no one is quite sure how to
others like themselves. detect it

454
350 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Jiosphere

Figure 10.31 (a) A complex coacervate can form when a water layer surrounds
a cluster of protein molecules. (b) Microspheres are formed when dry mixtures of
amino acids are heated and then placed in water. This microsphere is 2 Am in
diameter.

v o 0 0
0
o 00 0
0
0
0
°0 c? 00 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 00 0 0 0

0
0 0
water particle- 0
0 co water layer
0 0
0
o
om"+00 0
o
.0 0 0 o
protein particle 0
0 0 0 0
00
o o
o complex coacervate
a

Dr. Sidney W. Fos. Institute for Molecular and Cellular Evolution.

b University of Miami

What did those first living things use for food? Such a vestion tempts
biologists to suggest that the first life made its own food. However, the
food-making apparatus is a complex thing to add to all the other com-
plexities of being alive. If evolution took the fewest possible steps, the
first living things would have been heterotrophs. For food they could
have used the supply of naturally occurring organic compounds.
Many biologists at first had a problem with this Many biologists fa' or the heterotroph hypothesis. They propose that
hypothesis, because most heterotrophs today the very first life fed on the same organic compounds from which it
require free oxygen However, if free oxygen evolved. That would have made the first organisms consumers. They could
had been present in significant amounts in the
not synthesize all the organic compounds they needed as food. Yet those
early atmosphere, it would have destroyed
heterotrophs would have required fewer evolutionary steps to develop
naturally occurring organic compounds. Some
heterotrophs can live without free oxygen even
than would the more complex autotrophs.
today, so the problem with oxygen was solved An autotroph could have lived in much simpler surroundings than a
by assuming that such heterotrophs were the heterotroph, but it would have required even more complex surround-
first organisms living under an oxygen-poor ings to have evolved first. Unless evolution somehow took a grea many
atmosphere. complex steps almost simultaneously, the heterotroph hypothest. seems
the most reasonable explanation of the first cells.

.x R.)
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 351

In figure 10.32, notice that the earliest life had appeared and was well
established by the time the earth was only one third of its present age. Figure 10.32 In this diagram, 4.7 billion years
of earth's history are compressed into one
calendar year. Each day is equal to almost 13
10.13 Autotrophic Cells Evolved Several million years on earth. Notice how recently
Types of Photosynthesis humans appeared.

Eventually the supply of organic compounds would have diminished

as they were used for food by the primitive cells. Some of those heter-
otrophs must have begun to use visible light from the sun as a scarce of
energy. The first organisms able to use sunlight probably acted partly 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 10 II 12 13 14 15
like heterotrophs, taking in organic compounds, and partly like auto- 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22
23 24 25 26 27 28 29
trophs, making other organic compounds with energy from sunlight. 30 31 \?-x

Certain present-day bacteria have that ability. Other primitive cells beginning'of earth,
evolved the ability to live entirely by means of photosynthesis, though
-their photosynthesis did not produce free oxygen. Such bacteria are t-Z) o
known today; they use light energy to synthesize organic compounds from
1

hydrogen sulfide or other compounds. The bacteria live in environments 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 10 11 12 13 14 IS
8

where oxygen is absent, or present only in low concentrations. 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22

2425
At some point, primitive cells evolved a form of photosynthesis that earliest life
used water and released oxygen. That is the type of photosynthesis found
in all autotrophic eukaryotic cells, as well as in all the cyanobacteria. In MAY

_fact, some or the oldest known fossils closely resemble modern cyano- ft,
.n.CY
bacteria.
NOVCMSCR
With the advent of oxygen-producing photosynthesis, a great change SM I WI f $
1 2 3 4
took place in the atmosphere of the earth. Free oxygen began to accu- 111 2 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
14 IS 6173
mulate in significant amounts. Oxygen is a very reactive element, and 19 20 21 jj 23 28 25
26 27 2 '
4.-fifst land plants
some of the molecules combined to form ozone (03). The layer ofozone
lower forms of life become abundant
that resulted screened out most of the ultraviolet rays from the sun,
Inaking synthesis of organic compounds in the seas less likely. Hetero-
reptiles
trophic cells became dependent on autotrophic cells for their source of abundant
food and energy, as they remain today.

10.14 The Organization of Matter

Forms a Continuum
What is life? It is difficult to give a simple definition. Obviously, a
cow is living and a stone is nonliving. We can say that an Amoeba is mammals abundant
living and a coacervate is not. Difficulties arise, however, when biologists humans appeared
try to set up an exact classification system for living versus nonliving about two hours ago
things. at 1013.m.
Certain characteristics of organisms are shown by nonliving things.
If a salt crystal is added to a concentrated salt solution, it will grow and
0
start the formation of other crystals. There is a difference, however, be-
tween this kind of growth and that of organisms. The salt crystal can If heterotrophs developed first, as biologists
grow only by tat; 1 material of the same composition from the envi- believe, they used the available supply of
organic compounds relatively inefficiently in the
ronment. Primitive cells proposed by the heterotroph hypothesis may
absence of free oxygen Photosynthesis then
also have grown by first taking materials like their own from the envi- evolved, but the first photosynthetic processes
ronment. The environment eventually would have become depleted of probably did not give off oxygen as a by-
those materials, however_ Modern organisms can take in and use ma- product However, all photosynthesis produces
terials from the environment that differ significantly from themselves. new, energy rich organn.. 4..ornpourit:.: The firs'
They show few superficial resemblances to crystal growths. photosynthetic organisms were probably
somewhat like the anaerobic photosynthetic
bacteria of today they neither required nor gave
off free oxygen But oxygen-producing
photosynthesis later evolved and is the major
photosynthetic process today It is believed to
have become the source of all the free oxygen
456 in the atmosphere.
352 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 10.33;,A living Amoeba (a) is much more complex than a coacervate
droplet (b). which is not alive;yet the two look very similar.

c".
lr's
443'k, J
* 3:Cl'40

0
(10
4' e
r

Harry Wessenberg h H. G Bungenberg de Jong

a

Figure 10.34 This single crystal of polio virus,

magnified 600 times, appears hollow because
the crystal is transparent. The crystal contains
about 200 million viruses.

Ur ;s;tcof California at Berkeley, virus Laboratory

Viruses provide a biological puzzle in this connection. Like salt, some

viruses can be crystallizes; (figure 10.34) and even stored. vet when placed
inside a living cell, they can take over The cell and c z. it to destroy
itself, reproducing more viruses. Outside a cell, viruses are inactive: they
cannot take in and use materials from the nonliving environment. Are
viruses alive?
If we consider the organization of matter, from the smallest sub-
atomic particles to the biosphere, we can see that a continuum is formed
(figure 10.35). Where do we draw the line between living and nonliving?
At present, there is no way to decide hew complex a system nust be
before one would call it living. The difference between a cow and a stone
is obvious. The difference between the simplest living organism and the
most complex nonliving system is not so obvious.

Self-Review

1. Which modern organisms do the oldest fossils most closely re-

semble?
2. What evidence do we have that many species evolved from a few
species?
3. Compare environmental conditions on the earth during its early his-
tory with conditions today.

4 r
 Chapter 10 Ordering Life in the Biosphere 353
r.

Figure 10.35 The organization of matter on earth forms a continuum. The least
complex is at the bottom; matter then increases in complexity to the top of the
chart.

BIOSPHERE - the earth

4. How can experithents such as those of Miller and Urey provide evi-
dence for the origin of life?
5. How do scientists think primitive cells might have formed?
6. Why do scientists think it more likely the first cells were hetero-
trophs rather than autotrophs?
7. What changes did oxygcn-producing photosynthesis cause on Earth?
8. Why is it so difficult to draw a line between life and nonlife?

Summary
Classification systems enable biologists to study the great variety of
organisms that exist in the biosphere. Taxonomists have developed a
system that names organisms and indicates their relationships. That
system is accepted throughout the world, and it enables biologists from
different places to understand one another when discussing a particular
organism. Classification systems may be based on many characteristics,
but-the most important ores are structural and biochemical homologies.
Currently all organism., are classified in five kingdomsMonera, Pro-
tista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Classification systems will continuo
to 'Change as biologists learn rro- e about the r-,Aural world.

453
354 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

The theory of evolution led to many predictions of what the first life
was like. Based on those predictions, scientists have studied the evolution
of the earth itself. A variety of experiments has provided evidence that
life might have originated in a series of steps beginning with the for-
mation of .simple organic molecules. Later, those molecules might have
assembled in a variety of aggregates, some of which had the ability to
reproduce themselves. Those first "cells" were probably heterotrophs that
used the organic molecules around them as sources of energy. Later, some
cells developed the ability to use light energy. Fossil evidence supports
the view of very simple beginnings; the oldest fossils resemble the mo-
nerans of today.

Application Questions Problems

1. What factors cause biologists to change the way 1. Suppose that by the year 2005 every kind of living
they classify organisms? organism on the earth will have been discovered,
2. Bats, birds, butterflies, and flying dinosaurs all have described, and classified. Do you think the
or had wings. Why not piece them in the same class development of taxonomy would then end? Explain.
because of that feature? 2. Suppose that one of the two cell typesprokaryote
3. If many species have evolved from few preexisting and eukaryotecould have been ancestral to the
ones, why are there fewer species of reptiles today other. Present arguments for which might have
than there were in the age of the dinosaurs? been the ancestral type.
4. What is meant by the statement that evolution is a 3. Design an imaginary organism that has
remodeler, not an architect? characteristics such that a taxonomist observing it
5. In what ways would an autotroph hypothesis for the for the first time would be able to classify it in one
first organisms on earth appear to be more suitable of the kingdoms.
than the heterotroph hypothesis? In what ways less
suitable?
6. If experiments such as those of Miller any Urey did
not prove the heterotroph hypothesis, of what value
were they?

Suggested Readings
G. Blonston, "Mountain of the Mists" Science 85 (July/ S. Kaveski, L. Margulis and D. C. Mchos, "There's No Such
August 1985). An isolated Venezuelan mountain becomes a Thing as a One-Celled Plant or Animal" The Science
taxonomist's workshop as rare and unknown species are Teacher (December 1983). Excellent article explaining
investigated in this unique ecosystem. why organisms are classified into five kingdoms, not four.
M. Eigen and d. Gardner, "The Origin of Genetic Also in this issue is an article oy C. R. Granger, "The
Information" Scientific American (April 1981). It is now Classification Conundrum," that further addresses the
known how early RNA genes interacted with proteins and topic.
how the genetic code developed. N. J. Palleroni, "The Taxonomy of Bacteria" BioScience
L. Garmon, "As It Was in the Beginning" Science News (31 (June 1983). Bacterial classification is discussed in
January 1981). Chemists testing origin-of-life theories historical perspective.
report laboratory success. Ponnamperuma, "CosmochemistryThe Earliest
Evolution" The Science Teacher (October 1983). Scientists
are recreating the conditions of the primitive earth to
determine how the chemical building blocks of life were
formed.

N'

459
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1. Biology, like other sciences, changes as new knowledge is 1 Taxonomy will continue develop because (a) additional
discovered. New rii,',.:overies often reveal previously fossil forms will continue to t a discovered, (b) new
unknown relationships or differences among organisins, technologies provide new ni,:thods for studying evolutionary
leading to changes in the classifications as previous!, relationships, (c) new kinds of evidence indicating L.fferent
understood for these organisms relationships will undoubtedly be discovered, (d) new
2. If the wings showed structural homologies, oupported by
species of organisms will continue to appear as a result of
other structural and biochemical homologies among bats, evolution
birds, butterflies, and extinct flying reptiles. then all these 2 Student responses will vary but shoJld converge on the idea
organisms probably would be placed in the same class that the smaller cell type with fewer distinctive cell
However, the structure and composition of the wings and of structuresprokaryotic cellsprobably came first and may
the organisms varies, along with,how the wings are formed have been ancestral to eukaryotic cells,
in the developing young Thus, all these types of wings 3 This is an opporturity for students to use their imaginations
merely show their utility as a means of locomotion. not and to test their understanding of the characteristics
common ancestry of the organisms delimiting the five kingdoms
3, Increasing numbers of species of competing organisms and,
perhaps, natural disasters played a role in the decline of the
reptiles. As their numbers of species grew fewer, the
numbers of species of mammals and birds grew greater.
4, Evolution is a natural process, lot a planned or designed
one. It proceeds by chance, changing or remodeling the
materials it affects. An architect plans and builds all at once,
evolution can do neither of these things.
5. Fewer and simpler materials in the environment would have
supported autotrophs. but a greater chemical complexity
would have been required in the primitive organisms
themselves, if they had to make their own food.
6, The experiments did not prove the heterotroph hypothesis,
but they did show that the hypothesis was not all
guesswork. Organic compounds needed by life were shown
to form in the ways suggested. The idea of the natural
evolution of biologically important materials received great
support

46f)
 T. E. Adams /VISUALS UNLIMITED

The cyanobacterium Oscillatoria is abundant in ponds and streams.

.:". '1.1 .... 4 6 i,

 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages
132-34

CHAPTER 11 Key ideas

the presence of prokaryotes in all
environments
archaebactena and eubacteria,
ecological relationships of eubactena
infectious diseases caused by

Prokaryotes and Viruses microorganisms

viruses and pnons

Introduction
Prokaryotes are microscopic organisms that lack a nucleus and other
membrane bounded organelles. They are the most ancient organisms on
Earth, and are found in every available habitat. Prokaryotes can be di-
vided into two major groups. The two groups differ in many ways, but
both are presently placed in the kingdom Monera. Without prokaryotes,
life on earth would be extremely different, and humans, as well as other
organisms, would be unable to live. Prokaryotes may be producers, con- 0
sumers, or decomposers, and they play essential roles in nutrient cycles
such as the nitrogen cycle. Although the overwhelming majority of pro-
karyotes are harmless, some can cause disease, and those are probably
the most familiar to you. Other microscopic agents of disease such as
viruses, viroids, and prions are not truly living, but they dramatically
affect the lives of many different organisms.

Prokaryotes Guidepost: Where are prokaryotes

found, and what are their
roles in the biosphere?
11.1 Prokaryote:, Are Found Wherever
There Is Water
For betf Jr or worse, prokaryotes are all around us, on us, and in us.
They are found in almost every habitat that contains water or moisture.
All prokaryotes are microscopic in size, averaging about 1 ;cm in di-
ameter. However, they make up for their small size by their enormous
numbers. A spoonful of garden soil may contain 10 billion bacteria, and
the total number in your mouth is greater than the number of humans
who have ever lived. Bacteria cover the skin, line the nose and mouth,
live in the gums and between the teeth (figure 11.2), and inhabit the
digestive tract in large numbers.

357
..1:,:' 462
 358 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.1 Bacteria are extremely small. The scanning electron micrograph in Figure 11.2 Bacteria in the human mouth. This
(a) shows the point of a pin magnified 35 times Bacteria cannot be is dental plaque on to th that had not been
distinguished. Many bacteria are visible, however, at the greater magnification brushed for three days. Scanning electron
(175 times) in (b). micrograph, X 1798.

*,=LAt'7.:14111111111`

4.-
0 Tony Briin/BPL Science Source 0 Toni Brain/SPL Science Source BPS/TOM STACK 8 ASSOCIATES

Figure 11.3 Bacteria in the human gut break

0 Prokaryotes affect the living world dramatically. Without them, life
on earth would be totally different. Without prokaryotes, there would
down materials humans cannot digest and
release vitamins in the process. Scanning be few decomposers to break down the bodies of dead plants and ani-
electron micrograph, X 4225. mals. Without prokaryotes, our oxygen supply would be greatly de-
creased. Large oxygen-using animals such as humans would find life very
FP:Ailikk difficult without photosynthetic prokaryotes. On the other hand, without
prokaryotes, many of the diseases that effect plants, humans, and other
animals would be eliminated. Nonetheless, we could not live without
prokaryotes. The vast majority are beneficial. For example, bacteria living

Ewa,
if tr''''..''.. JAPT4t.°.,
l in our intestines produce essential vitamins that w.; absorb and use (figure
11.3). Regardless of how they affect other organisms, prokaryotes are
found everywhere.
Bacteria are rather simple in structure. In their metabolism, however,
4 *7
,-7/_,....----,klii ---- ,, they are complex and diverse. Studies of bacteria have concentrated pri-
We marily on their role in health and disease, but their role in the environ-
ment is of far greater importance. Bacteria play important roles in the
cycling of the biologically active gases. Those include nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur-containing gases, hydrogen,
methane, and ammonia. Bacterial photosynthesis and citemosynthesis
are essential for cycling the elements and compounds on which the bio-
sphere depends.
Bacteria are essential to all food webs, because they break down com-
David M. Phillips/ VISUALS UNLIMITED -plex organic compounds into inorganic materials used by plants. They

also transform inorganic materials into complex organic compounds and

serve as food for protists and other microorganisms.
Bacteria were probably the first living organisms. Their fossil record
This role of bacteria is often overlooked and goes back 3.5 billion years. By comparison, records of animals date back
should be emphasized
J about 700 million years, and of land plants, 470 million years. Biologists
believe that some 2 billion years ago the cyanobacteria started a met-
See diso S Barghoorri, The Older ossils, abolic revolution that increased the concentration of oxygen in the at-
Scientific American (May 1971) mosphere of the earth from less than 1 percent to the present 20 percent.

463
 Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 359

Figure 11.4 Decomposer bacteria in the soil break down complex organic
compounds into inorganic materials used by plants. Some, such as the ones
'shown here, also produce antibiotics.

7-41111"`

- ,

",;

J. G. Zeikus

Figure 11.5 (a) Fossil bacteria Eoaslrion, thin section through Gunflint chert.
These fossils are about 2 billion years old. (b) Modern bacteria very similar to
Eoastrion, from a microbial mat. (c) Bacteria in (b), magnified 100 times.

Lynn Margolis Lynn Margolis Lynn Margolis. Symbiosis in the Cell

a Evolution. Copyright 0 1981 W. H.
Freeman and Company. Used by
permission.

Humans and other animals could not have evolved without that concen-
tration of oxygen.
Bacteria are the most hardy organisms known. The.;. can survive ex-
tremely low temperatures, even freezing, for many years. Some species
live in boiling hot springs and others in hot acids. They can survive at
high pressure in great oceanic depths and at low pressure high in the
atmosphere. They can tolerate total drying by forming spores (SPORZ),

464
 360 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the E iosphere

thick-walled structures that contain DNA (figure 11.6). They are among
Figure 11.6 Many bacteria can survive harsh the first organisms to inhabit new environments such as burned or vol-
conditions by producing thick-walled spores.
canic areas.
Transmission electron micrograph, X27,540.
All bacteria reproduce asexually. .K. form of sexual reproduction called
conjugation may occur, but the genetic contribution of the parents is not
equal. In conjugation, one bacterium injects a portion of its DNA into
another. Genetic material also can be transferred between bacteria by
viruses. That capability is important to genetic technology, as we saw in
chapter 8.
More than 5000 species of bacteria have been described, but the vas'
majority have not been identified. In the next sections, we will examine
a few of the major groups of prokaryotes and their roles in the biosphere.

InvestigaCon 11.1 DISTRIBUTION'

OF MICROORGANISM8.
1" j
f. Introduction
H. S. Pankratz, T, C. Beaman. P. Gerhard/BPS/ Just where and in what abundance are bacteria and other microorgan-
TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES
isms found? In this investigation you will have an opportunity to find out.

Investigation 11.1 Materials (per team)

DISTRIBUTION OF MICROORGANISMS 4 sterile petri dishes with nutrient agar
sterile cotton swabs
Student assistants who have learned the glass-marking crayon
techniques of media formulation and sterilization transparent tape
can help you prepare the plates This dissecting microscope
investigation often promotes student and
teacher interest in other subjects
Procedure
Materials 1. Do not yet open any of the petri dishes containing nutrient agar. On
the bottom of all 4, write your team's name and the date. Number the
Place 15 ml liquid nutrient agar in each petri
dishes from 1 to 4.
dish The following quantities provide
2. Do nothing to dish 1.
materials for 66 plates
1 I iater (preferably distilled)
3. Uncover dish 2 and expose it to the air for 15 to 20 minutc.s. Teams
23 g nutrient agar
should select different areas of the laboratorysome in quiet corners,
Or
others in traffic areas. Note the exact location in your data book. Cover
the dish after exposure.
5 g peptone
3 g beef extract
4. a. Draw a line across the middle of the bottom of dish 2. Mark one
15 g agar side "clean" and the other "dirty." Wipe a sterile cotton swab
Incubate the plates at room temperature over part of your lab table. Carefully lift the covet of the dish without
completely removing it, as in figure 11.7. Slip in th swab and gently
Procedure
rub it over the agar on the side marked "dirty." Ele sure the swab
does not cut into the agar surface.
It possible, allow each student to expose a
plate Teams of any size can bt. used Data
from all the plates exposed at each location
Figure 11.7 Innoculating a petri dish.
should b- compared
Besides giving a total count of all colonies,
the data may be classified into several
categories number of bacterial colonies,
number of mold colonies, Hinds of bacterial or
mold colonies. as well as the number of Loloriies
of each particular kind
Type of medium and int.,ubation temperature;
influence the development of colonies The
medium used here is a general one on which
many kinds of microorganisms grow

465
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 361

b. Now carefully wash with soap Or detergent and vvater a small area CAUTION. t bt
of your lab table. Use a second swab to wipe that area, and rub h. 44: ,d NA nutrient
it over the agar surface on the sidc narlze:1"dcan." .ta,tr Therefore- di) not allow students to swab
c. Instead of wiping the swab over your lab ta' can compare at,t, bud} Alter !ht, putts
freshly washed laboratory glassware v that has been niu,t be !aped Lounting +t .olornts
on the shelf several days. must dune vattout 4,1)rtthq the Os-tics Only
5. Collect leaves, bark, pebbles, soil, or oh... Divide dish 4 1k r hthe, Ge e.t, should thy be
into 2 to 4 sections. Rub fresh ....webs over the materials you have pttrr dtstte.s are
collected and then over the agar surface. Mark the sections with the iri !bib cxptirlintrtt
material used. (It is best to mix ii c. soli with little water and dip a work with your tiarsc, t identity
swab into it.) any students usingurninunOsuppressive drugs
6. Tape all petri dishes closed. Incabate all $ plates at room temper- tiudoits should tic cx......sed iron
ature for 3 or 4 days. Keep all the ,plates upside down. This will prevent , 111v..)1V019 ,!!tunny rtt
water droplets that may condense inside the cover from dripping onto porgarili,rns
the agar.
7. Observe all plates daily, and record your observations. (CAUTION: At Discussion
no time should ,ciu remove the cover of any petri dish. This is because Platt, 1 was the covirot
1 Should be
harmful microorganisms can,be picked up and cultivated even on this nn Qrowth it it was rare:Ally Stvniaed
simple nutrient agar.) Observe all your colonies through the cover. I ou
clictiorne Inv roorlanisrns tranSterred by
may want to use a dissecting microscope to help in your observations. cnntarretnate L;Uria( te:, So that
8. Make sketches of the different kinds of colonies and write a descrip- ire giresnt nn braciirally aft tiurtaces
tion of each. You may have mold colonies present; they are fuzzy :yid trnrn at- Intl, led person can
larger than bacterial colonies. Count the number of each kind of colony
grow on a stelae t, and Own be. b.-1"A up on the
per plate. On the 4th day, answer the following questions.
c11 ariair.r Verc,on 71rey can then br
trap: felted to the mouth or an opun cut
Discussion t3y c leaning burtaCeS. by rnalltteentrIg
,not halm, leanttriesti tsueli
1. What are the results in plate 1? What was the purpose of plate 1?
,your hand. ( CAtttralq your mouth wbc2t)
2. What are the results in plates 2 through 4? nu/bin()) not spittin.) ,v1 the
3. How do you account for the presence or absence of microorganisms
ilrOUnd Jtuf keeptt q tit-trice, and penetts Out of
on the examined surfaces? yOuf V1130 f
4. Coughing or sneezing may spread droplets from mouth and nose to
a distance of 3 m or more. The water in these droplets evaporates
rapidly, leaving microscopic bits of dry matter that contain bacteria.
Microorganisms from many other sources also may be carried on dust
particles. How can you use this information to help interpret the class
data?
5. Are microo:ganisms transmitted by touch axone?
6. In your daily living, how can you protect yourself and others from con-
tamination by microorganisms?

For Further Investigation

Does the kind of medium used in the path dishes afrect the count ob-
tained at any one location? Does the temperature at which the plates are
incubated affect the count? Design and carry out experiments that test hy-
potheses based on these questions.

11.2 Archaebacteria Are Different

from Aii Other Organisms
Archaebacteria (ar kee bak TIR ee uh) have gained attention only Tw, JJ.4 reit:tit on a, hat La...tcrta arc
recently in the history of microbiology, although the organisms have been H r ,. optic
on Earth for an extremely long time. Their biochemistry suggests that Afrb 1k .111 writ 1481 and fri. Arm rf,
they were among the earliest organisms on Earth. The first archaebac- tr, r (141tj t9ts it
teria may have lived 3.5 billion years ago.

466
a
 362 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Archaebacteria are fundamentally different from all other kinds of

Figure 11 8 Thermoacidophilic archaebacteria life. Although they share some characteristics with the eubacteria (yoo
(a) Pyrodictium occulturn can grow at bak TIR ee uh), or true bacteria, they have many significant differences.
temperatures up to 110° C. (b) Pyrococcus
funosus grows at temperatures up to 103° C.
In fact, they are as different from eubacteria as eubacteria are from
(c) Acidianus,infernus grows at temperatures up eukaryotes.
to 95° C and at pH 1 0 (the pH of cnncentrated
hydrochloric acid) In all three t-ansmission
0 The cell walls of eubacteria contain a carbohydrate called muramic
acid, which is never present in the cell walls of archaebacteria. Plasma
micrographs, the bar = 1 Aim
membranes of archaebacteria contain lipids that are unlike those in
membranes of either eubacteria or eukaryotes. Their transfer RNA is
different from that of both eubacteria and eukaryotes. Most significant,
however, the nucleotide sequence of ribosomal RNA in archaebacteria
is different from that of eubacteria.
The study of an organism's RNA can reveal its evolutionary history.
All organisms have ribosomal RNA. The sequence of the nucleic acid
bases within ribosomal RNA is very stable: it changes little over time.
By comparing the RNA of two different organisms, a scientist can es-
timate relationships of the organisms to each other. If the sequence of
r the RNA bas is very similar in two organisms, they are thought to be
closely relatt,. to each othei. Conversely, the greater the differences in
base sequence, the less closcly related are the organisms. Using that
analysis, scientists conclude that archaebacteria are distinctly different
from all other organisms. Some scientists, therefore, suggest that ar-
chaebacteria should be placed in a new kingdom, separate from all other
a Prot. K. 0. Stetter
organisms.

11.3 Methanogens Produce Methane Gas

Three distinct groups of organisms hav^ been grouped in the archae-
bacteria. They are the thermoacidophiles, the extreme halophiles, and
the methanogens. The thermoacidophiles live in hot, acidic environ-
ments where temperatures average from 80° to 90° C and the water
may measure pH 2 or less. Such environments include hot sulfur springs
and smoldering piles of coal tailings. In spite of the extremely low ex-
ternal pH, these organisms maintain an ;nternal pH close to neutral
(pH 7).
The extreme halophiles require a high concentration of salt to sur-
vive, as can be seen in figure 11.9. They can grow in salt brine and often
cause discoluration and spoilage of salted fish. The extreme halophiles
4
are found in salty habitats along ocean borders and in sa'ty inland waters
b Prol. K. 0. Stetter
such as the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Some are photosynthetic.
Instead of chlorophyll, however, they use bacterial rhodopsin, a pigment
very similar to a visual pigment found in our eyes.
The methanogens (figure 11.10) are the best stuc 2 and most widely
distributed of the archaebacteria. Methanogens are killed by oxygen, so'
they can live only in anaerobic (an eh ROH bik) conditions, where oxygen
is excluded. They produce methane (CH4) gas from hydrogen and carbon
dioxide, and they are often found in close association with bacteria that
decompose organic matter and release hydrogen gas. Methanogens are
common inhabitants of stagnant water, sewage treatment plants, the
ocean bottom, hot springs, and the guts of animals, including those of
cattle and of humans.
C Prol, K. 0, Stetter

[THER moh a SID uh fylz],

Invite students to speculate on the evolutionary [HAL uh fylz]
implications of this similarity. In general, it is
another piece of evidence for a common origin [meh THAN uh jenz]
of life and life processes.
(roh COP sin14
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 363

figure 11.10 Two rethanogens. (a) Methanobactenum ruminatum, from cow Figure 11.9 Halobactena require a high
rumen. The bacterium has nearly finished dividing. (b) Methanospmllum hungak concentration of salt to ski vive. This organism is
Transmission electron micrographs; bar = 1 ion. growing beside a salt crystal (the large
rectangle).

*ikk
z. G. Zeikus: Canadian Journal of Microbiology
a

Lynn Margolis, Five Kirgdoms. 2nd ed by

L. Margolis and K. Y. Schwartz, copyright oD
1982. 1987. W. H. Freeman and Company.

J. G Zeikus
b

Cows, goats, deer, sheep, and ante'ope differ from other herbivores in Students may be familiar with ruminants as cud-
having a rumen (ROO men), a special enlargement of the digestive tract chewers
(figure 11.11). Protozoans, eubacteria, and archaebacteria live within
the rumen in an unusual ecosystem. The protozoa and bacteria contain
enzymes that break down the cellulose in grass and other plant material
that the cow eats. The methanogens use the carbon dioxide and hy-
drogen released by some of those organisms as their source of food, pro-
ducing methane gas.
Methane gas will burn; hence, it can be used as a fuel if enough is Methane is also natural gas from wells
produced and captured. A suggested solution to the growing amount of
garbage, sewage, agricultural waste, and manure is to use methanogens
to convert those waste materials into methane gas. Around the world
people are building methane generators, airtight, anaerobic containers
into which organic waste material is placed. Methanogens and various
eubacteria are added to the generators, where they gro and reproduce.

468
 364 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.11 The complex stomach of a cow. Food is swallowed without being
chewed and is stored in the rumen. Later it is brought back into the mouth for
chewing. Bacter a in the other parts of the stomach carry on cellulose digestion,
for which a cow has no enzymes. What ecol,:gical relationship exists between
cow and bacteria?

small
intestine

esophagus
Bacterial flagella are structurally very different
from the flagella of eukaryotic cells They are
not enclosed within the cytoplasmic membrane,
and they do not contain fibrils as do eukaryotic
flagella. A bacterial flagellum has approximately
the same diameter as one of these fibrils. Some
bacteria that lack flagella exhibit a peculiar
gliding movement that does not involve any
visible organelles The methanogens produce relatively large amounts of methane gas in
such generators. The gas is collected and can be used to heat houses.
Rickettsia are named for Howard T RiLketts. Such containers could offer solutions to two different environmental
1871-1910, an American pathologist problemswaste and garbage buildup, and the energy crisis.

11.4 Eubacteria Include Major Producers

Figure 11.12 The three basic forms of
bacteria. Some bacteria occur as single cells;
in the World
others form colonies in pairs, chains, or irregular
clusters.
There are many thousands c: different species of eubacteria, or true
bacteria, and several characteristics are used to distinguish one from
0 another. Most cells are.shaped like a rod, a sphere, a spiral, or a short,
curved rod, as seen in figure 11.12. They also can be identified on the
basis of how they get or make their food and by the waste materials they
produce. Some bacteria cluster together or form long chains of indi-
vidual cells. Bacteria differ in their reactions to certain stains, and in the
size, shape, and color of their colonies. While many bacteria move by-
means of flagella, some glide over surfaces, and spiral shaped bacteria
move by using a corkscrew motion that probably involves flagella. Al-
though all eubacteria are microscopic, some are smaller than others.
Rickettsia are the smallest known cells, ranging from 0.3 to 0.7 micro-
meters in diameter. Those tiny organisms, however, have been respon-
sible for many human deaths from diseases such as Rocky Mountain
spotted fever, which is transmitted by ticks.
Eubacteria can be considered in two large grc ups, those bacteria that
are producers and those that are consumers. Best known among the pro-
ducer group are the cyanobacteria (SY uh noh bak TIR ee uh), which
used to be considered part of the, plant kingdom and were called blue-
green algae. In their physiology, cyanobacteria are ve_ similar to algae
and plants. Like other eubacteria, however, they lack a nucleus and other

469
 Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 365

Figure 11.13 Cyanobacteria are abundant in all aquatic ecosystems.

(a) Nostoc,, X600; (b) GleOcapsa, X250,.(c)Calothrix, X150.
. .

T. E. Adams/VISUALS tmumtrp Ed Reschke T. E. Adams/VISUALS UNLIMITED

-a
C

membrane - bounded organelles. They contain chlorophyll associated with

membranes, but the membranes are not organized into chloroplasts as
they are in eukaryote cells. Their photosynthesis, however, is like that
of plants and algae, and it results in the release of oxygen gas. In fact,
'cyanobacteria are thought to be primarily responsible for the start of
the Oxygen revolution that changed the earth's atmosphere and made
life ticssible for large oxygen-using organisms.
Cyanobacteria are among tht: most hardy of organisms. Some grow
in hot springs w*,,sil water temperatures greater than 70° C, and others
grow in dim light under the deep ice of Antarctic lak,.s. Still other: can
survive in lakes that are saturated with salt. After aboveground atomic
bomb test_ in Nevada, a species of cyanobacteria was among the first
organisms found within the area of greatest impact. Cyanobacteria grow
in fresh and marine water, rwist soil, on tree bark, and on snowbanks.
They are responsible for algal blooms. on freshwater streams and lakes
that have been polluted with phosphates. Some of the cyanobacteria grow
in colonies that can be seen with the naked eye, although individual cells
are microscopic.
A small group of photosynthesizing bacteria known only since the
late 1960s is the genus Prnchloron (figure 11.15). These bacteria look [proh KLOR on]
much like a single chloroplast found in eukaryotic algae and plant cells.
For more information at it this organism see L
They contain the same kinds of pigments, a I they produce oxygen in Margulis and K V Schwa,a 1982. Five
photosynthesis. They have been found only in association with a few spe- kingdoms (San Franci::::o W H Freeman and
Oes of marine organisms. Company)

470
366 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figura 11.14 Many bacteria grow in hot springs such as this one at
Yellowstone National No k.

National Park Service

Figure 11.15 Prochloron (a) seen through the

light microscope, and (b) transmission electron
micrograph; bar = 2 pm. Note th(i
photosynthetic membranes around the outer
portion of the cell.

?:;-

et. 41:4
`13.
0; ,r4Z,
;.t..1* 11
.
., :
4
_ay

- '

1
.(S . 1*

41'44

Dr. Ralph A. Lewin J. Whatley. The New Phytologist

a b

The other photosynthetic bacteria are anaerobic and, as a result, do

not produce oxygen gas in photosynthesis. Based on the pigments present
in their cells, these producers are called green bacteria and purple bac-
teria. Many of them use hydrogen sulfide (H2S) acd release sulfur in
the process of photosynthesis. Like plants, however, they synthesize or-
ganic compounds from carbon dioxide, and they convert light energy to
chemical energy by the same pathway.
 Chapter 11 Prokaryote. and Viruses 367

Figure 11.16 Anaerobic photosynthetic

bacferia. (a) Transmission electron 1-,icrograph
of Rhodomicrobium vanielli, a purple nonsulfur
bacterium Note the photosynthetic membranes
around the periphery of the cell, bar ---- 0.5 pm.
(b) Rhodospirillum, another purple nonsulfur
bacterium, can live also as a heterotroph.
(c) Trarnmisston electron micrograph of
Ectothiorhodosprra P is the
photosynthetic membrane system. R s
ribosomes, PM is the plasma membrane, CW is
the cell wall, and N is the nuclear material, not
membrane-bounded (d) Three species of purple
sulfur bacteria Thopedra, Throspirdlum, and
Chromatium.

Or. E. S. Boatman -BSCS/J. G. Zelkus. Dept. of

a b Biicteriology. Univ. of Wisconsin

,11$
:41
BSCS/J.G Zeikus. Dept. 0, BSCS /J. G. Zerkus. Dept. of
C Bacteriology, Univ. of Wisconsin d Bacteriology. Univ. of Wisconsin

11.5 -Soil Bacteria Make Possible

the Cycling of Nitrogen
Cyanobacteria make their own food using energy from the sun and
carbon from carbon dioxide. Most bacteria must get their energy from
foods produced ',y other organisms, either living or tread. If the food
source is living, the bacteria are called parasites. If the food source is
dead, the bacteria are called decomposers. Still other bacteria neither
photosynthesize nor use organic molecules as their source of energy. In-
stead, they obtain energy from inorganic molecules in the environment.
Suen bacteria are called chemoautotrophic (kee mob awt oh TROH fik).
,Both chemoautotrophic and decomposer bacteria pia:, important roles
in the nitrogen cyde.
Nitrogen is essential to all living things. It is found in two of the four
kinds of biological molecules needed for life, proteins and nucleic acids.
Most of the world's nitrogen is actually found in the atmosphere as a
368 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.17 The nitrogen cycle.

NC NITRoGe
2

nitrogen
fixation

#61111.512*321f*
feeding
t. J

4 1
amid jai:1141

gas. Although nitrogen gas (N2) makes up about 7.5.1 percent of the at-
mosphere, neither planes aor animals can use the nitrogen in that form.
You inhale nitr1/4,gen with every breath you take, but exhale it unused.
Recall from chapter 4 how the element carbon cycles through a com-
munity and back into the physical environment from which it same. Ni-
trogen also cycles back and forth from the abiotic to the biotic parts of
the ecosystem. Study the nitrogen cycle shown in figure 11.17 as you
read the remainder of this section.
'Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 369

Figure 11.18 (a) Soybean roots bearing abundant nodules formed by a species
of Rhizobium. (b) Alfalfa nodule ,cells packed with actively nitrogen-fixing
Rhizobium. Scanning electrr 'frildq-graph X270; bar = 10 Am.

ri

The NitieginCompany C. P. %ince/VISUALS UNLIMITED

b

All consumers get nitrogen-containing compounds in the things they

eat. All food, of course, can be traced to prodt.:ers. Producers get their
nitrogen-bearing compounds from the soil (or the water) in which they
grow. Nitrogen gas is present in the soil, dissolved in water. Living in
tta soil or in the roots of certain plants are nitrogen-fixing bacteria. They
can "fix" nitrogen, converting it to a form they or other organisms can
0
use. Nitro en fixers convert nitrogen gas to ammonia (NH3), which can
be used to synthesize proteins and other nitrogen-containing compounds.
Centuries ago, farmers discovered that soils in which clover had been
grown produce'd better craps than did other soils. In addition to clover,
otat.r members of the legume family, such as peas, beans, and alfalfa,
1144..-the same effect on the soil. We know today the crops grow better
because of an increase in the nitrates in the soil. The increased nitrate See Jean L Mdt A, 1100, RI tijobid dl it.1
level in the soil is the result of nitrogen fixation and chemical reactions Get It Together, .5,,ten,t,, k 11 0_1,..)Lt.' 198
following fixation. However, it is not the plants that fix the nitrogen, but
bactei:ia. Bacteria of the genus Rhizobiuni live in the roots of many le- [ry ZOH bee um]
gumes. The bacteria induce the plant to form swellings called nodules
(NOD yoolz) on, its roots (figure 11.18). Under favorable conditions,

474
370 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.19 Nitrifying bacteria. (a) Nifrosomonas converts amonia (NH,) to

nitrite (NO2 ). (b) Nitrobacter winogradskyi converts nitrite to nitrate (NO3-).
Transmission electron micrographs, (a) X47,307; (b) X83,226.

Stan W. Watson Stan W. Watson

a American Society for Microbiology

.3ot-nodule bacteria can fix as much as 225 kg of nitrogen per hectare

per year. Some free-living bacteria and many cyanobacteria also have
the ability to fix nitrogen. The ammonia produced by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria can be used by the legume plants or can spill into thk., ground
and be use '-y bacteria or other plants.
Decomposers in the soil break down the complex organic compounds
in dead plant and animal bodies. They use the energy in those com-
Some farmers adr. ammonia (NH,) directly to pounds and convert them to simpler substances. The chief nitrogen-
their irrigation water to provide ni'rogen for
containing substance is ammonia. Ammonia is a gas, and some of it es-
plants, while others may apply nitrate salts to
capes into the atmosphere. However, it also dissolves readily in water.
ti e soil The constant use of these chemical
fertilizers will influence ti.e soil ecosystem,
In soil water, ammonia reacts chemically with hydrogen ions to form
changing many of the populations of ammonium ions (NH4+) In the form of ammonium ions, nitrogen may
microorganisms that normally are involved in the be absorbed by the roots of plants. It is then built into living material
again by the plants.
nitrogen cycle.
0 Other chemical reactions also may occur in the soil. Two groups of
bacteria called nitrifying (NY trih fy ing) bacteria* continue the nitrogen
cycle. One group changes ammonium ions (NH4+) to nitrite ions (NO2-).
The other group changes the nitrite ions to nitrate ions (NO3-). Plants
can absorb the nitrates from the soil and use them to build proteins.
Both groups of nitrifying bacteria are chemoautotrophic. They are
producers because they make their own food, but instead of using energy
from the sun as plants do, they use energy from chemical compounds.
Nitrifying bacteria operate only under aerobic ',eh ROH bik) envi-
ronmental conditions, when oxygen is available in the soil. Oxygen dis-
solves into soil water from the al. spaces found between soil particles.

475
 Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 371

Sometimes, all the spaces fill up with water, leaving no room for air.
When that happens, the soil environment becomes anaerobic. Under an-
aerobic conditions, nitrifying bacteria cannot carry on their activities.
Denitrifying (dee NY trih fy ing) bacteria however, thrive in such an-
aerobic environments. They change any remaining nitrates to nitrogen
gas. The nitrogen gas gradually escapes back into the atmosphere, and
the cycle of nitrogen is complete.

Self-Review

1. In what ways are prokaryotes important in the biosphere?

2. In what ways do archaebacteria differ from other bacteria?
3. How can methanogens help wi'h the energy crisis?
4. What characteristics do microbiologists use to distinguish eubac-
teria?
5. What important atmospheric change was caused by cyanobacteria?
6. What are the principal nitrogen-bearing nutrients used by pro-
ducers?
7. What is nitrogen fixation and where do nitrogen-fixers live?
8. How is nitrogen returned from organisms to the atmosphere?

Microorganisms and Disease Guidepost: What is the relationship

between a pathogen and
a disease?
11.6 All Organisms Can Suffer from Disease
Disease is a condition of an organism that interferes to some degree This section provides materials with which
with its ability to perform a vital function. Every living organism can students uan think scientifically at_cut disease
suffer from a disease of one kind or another. Pathology is the study of Students are always eager to reLouni iile
diseases, especially of the changes they cause in the organism. symptoms of friends and relatives and to testify
Pathologists now know that many diseases are caused by microor- to miraculous cures To cut off all of this stifles
interest, but you can use it to guide students
ganisms such as the bacteria discussed in this chapter. Some of the pro-
into discussions of principles Emphasize the
fists and fungi, as well as some animals, about which you will learn in
biological universality of disease by including
the next two chapters, also can cause disease. Humans have not always animal and plant diseases in the discussion
known that diseases can be caused by infectious agents. Primitive people
thought that disease came from an evil snirit that entered the uody. The
-,ctife for the illness was to frighten or coax the spirit out of the body.
That became the function of a medicine man, or shaman, who may have
used mask, rattles, and charms. Even early humans, however, did not
rely entirel) on magic. If a "patient" had a toothache, the medicine mat, It ..reosingly, study JI the relationships between
might have shaken his rattle, but at the same time he might have applied psyche (mind) and soma (body) Indicalud that
coca leaves to ease the pain. Coca leaves contain cocaine, a very strong under some circumstances sULh eremunials
_pain reliever. Today, your dentist might say your toothache was caused may have definite therapeutic, values
by a buildup in the population of toot!".-decaying bacte:a. Your dentist
would not give you coca leaves for your pain, but he or she might inject
cocaine to numb your mouth. You also would be instructed to brush your
teeth more often so the bacteria:do not build up again.
The first evidence that diseases might be caused by microorganisms O
came from the study of a plant disease. Late in the summer of 1845,
potato plants throughout northern Europe were .'ruck by a disease called
a blight. Almost overnight, whole fields of potatoes became black masses
476
372 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.20 Navaho medicine man,

administering chant to mother and baby for
better health.

f -

..
......a .4'
..... ..":

"r,.
r !vt
-.....Ingra*,.."'' .- . ice'
The Gellman Archive

Figure 11.21 Late blight of potato. Infected

leaflet (left). Section through the leaflet with
hyphae of the fungus growing from it (right). The
hyphae bear spore cases. (Note that the cube
on the right is a very small piece lifted from the
leaf op the left:)

X1

of rotting plants. In Ireland the consequences of the blight were disas-

trous because most of the people depended on potatoes as their main
food. During tit:, next two years nearly half a million Irish died in the
famine, and 2 million emigrated to America.
Scientists investigated the crop failure and famine and found that a
fungus was present in the dead potato plants. Did the fungus kill the
plants or did it appear because the plants were already dead? It took
many years of investigation, but by 1861, scientists had gathered con-
vincing evidence that the blight was caused by the fungus in the potato
plants. By the end of the nineteenth century most scientists agreed that
microorganisms could cause disease. In fact, it seemed that all diseases
might be caused by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Diseases
are not so simple, however. Today, pathologists recognize /witty diseases
in which microorganisms play little or no part.

477
 Chapter, 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 373

Figure 11.22 Rickets is caused by a deficiency of vitamin D. Without adequate

vitamin D, calcium cannot be absorbed from the gut and bones do not develop
properly, resulting in the bending seen here in this x-ray of a 10-monthold child

George P. Bogumill, M D.

11.7 Disease May Be Caused

by a Variety of Factors
Diseases may be classified into five broad groups. First, we have dis- In this :,t-r_tion the term aunt is u,)r-d
eases that are caused by microorganisms. They are called infectious dis- E iliphdW.t2 ,_tious dist_JSk.
eases, and we sometimes call the mic. oorganism a germ. Colds, influenza, ilt rri i
i its, ty011, , May
ii gat

and the potato blight ar,?, all infectious diseases. The other four groups by a 11110ourgailisin al id 4ollie
of diseases are noninfectious. individuals subsequently develop symptoms
while others do not It can be said that the,
Deficiency diseases are one group of noninfectious diseases. They de-
cause of the disease in those with symptoms
velop when some necessary substance is lacking in an organism's diet.
was their o n lack of resistant e rather than the
Scurvy, for example, is a human disease caused by a deficiency of vi- presence of the microorganisms whith were
tamin C. Sailors learned to take limes and oranges on their long voyages also present in those with no symptoms
to ensure a constant source of vitamin C and, as a result, sailors became Studuits should r-otiie to uridertarid this its
kncwn as lim'ys. Without the vitamin C source, the sailors were likely Italy (.1 yaUeral
to develop scurvy, which causes bleeding gums and loss of teeth. arid VUO. 4111k rtaut katur4 of ttiolotyleai
A second group of noninfectious diseases is environmental diseases.
These diseases are on the rise in the United States and other industrial-
0 ph-kleint Jfi1 [nay Pe tit
g,eii out, un a Hut lit 'tilt I ,1 Ii r
for a

ized nations today. Such disorders result from reaction to substances that 111 pairt,d fur the Divert
invade the body of an organism but do not reproduce there. Asthma is outcome to oi..k,ur
such a disease. It often results when people inhale plant pollens. Other
Students probably know something about
environmental diseases occur when people are exposed to pollutants. Coal
[vitamins in human nutrition Most consumers
miners may develop black lung, an environmental disease caused by 1 have vitamin requirements in general, producers
breathing coal dust. Asbestos workers may develop lung and .ther dis- I do not ber-ause they make their own The topic
--eaSes caused by intake of asbestos particles. Offices and school buildings Lua liUtritiUli is treated IltUtt; fully al 4hapter to
have been stripped of the asbestos in their walls and ceilings to prevent
lung diseases in workers and students. Some disease-causing pollutants

478
 374 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.23 Automobile exhaust contains Figure 11.24 Cancer in lungs from a heavy smoker. Arrow indicates cancerous
many harmful substances. area.

d.

John Paw loskli TOM STACK I ASSOCIATES

American Cancer Society

affect everyone in the community. The waste gases from automobiles

have become a general threat to human health (figure 11.23). Among
other poisonous substances in automobile waste gas is lead, which affects
the nervous system. In some -:`" the amount of lead in the air has be-
come great enough to damage the health of people who live there.
0 Hereditary diseases make up the third group of noninfectious dis-
eases. Hereditary diseases are disorders passed on by inheritance from
.cae generation to the next. Tay-Sachs disease, which was described in
section 8.2, is one example. Cystic fibrosis, a genetic disorder that results
in production of abnormally thick mucus secretions, is another.
The fourth group of noninfectious diseases is the degenerative dis-
eases, which are disorders in the functioning of an organism's body
usually as it becomes old. Heart disease and some forms of arthritis are
examples. You will learn more about some of those diseases in the re-
maining chapters.
One of the functions of the immune system is to Cancer is difficult to classify. Cancer is the second greatest cause of
recognize and destroy cancerous cells before
death iir the United States, but there is still much to learn about it. A
they multiply A variety of physiologic and
cancer is a rapidly spreading group of t...) normal cells. Although viruses
psychologic conditions can affect the immune
system's ability to perform that function In that
may be involved in certain human cancers, such as leukemia, hereditary
way, an individual's emotional state can be factors appear to be necessary for cancers to develop. Many cancers are
another factor in development of cancer started by chemicals that a person takes in from the environment. Those
may be tars in tobacco smoke, chemicals used in manufacturing plastics,
or nuclear wastes. Thus, cancer may be an environmental, an infectious,
and a hereditary disease.

r.
478
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 375

Figure 11.25 Incidence of gonorrhea in the United States between 1956 and
1981.

GONORRHEA BY SEX
UNITED STATES, CALENDAR YEARS 1956-1984

700 THOUSANDS OF CASES

200

0
1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 feel
CANCAN YEAR
(From Sexually Transm mod Disease Statistics, 1984. no. t34. U.S.
Department of Health Human SerViceS, Public Health .f,ervice,
Centers for Disease Control. Alia nta, GA.)

11.8 Hosts Spread Pathogens Directly

or Through Vectors to Other Hosts
-An-infectious disease results from an interaction between two organ.
isms. One is the pathogen (PATH uh len) that causes the disease. The
second is the host, or infected organism. Their relationship is parasitic:
the pathogen is parasitic on the host. Not all parasites in the world are
pathogens. For instance, a parasite may live at the expense of another
organism without producing symptoms (signs of illness) in the host. On
the other hand, an organism that is not a parasitc may still be involved
in a disease. An example is the fungus associated with athlete's foot. The
fungus is not a parasite, but a decomposer living on the dead layers of
your skin. Yet, if you suffer from athlete's foot, you certainly have a
disease.
How do infectious diseases spread? Actually, the disease itself cannot 0
Fig:;:e 11.26 The bacterium that causes
be transmitted, or carried. Rather, it is the pathogen that is transmitted gonorrhea, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, X21,000.
from host to host. The pathogen infects a new host, and then that host
may,develop the disease. To control the spread of an infectious disease,
it is necessary to control the transmission of the pathogen.
Some pathogens are transmitted directly from host to host. SexwAlly
transmitted diseases, such as syphilis, herpes, gonorrhea, and acquired
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are examples of diseases spread
by direct transmission. Gonorrhea is lne of the most widespread human
diseases, even though excellent drugs are available to treat it. The dis-
ease is caused by a bacterium (figure 11.26) that is killed rapidly by
drying, sunlight, or ultraviolet light, but survives inside the human body.
Gonorrhea pathogens are transmitted from an infected person to an-
other person by way of moist membranes of the sex orgar... In females,
infection usually causes mild irritation of the vagina, and often goes un-
noticed. In males, however, the organism causes a painful infection of
the urethra. It also can cause eye infections in newborns and adults. Centel for Di C.:4;1104n /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

480
376 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.27 Transmission of malaria. What would be tie best way to stop the Eliminate the vector
spread of this disease?

infectious parasites
have developed and
migrated to mosquito's
salivary glands

uninfected female
Anopheles bites
person, withdrawing
blood and parasites
parasites have
human with forms of infected mosquito bites developed and moved
parasite in blood healthy human to person's blood

Help your student, dtarA iguwr i ant,uoaiir, tr,-, 0 Gonorrhea can be cured with antibiotics, chemicals that kill or slow the
antibiotics growth of microorganisms. Nonetheless, the incidence of gor.orrhea in-
Ord{ tOtitrat&ptiva ,cluaz the oudy to oTkmk, the fections remains high for three reasons. One is the mildness of symptoms
pregnant state One reouit., a k in females, sc that an infected female can unknowingly infect many males.
gf,Logen produLtion in the vagina and a Another is the widespread use of oral contraceptives, which bring about
Lont,equent rise in vaginal pri The ia.hL and a change i.. the pH of the vagina that allows the bacteria to grow more=
ba,teria normally pre..ei it fail tv deveiop under readily. Finally, for reasons not yet understood, acquired immunity does
these conditions. and N gonorrhocar is able to not develop, so repeated infections are possible.
colonize more easily than in an acid :agora
Some diseases such as malaria are transmitted indirectly from one
containing lactose bacteria That is another
example of interaction in an ecosystem
host to another by a third organism that carries the pathogen. The
pathogen-carrier is called a vector. In the case of malaria, the pathogen
[plat MOH ID cc um) is a protist of the genus Plasmodium, and the vector is a mosquito. If
an infected person happens to be bitten by a female mosquito of the
[uh NOF uh leed genus Anopheles, the pathogens may be picked up by the insect. In the
mosquito's body the Plasmodium undergo many changes. The micro-
Both gonorrhea and malaria -re r.:aior and thus organisms migrate through the mosquito's body to its salivary glands.
far uncontrolled scourges of humankind
When the female mosquito bites another human, it injects saliva into
Students might find these diseases interesting
report subjects
the blood of its victim. The malarial parasites are injected along with
the saliva. In that way the disease is transmitted to a new host. The
The saliva from the female causes the skin
pathogens travel through the bloodstream to the human's liver, where
irritation of a mosquito bite ASk students why they multiply. Their offspring move back into the blood and enter the
only Ittnalt int,quitoes bite and teed on the host's red blood cells. The parasites continue to multiply, and as they do,
blood of animals Ferfoit; sTiv.Squitut oboUly they destroy blood cells. The destruction of blood cells takes place at
"Xiuf-... Mott nutrient., :ton tt atw bt.,...d1.4.,c, they definite intervals.At those times the host experiences alternating violent
produce the eggs chills and high fever, the principal symptoms of the disease.
Thus, malaria can get from one human host to another only when a
Emphasize that gonorrhea and rtutana art mosquito carries it. The pathogen, Plasmodium, lives in two different
extftmea (A d Lot-Ad-WWI (batty diseasea art organisms at different times of its lifea human and a mosquito. In
neither so strictly ,:.ontagious a. gorionnea nor other words, the pathogen requires alternate hosts in order to complete
o strictly vector borne as malaria
its life cycle. A pathogen that requires alternate hosts can occur only in
places where both hosts live. Rocky Mountain spotted fever is caused by
Control of mosquitoes has been achieved in
a ricksettsia. The alternate hosts of the pathogen are ticks and humans
part by eliminating breeding places (stagnant
water areas) Most V.ccess has come from
or rodents. African sleeping sickness is caused by a protist carried by
wide use of insecticides. especially DOT
tsetse flies and humans or cattle. In the United States today, diseases
Mosquito populations have been increasing due involving alternate hosts are not common. That is because we have been
to resistance to DDT The number of new cases
of malaria is estimated to be more tharr,100
million a year.

4 °..
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 377

Tsetse flies are tropical insects they are most

Figure 11.28 Distribution of tsetse flies in Africa. Into what parts of the world tiy re...pv[1,3 outside
would African sleeping sickness most likely spread? Africa Tropical South America b probably most
endangered, because there is considerable air
traffic across the South Atlantic

able to control the alternate hosts through sanitary measures. Malaria;

for example, has almost disappeared wherever Anopheles mosquito pop-
ulations have been destroyed. In addition, constant checking by public
:lea Ith specialists helps prevent transportation of disease organisms
around the world.

Zifestigation 11.2 CONTROL OF BACTERIA

Investigation 11.2
Introduction CONTROL OF BACTERIA

In this investigation you will observe some relationships of bacteria and This investigation will show students how
substances used to control them. antiseptics, disinfectants, and antibiotics affect
certain bacteria
Materials (per team)
Materials
4 antiseptic disks
4 antibiotic disks Cut or punch small disks out of blotting
8 disks with no chemicals paper Prepare agar plates as in investigation
broth cultures of Micrococcus luteus and Eschericho coli 11 1 Both NhcrococcL,s hiteus (Sdr:Ina lutea)
4 sterile nutrient agar plates and E co/ are available as freeze-cried
glass-marking crayon cultures
forceps As students to bring small samples of
sterile cotton swabs disinfectants or antiseptics, but caution them to
transparent tape be careful in transporting them to class Use
small containers in which students can dip their
disks Mouthwashes, cleaning agents, and
Procedure
1. With a glass-marking crayon, mark the bottoms of the plates as fol-
lows: Label your 4 plates A, B, C, and D. Divide each plate into 4 Figure 11.29 Two patterns for streaking
sections. Number the sections 1, 2, 3, and 4. On plates B and D, print culture plates.
"control."
2. CAUTION: In this investigation you should follow the same sterile pro-
cedures and cautions as in investigation 11.1. Using a sterile cotton
swab, streak the entire surface of plates A and B with Micrococcus
luteus as shown in figure 11.29.
3. Streak the entire surface of plates C and D with Escherichia colt.
4. Use forceps to place 1 disk with no chemical it each section of plates
B and D.
a b

482
; .L:*
 378 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, 5 Your teacher wil! have a variety of antiseptic, disinfectant, and anti-
erythromycin, chloramphenicol, or neomycin) biotic solutions. Choose any 4 of these. Make certain, however, that
can be used. In this list, only tha active antibiotic at least 1 disk is dipped into an antibiotic.
substances are named Different commeruul 6. Using forceps, pick up a clean disk. Dip it into 1 of the solutions you
antibiotics may contain the same or similar selected. Remove the disk. Gently shake off excess liquid. Quickly place
active substances For example. tetracycline it in section 1 of plate A. Dip another disk into the same solution. Dry
an ingredient of several trade-name antibiotics it, and place it in section 1 of plate C. Be sure the disks are stuck to
the agar surface, but do not break through it.
Procedure 7. Repeat this procedure with 3 other solutions, placing them in sections
CAUTION: Although the bacteria being used 2, 3, and 4 of plates A and C. Use clean forceps for each solution.
are ordinarily harmless, observe sterile 8 In your data book, record the section in which you placed each disk.
procedure techniques throughout the Also record the substance into which you dipped each disk.
investigation. Impress this careful procedure on 9 Cover and tape all 4 plates. Invert them and incubate at 37° C.
your students. Keep all dishes closed during the 10 Observe all plates after 1 or 2 days. Record your observations.
incubation and observation Treat all bacteria as
potential pathogens. At the end, all petri dishes
Discussion
must be sterilized in an autoclave or pressure
cooker before the agar is cleaned out of the 1. What do the clear areas indicate?
glassware. You may want to use disposable 2 What evidence do you have that the inhibition of microorganisms is
petri dishes. due to the chemicals on the disk and not the disks themselves?
3. Which of the 2 species of bacteria is more sensitive to all the chem-
Discussion icals?
4. Which product would you use to control Micrococcus luteus? To con-
1,2. The clear areas around the disks with
trol Escherichia colt?
chemicals indicate inhibited growth of
-5. E. colt are normally harmless bacteria that live in the human intestines.
microorganisms. The control plates should show
Does the reaction of E. colt to antibiotics suggest that antibiotics should
that the disks are not the inhibiting factor.
be used only when necessary? Explain.
3,4. Depends on the antiseptic or antibiotic
6. How does an antibiotic differ from a disinfectant?
used, but the bacteria should not be equally
sensitive to all antibiotics. Penicillin is not as
effective against E. colt as are some other For Further Investigation
antibiotics. The tetracyc'ines tend to be quite
Test different concentrations of the same antibiotic. Be sure to have at
effective against E colt
least 1 antibiotic disk and 1 antiseptic disk in each plate to compare their
5. Any antibiotic that destroys intestinal flora effects.
causes some disturbances. and in some cases
the flora must be replaced. For example, the
patient may be told to drink buttermilk or to eat
yogurt. 11.9 Not Everyone Is Affected in the Same
6. Commercial entiblotics are usually taken Way by the Same Pathogen
internally. whereas disinfectants are not
Depending on the strength, of course, many
Some people never seem to get sick. How serious an infectious illness
disinfectants would cause tissue damage if we becomes depends on the characteristics of both the host and pathogen.
used them externally or internally. rThe ability of a pathogen to cause disease is called its virulence (VIR
yuh lents). The ability of a host to cope with c pathogen is called its
resistance. A pathogen with high virulence may cause death in a host
with low resistance. A host with high resistance may show wily mild
These may be difficult concepts for students tO-- symptoms of the disease. During a famine, more people die from diseas,:
grasp Yet the kind of thinking requiredthe than from starvation. At such times a moderately virulent pathogen may
balancing of two oppositely changing I11 produce serious illness because many hosts have lowered resistance. A
variablesis an important skill for students to
host that is poorly nourished has much less resistance than a well-fed
acquire The world is not just good or just bad
host. The improved diet of the United States population in the past half
century probably has been an important factor in reducing cases of tu-
berculosis and other infectious diseases.
What determines the virulence of a pathogen? That is a complex
problem. Most pathogens are harmful because of the poisonous sub-
stances, or toxins, they produce. As the pathogens multiply, more toxins
are produced and released into your body. Those toxins may kill your

43 L.)
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and vii 379

cells and cause other symptoms ofdisease. Some pathogens are ex-
tremely virulent because they produce potent toxins. Consider the or-
ganism that produces tetanus. If a person steps on a rusty nail, this
pathogen may enter the body. Although the pathogen rarely leaves the
wound, it produces a deadly toxin that affects the central nervous system,
causing muscle spasms that can lead to death of the host.
In addition, a pathogen can be very virulent if it has the ability to
spread rapidly through the body of the host. The pathogen that causes
pneumonia is such an organism. Although it does not produce a potent
toxin, it grows and reproduces in tremendous numbers after it invades
the host's lungs. Because there are so many pathogens, they can cause
extensive lung damage, and even death of the host.
In winter you can sit in your classroom and listen to your classmates
sneeze, sniffle, and cough. Not everyone in the class is sick, and of those
who are sick, some are more sick than others. Why do different individ-
uals of the same host species have different degrees of resistance to a
pathogen? That is another complex problem. We can develop varieties
of dothestic plants and animals that are more resistant to particular dis-
eases than are other varieties. It seems, therefore, that some resistance
involves inherited characteristics.
On the other hand, much resistance is not inherited. It may be ac-
quired during the lifetime of - individual. Resistance, either inherited
or acquired, is called innnuni, (im MYOO nih tee). When a human
host is invaded by a pathogen, or any other foreign protein, the host
produces antibodies (AN tih bod eez). An antibody is a protein produced
by a-host to destroy the pathogen. The antibodies cotbat the pathogen
or the poisons produced by it. In addition, the immune system has a
memory. If the host survives the initial infection, its body may retain the
ability to produce these antibodies quickly. Then, if a new infection by
the same kind of pathogen occurs, the host's body can act against it more Body action against a second infection by a
rapidly. In that way, thz disease may be prevented, or its severity re- pathogen may take place in approximately three
duced. That is why the risk of catching measles twice is very low. days, instead of seven as with a first infection
The number of infectious organisms present affects the severity of the
infection. An extremely large dose of bacteria, for example, can over-
whelm the immune system even when the body has been exposed to that
particular bacterium previously.
Each kind of antibody is effective against only the particular path-
ogen that brought about its production, or sometimes against very sim-
ilar pathogens. For example, once you have measles, you will not get
measles again because the antibodies you developduring the first ex-
posure to the virus will prevent reinfection. Those antibodies are not ef-
fective against the chickenpox virus, however. You get many colds because
there are many different viruses that cause the common cold. You may
be immune to one type after you have been infected with it, but that
does not make you immune to the other cold viruses. In addition, a cold
virus that once caused you to be ill can mutate. That is, it can change
its structure slightly, so that the antibodies you produced during the first
infection are no longer effective.

484
380 -Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.31 Drawing blood containing Figure 11.30 A cartoonist of Jenner's day shows the fears that vaccination
antibodies that will be used in treating human aroused.
disease. What advantage do horses have for
this purpose?

Thr COW Illereor;. IlruaLrfi 1;P.: r kora:heir hAtm. ta .1.,#.14 out wog
t. Seroallik.RonvreAref_..li Awar," to I.172:14177(tif
n birerwmarla leave en A.
ts.1
BBC-Hulton Picture Library/The Bettman Archive

Antibodies may be produced even though the pathogen does not pro-
-BSCS by Bob Wilson duce symptoms of disease. A person might, therefore, become immune
without knowing it. By the time you reach adulthood, you may have had
Poliomyelitis is a disease in which a virus some contact with the poliomyelitis pathogen. Thus, you might have ac-
attacks nerves of its host, frequently leaving the quired some immunity to that disease, even if you never had any symp-
host crippled, toms of the disease. However, it is best to be immunized.
With immunizations, we do not have to depend entirely on inherited
Previously, milkmaids often served as nurses to resistance, or natural immunity. We can produce immunity in an arti-
smallpox victims because they were immune ficial way. In the late eighteenth century, smallpox was a common and
Note that cowpox is unspecific, occurring in
often fatal disease. Edward Jenner observed that people who worked with
both cattle and humans The practice of
cows seldom had smallpox, although they usually had been affected by
vaccination long preceded the modern theory of
immunity.
a mild disease of cattle called cowpox. Jenner concluded that a person
might become immune to smallpox by being deliberately exposed to
The more general term "immunization" is
cowpox. He developed this idea into a successful medical procedure
preferred now to vaccination, a term derived vaccination, now generally called immunization.
from Jenner's process using cowpox virus, Today, we have several ways of bringing about artificial immunity.
vacca is Latin for "cow." The kind of antibody formed in a host depends on the type of pathogen
rather than on the host. It is possible, then, to inject a pathogen into a
nonhuman host, such as a horse, in which antibodies are produced. Those
Principally, their size, much blood can be drawn antibodies can be removed from the blood of the l.orse and injected into
without insuring the animal But many k.nds of a person (figure 11.31). The person is then immune to the disease for a
antibodies do not develop in horst s, so their short period of time, until the antibodies break down. Sometimes the
usefulness is limited.
pathogens themselves, weakened or killed, can be injected into a human.
The human host then produces antibodies on its own, but usually without
producing symptoms of disease. That method is used in immunizing
against the poliomyelitis virus.

435
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 381

11.10 Pathogens Can Be Spread

by Nonliving Agents
Pathogens also can be transmitted between hosts indirectly by non-
living agents, such as air, water, food, or hypodermic needles, indoors,
the main source of air-carried microbes is the human respiratory tract.
These organisms do not survive for long in the air, but a sneeze can
transmit pathogens very quickly over a short distance. Whenever you
open your mouth and exhale, you are releasing small droplets of mois-
ture. Each droplet may contain one or two bacteria. With a sneeze, you
release many thousands of droplets at great speed. Droplets from a sneeze
(figure 11.32) have been clocked at 200 miles per hour, and at about
half that speed for a cough. Each time you sneeze. you expel from 10,000
to 100,000 bacteria. The bacteria travel through the air without being
killed, and may infect another person standing close to you.
Bacteria, 'viruses, and protozoa that cause human diseases can be
transmitted by water. Many pathogens multiply in the human intestinal
tract and then leave the body in the feces. If untreated feces get into the
drinking water, the pathogens might enter a new host when he or she
drinks the water. Typhoid fever is transmitted in such a fashion, al- Waterborne diseases such as typhoid kill 6
though you also could get it by eating contaminated food or by having million children each year
direct contact with an infected person. Typhoid fever has been elimi-
nated in many parts of the world because of effective water treatment
methods. However, an epidemic of typhoid fever may occur after a nat-
ural disaster that damages the treatment operations. Such was the case
following the devastating earthquake in Mexico City in September 1985.

Figure 11.32 Droplets from a sneeze. Figure 11.33 Bacterial population growth
beginning with one bacterium What other
population graph does this remind you of?

"s

Science Tech Publishers

Time

488
382 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Pathogens also can be carried in food, where they grow and repro-
duce. That occurs if you do not store your food properly. You can get
food poisoning, a bacterial infection, or traveler's diarrhea from spoiled
0 food. How does the food change when it spoils? The biggest change is,
in the size of the bacterial population within the food you eat. Under
the best conditions for growth, a bacterial population can double in size
every 20 to 30 minutes. Starting with one bacterium that divides every
20 minutes, how many bacteria will there be if this rate continues for
The number is 4,722.366,482,869.645.213,696, 24 hours? This rapid rate of reproduction may explain why food spoils
At 12.00 noon the population is 2° = 1 so quickly. As the bacteria grow, they may change the quality of the
bacterium, at 12 20 it is 2' = 2 bacteria, at food, or they may produce a toxin that gets into the food. Such toxins
12:40 it is 22 = 4 bacteria, at 1:00 PM it is 23 are one cause of food poisoning.
= 8 bacteria, and so on until 12 00 noon the Botulism is one kind of food poisoning that is usually fatal. It occurs
following day, when it is 272
after someone has eaten food containing the toxin produced by an an-
aerobic bacterium (figure 11.34). This bacterium produces thick-walled
The toxin of C botulinum Is 15,000 times as
reproductive cells called endospores (EN doh sporz). Endospores are very
toxic as aconitini, the most toxic drug known
resistant to unfavorable conditions such as heat and lack of water. In
conditions suitable for growth, an endospore can germinate and grow
into a bacterial cell. That one cell then can divide into a population of
cells that causes disease. When preserving fruits and vegetables in fit;
Figure 11.34 A toxin produced by Clostridium
botulinum is the cause of botulism. Note the
home, it is important to heat the food to a temperature sufficiently high
round endospore. Transmission electron and for a long enough time to kill any bacteria or endospores. Otherwise,
micrograph of a freeze -etch preparation, the bacteria can multiply in the jar and produce a toxin. Botulism may
X36,700. result from eating the contaminated food. Botulism is just one kind of
food poisoning. Others are not as severe, but still may cause headache,
nausea and vomiting, or diarrhea.
0 There is a variety of methods to prevent food from spoiling. Because
living organisms require water, drying foods prevents spoilage. Cold or
freezing temperatures slow down the growth of bacteria and fungi. Ad-
dition of salt, sugar, or chemicals that inhibit growth are other means
to prevent spoilage. Milk is generally pasteurized (PAS tyoor ized)
heated very quickly to kill most of the unwanted microorganisms in the
milkto maintain its freshness until you drink it. All methods of food
preset vation attempt to prevent bacterial and fungal growth on the food.

(
Self-Review

1. How did biologists come to associate microorganisms with disease?

2. How do infectious diseases differ from noninfectious diseases?
3. How are infectious diseases spread?
4. What is the difference between infection and disease?
5. How are alternate hosts involved in the spread of disease?
6. What is an antibiotic?
7. What causes food to spoil, and how can spoilage be prevented?
BPS /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

7
 Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 383

Viruses, Viroids, and Prions Guidlpost: How are these agents of

disease different from other
pathogens?
11.11 Viruses Are Protein-Covered
Nucleic Acids
What do rabies, measles, mumps, influenza, colds, and polio have in
common? They are all caused by viruses. A virus is an infectious agent O
that contains a nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) and a protein coat.
Viruses are so small they can pass through most bacteriological filters
and can be seen only with an electron rr'':roscope. Some viruses cater
host cells, disrupt their normal functioning, and kill the cells. Othcr vi-
ruses enter cells and cause permanent, inheritable changes. Sometimes
those changes are not harmful; they might even benefit the host.

Figure 11.35 All viruses are pathogenic. (a) Tobacco mosaic virus, X 109,150,
causes a disease of plants; (b) adenovirus, X 110,000, causes respiratory
illnesses in humans; (c) T4 bacteriophage, X 240,000.

a Zoortow Carl Zeiss, Inc., Thomiiood. NY

ai

ll
A I'7
C Science Source/Photo Researchers
M. Wurtz
C

4.8 8
384 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.37 A bacterial virus, or Figure 11.36 TYMV (turnip yellow mosaic virus) in cabbage.
bacteriophage, attacking a single bacterium

r
1. bacterial virus
approaches
bacterium

2. virus becomes
attached to cell

rA,

3. viral DNA is
injected into cell

4. protein coat
remains outside;
BSCS by Richard Tolman
viral DNA bonds
to b cterial DNA
Are viruses alive? Some people would say yes and some would say
1 no. Certainly, viruses are different from all living things we have dis-
5. new viral DNA cussed before. Although viruses can reproduce, they cannot produce
molecules are
made copies of themselves without the aid of another living organism. Outside
the host cell, viruses do not reproduce, feed, or grow. They have no me-
Q tabolism of their own, that is, they do not take in and use energy. They
do not have cell parts. Some can even be crystallized and can survive for
viral protein

1116. coats are made

0
years in thatstate. Only when they crier the appropriate host cells can
they can resume reproduction.
Viruses infect plants, animals, fungi, and even bacteria. Viruses that
infect bacteria are called bacteriophages (bak TIR ee oh fayj ez). A
7. complete virus attaches itself to its host by means of its protein coat. It then injects
viruses are its DNA or RNA into the host cell. When a bacteriophage attaches itself
assembled
to a bacterium, the nucleic acid of the virus moves inside. The viral nu-
cleic acid takes over the machinery of the host cell, commanding it to
make more viral protein and viral nucleic acid. After the host cell has
8. bacterium done that, the pieces are assembled into new virus particles. In about 20
bursts, releasing
new viruses minutes the infected bacterium splits open, releasing 200 or more newly
made bacteriophages. These events are shown in figures 11.37 and 11.38.
Each new virus has the ability to infect a single new bacterium, yet the
virus could not make copies of itself-on its own.
Viruses that have RNA as their genetic material must go through an
additional step before they can reproduce. To take over the host cell ma-
Viruses dre a natural exampit, chinery, their RNA must be transcribed into DNA. That process is the
On entering a cell, virus DNA may add itsell to reverse of what generally takes place in cells, and is accomplished by
the DNA of the cell nucieus instead at means of a specific enzyme known as reverse transcriptase (see Biology
producing new viruses A geiitt4dlly 'nullified Today, page 385). The virus that causes Acquired Immune Deficiency
cell is the result When the cell repradu,,es. tht Syndrome (AIDS) is an RNA virus. The AIDS virus attacks and kills
virus DNA is replicated along with the hoc', DNA
certain cells of the immune system, so that system is unable to perform
Thus the cell and its descendants may be
its normal function of defending the organism against disease.
permanently changed

A further reference on viral action is K Simons.

H Garoff, and A Helenius, "How an Animal
Virus Gets into and out of Its Host Cell,"
Scientific American (February 1982)

4°
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 385

The AIDS, Virus: Reversing the Molecular biologists have used their knowledge
of the life cycle of retroviruses to develop
Flow of Information in Biological potential cures for AIDS. AZT, a drug developed in
Systems mid-1986, was shown to interfere with reverse
Genetic informatir is organized in a nucleic acid transcriptase in the AIDS virus in culture. Scientists
called DNA. That information is transcribed into are not certain that the drug works the same way
RNA, and thcn translated into protein. That- in infected cells in the host. AZT did, however,
information system has been observed in the vast reduce the number of infections in AIDS patients
majority of organisms in the web of life. One during its clinical trial. In fact, AZT was so
group whose information pattern:: violate the rule effective that the trial was stopped early to allow
is called retroviruses"retro" meaning reverse or the drug to be used with more patients. Studies of
backward. Among the most important of these to AZT were continuing at the time this book was
humans is the virus that cause:acquired immune published.
deficiency syndrome, or AIDS. The AIDS virus is but one example of viruses
Retroviruses, first isolated in the early 1900s, that contradict the general pattern of the flow of 1
have RNA rather than DNA, as their genetic genetic information. The origin of retroviruses is
material. In order to multiply, RNA viruses must still a biological mystery, although scientists
make copies of DNA from their RNA. That is the believe they have been around for millions of
reverse of the normal flow of stored information in years, Some biologists think that retroviruses
biological systems. evolved from normal cellular genes.
The AIDS virus, like all retroviruses, is a cellular Retroviruses are known 1. .:ause cancer in
parasite. It must replicate itself in a host cell. T:-3 some animals. A few human genes have
virus first binds to the surface of the cell. The RNA similarities to genes in those retroviruses. These
then enters the cell (see figure). A special enzyme human genes are thought to result in cancerous
called reverse transcriptase allows the virus to growth when they are somehow disturbed. The
make a complementary DNA copy of the viral disturbance may result i, the produCtion of a
RNA. That DNA is incorporated into the DNA of different gene product, or in the production of-
the host cell. When the cell produces RNA from its abnormally large amounts of the original gene
own DNA. it also produces viral RNA. That product, In either case, the result is uncontrolled
becomes the source of new viral particles, and growth of the cell: cancer.
the infection continues. Improved techniques in molecular biology are
allowing scientists to learn a great deal about the
structure and function of retroviruses. Increased
knowledge will, in turn, lead to improved
understanding of diseases such as AIDS and
certain types of cancer.

envelope
capsid
reverse transcriptase
viral RNA host cell
DNA

a. virus enter host b. viral DNA traliscribed from e. viral DNA replicated to
cell viral RNA by reverse form a complete double
transcriptase strand

f. viral RNA translated to viral . viral DNA transcribed to d. viral DNA Incordorated
proteins: new viruses are viral RNA by host cell Into host cell DNA
formed

450
396 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 11.38 (a) The fermenting bacterium, Escherichia cog, with T4 phage
viruses attached to the surface and inside, X30,000. (b) T4 phage attached to
the bacterium after it has injected its DNA, X 120,000.

ti

E. CoutureTos1
a

-SA;IPT:7*1
"rr

J. V. D. Dreik
b

Investigation 11.3 SCREENING FOR AIDS

11,vestigation
SCREENING FOR AIDS Introduction
Introduction The public policy issues surrounding the detection, control, and treat-
ment of AIDS are quite complex and open to debate. This investigation
Background inforn,,.t.,,Y ,ft :,,1 w"1.. looks at only one such issue, the screening of donor blend for HTLV-III
found in the Ififi Prior to Hi.; :141,0 group
antibody.
aLtivity. you may want to r.-spond fn gut-1cm,,
about our current understarona of i'firk".
Newspaper or mac:tame &holt-. 'flay be of Procedure
vatu tut then, .s a tot For this investigation, you will be working in small discussion groups of
remain cautious
3 or 4 students. Read the following article before forming your small groups,
You are urged to road tilt ark It AFF+IDS
Tht- New Republic t 14 ,tier 1,96`.-ff, l''y Screening Donated Blood and Plasma for HTLV-III Antibody
experts betfeye A144:1['-3 ..fr AIDS infection has been associated with several well-defined high-
Regard[ng IUDS n d (Pt- 4_ f risk groups, including recipients of blood and blood products. Screening
It Sti`Oul th,Z, :` ',.
blood for contamination by the causative agent, the HTLV-II! virus, has
f- the cure become one of the highest public health priorities and is currently in
place nationwide.

4.91.
 $.

Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 387

When your body is infected by a virus, it produces antibodies that Pr 5Cedurt-

help destroy the virus. The blood-Screening test currently used detects ;T. 't f $, ; f' $ $$7

HTLV-III antibody, not the virus that causes AIDS. Having the antibody 111-4t, fi I t 9, {7 rt $

means a person has been exposed to the HTLV-Ill virus. It does not $ t 1, . 4 .

necessarily mean that the person_ has AIDS or even that he or she will ennlorl tt,n 1r Lk I

develop AIDS at a later date. It does mean, however, that those pos-
sibilities exist, and that the donated blood from that person should not ht, rT rti iti tat .I, It rtr 1; wall

be transfused into other individuals. th, ff ft Ali lir. 0, rt

One of the problems with the current test is that it -ometimes pro-
tn.4 4 4 :Of .,1,
n tr. 1,4 ft d P d. .1 t,,r,4
duces false positive results. =else positive results indicate that a person
has the HTLV-III antibody when in fact the person does not have the t.v.ntr-, t$t, urn. of 3 or
afT= 0r1 tittod, 1111
antibody in his or her blood. Adverse publicity and personal trauma stwit_ht., I f;'it h uroup n, .0141
may result for a donor who receives a false positive report from a 144,, t !ht ut 1,, th, it p,(1,11,
blood donation. Fear of AIDS and concern with the screPr;ng process r,otoik, _,,.1+
could decrease the pool of volunteer blood donors. .group tti .1,..t11.1t.k; lot .,11,
For the person who is truly positive for HTLV-III antibody, notification 1t y to 0, tf,i ut It; t the-111 t iiutkitt t11.11

and elimination from the doncr pool is, indeed, appropriate. However, ronr],ra,4 the. i011

for donors falsely labeled as antibody positive, these results may do ,,it,_.,4_ 4 tt,4t th.vo sit 14 44t n
needless harm to their social and personal relationships. -4144 $ $$-$du. t AOTI and
,JA t, t stn htti On- tcrnd or
If your small group is designated group A, your task is to provide ar- ,1,4411 rt.t-h
guments for the nationwide screening program for HTLV-III antibody in blood ,,, , riff okftif
banks. If you are group B, your task is to provide arguments against the 411 ,,,,,Itotfyyt,I
nationwide screening program for HTLV-III antibody in blood banks. 14, ill tAJ:, ut, tt ft,
ocl 'tot: 01101111, tltril,11., 01 tilt' t'ottirtIOrity,
rt f,,Ittrt-; rit..tt 01 your "tittlr NV_ ,111(1 Olen
Discussion
ut14,....ott tri vl your Arid tt,t r
1. Group A. During your discussion to develop arguments for the nation- ittv.,,t.int 4 voll 41-
wide screening program, you might wish to consider the following kitttio 04. $$'$$.7-$ $ 11, !tit , taint CI(
questions: Sr Kl r nthId of It.stir,(1 :ogh r 014r,-,\A
(a) Of what value is the screening program for the general public? ntlo
(b) How do hemophiliacs, who may require frequent blood cell prod- I 'N. id v, mu,..n,ttlunt11(,t, .14,441 Itit
ucts, benefit from the screening program? ui .1 1t 011._-1 !tit ltrtro'N trr f,'.oti
(c) Of what value is the screening to i)lood recipients in general? ..tudt , ,4 , 4.1(-1

(d) Of what value is screening to a healthy dorm: infected with HTLV- alt. 4,1 $ $7, $$.($l)$ 1741,17i1,7t107
III? 1$.110 At .14 Oriltot tt-, Or t rttty to In,
(e) What rights do bloc. 4lonors have? ur triJ ,if e, 4)(1
2. Group B. During your discussion to develop arguments against the :$11 f11$$ ttti' $ 14 .vorn1
nationwide screening program, you might wish to consider the fol- Doan ltrru. tut ,4,n At, ,f t,..uf +.1f 11,t
lowing questions: inapt,ronclutyn,3"3 Altf WOO tOf ttic
(a) What problems might arise from screening for HTLVIII and getting
a false negative test, results that indicate that a person does not 3 At. 0410-ti, it t ,f, h '
have the HTLV-III antibody when in fact the person does have the but 1.1104 011, VI'A1nLP1,1 .11,1 11 141,14T-
antibody? sqolf,ir ji .2o pthci attitild#. ,trutvg
(b) What problems might are from a false positive result? Consider _11,u,11. t.4 th./t the t,.h o fi rtt71i1
employment,or medical insurance. to tt.ylty '.all it it.. y 1, .4 .1-. 1,411 th att.
(c) How might a positive, test for HTLV-III antibody affect the-life of 11341,41t) I; A-ttyt 1,/fte Au! t, , tiT
that individual? 4 Cre .41, .19 ogn n fri4111(1,,i11f titrit0 Ir,t,t_rtt of
(d) In the-use of screening tests, there is concern both for the public .,, j ut,1 lot 1i tt rt ..U1
at large and for the individual. What kinds of conflicts might arise .11
as a result of those concerns? How might society reach some t,t ,utt:14i to int- rout :Atte
compromise? Out of rho ion .1n,1 r. Adv to
stud, nt., fh dit -rid ntl dItto r.rog I

contnu,1 or: p4,:e 391

492
388 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

11.12 Prions Cause Slow-Infection Diseases

Two other agents of infectious diseases, like viruses, are considered
0 by many biologists not to be living organisms. Both are simpler in struc-
ture than viruses. A viroid (VY roid) is a piece of naked RNA; the RNA
is not covered by a protein coat as it is in viruses. Viroids cause certain
plant diseases, but their role in human and other animal illnesses is less
well known.
Prions (FREE ahnz) are made up of protein, and perhaps nothing
else. Thus far, no nucleic acids have been found to be associated with a
prion. These mysterious agents are thought to cause several diseases of
animals. One such disease, scrapie, affects the central nervous system of
e sheep and goats. Animals infected with scrapie lose their coordination
and become unable to walk. A prion also has been linked,to the disease
kuru was thought g,1 ti, 1, of the human central nervous system called Kuru. Victims suffering from
Arnerictin neurologist t,i I
JUI ,1 Kuru first lose their coordination and their ability to walk and then be-
the true cause Star: ,Cur. uq, come demented. Kuru was known to affect only certain tribespeople of
New Guinea who ate the brains of their dead relatives as a tribute to
them. It is believed the prion causing Kuru was passed from person to
person in that manner. Since that ritual has ended, the number of vic-
tims suffering from Kuru has decreased. Both Kuru and scrapie are called
"slow infection" diseases. The incubation period for the disease is very
longfrom the time of infection to the time symptoms of the disease
appear may be several months or years.

Self-Review

1. Compare the structure of a virus, a viroid, and a prion.

2. How does a virus direct the formation of other virus particles?
3. In what ways are Kuru and scrapie similar?

Summary
Wherever you find water, you will find some kind of prokaryote, either
archaebacteria or eubacteria, the true bacteria. Among the different
kinds of archaebacteria are methanogens, microorganisms that can pro-
duce methane gas from leftover organic material such as sewage, gar-
bage, and waste materials. Eubacteria play many important ecological
roles in the biosphere. For instance, cyanobacteria are important oxygen-
producers, and bacteria are major decomposers. Several kinds of bac-
teria are involved in the nitrogen cycle. Diseases can be caused by mi-
croorganisms, but noninfectious diseases have other causes and cannot
be transmitted from one person to another. Disease-causing organisms
can be transmitted either by another living organism or by a nonliving
agent such as contaminated food, water, or air. Whenever food, water,
or air becomes populated with many bacteria, the incidence of disease
increases. Viruses and prions have been linked to a number of different
human diseases, including the common cold, influenza, and AIDS.
Whether or not viruses and prirns are living is still a controversial issue.

493
Chapter 11 Prokaryotes and Viruses 389

Application Questions Problems

I. How does cancer fit into the classification of 1. Investigate an infectious disease of a plant or
diseases? animal using the following topics: history,
2. What is the difference between a pathogen and a symptoms, pathogen, vector (where applicable),
parasite? treatment, and epidemiology. Suggested diseases:
3. How does the nitrogen cycle illustrate the anthrax, bacterial meningitis, Dutch elm disease,
interdependence of organisms in the biosphere? filariasis, tsutsugamushi fever, hoof-and-mouth
4. Contrast the ways in which the pathogens of disease, black stem rust of wheat, brucellosis, fire
gonorrhea and malaria are transmitted. blight of pears, or schistosomiasis.
5. Why have recent epidemics of malaria occurred? 2. Using the same method as in problem 1, study a
6. Are viruses living? Support your answer. noninfectious disease.
3. In recent years epidemics of virus-caused influenza
have occurred and spread over many parts of the
world. Yet vaccination against influenza viruses is
common. Why are the vaccines ineffective against a
new epidemic that is given a new name?
(Examples: Asian flu, Hong Kong flu, and so on.)
Use your understanding of pathogens, resistance on
the part of both host and pathogen, and acquired
immunity to answer the question.
4. Scientists are aware that some infectious diseases
have not been identified. First cases or infrequent
cases may go unrecognized. The first epidemic
draws attention to the disease. This was the case
with the human disease now called Legionnaire's
disease. It is named after the American Legion
convention at which an epidemic occurred. A
number of people died. Consider such an epidemic,
its victims, and their autopsies (studies of blood and
other body parts after death). How would you
employ people in each of the following careers in
attempting to identify the cause of the disease? (Do
library research on the careers.)
biochemists
food inspectors
medical doctors
metallurgists
microbiologists (virologists and bacteriologists)
pathologist
toxicologists
5. Infectious diseases are no longer the leading causes
of death in developed countries, as they are in many
parts of the Third World. Choose one of the most
common infectious diseases in the Third World and
report on the causative agent, the frequency of the
disease, and attempts to control it.
6. In the early 1980s, the World Health Organization
reported that smallpox had been eliminated
worldwide. Report on the campaign to eradicate
this viral disease.
111!11

494
390 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
M. M. Kaplan and H. Koprowski, "Rabies" Scientific E. Rubenstein, "Diseases Caused by Impaired Communication
American (January 1980). Traces the search for ways to among Cells" Scientific American (March 1980).
control this deadly disease. Introduces a new concept of a disease-causing mechanism.
P. A. Mackowiak, "Our Microbial Associates" Natural K. Simons, H. Garoff, and A. Helenius, "How an Animal
History (April 1983). Investigates the human body's Virus Gets into and out of Its Host Cell" Scientific
normal-flora is it a liability or an asset? American (February 1982). Experiments with the Semliki
L. Margulis, D. Chase, and R. Guerrero, "Microbial Forest virus have helped biologists understand this process.
Communities" BioScience (March 1986). Sections through C. Wallis, "AIDS: A Growing Threat" Time (12 August
a termite intestine, a mudflat, and colored lake water 1985). Offers a good perspective on the status of this
reveal well-structured microbial communities. disease in mid -1985.
H. J. Morowitz, "Do Bacteria Think?" Psychology Today
(February 1981). Addresses the basic question: If the
simplest forms of life are capable of purposive activity, can
they be said to engage in a form of thinking?

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 Cancer. as a category of disease, ma, bt I A good resource for human diseases. is Control of
infectious, and hereditary Communicable Diseases in Man. 12th ed., 1975, published
2 Pathogen is not yrunyln f I pardaitt by the American Public Health Association, 1015 Eiyhteenth
parasites are pathogens par a.ise
t ilitly II at the expense St , N W Washington. D G 20036 For plant diseases, a
of another orgaill.in without pi odu,ilig z,y1Ilptoiiis On the student might start with a general encyclopedia and then
other tiand, n vi yarnarn f iat d pata,ite rl,dy ,till bt turn to textbooks of plant pathology or physiology. If a
involved in a disease student is interested in animal diseases, he or she may
3 The nitrogen cycle depend, uti the activities of sever.' consult with a veterinarian for references.
kinds of '.fraiteria -riitrgen hxtrs. de,_ci I [Antlers. 3 All the students explanations should converge on the idea
and denitrifier, liy fete r trvytn fixer art Joe to utilize That the different influenzas are caused by different strains of
atmospheric nitrogen and .__ -ert it t d form that plant, viruses Acquired immunity to one is not immunity to all.
can use Animal, in tun-i, obtain tlitir nitrogen 4,101 pidrit_ Individual resistance also vanes for the people involved.
Other animals ir, the fun-, of rkarit ur animal protein, 4 Students should come up with their own answers where
Ct.,omposers break down d aJ rya, matter, making possible Biochemists would analyze the contents of the
nitrogen availacii. ifi flit font, ct y I uiita for riitrittrs vi...tims stomachs and bloodstreams for damaging chemical
Dendrite's uumplete tfit rtturncriy I IltrVyt,r1 gds L residues They would also analyze the local water supply.
the dir Tht Lic sPoiti t,lut 4_1 dt 01 I Food inspectors would ask to see and examine samples of
but plants arid ariirria's _Quid rut ,ur without the foods the victims had eaten Medical doctors would be
activities of the bacteria engaged in many different tasks Metallurgists would look
4 Gonorrhea is a disea..e that re.ult:: front infection of a for toxic metal substances in the victims, in the air -
human liusd by a ba,tcria,n, goriorthoc- conditioning ducts of the buildings the victims occupied, and
SYMPtOrlIS differ .1 drIj but triL, pathogen .)o on Miiicbiologists wooed look for bacteria and viruses in
al, it ,1-,_teid pt.'t., d !other per,dri by the victims biood and tic. sues Pathologists would do careful
*ay of moist mead:Fait. ot tint ,GA orgar during sexuai autopsies examining each part of every victim s body and
inter ,ourse Mddr,...1 that Ic alt, from ,.,tudying slides of tissue samples Toxicologists would work
of a host by prod ,.4, a, Pid;.")C0iufl, Fur inte,tion with biochemists to try to find poisons of any chemical type
to occur the pathugelli.: organisms must first enter the or of bacterial origin in the victims bodies
hoses bloodstream If an infected person happens to be
bitten by a female mosquito of the genus Anoph -les, the
pathogens may be picked lip by the insect When the
mosquito bites another human. it injects saliva into the blood
of 45 victim If the mosquito has malarial parasites in Its
salivary glands, they a, .niected along with the saliva In
that way the disease is transmitted to a new host

4,95
 5. DDT-resistant Anopheles mosquitoes are one of the
reasons When these mosquitoes are resistant to other
insecticides as well, a small resistant popuiation can multiply
to replace the population killed by the insecticides Another
reason is continuing war in countries in Southeast Asia,
interfering with World Health Organization efforts to keep
mosquito-breeding sites drained Still another reason for a
new epidemic would be a new strain of the malarial parasite
carried by the mosquitoes the new strain could be resistant
to drugs.
6 Viruses have two characteristics we usually associate with
living things the ability to reproduce and the ability to
undergo changes in hereditary characteristics Yet, what we
cal, viral reproduction differs from reproduction of bacteria
or other microbes A virus cannot produce copies of itself
without another organism

continued from page 387

Summary
'Discussion
Blood recipients have a right to expect that
(Some answers to student discussion
all blood they receive has been tested by the
questions)
most technologically advanced methods in order
1. Group A
to minimize the risk of transmission of infectious
(a) Screening protects the nation's blood
disease agents At the same One. donors have
supply from contamination
a right to expect concideration and protection
(b) Screening protects the heniophdiacs
so that their life-giving gift does not lead to a
from HTLV-III antibody in blood products they
personal disaster How can society reach a
need during bleeding episodes.
middle ground?
(c) Screening helps ensure that the blood
The specific issue of HTLV-Ill screening may
received does not contain the AIDS virus
be resolved in time However, students should
(d) Possible identification of an antibody-
see this as an example of the general problem
positive donor without symptoms of AIDS can
of wholesale public hea"1 measures No
result in changes in behavior of that individual
screening test be perfect, whether it is for
that prevent spread of the disease
HTLV-III or cystic fibrosis False positive, and
(e) Donors deserve privacy and protection
false negatives will result
so that a positive result for HTLV-Ill does not
lead to a personal disaster such as the loss of
one's job due to the ignorance of an employer
2. Group B
(a) This person might be positive If a unit of
his or her blood or plasma is used in a
transfusion, there is a risk of contamination with
the AIDS virus.
(L, They might face disc= nation in terms
of medical or life insurance, as well as in
employment. There is a social stigma attached
to a person so identified This person might not
have the AIDS virus, and he or she might not
even have been exposed to it.
(c) The individual's professional, social, and
family life may be placed in a stale of turmoil
Personal fear and depression might result for
the individual who is falsely identified
(d) When the public health is at stake,
concerns for the welfare of the general
population have generally superseded concerns
for the individual. The conflict raises many
complex questions about the rights of the
individual and the duty to protect the public from
harm.

496
 ' A

Robert C. Simpson/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

The kingdom Fungi includes many colorful .mushrooms such as this Hygrophorus coccineus.

497
 Teaching strategies for this chapter pages

CHAPTER 12 T34-35
Key ideas
prokaryotes as the first organisms Jr earth
--prokaryotes as the possible ancestors of
mitochondria and chloroplasts
the variety of organisms classified as protists,
neterotrophic and autotrophic protists

Eukaryotes: fungi and other decomposers in ecosystems

Protists and Fungi

Introduction
All the organisms discussed in this and the next two chapters are eu-
karyotes, which possess an organized nucleus and membrane-bounded
organelles. Evidence suggests that some of these organelles might have
originated from free-living prokaryotic ancestors. The kingdom Protista
includes a diverse group of organisms that are classified together be-
cause they are not animals, plants, or fungi. Some protists are hetero-
trophic and depend on other organisms for their source of energy, while
others are autotrophic and can make their own food. All organisms in
the kingdom Fungi are consumers and many of them are decomposers.
In this chapter we will examine representative protists and fungi, and
some of the many roles they play in a community.

The Origin of Mitochondria Guidepost: What is the evidence that

some organelles originated
and Chioroplasts as free-living prokaryotes?

12.1 Organelles Are Efficient Packages in

which Chemical Reactions Take Place
Although protists and fungi are distinctly different kinds of organ-
isms, both are eukaryotic. That is, their cells contain organized nuclei
and many organelles that are surrounded by membranes. Eukaryotes are
generally considered to be more advanced than prokaryotes.
What makes eukaryotes more advanced? Although there are many
unicellular organisms in both groups, eukaryotes are generally larger
0
and more complex than prokaryotes. In eukaryotes, many cell reactions
are packaged in specialized structures called organelles. For example,
all the enzymes that eukaryotic producers need to synthesize sugars are
found in chloroplasts; in prokaryotes the machinery of photosynthesis is

393
,;
498
r
394 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.1 Eukaryotes are generally larger and more complex than
prokaryotes. (a) The humpback whale is one of the largest animals that ever
lived. (b) Even this unicellular protozoan, Stentor, is highly complex, and contains
many membrane - bounded organelles.

a Ed Robinson/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES b T. E. Ailanic/iisuAis uNumrrio

O not packaged separately. All organisms obtain energy for their-daily ac-
tivities by means of cellular respiration. However, in eukaryotes most of
the respiratory enzymes are packaged in mitochondria. That packaging
in organelles is important for the efficient functioning of a eukaryotic
cell.

12.2 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

May Have Originated
as Free-living Prokaryotes
How did mitochondria and chloroplasts originate? The oldest fossils
resemble modern prokaryotes, which lack membrane-bounded organ-
elles. As we explained in section 10.12, many biologists think the first
0 forms of life were anaerobic heterotrophs. They could have used organic
molecules from their surrounding environment as a source of food and
energy. As the early heterotrophs increased in numbers, competition
likely developed for food sources. Some organisms might have evolved
methods of making their own food, thereby increasing their chances of
survival.
Photosynthesis probably evolved in anaerobic bacteria very early in
the history of life. Oxygen-releasing photosynthesis apparently appeared
later, but it brought about a drirratic change in the environment. Oxygen,
which reacts readily with organic molecules, was probably toxic to most
of the early organisms. As oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere, many
organisms probably became extinct. Others remained in niches from
which oxygen was largely absent, where they are still found. However,
some bacteria evolved ways to use oxygen to produce additional ATP
from their food sources. Those oxygen-respiring bacteria may have been
the forerunners of mitochondria.

49J
Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 395

Figure 12.2 The giant amoeba Pelomyxa palustrus contains many nuclei but no
mitochondria. Mutualistic bacteria apparently perform the role of mitochondria.
(a) stained specimen, X30; (b) scanning electron micrograph (bar = 100 Am);
(c) cutaway drawing of (b) showing location of bacteria.t.

.4

Ripon Microslides. Inc. From THE BIOLOGY OF AMOEBA, edited by K. W. Jeon, New York.
a Academic Press. 1973.

Small, oxygen-respiring bacteria may have invaded larger, anaerobic nuclei

prokaryotes. The invaders could have utilized the products of anaerobic
respiration in their hosts, while the hosts gained additional ATP from
the activities of the invaders. The invaders also would have enjoyed a
protected environment, while the hosts were no longer confined to di-
minishing anaerobic environments. The mutual advantages of the re-
lationship might have led to increasing interdependence, and the invaders
might have evolved into mitochondria. Even today there is a giant amoeba
(figure 12.2) living in pond-bottom mud that lacks mitochondria. It does
contain hundreds of bacteria, and studies have shown that the bacteria
perform the role of mitochondria.
Some biologists think chloroplasts might have originated in much the
same manner. Photosynthetic prokaryotes could have been ingested but
not digested chloroplasts engulfed with food can remain active for
weeks insidr; animal tissue. The ability to photosynthesize would have
been of great advantage in an environment where the nutrient supply
was diminishing. Eventually the photosynthetic organism might have
evolved into a photosynthetic organelle, the chloroplast. Figure 12.3
summarizes how those events might have resulted in the formation of a
eukaryotic cell. C Robert Golder

500
; xJD
 '396 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.3 Possible evolution of eukaryotic cells.

a
I

5 01
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 397

Figure 12.4 (a' Green freshwater hydra, Hydra viridis, (b) Digestive cell from H.
viridis showing concentration of algal cells of the genus Chlorella. The digestive
cells recognize the appropriate algae and eject those that are not appropriate.
Accepted algae are moved to the base of the digestive cell and reproduce by
mitosis until the normal algal population is reached. Thereafter the algae
reproduce when the host cell reproduces.

a Lynn Margolis. Symbiosis in this Coll Evofr ion. CO*Pyright 0 1981 b Lynn Marguhs. Symbiosis in the Cell Evolution. Copyright 0 1981
W. H. Freeman and Company. Used by permission. W. K Freeman and Company. Used by permission.

There is substantial evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts had

ancestors that once were free-living prokaryotes. Both have their own
0 tIttor,
Th, fort 1110:-.0
is
of
r_c),,,tol I 111 I f,tiv
DNA and ribosomes. In both, the ribosomes resemble those of prokary- orT11,t, is n dig. 4y,:-,101, 1_

1c481 t
otes today. The DNA of mitochondria is a single, circular strand like ki"

f kin, 411 ti f ft ni,}1t ,fft,j

the DNA of present-day prokaryotes. Mitochondria are produce in cells
t.i)rittf ,ti pr, IN 41 11 t.i 'A'
only by other mitochondria. Chloroplasts are produced oily by other
f,,t t, )f f'151,1,4-
chloroplasts. The reproduction of both organelles resembles that of free- th,t1,11.),1 irtf:t
< 31
living prokaryotic organisms. In addition, mutualistic relati_aships ex-
isting today indicate that such associations are not difficult to establish
or to maintain. Many modern organisms have bacteria, cyanobacteria,
or algae living inside their cells. For example, the digestive cells lining
the gut of the hydra shown in figure 12.4 contain algae the hydra has
eaten but not digested. The presence of the algae enables the hydra to
survive when food is scarce.

Self-Review

1. Why are eukaryotes considered to be more advanced than prokary-

otes?
2. What did the first organisms on earth use as their energy source?
3. How did the environment of the earth change after oxygen-
releasing photosynthesis appeared?
4. What is the evidence that both mitochondria and chloroplasts t.velved
from free-living prokaryotes?

502
398 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Guidepost: How arc the hetetotrophic Heterotrophic Protists

protists distinguished?

12.3 Protists Are a Diverse Group

The kingdom Protista includes a diverse group of organisms that have
little in common with each other. The kingdom is defined largely by ex-
clusion: its members are eukaryotes, but not plants, animals, or fungi.
All protists carry out aerobic cellular respiration in mitochondria. Pro-
ducer protists carry out photosynthesis in chloroplasts. Most have fla-
gella at some stage of the life cycle .
All protists are aquatic. They live in salt or fresh water or in the wa-
tery tissues of other organisms. Many species of protists are parasitic,
and most plants, animals, and fungi can have protist parasites. Both ma
laria and African sleeping sickness, mentioned in the last chapter, are
caused by protists.
Protists show great variation in organizationthey may be unicel-
lular, colonial, or multicellular. They may be consumers or producers,
and some species switch from one method of nutrition to the other, de-
pending on conditions.
We can consider the protists in three broad groups. The first group
includes the funguslike heterotrophs: slime molds and certain aquatic
[proh toh ZOH uh] fungi. The second is the animal-like heterotrophs or protozoa, which are
generally one-celied. The third protist group is the plantlike autotrophs
or algae. In the next sections we will describe characteristics of a few
organisms from each group.

12.4 Slime Molds Have Characteristics

of Both Fungi and Protozoa
[mik soh MY koh 0 Slime molds (Myxomycota) usually grow among damp. decaying
leaves and other dead plant material. If you search through such ma-
terial soon after a heavy rain, you mal, find a slime-mold plasmodium.
Here the word "plasmodium, uncapitalized, is The plasmodium (plaz MOHD ee um) shown in figure 12.5a is a glis-
used to refer in a very general way (not tening sheet or net with no definite form, and which may be larger than
taxonomically) to slime molds. In section 1 t8 a meter across. Some ace brightly colored. As it moves slowly from one
we discussed the genus Plasmodium Your place to another, the plasmodium engulfs bacteria, spores, and small bits
students may need help distinguishing between
of dead organic matter. Some plasmodia contain many nuclei that are
the two,
not separated from each other by plasma membranes.
If you want to demonstrate slime mold growth, As long as there is food and water, the plasmodium continues to grow.
see p T76 When food becomes depleted, the plasmodium may clump into mounds
and form sporangia (spoh RAN jee uh), stalked structures that produce
reproductive cells or spores. When a sporangium breaks open, large
numbers of spores are released into the air and carried or scattered by
wind, insects, or rain drops. The spores can survive unfavorable envi-
ronmental conditions, but if they land in suitable spots with moisture,
they can germinate. Each spore gives rise to a tiny organism with one
or two flagella. After swin-aiiing about for a short time, these organisms

503
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists :Ind Fungi 399

Figure 12.5 The slime mold Physarum: (a) plasmodium stage, under damp
poplar bark; (b) a single sporangium just opening and about to release its
spores. X60.

a E. S. Ross
b Perry Mulleavy

lose their flagella and fuse in pairs. By feeding and growing, each pair 0
develops into a new plasmodium. Figure 12.6 shows the life cycle of a
slime mold.

14.5 Flagellates May Be Consumers

or Producers
Flagellates are generally unicellular organisms that move by means [FLA.( uh luhts)
of flagella. Some have only one flagellum; others have thousands. There
are several phyla of flagellates, some of which contain chlorophyll and
synthesize their own food when light is present. Others are hetero-
trophic, capturing smaller microorganisms, which they digest internally.
Some flagellates switch between being a consumer and a producer, de-
pending on the conditions. Flagellates are abundant in damp soil, in fresh
water, and in the ocean. They generally reproduce asexually, by dividing
in two. Some forms reproduce sexually, by fusion of identical-appearing
gametes.

s r:,
504
v )t..: "-'
400 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.6 Life cycle of a slime mold. Which

part of the cycle is best adapted to a dry
environment? Which parts of the cycle would Plasmodium
require abundant moisture?

new plasmodluin

suiting body

sex cells

spore capsule

germinating spore/ _thlok-witiled spore

[pa GLEE 'folds] Euglenoids are a small group of flagellates named for the genus Eu-
glena, a common inhabitant of fresh water (figure 12.7a). Many of the
species contain chloroplasts. The nonphotosynthetic forms absorb dis-
st..ved organic substances or ingest living prey. Euglena lacks a rigid cell
wall but has supporting strips of protein inside the plasma membrane.
Most species orient to light by means of a light-sensitive eyespot.
Dinoflagellates are marine flagellates, many of which have a stiff cel-
lulose wall resembling a coat of armor. Two flagella beat in grooves,
causing the cells to spin like tops as they move through the water (figure
12.7b). Many dinoflagellates are red in color, and some of them produce
werful nerve toxins. Sometimes those dinoflagellates reproduce in great
numbers, causing what are known as "red tides." The toxins also may
be concentrated in food chains, and clams and other organisms that eat
dinoflagellates may become poisonous to humans.
The relationship between termite and tiat.;eilates 0 Many flagellates live in close relationships with other organisms. Those
is termed mutuaiisk ASK Skit:.:OS wriat relationships may be parasitic, mutualistic, or commensalistic. Several
advantage the flagellates may gain They flagellates cause serious human diseases, such as African sleeping sick-
probably benefit from the protecting envirzinment ness (figure 12.7c). Many species of flagellates live mutualistically in the
of the termite gut and the steady Supply of
digestive tract of termites, where they break down the wood eaten by
nicely minced wood particles
the insects (sec figure 1.11a on page 15). Without the flagellates, the
tcrmitcs would starve to death, just as you would on a wood diet. That
is because neither you nor the tcrmitcs can digest cellulose.

505
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists arid Fungi 401

Figure 12.7 Flagellates: (a) two euglenoids, Euglena (green) and

Trachelomonas (brown); (b) a dinoflagellate, Noctiluca v:annirk
electron micrograph, X2030; (c) Trypanosoma gambiense, one of the parasites
that causes African sleeping sickness.

a T. E. AdamikINSUALS UNLINTED

t
G

-David M. Naps /VISUALS UNLIMITED Ron Hathaway

b

50
402 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

12.6 Many Sarcodines Use Pseudopods

Figure 12.8 Amoebae surround their prey with
pseudopods and engulf them. The prey here is
to Move and To Obtain Food
a Paramecium. The sarcodines include amoebas and their relatives. They generally
move and feed by means of pseudopods (S00 doh podz), fingerlike ex-
0 tensions of cytoplasm. Like slime molds, most amoebas have no definite
shape. Their body substance is a granular, grayish, or transparent mass.
The cytoplasm continuously flows into one or several pseudopods. One
pseudopod may outgrow the others, and the organism flows in the di-
rection of that pseudopod. Amoebas engulf bacteria, protozoa, algae, or
other small aquatic organisms by first surrounding them by pseudopods,
as shown in figure 12.8.
One group of sarcodines has outer shells of silica, a substance similar
to sand. Many long, stiff pseudopods radiate from the shells (figure
12.9a). Another group, the Foraminifera seen in figure 12.9b, builds shells
of calcium carbonatechemically the same as clam shells. During past
ages great numbers of foraminiferan shells have accumulated at the bot-
toms of seas and have solidified into rock. Chalky deposits such as the
white cliffs of Dover in England are the result of such accumulations.
Sarcodines are thought to have evolved from flagellates, and many
develop flagella during some stage of the life cycle. They reproduce asex-
ually by cell division. Amoebalike sarcodines may live in ponds, puddles,
and damp soil. Most of the shell-bearing forms live in the seas. Other
species live with larger organisms in commensal or parasitic relation-
ships. An example is the organism that causes amoebic dysentery in hu-
mans.

T. E. Adams/VISUALS UNLIMITED
[SAR koh dynz]

Ask students what kind of ecological [FOR am ih NIF er uh]

relationship is shown here The relationship is
one of predator and prey

Figure 12.9 Sarcodines: (a) radiolarian, (b) foraminiferan, (c) scanning electron
micrograph of amoebae that have just divided.

F.

a Ed Reschke T. E. Adams iVISUALS UNLIMITED C BSCS

507
Chatter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 403

12.7 Sporozoans Are All Parasites

of Animals
[spor ^1.1 ZOH unz],
Sporozoans (Phylum Apicomplexa) are all spore-forming parasites 0 [ap in kum PLEK nth]
of animals. They lack any means of locomotion and have complex life
cycles involving more than one host. Sporozoans reproduce sexualiy, and Slides of t,,,
the zygotes form thick-walled cysts that serve to transmit the parasites iTtaiaria L.Jti L. Uhr ,to )11 ,oct
to new hosts. Inside the cysts, the zygotes divide rapidly to form large have a rni,ro:,..upei ,nth an o ierts
numbers of tiny spores, each of which can infect a cell within the host.
Many sporozoans are parasites of the bloodstream and cause serious At-10+A 1 Mil hut"; ,roldrt-r, cite wand ta_Y year
and even fatal diseases in their hosts. Malaria is one of the human dis- in Attica
eases caused by a sporozoan. Malaria has been controlled in two ways.
One way has been by using drugs to control the parasitic pathogen, the [SIL ee uhts], [sil ee OFF er uh]
sporotoan, and the second way has been by using pesticides to kill the
mosquito vectors. Unfortunately, some pathogens and vectors have de- r,l.,,iia 4.411 tit. LiCiTIOit
t, lkd Z1y dUillig a :.',JTiali
i
veloped resistance to the chemicals used to control them. Today, malaria amount of ,arrnint i.,,.o.disr to a drub, of Aater
remains a principal cause of human death in the world. containing paramecia

Students might find it interesbng to catculate the

12.8 Ciliates Have Two Kinds of Nuclei swimming speed of d ciliate ;Ask them it'inat the
Ciliates (Phylum Ciliophora) are the most specialized and complex 0 speed in metero per hoot Avoid be if a ,..iliatt
requires 1 second to Shirn across the ION-
of the protozoans. Most are unicellular, free-living organisms of salt-
power fir td of a m, ,rosope The diameter of
water or freshwater habitats. All move by means of cilia (SIL ee uh),
the fietd of a monocular microscope using a 10X
short, whiplike extensions that beat in rhythm, driving the organisms (16 mm) objectsve and a 10X ocular is
through the water (figure 12.11a). In some species, the beating of cilia approximatei/ 1 4 mm mere are 3600 seconds
causes a current that sweeps food particles into the organism. Cilia are in an hour 3606 A 1 4 = 5040 Iiiff rri
sometimes grouped into bundles or sheets, modifications that adapt them The rate of movement w apprvAtirtately 5 m per
to function as mouths, paddles, teeth, or feet. hourperhaps a little better than a snail s pace

Figure 12.10 Sporozoans: (a) the organism that causes malaria, Plasmodium
vivax, showing several different stages of the life cycle in a blood smear;
(b) Gregarina, a gregarine.

a Ron Hathaway Stan W. Elems/Visuals Unlimited

508
404 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.11 Ciliates: (a) Tetrahymena pyriformis, scanning electron

micrograph, X3350; (b) Vorlicella campanula.

....

K. G. Muni/ i./ISUALS UNLIMITED T. E. Adams/ VISUALS UNLIMITED

a b

0 Ciliates have definite, semirigid shapes. Active swimmers such as

Paramecium (figure 12.12a), which you can study in investigation 12.1,
generally have distinct anterior and posterior ends. All ciliates have two
types of nuclei and may contain one or more of each kind. The huge
macronuclei are requird 'for growth and reproduction, and they take
part in routine cellular functions. Macronuclei do not divide by mitosis,
but are apportioned approximately equally between dividing cells. Mi-
cronuclei are essential for conjugation, the sexual reproduction of cil-
iates (see figure 12.12b). In that process, two ciliates remain attached
for up to several hours and exchange some of their inicronuclei.

509
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 405

Figure 12.12 Phase contrast photomicrograph of vegetative Paramecium

caudatum. Compare this with the drawing in figure 12.13. Which organelles can
you identify in the photo? (b) Conjugating Paramecium multimicronucleatum
showing the macronuclei.

Ron Hathaway b Ed Reschke

Self-Review

1. Which characteristics of slime molds are animal-like and which are

funguslike?
2. What important roles do flagellates play in the biosphere?
3. How do spores of slime molds and sporozoans differ?
4. In what ways does an amoeba use its pseudopods?
5. In what way are ciliates considered complex?

Investigation 12.1 LIFE IN A SINGLE CELL Investigation 12.1

LIFE IN A SINGLE CELL
Introduction
The relationship between structure and function in complex plants and Do not expei,t a luo (thsuutation on the
animals is always significant, but not always obvious. Careful and detailed part of ..,tudk-iL, rl et* I JO ULAUI t, and funi_tion
observations of living organisms, sometimes over a long perioc of time, 6e satisfied w ti, 1 for studt.:tits Expect
are necessary to see which structures are performing which functions. The few more from others
process of discovering these relationships can be simplified by observing
a single-celled organism, Paramecium. One of the primary goals of this Materials
investigation is for you to observe structures and form hypotheses about
A nontoxic protozoa slowing agent Detain. rs
their possible functions.
available L m Ward s Natural Science
Establishment (Ward's #37W7950), 5100 West
Materials Henrietta Rd, Rochester, NY 14692-9012.
Telephone (716) 359-2502
Parts A-D
Much of the success of the Paramecium
Paramecium culture microscope slide investigations depends upon having a rich
protozoa slowing agent cover slip culture of the organism Begin preparations 3 to
alizarin red stain compound microscope 4 days before the investigation To produce a
yeast suspension containing medicine droppers (pipettes) huh ,..ulture, boil for 10 minutes a liter of water
Congo red powder colored pencil 4 or 5 outer leaves of a head of leaf lettuce

5Iu
406 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Half till 100 nil beakers or babytood tars with the Part E
water and add a piece of the bolted lettuce to
each When cool add a dropperful of your 2 long vials or test tubes
original culture to each tar In 3 or 4 days vvu stopper for one of the test tubes
Should have very rich cultures of Paramecium
test tube rack
Prepare yeast suspension 1 day before black paper or metal foil
class Combine 1 oz peptone, ' packet dry
dilute hydrochloric acid
yeast, and 500 ml of 5-10 molasses diluted in
cotton thread
distilled water Just before class boil the mixture
light source
and add a pinch of Congo red powder
Alizarin red is a vital stain that does not kill Part AStructure and Function
the Paramecium It stains nuclear material and
the Pellicle making de)r the 3-dimensional
Procedure
chard, ter of the orgaiii,rri t ahtdun red i, nvt 1. Place a drop of protozoa slowing agent in the center of a clean slide.
available, you can use iodine or methylene blue, 2. With a 2nd pipette add 1 drop of the Paramecium culture.
both of which kill the organi$m 3. Add a cover glass and examine the culture drop under the low power
of your microscope. Locate at least 1 Paramecium.
Part A 4. In your data book make a simple drawing of Paramecium as you see
Discussion it under the microscope. Include all the parts of the organism that you
observe.
1 If alizarin red tai, ..4c1J ur 1, tiu, tt.",,A1
5. Which structure performs which function? Label the structures in your
material and prIlic t be unit v1,,ible ludo it,
drawing according to the following scheme. Do not worry if you are
methylene blue both kill F'criaii It c unable at this time to associate a structure with every function listed
2 Normally, all structures that can be seen below.
in the by rig organism are visibit and probably
A. Structure(s) associated with how the animal moves.
more visible in the stained organism If a
B. Structure(s) associated with food intake.
Contractile vacuole was contracted completely
C. Structure(s) associated with food digestion.
when stain was added it would not b seen
D. Structure(s) associated with elimination of the remains of undi-
after staining
gested food.
3 Coordination (nervous or endocrine),
E. Structure(s) associated with oxygen and carbon dioxide ex-
reproduction, reception of stimuli, secretion
change.
Chemical synthesis growth
F. Structure(s) associated with excretion of fluid wastes.
4,5 Depeids on students observations
G. Structure(s) associated with removal of excess water.
6 Test them with experiments
Do not worry at this time about the names of the parts you have la-
beled.
6. After you have hypothesized the function of as many of the structures
as you can, add a drop of alizarin red stain.
7. Can you see structures in stained Paramecium that you did not see
before? Add these structures to your diagram, using a colored pencil
to distinguish them from your 1st observation.
8. Follow the same scheme listed above and hypothesize the function of
any newly visible structures.

Discussion
1. What is the basic difference between a Paramecium before staining
and a Paramecium after staining?
2. What structures that you observed in the living organism were no longer
visible in the stained organism?
3. What functions of a living organism are not represented in your hy-
potheses?
4. Now look at figure 12.13. What clues to functions do you find in the
names of the structures?
5. With this new information, change any of the structure/function rela-
tionships that you think need changing.
6. What should you do to determine if your hypotheses are goon ones?

51
Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 407

Figure 12.13
contractile gik
vacuole
(with
radiating 40 cilia
canals)
-ti-,_ food vacuole
anal
pore micronucleus
fg- ..-2 1V....7-- macronucleus
---4N-
food ,4-.
vacuole
forming -2---F> food vacuoles
oral . t
grove
contractile
vacuole

Part BMovement in Paramecium Part B

Procedure The slides SOMtfileS dry out Caution
students to add water to th' < observe.
1. Place a drop of protozoa slowing agent on a clean slide as before.
propt.nly students :horrid adiwt the
Add a drop of Param^s.ium culture. Cover with a cover glass and ob-
drat ihragat orr the rw-Jos, op, to re,ree-e trie
serve with low power.
amount of 1:uhf
2. Before the slowing agent has diffused into the water, the organisms
will move very rapidly. When they begin to slow down, switch to high
Procedure
power to observe movement in detail. Which end of Paramecium is
usually in front as the animal moves? 2 Tht more row ded end
3. The front end of an organism is referred to as anterior. The back end 3 AI iteror « rid I, inure r nuuJ, rj po tt nor
is referred to as posterior. Label the diagram you made ih part A ac- end Is Mort noititt, Ti It ' , hko

cording to what you believe to be its anterior and posterior ends. Can forward pissed football r no dor ,a1
you identify a top (or dorsal) and a bottom (or ventral) side? or ventral side.
4. Diagram the motion of Paramecium as it moves in 1 direction. Use 4 The, :guar lisre rotat, a< it III, 'yr f, rvv,tni
arrows to show the directions of the motions of the body. or backward
5. Gently raise the cover glass on your slide. Add a drop of the yeast 5 50fIlt2 teatAier, have found it r rt tt cable to
suspension. Replace the cover glass and observe immediately with make d new slide ,,,,nth a frr (am
high power. culture for the observation y e a t.t cells
6. Observe the surface of 1 of the organisms. The hairlike structures you Removing a eover LlItUrt and th, r.
see are cilia. Notice carefully what happens to yeast cells that touch rtplaLing it e an ',Orli, fifth_ ry L11,1'LlirlArr-

the Paramecium. Adjust the light until you can see individual cells. the, organisms in the eulture

Discussion
Discussion
1 They act like tray 'Dare,
1. What do you believe is the function of the cilia? 2 The y beat strongly and sw,ttty in one,
2. What does the pattern of movement of the yeast cells tell you about direction more ,lowly and weaki in the
the activities of the cilia? opposite direction
3. On the basis of your observations in this inquiry, review and revise (if 3 Student should e or h lu&Je that
necessary) the hypothesis you formed in part A of this investigation Para/Hee-kiln move, by Mr-Afro eif
of how Paramecium moves from one place to another.

512
408 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Part C Part CIngestion, Digestion, and Elimination in Paramecium

Procedure Procedure
Yeast cells in food vacuoles will J la' lyt, our 1. Prepare a fresh rlide of Paramecium culture and yeast suspension as
in about 3 minutes Observations must be made in part B, procedures 1 and 5, or continue to observe the same slide
rapidly Suggest to the students that they if time permits. Observe what is happening to the yeast cells. Notice
observe yeast cells food vkuoles beii their color when they are outside the Paramecium and then find some
formed at the baSe of the oral groove and that have been ingested and observe their color. Those that have been
observe what happens in and to this va,uult a. ingested will be in small, round structures called food vacuoles.
it mov?s through the Faraineowii The yeast was stained by your teacher just before class. The Congo
1 (a) Red or pink red stain is red at a pH of 5 and blue at a pH of 3.
(b) They are ingested and enter Pdhillitk (a) What are the colors of the yeast cells when they are outside the
through the oral groove Paramecium?
(C) The oral groove and cilia (b) What happens to the yeast cells that are encountered by the Par-
(d) At the base of the oral groove amecium?
2 Color change from red to blue The phi of (c) What parts of the Paramecium are first involved in the ingestion
the food vacuole becomes more acidic of the yeast cells?
3 They move away from the oral groove (d) Where do the food vacuoles form in the Paramecium?
and seem to float through the cytoplasm 2. Carefully watch a newly formed food vacuole and note any changes
4 At the anal spot. not far from where the
in it. Within 2 or 3 minutes you should begin to notice a color change
food vacuole was formed in the food vacuoles. Describe the change in color. How do you ac-
count for the change?
Discussion 3. Continue to observe the food vacuoles. By means of circles repre-
1.2 Food is swept into and down the oral senting food vacuoles and arrows representing their movement, dia-
groove by cilia A small tood vacuole forms at gram the path a food vacuole takes from its formation to its
the base of the oral groeie The vacuole disappearance. How do the food vacuoles move through the or-
containing food is set free in the cytoplasm In ganism?
this vacuole, aigestioli pro,t,t-Lis As iuJatwn 4. Watch carefully to see how undigested food in a food vacuole is elim-
occurs during the movement of the food inated from Paramecium. Where in the body does this happen?
vacuole The undigested food is discarded to
the outside through the anal pore
Discussion
Part 1. Refer to the hypotheses you formed in part A regarding the structures
in Paramecium that you thought responsible for food intake, for food
Procedure
digestion, and for the discharge of undigested food. Were you cor-
2 Diffusion through the plasma membrane rect?
3 (a) 2 2. On the basis of the observations in this investigation, summarize how
(b) 1 anterior, 1 posterior you now believe food is ingested, digested and eliminated by Para-
mecium.

Part DExchange of Materials in Paramecium

Procedure
1. Paramecium, like all living things, needs a constant supply of oxygen
and must eliminate carbon dioxide, liquid wastes, and excess water.
To discover the structures associated with these functions place a
drop of protozoa slowing agent on a clean slide as before. Add a drop
of Paramecium culture and a cover slip and observe with high power.
2. Considering the environment of the Paramecium, how and through what
structure would you expect oxygen and carbon dioxide to move?
3. Concentrate your observation at either end of the Paramecium. Lo-
cate a structure that fills up with fluid, contracts (expelling its contents)
and seems to disappear, then becomes visible again, filling with fluid,
and repeats this process. The canals leading into the vacuole give
it a star-shaped appearance. This structure is called a contractile
vacuole.
(a) How many contractiie vacuoles are there in Paramecium?
(b) Where are they located? If you did not include them in your earlier
drawing, add them now.

513
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 409

(c) Do the contractile vacuoles move through the cell as food vac- ) Stay in one ph
uoles do, or do they stay in one place? (d) Clear
(d) Is the fluid within the enlarged vacuole dear, or granular? (e) Vanes greatly with , unditioi Lut
(e) How many contractions does the vacuole make in 1 minute? averages about 3 per minute
4. If you identified any contractile vacuoles in part A, what hypothesis did 4 Depends on tudent rr.sponses
you form about their function?
Discussion
Discussion I Because so little urea is found, 1 probatil;

Students who have investigated the question, "What is the function of not solely an excretory organ
a contractile vacuole?" have made the following observations: 2 A structure to rid tilt :organism of ex,-trss
water
Obs. 1. Urea (an end product of nitrogen metabolism) is not found in 3 Through the plasma membrane or in food
any great amount in the fluid of a contractile vacuole. vacuoles
Obs. 2. If vacuoles of freshwater Paramecium do not function, the body 4 The plasma membrane must be the main
swells. passage for water into the cell
Obs. 3. Injection of distilled water into the organism increases the rate 5 The contractile vacuole controls the
of contraction of the vacuole (more contractions per minute). amount of water in the Paramecrum
Obs. 4. Water taken in with food in food vacuoles is equal to only
a fraction of the amount of water expelled by the contractile
vacuole.
1. What effect does obs. 1 have on the hypothesis that the contractile
vacuole is an excretory organ used for eliminating nitrogenous wastes?
2. Considering obs. 2 and 3, what probably is the function of a contractile
vacuole in Paramecium?
3. List the ways in which water might enter the Paramecium.
4. From obs. 4, what would you suggest is the major method of water
entry?
5. Develop a hypothesis that will account for the actions of a contractile
vacuole.

Part EBehavior of Paramecium Part E

Procedure If time is a factor you may set up the,,be
investigations yourself and allow the Studer is to
Behavior is the response organisms make to their environment. Animals
make the observations A rntir at factor here is
usually have a well-defined brain or nervous system which facilitates the
that the Paramecium c.ulturt, must be very nen
function of behavior. Paramecium does not have a brain or nervous system.
so that a distinct cloud of the Organism can br
Will it be influenced by environmental factors?
seen
1. Fill 2 test tubes or vials 'A full with a Paramecium culture. Place 1 test
tube upright in a rack so that it receives uniform light from all direc- Procedure
tions.
3 (a) A what aloud at the iippr r end of the
2. Stopper the 2nd test tube. Cover the top half with black paper or metal
tube is evidence that Parameourn are moving
foil. Lay the tube on its side. Illuminate the bottom half evenly.
toward that end of the tube
3. Now observe the upright tube. In a rich culture of Paramecium, a con-
(b) Negative
centration of the organism looks like a white cloud. Examine the tube
(C) Oxygen, light, food, and pH all are
for any concentration of the organisms.
possible factors
(a) What evidence do you find that the Paramecium are or are not
(d) Oxygen could be ruled out if the tubes
moving toward 1 part of the tube?
were Completely filled with water and tightly
(b) In this controlled situation, the tendency of organisms to concen-
corked Light could be eliminated or controlled
trate in 1 part of the tube suggests a response to gravity. Is this
Food could be evenly distributed throughout the
response to gravity positive, negative, or neither?
tube pH could be tested
(c) What other factors might account for a concentration in this test
tube?
(d) What additional investigations would you devise to check all vari-
ables, including gravity?

514
410 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

4 (a) There should be a white cloud ihe 4. Observe the partially covered test tube placed on its side.
uncovered, lighted end (a) Has the Paramecium culture concentrated at 1 end of the tube?
(b) Positive (b) Is the response to light positive, negative, or not definitely either?
(c) The response to light of Parcimek;run, (c) Why could this investigation not have been done with the tube in
would be confused with its response to gravity an upright position?
(d) The food it consumes would be more (d) How might this response to light be an advantage to Parame-
readily found in the light cium?
5 Negatively 5. Place a drop of Paramecium culture on a slide. Drop a small piece of
thread into the diluted hydrochloric acid solution. Place the thread
Discussion across the middle of the drop. Add a cover glass. Focus on the piece
The response of Paramukaurn to gravity and of thread under low power. Does the Paramecium respond positively
acid is negative. to light, positive or negatively to the acid, or neither?

Discussion
Summarize your observations of the behavior of Paramecium in re-
sponse to gravity, light, and acid.

Guidepost: What characteristics Autotrophic Protists

distinguish the various
groups of algae?
12.9 Algae Are Photosynthetic Protists
A number of freshwater algae can be Algae are photosynthetic protists with relatively simple structure.
maintained in classroom aquariums You also They may be unicellular, colonial, or multicellular. Multicellular species
should have some examples of marine algae
may form long filaments of cells, or thin plates of cells, or solid bodies
mounted on herbarium sheets (Mounted algae
that develop division of labor. Some of those forms are shown in figure
can be ordered from biological supply houses )
12.14. Algae can be found just about everywherefloating in air or water,
Ask students to scrape the sides of an
aquarium to collect and examine microscopically or attached to trunks or branches of trees, the bottoms of streams, par-
the diatoms usually found there ticles of soil, or rocks at the seashore.

Figure 12.14 Filamentous (Spirogyra) and colonial (Vo/vox) algae.

T. E. Adams/VISUALS UNLIMITED
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and rungi 411

Most unicellular and colonial algae float near the surface of bodies
of water, using light energy and carbon dioxide and minerals from the
water to carry out photosynthesis. MulticAular algae, on the other hand,
are adapted to living along shores and in shallow water, where nutrients
are generally abundant, but living conditions are difficult. Such algae
are subject to periodic drying and to variations in temperature, light,
and other factors. As a result, different groups of algae have become
adapted to particular niches.
The term algae is one of convenience that is no longer used in formal
classification. Biologists have become convinced that the various groups
of what we call algae have little relationship to each other. Algae vary
greatly in their biochemical characteristics, especially in the compounds
that make up their cell walls, their food storage compounds, and the
pigments present in their cells. Cell walls of most algae contain cellulose,
as do those of plants, but a variety of other compounds also may be
present. Some algae stm e food as starch, but other, unique carbohy-
drates are common, often combined with lipids.
In addition to chlorophyll, various other pigments may be present in
algae. Often those pigments mask the bright green of the chlorophyll,
and some of the groups are named for their characteristic color. The
wide variety of pigments suggests that the various groups of algae may
have evolved from mutualistic relationships with different photosyn-
thetic prokaryotes.

12.10 Diatoms Are Important Golden Algae

Golden algae (Phylum Chrysophyta) are mostly microscopic aquatic [krih SOF it uh]
.organisms. Some grow in damp places on land. They have chlorophyll,
but it is usually masked by yellow pigments. Some are threadlike and
grow in masses along the edges of ponds or streams or on moist flow-
erpots in greenhouses. Within this phylum is a large group of organisms
commonly called diatoms (DY uh tomz). Diatoms include some of the
most intricately patterned creatures on earth, as shown in figure 12.15.
They are enclosed in a double shell, the two halves of which fit together
like a box. The shells contain silicon, and electron microscope studies
have shown that the patterns are intricately shaped pores that connect
the inside of the cell with the outside environment. Diatoms are abun-
dant in both fresh and marine waters, where they are the main producers
in many food webs and provide much of the world's oxygen. Diatoms
store food in the form of oils. They reproduce asexually by cell division,
or sexually by producing gametes. The zygote resulting from fertiliza-
tion grows to the full size for the species and undergoes cell division. The
offspring cells then produce new silicon shells.
Because of their silicon shells, diatoms remain intact for many years, 0
even after the organisms inside have died. Great masses of intact shells
that slowly accumulated many years ago are now mined as diatoma-
ceous earth. The material is used many waysas a filter (both for beer
and for swimming pools), as an abrasive in silver polish, and as a bright-
ener for the paint used to mark highways.
412 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.15 Diatoms: (a) Stained mixture photographed through a light

microscope; (b) living Synedra; (c) and (d) scanning electron micrographs
showing the double silicon shell and the pattern of pores. (c) X342; (d) X2090.

-a- 4s,

a 88PS by Moberg Tolman BSCS by Doug Sokol!

b

Thomas K. Shimot skit

d

12.11 Certain Green Algae May

Be the Ancestors of Plants
[kloh ROF it uh] Most green algae (Phylum Chlorophyta) are aquatic organisms, and
the majority are found in fresh water. You can find them in your aquarium
at home or on the shady side of trees. Many of the green algae are uni-
cellular and microscopic in size, but they may be so abundant that they
color the water of ponds and lakes green. Some of the marine species
form large, multicellular seaweeds. A few members of this large group
are shown in figure 12.16.
Green algae reproduce both asexually and sexually. In sexual repro-
duction, some species produce flagellated gametes that look identical (see
figure 12.17). Other species produce flagellated sperm and larger, non-
motile ova that are retained in the parent algae. Many of the multicel-
lular green algae produce both gametes and spores in complex life cycles
like those found in plants.

r '4 7
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 413

Figure 12.16 Green algae: (a) Acetabularia, a large. onecelled alga; (b; water
net, Hydrodictyon reticulatum, a filamentous form; (c) sea lettuce, Ulva, a
multicellular alga.

as.

V. i. Sam/ VLWALS UNLIMITED

b T. E. Adams/VISUALS UNLIMITED

C John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED

Plants are believed to have evolved from some of the green algae. 0
There are several kinds of evidence that support that theory. First, plants
and green algae contain the same photosynthetic pigments. No other
group of algae contains the same combination of pigments. Second, both
groups store reserve foods as starch. Third, most members of both groups
have cellulose-containing cell walls. Fourth, several groups of green algae
have developed true multicellularity with some division of labor, and other
groups show intermediate steps between unicellularity and multicellu-
larity. And finally, many of the green algae show the patterns of repro-
duction and life cycles common to all plants. We will examine these
patterns in the next chapter.

518
414 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.17 Life cycle of Chlamydomonas,a unicellular green alga, showing

both sexual and asexual reproduction. Notice that the zygote is the only diploid
stage in the life cycle.

from a different cell

gamete-producing
gametes cell
pairing zoospore-producing
cell

zygote
(2n) Sexual 00.*
mitosis
reproduction
Asexual
reproduction

zygote
(2n)

4/4140

meiosis
Is . zoospores

12.12 Brown and Red Algae

Are Multicellular
[fee OFF it uh) The brown algae (Phylum Phaeophyta) are the major seaweeds of
rocky shores in the cooler regions of the world. Some, such as the kelps
(see figure 23.26, page 875), form extensive beds offshore, where they
are the primary producers for many communities of animals and mi-
croorganisms. Brown algae have cellulose cell walls and store their foods
as an unusual polysaccharide or as oil, but never as starch. The chlo-
rood is stored in the brown algae as the rophyll in the brown algae is usually masked by other pigments.
compounds mannitol tan aLohun and larunarir, Brown algae may be very large, sometimes reaching 100 m in length.
(a polysaccharide) Some of the brown algae are relatively unspecialized, but others are dif-
ferentiated into areas for anchorage (holdfast), support (stipe). and pho-
tosynthesis (blade), as seen in figure 12.18b. Some kelps even have
conducting cells in the center of the stipe that resemble the sugar con-
ducting cells of plant stems.
Most of the seaweeds of warm oceans of the world are red algae
[roh DOF it uh] (Phylum Rhodophyta). They generally grow attached to rocks or other
algae (figure 12.18c). Because they absorb blue light, which penetrates
Call attention here (and with other algal phyw farther in the water than other light wavelengths, red algae can grow
to the use of chemical characteristics in deeper in the ocean than any other algae. Biologists think the chloro-
classtheation plasts of red algae may have evolved from ancestral cyanobacteria, be-
cause the two groups contain similar pigments. Cell walls of red algae
contain an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer composed of other
carbohydrates such as agar, which is used to culture bacteria in the lab-
oratory.

51D
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 415

Figure 12.18 Brown and red algae: (a) a brown alga showing air bladders that
help keep it afloat; (b) kelp, Laminaria, showing holdfast, stipe, and blade;
(c) coraNine red alga. Bossiella.

a BSCS by Jens Larson Alm D. Ciaaliolmve / VISUALS UNLIANTED

C" 'Gary R. Robinson? VISUALS UNLIMITED

In many parts of the world, both red and brown algae are eaten by 0
humans as part of their regular diet. Although algae do not provide many
kcals, they do contain valuable vitamins and trace elements nsessary
to human health. Certain kinds of red and brown algae produce com-
pounds that are extremely important in the manufacturing of food and
goods that require a smooth texture. Each time you use hand lotion,
lipstick, or paint, or cat marshmallows, ice cream, or certain cheeses,
you are probably using products derived from algae.

520
416 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Self-Review

1. What characteristics of green algae make them candidates for the

ancestors of all plants?
2. What makes diatomaceous earth useful, and how is it used?
3. How do humans use brown and red algae?
4. Which group of algae can live the deepest, and why?

Investigation .12.2 .VARIETY AMONG ALGAE

Investigation 12.2
VARIETY AMONG ALGAE Introduction
This investigation will allow the students to Algae are photosynthetic protists. They are found in nearly every aquatic
use a dichotomous key to identity some environment. Algae are the foundations of many of the food chains
common protists, both photosynthetic arid nun- throughout the world. Most of the algae are microscopic, but some of them
photosynthetic. d you Choose The investigation grow larger than the shrubs that commonly grow around school yards. In
also provides students *Ali an opportunity to this investigation, you will have an opportunity to use a dichotomous key
observe a variety of algae and other protists to identify various kinds of algae. Many of the non-photosynthetic protists
and can be as extensive as tune and inatendis are found in environments with the algae. For this reason, the key you will
permit use in this investigation also includes the non-photosynthetic protists.
If you live in an area where protists can be
collected at the time of year when you are
Materials
studying this chapter, you shoutd tr r to get the
students outside to do the actual collecting This compound microscope
will enable them to observe the enviinnments in microscope slides
which the organisms are found cover slides
A 2nd alternative is to take the students dropping pipet
outside early in the fall before freezing algae cultures
temperatures occur and bring samples of water macroscopic algae
back into the classroom where they can be teasing needle
maintained until you begin this Investigation A Catalog of Living Things (appendix 3)
A 3rd way of handling the lab would be to
order cultures of a variety of protists from a
Procedure
biological supply house If you want to include
baiTipit." of the noreptiutusyritlittic pi utrAs, he 1. Examine the algae cultures and specimens. Use the dichotomous key
sure to specify them rn yuur order in table 12.1 and A Catalog of Living Things to identify the phylum to
A 4th alte.native would be to not rcpare-d Which each individual belongs. You will need to use the eyedroppers
slides for the rnicroscop protsts Sonic to prepare microscope slides to observe some specimens.
prepared slides could dbu be used in 2. Some cultures may contain non-photosynthetic protists. The key and
coniunction with the cultures of Ink, material in A Catalog of Living Things will help you identify the group to which
option 3 If you gather your own materials there these organisms belong.
is a high probability that some non-
photosynthetic protists will be round in the water
you bring back to the lab Discussion
Some recommended Liryantrns from the 1. Why are most microscopic green algae floating near the surface of
algae are as follows the water?
ChlorophytaSpirogyra Ulothnx Ghloreila 2. Why are the large brown algae (kelp) not classified as plants?
Zygnerna 3. Choose 1 of the specimens you .:11served. Write a short paragraph
describing the environment in wh:ch you think the organism lives. De-
RhodophytaPorphyra Agardhiella
scribe other organisms that would be found in that same environment.
Chrysophyta mixed culture, of diatoms Describe the interactions between the protist you observed and the
PhaeophytaLaannarta, Ascophyllum other organisms in that environment.
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 417

,trable.'124 DichotornOus,keT to some protists Discussion

1A. Unicellular organisms go to 2 1 To be able, to Arty on pr hl
1B. Organisms not unicellular go to 7 2 Thel, do not hay, viii ut 3, sy.,itetris.
roots ,toms and leave h At' not tet.n
2A. Cilia used for locomotion and/or Ciliates (Ciliophora)
covered yet but let the stude.nte spe,culate This
feeding
2B. Lack cilia wdi hip set the stags for the plant investigations
go to 3
that follow
3A. Flagella usd for locomotion Flagellates 3 This will depend on the organism selii,ted
3B. Lack flagella go to 4 by the students Let them 4,.1 th, r iniagnation
Aft Locomotion by pseudopods Sarcodines You may want to ask them to justify her
4L. Lack pseudopods go to 5 choices for the environment they describe and
the other organisms
5A. Nonmotile, lack chlorophyll Sporozoans (Apicomplexa)
5B. Contain chlorophyll go to 6
For Further Investigation
6A. Green color Single-cell green algae (Chiorophyta) The simple rules for Haiku ore tound in the
6B. Yellow color, overlapping double Diatoms (Chrpophyta)
shell student instructions You may want to write 1 or
2 samples of Haiku yours:Al to snow the
7A. Red color, mainly marine Red Algae (Rhodophyta) students before they begin their own Many
7B. Not red in color go to 8 Students enjoy the freedom of thought that is
8A. Brown color, mainly marine Brown algae (Phaeophyta) possible with Haiku Also. the English teacher
8B. Not brown go to 9 will be proud of you for reinforcing the concept
of meter
9A. Green color, marine and fresh Green algae (Chiorophyta)
water
9B. Yellow color, filamentous Golden algae (Chrysophyta)

For Further Investigation

Write a Haiku poem about one of the organisms that you observed and
identified. A Haiku poem consists of 3 lines. The first line has 5 syllables,
the second line has 7 syllables, and the third line has 5 syllables. There is
no requirement for rhyming in Haiku. Your poem should convey your
impressions of the organism.

Fungi Guidepost: What are the

characteristics of the fungi?
12.13 Fungi Are Important Decomposers
Fungi are nonmotile, heterotrophic, eukaryotes. They include mush- None of the common name, apkied to tunth
rooms, molds, mildews, rusts, smuts, and many other, less familiar or- such as mold mildew or I ni.6iiroom any
ganisms. Most fungi reproduce by means of spores that germinate and
grow into slender tubes called hyphae (HY fee). The body of a fungus
0 taxonorni sttr iti,,,-
nambs are din nod dittL)10) tr turvjcv Lisse,s
is made up of a large mass of hyphae, the mycelium (my SEE lee urn).
The mycelium grows in moist soil that contains large amounts of dead
plant and animal matter, as shown in figure 12.19. In fact, a mycelium
0
will grow on virtually anything from which the fungus can obtain food.
Sometimes growth can be very rapid: a single fungus can produce a ki-
lometer of hyphae in just 24 hours.

522
418 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.19 Fungal mycelium growing on the inner surface of the bark of a
log.

John Richardson. Southern Illinois Univ.

Cell walls of fungi are made up of a carbohydrate known as chitin

(KYT in). Sometimes the chitin is combined with cellulose, the main
component of plant cell walls. The chitinous walls are hard and resistant
to waterloss, enabling fungi to live in some very extreme environments.
Fungi feed by absorbing small organic molecules. They secrete diges-
tive enzymes that break down the food into small molecules outsiue the
fungus. The small molecules are then transported in through the mem-
brane. In that way, fungi help decompose dead organisms.
Fungi, along with bacteria, are the most important decomposers in
the biosphere. Many fungi cause diseases, especially of plants. Many
more, however, form essential mutualistic relationships with plants.
Others are used for baking breads, making alcoholic beverages, and pro-
ducing drugs.
Fungi reproduce primarily by means of spores, which may be pro-
duced sexually or asexually. Each spore is capable of producing an entire
mycelium. The reproductive part of the fungus may appear above ground,
as, for example, a mushroom. The spore-producing structures are formed
of tightly packed hyphae and may produce a million spores. Generally,
fungus spores are surrounded by a tough, resistant wall that enables them
to survive drying and extreme temperatures. The spores are usually dis-
persed by wind and air currents. Theirtmall size keeps them suspended
in air for long periods, assuring wide distribution. Fungi also may re-
produce sexually by conjugation, in which hyphae of different mating
types come together and fuse.
0 Because the hyphae of many fungi look very much alike, classification
of fungi is based mainly on differences in sexual reproductive structures.
In the next sections, we will describe some of those differences among
the fungi.

.
,P
I

523
 Chapter 12. Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 419

friOitidati0102:3 'GROWTH OF .FUNGI

Investigation 12.3
Introduction GROWTH OF FUNGI

Mushrooms and molds are common types of fungi with which you are This investigation allows the students to bring
familiar. Perhaps some of your cultures from previous investigations were into lull play their understanding of conditions
contaminated with mold. This might have given you the idea that molds are under which molds can grow It aiso allows the
everywhere, simply waiting to grow when they encounter a suitable envi- opoortunity to observe the fruiting body and
ronment. Under what conditionS will mold grow at the fastest rate? That coxes of the mushroom You might want to
question is the focus of this investigation. obtain a few extra mushrooms and fry some (or
the class so they can sample the exquisite taste
Materials of mushrooms

Part A (per person)

suitable medium (your choice)
container for medium
ruler
growth chamber (your choice)
dissecting microscope (1 per group)
microscope slide
anything else you want to use

Part B (per group)

fresh mushrooms
glass tumbler
sheet of white paper
small brush
microscope slide
cover slip
compound microscope
glycerine-water solution (1:1)
knife

Part AMold Growing Race Part A

Procedure Procedure
1. You and your classmates are going to have a mold growing contest Try not to discourage any methods the
to see who can grow the largest amount of mold in the shortest period student., might use, to oblain mold growth,
of time. Think about the conditions that might contribute to the rapid units, something dangerous is being suggested
growth of mold. Students will learn a great deal from their own
2. Select a medium on which the mold can grow. Record the reasons for initiatives in the mold growing race, It may be
your selection. appropriate to award a prize (a mi.ichroom7) for
3. Decide what you will do to inoculate your medium with mold spores. the largest growth in the; ,,ontcat Allow some
Record why you selected your particular method of getting the mold time for oral reports to the on all of the
started. methods used by the students It possible, allow
4. Decide on where you will keep the medium while the mold grows. Re- each student to conduct her or his own
cord why you selected the particular environment for growing your mold. experiment
5. The race is on. Get started today. Keep track of the size and quantity
of the mold growths you obtain by making daily observations and re-
cording your observations.
6. Your teacher will announce the last day of the race. Be prepared to
bring your mold to class on that day. Prepare a short presentation for
the class to communicate your procedures and results.

524
420 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Discussion Discussion
1 StUdePtS ShOUICI ti, t I 1. Now that you have listened to the reports of other class members,
COnle to Some ,11 it ,ut ft ,t I II MI I
what do you think you could have done to increase the amount of mold
under when molds r an bt-st <',A' that grew on your medium?
2 P oper storage rr r !Ito!' , u 1 it «
2. Explain how you can use your results to prevent the growth of mold
possible use of moki InniP.toro on food or in other locations in your home.
suggested by the student::

Part B Part BObserving Mushrooms

Procedure Procedure
5 la) The student', -,ti «ehi r,, 1. Examine a fresh mushroom. The mushroom itself is the fruiting body
mushroom spores on thi- kit rr of this particular fungus. It consists of a stalk and umbrellalike cap.
(b) The snference shoutd tie rn&rt, that thi 2. Cut the cap from the stalk.
spores came from tt,e tr , , try th, 3. Look at the underside of the cap and find the gills. Put the cap, gill
cap of the mushroom side down, on a piece of white paper.
8 (a) There t 4. Cover the cap with a tumbler or some other object that will protect it
hundred spores deperhing on the s,re, of the from air currents.
brush used 5. Set the cap, paper, and tumbler in a place where it will not be dis-
-
°DI Extrapolation «I
turbed. The next day, uncover and remove the cap by lifting it straight
number in the entire, rntishrot«rn Tht tetert , up from the paper.
should be ,n the hundreds of (a) What do you observe on the paper?
(b) What is the relationship between what you observe on the paper
Discussion and the structure of the mushroom cap?
1 Proper growing Of 6. With a small, damp brush, remove some of the material on the paper.
encountered by many soari_s Place the material on a microscope slide.
The nurht,t-ir wouid f m s t r t. , ri,i 7. Add a drop of the glycerine and water solution. Gently place a cc ter
the redtp ed charre, of lo, atinu the pr slip over the liquid.
environment for growth 8. Examine the material under both low and high power.
(a) Approximately how many particles are there in the sample you
are observing?
(b) Using this number, estimate the total number of such particles
coming from the mushroom.

Discussion
1. If we assume that these particles are reproductive spores, how could
you account for the fact that the world is not covered with mush-
rooms?
2. How numerous would mushrooms be if they only produced a small
fraction of the number of spores seen here?

For Further Investigation

You may want to conduct an investigation on the specificity of various
fungicides toward different species of fungi. Your teacher can obtain spore
suspensions of a variety of fungi from a biological supply house. Fungicides
that can be obtained easily are copper sulfate and captan (use 3% solu-
tions). You will need petri dishes with potato dextrose agar or oatmeal
agar, small sterilized brushes, and sterile distilled water. Some suggestions
for fungi include Pilobolus crystallinus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium no-
taturn, or many others.
To prepare a control dish, dip the brush in a spore solution for about
30 seconds. Then place the brush in sterile disti 'ad water for about 30
seconds. Last, touch the surface of the agar, being careful not to expose
;'ne plates to airborne spores.
To prepare experimental dishes, repeat the step above for each of the
fungicides, using the fungicide instead of the distilled water.
Place the petri dishes in paper bags and stcre them in a cool room for
one week. Compare the percentage of germination between the experi-
mental dishes and the control dish.

n
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 421

12.14 Conjugating Fungi May be Destructive

to Foods and Crops
The common black bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer, is probably the [ry ZOH pus stoh LON ih ler]
most familiar example of conjugating fungi (Phylum Zygomycota). Be- [ZY goh my KOHT uhj
fore preservatives were used, bread left in the pantry for several days
would develcrp a black fuzzy growth like that in figure 12.20. Such growth
is caused by a spore that germinates on the surface of the bread, pro-
ducing hyphae. Some of the hyphae push up into the air and form spo-
rangia. Mature sporangia are black, giving the fungus its characteristic
color. The sporangia eventually break open, releasing many spores, each
of which can germinate to proiduce a new mycelium.
Sexual reproduction in Rhizopus occurs when hyphae of two dif-
ferent mating types fuse (figure 12.21). Nuclei from the two hyphae fuse
and form zygotes that develop into thick-walled zygospores (ZY goh

Figure 12.20 Bread covered with mycelium of Rhizopus.

-;

John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED

Figure 12.21 Asexual and sexual reproduction in Rhizopus.

germinating hyphae
spores

sporangium

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

526
422 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

sporz). It is these structures that give the phylum its name. Zygospores
can survive periods of extreme temperature or dryness, and when they
eventually germinate, they give rise to sporangia that release spores.
e Black bread mold is a decomposer that can be destructive to many
foods, including fruits such as grapes, plums, and strawberries. Other
species in this phylum are parasitic, and some attack crop plants. Most,
however, live in the soil and decompose dead plant and animal material.

12.15 Humans Use Sac Fungi in a Variety

of Ways
[AS koh my KOHT uh] The sac fungi (Phylum Ascomycota) include yeasts, powdery mil-
dews, and many common blue-green molds, as well as morels and truffles
(figure 12.22). Some sac fungi cause diseases such as chestnut blight
and dutch elm disease, which have destroyed many trees in the United

Figure 12.22 Sac fungi: (a) leaves covered with powdery mildew; (b) a morel,
Morchel la augusticeps; (c) red cup fungus, Peziza.
111111.MOY--'--

Davidehwilen/VISUALS UNLIMITED Athelie Berzee

a

4::.4*
David Newman/VISUALS UNLIMITED
C

5 4,(1
Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 423

States. These fungi are distinguished from other fungi by a microscopic

sexual reproductive structure called an ascus (AS kus), which gives them
their name.
An ascus is formed when two hyphae conjugate. Inside the ascus, nu-
clei from the hyphae fuse and develop into ascospores. The ascospores [AS koh sporz]
eventually are released from the ascus and may travel long distances on
the wind. Each ascospore can germinate and produce hyphae. Asco- [AS koh my SEETS]
mycetes also reproduce asexually. An individual hypha segments into
huge numbers of spores that are dispersed by wind, water, or animals.

Figure 12.23 Sexual reproduction in a sac fungus.

fruiting body of
sac fungus

ascus

528
424 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.24 Yeast. Notice the budding individual near the center of the photo.

8SCS by Richard Tolman

Yeasts are single-celled ascomycetes. They are small, oval cells that
reproduce asexually by budding, as seen in figure 12.24, and sexually by
0 production of ascospores. Yeasts are essential to production of breads
and alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine. Under anaerobic con-
ditions, yeasts convert sugars found in bread dough or fruit juices into
carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. The carbon dioxide bubbles cause the
bread dough to rise and beer to foam. In the bread dough, the alcohol
evaporates as the bread is baked.

12.16 Many Club Fungi Are Edible

[buh SID ee oh my KOHT uh] Club fungi (Phylum Basidiomycota,' are probably the most familiar
fungi. The mushrooms you buy in a grocery store are the sexual repro-
Spores of a field ii itoorri are ich,itt:d at Pit ductive structures of a club fungus. The phylum also includes smuts,
tips of specializeu yptl d Tlitst rusts, jelly fungi, puffballs, and stinkhorns (figure 12.25). The mush-
project from the surfact of tht (platt,s;
room is a spore-producing body composed of masses of tightly packed
which radiate from the center of the cap Spore
hyphae. Under a mushroom cap you can see what are called gills ra-
prints (like fingerprints) can be made from
freshly opened mushrooms by placing the
diating out from the center. Between these gills many spores are pro-
mushroom cap on a piece of white paper and duced on tiny clubs, or basidia (buh SID ee uh), that give these fungi
tapping gently The spores fall down on the their name.
paper leaving a characteristic, pattr.rr, Most species of mushrooms, both edible and poisonous, are club fungi.
A toadstool is nothing more than a poisonous mushroom, and one or the
[am uh NY tuh] most poisonous of all is the "death cap" cf the genus Amanita (figure
12.27). A single bite of certain species of Amanita can be fatal. Some
it is difficult even for my& oiogists to tell species of toxic mushrooms are eaten for their hallucinogenic effects.
poisonou, from edible lull hiu.a.t but that are Other club fungi are parasites of plants such as wheat and corn. Wheat
certain key charattensks used to classify rust and corn smut cause great damage to those crops.
poisonous mushrooms Amanild phallorde:, one
of the most deadly, is recognized by its white
spores, a nod below the -;ap, 3 red- yellow cap,
and the torn remains of the veil on top of the
cap Warn students not to pick or eat any 'NI
mushrooms without advice from an expert

529
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 425

, Figure 12.25 Club fungi: (a) mushrooms, Clilocybe; (b) rust, Uredinales, on the
undersurface of leaves; (c) puffballs, Lycoperdon per/alum; (d) bracket fungus
from Australian rain forest.

Athidie Bin", Athalis ranee

Vhall Banes d J. Aleock /VISUALS UNLIMITED

Figure 12.26 Reproductive structures of a fle1:1 mushroom.

X 1300

530
426 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.27 Amanita muscaria.

It

ROHM C. Simpson/TOM STACKS ASSOCIATES

Pentolhum is sometimes listed as a sac fungus, 12.17 Fungi with No Known Sexual
but this is not approved by mycologists. No
Reproductive Structures
perfect forms are known for a majority of the
species included in the "form genus" F'entcallum,
Are Called Imperfect Fungi
so they should be called aped e..t fungi The Fungi are identified and classified principally on characteristics of
argument for Including them with the
their sexual reproductive structures. Many fungi seldom, if ever, pro-
ascomycetes (sac fungi) may be justified by the
duce such structures. Mycologists (my KOL uh jists), scientists who
close similarity between the asexual (conidial)
study fungi, have studied certain ones for years without discovering sex-
stages of many Pomo !hum species and
ascomycetes. and the fact that most imperfect
ually produced spores. Some of these fungi, however, resemble species
fungi, upon the discovery of their sexual stages, whose sexual reproductive structures are known. Many of these fungi
turn out to be ascomycetes None of this need produce large numbers of asexual spores and can be classified on the
be brought to the attention of the students, but basis of similarities in asexual reproductive form. When sexual states of
for some. it can be used as an excellent such fungi are discovered, the fungi are reclassified according to their
illustration of difficulties in taxonomy newly discovered sexual reproductive structures. For many fungi, how-
ever, no sexual reproductive structures have ever been discoverer:So,
for convenience only, taxonomists place these "imperfect" fungi to-
gether in a separate group. Some of these are important in the manu-
[pen ih SIL ee um rohk FOR tee] facture of cheese and antibiotics. For example, Penicillium roquefortii
is responsible for the distinctive flavor and appearance of Roquefort
[kam um BER tee] cheese. P. camembert!! is used to manufacture camembert cheese, and
[noh TAY tum] P. notatum produces the drug penicillin. Others are parasites that grow
on crop plants and our skin. For example, athlete's foot is caused by an
organism that, fcr years, was thought to be an imperfect fungus. Re-
cently, sexual spores have been discovered, showing the athlete's foot
The story of penicillin has been told so often fungus (and a number of related skin disease fungi) to be a sac fungus.
that most 10thgrade students probably know
something of it However, a good student repot
of Flemings's discovery can do three things at
this time (1) relieve steady attention to
Self-Review
taxonomy. (2) remind students of the role of
serendipity in scientific researchwith due
attention to the principle that chance favors the 1. How are hyphae related to a mycelium?
prepared mindand (3) remind students of the 2. Why are fungi restricted to moist conditions?
complexities of ecological relationships 3. What characteristics are used to distinguish fungi from each other?

531
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 427

Figure 12.28 Imperfect fungi: (a) a species of Penicillium growing on an orange;

(b) asexual reproductive structures (conidiophores) of Aspergillus.

a John A. Moon John D. Cunningham /VISUALS

UNLIMITED

4. What human foods are produced using fungi, and what foods are
damaged by fungi?
5. What do mycologists mean by the phrase imperfect fungi?

Fungi in a Community Guidepost: What roles do fungi play

in a community?
12.18 Many Fungi in the Soil Are
Decomposers
Most soil organisms are consumers. Algae, which are light-requiring
producers, can live only at the surface of the soil. Most soil organisms,
however, live below the surface. A soil ecosystem is like a city. Its food
supply comes from the outside. In soil, some food comes into the roots
of plants from their green parts, which are in the sunlight. Most of the
food supply comes from the remains of organisms. Therefore, decom-
posers such as fungi and bacteria are important organisms in soil com-
munities.
In a dead root in the soil, there are still large amounts of complex
organic substances such as starch. Likewise, in a dead animal there are
complex organic substanct-s such as fats and proteins. These are used as
food by beetles and other small animals living in the uppr soil layers or
on its surfac . Other substances, such as cellulose in plant bodies and
chitin in inset bodies, can be used only by microorganisms. Certk,in de-
composers break down cellulose and chitin; animals cannot. Decom-
posers that use cellulose and chitin leave simpler organic substances as
waste products. Those wat.es still contain energy, which can be used by
other decomposers. Even those decomcoqers may not extract all the en-
ergy, but they leave very simple substances in the soil. Still other de-
composers make use of those simple substances. Thus, one decomposer O

532
 1
428 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.2E A decomposer food chain. Identify each organism and the role it
plays in the process of decomposition.

I Decomposer
food chain
1. mustard-yellow
polypore (shelf
fungus)
2. oyster
mushroom
3. amanita
war 4. yellow morel
5. snail
6. sow bug
7. centipede
8. wood roach
9. springtaiis
10. mite
11. ant
12. carrion beetle
13. soil fungi
14. soil protozoans
15. earthworm
16. inorganic
compounds

e.
.1.-_

AllIaLki..:-__

-
0

. .
1,

401

.8 hi
533
 'hapter'12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 429

Figure 12.30 Predaceous fungi capture small roundworms present in the soil.
(a) Dactyleta drechsleri traps the worms with small adhesive knobs.
(b) Arthrobotrys daclyloides forms rings that strangle the worm.

a Dr. David Pram*, Dr. David Pramir

b

depends on another for its food supply. Such a food chain is like an as-
sembly line in reverse. Instead of building a body step by step from sim-
pler to more complex compounds, the decomposer food chLin breaks down
complex organic substances. At the end of the chain, only inorganic sub-
stances such as carbon dioxide, water, and mineral compounds remain.
At that point, plants can begin a different food chain by taking those
inorganic materials and assembling them into organic compounds.
Some soil organisms produce substances that harm other organisms.
Such antibiotic substances accumulate in the soil around the organisms
that form them. Antibiotics reduce the growth of competing organisms.
Some of those antibiotic substances are used for combating bacterial
infections in humans. The drugs aureomycin, derived from a bacterium,
and penicillin, from a fungus, are examples.
Fungi can even act as predators. Several species of soil fungi form
hyphae with tough branches that curl into loops. The tips of the loops
0
from adjacent hyphae intermesh, forming a network that produces a
sticky fluid. Nematodes, small worms living in the soil, are caught in [NEM um tohdz]
such loops and held fast despite violent struggles. Other fungal hyphae
then grow into the bodies of the captive nematodes and digest them.

12.19 Mycorrhizal Fungi Help

Many Plants to Grow
If you trace fungal hyphae in loose soil, you often find that many lead
to plant roots. There the fungi form feltlike covers around branches of
the roots (figure 12.31b). Some of the fungal hyphae grow into the other
-parts of the roots and form masses of tissue there. These associations
between fungi an,i roots are called mycorrhizae (my koh RY zee). My-
corrhizae enhance the growth of many plants. Experiments have indi- Piqb oPitA. 1th ttP4I-7/ tt ,.Maur.'
cated that the fungus absorbs phosphorus and other minerals from a tt.tr, I I 5) it bt 1Lr ru, , ,q1,1;11

greater area in the soil than the plant could by itself. The phosphorus Stu, ttron
430 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.31 Pine roots (a) without micorrhizae and (b) with micorrhizae.
(c). Microscopic view of micorrhizae growing into a root cell.

a EdwaJ Hacakaylo b Edward Hacslutyle

El

C Mark Brundrett

0 and minerals are passed on to the plant, which requires the elements to
grow. Water also may be transported from the soil to the plant through
the fungus. Micorrhizae are thought to occur in more than 90 percent
of all plant families, and they are found in some of the oldest plant fos-
sils.
The mycorrhizal fungi also benefit from their relationship with the
plant. They absorb sugars and other organic materials from the roots of
their plant partners. Thus this relationship is mutualistic. Some plants,
such as orchids and pines, either do not grow or grow poorly if their
mycorrhizal fungi are not present.

r t)
4.)
ra-
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 431

Figure 12.32 Leaflike lichens growing on a tree Figure 12.33 Crust like lichens colonizing rock.
trunk.

Gary MilburniTOM STACK b ASSOCIATES

Doug SokelI

The oldest fossil fungi, dating from the Devonian period, are micor-
rhizae associated with fossil plant tissue. Micorrhizae may have made
it possible for plants to adapt a a terrestrial existence. The fungi may
have transported nutrients to plants and pr_vented them from drying
out.

12.20 Lichens Are Mutualistic Relationships

between Fungi and Algae
You can find lichens on the bark of a pine tree, on a tombstone in Rocks and other objec's with lic,lens could be
New Hampshire, buried under arctic snow, or on a rock in Arizona. In brought Into the i_la.sroom for student
chapter 3 we discussed the mutualistic relationship between an alga and observation
a fungus that make up a lichen. The shape and color of lichens are so
definite that for several hundred years biologists described them as if
they were single organisms.
The body of a lichen has a framework of fungal hyphae. In its upper '.'then licher are accorded a taxonomic
layers are many small producers, usually green algae or cyanobacteria. grouping, they may be considered as a
The producers can grow independently, and many can be recognized as separate class of fungi Often nowt .e,r, i,ome
species that also are known to live alone. The lichen fungi, on the other are placed with the, sac fungi and sunk; with the
hand, do not grow well when separated from their partners. Many of Club fungi A student inight argue that sin
these fungi are placed in the sac fungi group, but they are unlike any of they are so different from other plants the-.y
should be given division rank
the species that live alone. More than 25,000 "species" of lichen have
been described. Their names have been based on the fungus part of the
lichen.
Lichens secrete acidic compounds that break down rocks. Thus, they
often are the first organisms to colonize bare rock and other uninhabited
0
places (figure 12.33). Such bare areas are extremely dry, but lichens

r,

ety(.1
432 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 12.34 Reindeer mess, a type of shrubby lichen.

John 11Dunninghim/VISUALE UNLIMITED,

have the ability to dry out completely and become dormant until they
are wet again. When they are dry, lichens can tolerate extreme heat and
freezing cold that would kill other organisms, even hardy ones. However,
when they are dormant, there is no growth. After rain, fog, or dew, a
lichen may absorb up to 30 times its own weight in water. The algal cells
in the lichen quickly begin to photosynthesize and growth continues until
the lichen dries out again. Because growth occurs in spurts, when water
is available, a normal lichen grows extremely slowlysometimes just
0.1 mm per year. Thus, some small lichens may be several hundred years
old.
Reindeer mosses (figure 12.34) cover great areas of the Arctic. These
"mosses" are actually lichens that serve as food for reindeer and caribou.
Reindeer moses, like all lichens, ab. ,:rb some minerals from the soil or
rock on which they grow, but they also take in minerals from rainfall.
Lichens absorb these nutrients and concentrate them in their cells. In
come cases toxic compounds also are absorbed and concentrated in the
lichen bodies. ! . hens die when the air is extremely polluted, and can
be used as indicators of polluted air. In the Arctic, reindeer mosses ac-
cumulated radioactive materials that drifted there from aboveground
atomic bomb testing. The reindeer and caribou that ate the lichens took
in the radioactive materials and passed them on to the Eskimos who ate
those animals. That is another example of how unexpected materials are
passed along a food chain to a consumer at the top of the chain.

Self-Review

1. How is a food chain involving only decomposers different from one

including plants and animals?
2. When can fungi be called predators?
 Chapter 12 Eukaryotes: Protists and Fungi 433

3. What makes the mycorrhizal fungus-plant relationship mutu-

alistic?
4. What characteristics make lichens good pioneer organisms?
5. Why do lichens make good indicators of air quality?

Summary
The first organisms on earth probably were prokaryotes that lacked
organelles of any kind. The more advanced eukaryotes possess organelles
such as chloroplasts and mitochondria, which may have been derived
from free-living prokaryotes. Protists and fungi are eukaryotes. Protists
include organisms such as slime molds and amoeba that pick up food as
they move along. Some protists are parasites that cause diseases of hu-
mans and other anima's. Most groups of protists can be distinguished
by their method of movement. Some do not move at all, while the others
move by using their cilia, pseudopods, or flagella. Algae are autotrophic
protists and may be distinguished from each other, in part, by their dom-
inant pigmentsred, brown, yellow, or green. Fungi are placed in a
kingdom separate from all other organisms. They are all heterotrophic,
and are distinguished from each other by their sexual reproductive
structures. While some fungi are edible or produce human foods, others
destroy foods as parasites of crops. In a community, fungi play a major
role as decomposers. Furigi also may be part of relationships with other
living organisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi or those found in a lichen.

Application Qvastions Problems

1. What characteristics of algae make them more 1. How many of the groups of organisms discussed in
advanced than cyanobacteria? this chapter can be found in your locality? Consider
2. How do the characteristics of lichens cause a wild and cultivated, indoor and outdoor, and
taxonomic problem? aquatic and terrestrial organisms.
3. Mycorrhizal fungi use sugars from the plants to 2. Investigate how fungi and bacteria are used to help
which they are attached. Why are these fungi not fight diseaseespecially in the production of
considered to be parasites of the plants? antibiotics.
3. Mitochondria have their own circular DNA that is
different from the DNA found in the nucleus of the
cell. Studies in humans have shown that
mitochondria! DNA is of maternal origin, that is, it
is inherited from the mother only. How might you
explain this? (Hint: refer to the discussion of
fertilization in chapter 6.)

,, 538
434 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
J. C. Ayres, J. 0. Mundt, and W. E. Sandine, 1980, J. A. Miller, "Clinical Opportunities for Plant and Soil Fungi"
Microbiology of Foods (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman). BioScience (November 1986). An increasing number of
Covers the beneficial and harmful relationships of fungal species are creating medical problems fo.. humans.
microorganisms to foods. G. Vidal, "The Oldest Eukaryottl Cells" Scientific American
G. Blonston, "The Biochemistry of Bacchus" Science 85 (February 1984). A review of the fossil record indicates
(October 1985). Interesting discussion of the biological that the eukaryotes originally evolved in the form of
aspects of winemaking. plankton some 1.4 billion years ago.
"Microbes for Hire" Science 85 (July/August 1985). Series of
three articles discussing how yeasts, bacteria, molds, and
other microbes are currently being utilized.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 Possession of nuclei and membrane-bounded organelles 3 The cvum contains mitochondria, the head of the sperm
such as chloroplasts and mitochondria does nct The flagellum of the sperm has mitochondria (for
2 Lichens are formed by a close assouatioi i between green thergy production), but onty the head of the sperm enters
algae or cyanobacteria and fungi Although many of the the ovum during fertilization
producers can grow independently and can be recognized
as species that live alone, the fungi are generally unlike any
species that live alone
3 The fungi enhance the growth of the plants by absorbing
minerals and water from a large area in the soil and
transporting those substances to the roots

r
0 39
 Kevin Schafer/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Equiselum is one of the oldest vascular plants. What adaptations have enabled it to survive?
z: 54 0
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. rages

CHAPTER 13 T35-36
Key ideas
the probable descent of all plants from algae
the advantages of multicellulanty
the alternation of generations in plant he
cycles,
the major groups of plants

Eukaryotes: Plants diversity of modern plants as a result of

coevolution

Introduction
Plants are multicellular, photosynthetic organisms mainly adapted for A colorful display of plant pictures on the bulletin
life on land. Evidence suggests they evolved from multicellular green board or presented by rapid slide projeLtion
algae that had some division of labor among their cells. That evolution may ink,rease interest Avoid emphasis on
occurred through millions of years and involved many adaptations that flowers Refer to botany texts suk.h as T E
Weser, C R Stocking, M G Barbour, and T L
allowed plants to live on land. The oldest plant fossils are simple, branched
Rost. 1982, Botany. 6th ed (New York John
structures with several important adaptations to land. They contain spe-
Wiley and Sons) for examples of striking
cialized water-conducting, or vascular (VAS kyoo ler), tissue. They also diversity in plant form
have pores through which gases can be exchanged with the environment,
and they have thick-walled spores that can be dispersed by wind. Vas-
cular tissue is particularly important for land plants. By contrast, non-
vascular plants such as mosses are restricted to moist habitats.
Vascular plants are found in most habitats on land, from prairies to
tundra, and in the forests and deserts of the world. Seed plants have
colonized many hab;tats and are extremely successful. Their success is
due not only to their having vascular tissue, but also to a method of re-
production that protects the reproductive cells. In this chapter, we will
examine those characteristics that enabled plants to invade the land, and
describe a few examples of modern plants.

The Evolution of Land Plants Guidepost: What adaptations allowed

plants to colonize land?

13.1 Multicellular Green Algae Probably

Were the Ancestors of Plants
Several hundred million years ago the surface of the earth was very
different from what it is today. The land was barren. It had no plants or
animals as we know them. Life existed only in the water. One-celled
algae such as those in figure 13.1 colored the surface waters Jf the oceans

437
54j
438 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.1 Chlorella pyrenoidosa, a one-celled alga that is abundant all over
the world.

According to the Guinness Book of World

Records (1983), the tallest tree in the world ,s a
Sequoia sernperwrens in Redwood Creek Grove,
Redwood National Park, CA In 1970, it was
estimated to be 111 6 m tall J. Robert Wayland /BPS /TOM STACKI ASSOCIATES

shades of green. Some algae became multicellular organisms and evolved

Figure 13.2 The giant redwoods, Sequoia a degree of cell specialization. Such organisms were the likely ancestors
sempervirans, are the largest organisms in the of modern plants.
world.
Today, plants are found in almost all places on earth, and they come
in a wide range of sizes. The largest organisms in the world are the giant
redwoods in California (figure 13.2). Some of those trees are more than
100 m tall and 7 m in diameter. The difference between a simple mul-
-ticellular green alga in the ancient sea and a giant California redwood
tree with billions of cells is tremendous. The evolution of such a complex
land organism from a relatively unspecialized multicellular ancestor did
not occur overnight. In fact, it took millions of years.
0 Let us consider the environment in which the ancestors of modern
land plants lived 600 million years ago. Water is one of the necessities
of life, but in an aquatic environment water is not a limiting factor to
growth. Plants also require sunlight to produce their own food through
photosynthesis. Near the surface of the water, light is generally ade-
quate for photosynthesis. In addition, plants require carbon dioxide and
oxygen, both of which are dissolved in water. Finally, plants require min-
eral nutrients to produce additional cells, tissues, and organs. Nutrients
can be a limiting factor in the middle of the ocean. Along coastlines,
however- the currents, wave action, and runoff water from the shore pro-
vide an ample supply of nutrients for plant growth. Conditions in the
water, then, are generally ideal for plant growth.
Gordon E. Uno
The land, on the other hand, may be extremo.ly varied, from hot to
freezing and from wet to dry. Water is the major limiting factor for any
Ask students why oceans are sometimes
compared to deserts Although 80% of all
organism on land. The only reliable source of water on land is under-
photosynthesis on the earth occurs in the ground, where it is too dark for photosynthesis. In the air, organisms lose
ocean, the ocean mazes up 90,/,) of the earth s water through evaporation from their surfaces. Without water, organ-
surface Not only this, but coastal areas account __ isms die. What possible advantages of life on land could overcome such
for a sizable portion of the ocean's a major disadvantage?
photosynthesis Deep ocean waters have only a There were a number of important advantages for plants to life on
slow turnover of minerals nt,,eded by surtaL.e land. First, there was the lack of competition. Because no other organ-
algae for photosynthesis isms were present on the land, plants that could tolerate the dry con-
ditions would have little competition for the other necessities of life.
Second, carbon dioxide and oxygen are more abundant in the air than

"54
, Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 439

Figure 13.3 BroWn and green algae along the ocean shore at low tide.

John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED

in water. Third, there is more light on landmuch of the light that

reaches wateris absorbed. Finally, there is plentiful space, and minerals
are readily available in the soil.

13.2 Two Major Groups of Land Plants

Evolvtd
One-celled algae that were tossed up on the beach by the tides prob-
ably soon dried out in the sunlight and died. That must have happened
countless times. However, a multicellular alga tossed onto the shore might
have a much better chance of surviving than would an individual cell on
its own. The outer cells of the organism could protect the inner ones from
drying out rapidly. The inner cells might be efficient at photosynthesis.
Other cells might specialize at collecting water or nutrients from the
environment. The resulting division of labor would enable the organism
to exploit the resources in its environment efficiently. Such a specialized
organism might be able to live, grow, and reproduce on land if occa-
sionally covered by tides or kept moist with ocean spray. The diverse
group of multicellular plants that covers the earth today could have
evolved, during 600 million years, from some such simple multicellular
alga with specialized cells. The known evolutionary history of plants is
summarized in figure 13.4.
The first land plants were probably relatively complex multicellular
green algae that already had evolved some of the adaptations found in
all modern plants. Such algae (figure 13.5) exist today, as we have seen
in section 12.11. Two plant lines apparently evolved from those ancestral
forms. The more primitive group, with few adaptations to a terrestrial
existence, includes the mosses and liverworts. The other group, which
includes fossils of the oldest land plants, has many more adaptations to
land and is, thus, considered more advanced.
Several adaptations are especially important for survival on land. They
include structures that protect the plant against water loss, structures
that enable the plant to obtain water and carbon dioxide, and structures
that protect the reproductive cells. In the next sections, we will examine
some of those adaptations in nonvascular and vascular plants.

543
440 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.4 The evolutionary history of plants. What evidence was used to
construct this history?

-47

primitive vascular plants

S.

first apples ,

13.3 Land Plants Have Adaptations that

Conserve Water and Permit Gas Exchange
0 The success of plants on land depends on their ability to absorb and
hold water. Structures that enable them to do so include roots, vascular
tissue, and a waxy covering, or cuticle. Mosses, the most primitive land
plants, lack those structures and, thus, are restricted to moist or wet
habitats.
Mosses live in shady, cool, moist conditions such as the banks of a
stream (figure 13.6a). They absorb water through most parts of their

5`44
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 441

Figure 13.5 The multicellular green alga Chara. The fossil record of Chara-like
algae extends back about 400 million years. Because of their structure and
reproductive patterns, algae such as Chara can serve as models of the
ancestors-of land plants.

BSCS by Doug Sol)

Figure 13.6 Mosses thrive in moist conditions such as streambanks (a), but
become dormant under dry conditions (b).

ti

Doug Sokell Doug Sokell

a b

545
 442 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

bodies. However, like the algal cells that were first tossed on shore, mosses
Figure 13.7 A well-developed root system
also can lose water through their entire body surface. That means they
enables a plant to collect water and minerals
from the soil. can dry out quickly if there is no source of water. Mosses have the ability
to become dormant under such dry conditions and then to start growing
again when they come in contact with water. However, while they are
dry, as in figure 13.6b, little growth occurs.
More advanced plants such as ferns, conifers (cone-bearing plants),
; and flowering plants have a well-developed root system (figure 13.7) that
penetrates into many parts of the soil. Such an extensive system can ef-
ficiently collect water and minerals from the soil and bring them to the
main body of the plant. Thus, rooted plants can grow in places too dry
for mosses. Rooted plants demonstrate a good example of division of
laborthe cells in the root collect water and minerals and the above-
ground cells absorb sunlight and produce food through photosynthesis.
Mosses never grow very tall. They lack an efficient water transport
system. Tall plants require cells that can transport water from the roots
to the leaves, and also cells that can support an upright body. All vas-
cular plants have the specialized tissues shown in figure 13.8. Those tis-
v sues conduct water, minerals, and sugars throughout the plant. Xylem
(ZY lem) transports water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the
plant. Xylem cells also provide support. Phloem (FLOH em) conducts
mito,v
ntejr...r sugars produced during photosynthesis to all parts of the plant. Xylem
BSCS by Doug Sokol! and phloem permit vascular plants to grow taller than nonvascular plants
and, thus, to capture more sunlight. Taller plants generally produce more
Ask students under what circumstances the sugars and, eventually, more offspring.
xylem liquids would contain a large amount of In mosses, water can evaporate from the entire body surface. More
dissolved food Xylem contains large amounts of advanced land plants produce a waxy layer called cuticle that covers the
dis )Ived food when material stored in roots or plant body (figure 13.9). That greatly reduces the amount of water that
un 3rground stems is being transported to the can evaporate from the surface of the plant. The cuticle is often very
upper portions of the plant body This is --thick on the leaves of plants that live in dry placesso thick that you
especialy true after a pertod in which
can scrape it of with your fingernail. Such a waterproof covering would
photosynthetic activity of the plant has been
prevent gas exchange with the environment. Vascular plants, however,
ieduced or stopped completely, for example,
during early spring Sugar rich maple.: sap comes
from xylem
Figure 13.8 Stained, longitudinal section of xylem tissue. How does xylem help
The cuticle is so hydrophobic that most sprays a plant survive on land?
such as biocides, contain a detergent to redui..e
surface. tension of the water in the solution to
allow it to spread

Randy MoontiVisuais Unlimit*d

X46'
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 443

have slitlike openings in the surface of their leaves that permit carbon
dioxide and oxygen to enter or leave the plant. These stomates (figure Figure 13.9 Plante such as this Aloe vera have
13.10) are present in the oldest fossil plants. The combination of roots 0 very thick cuticles, an adaptation that enables
them to survive in dry climates.
to absorb water, vascular tissue to support the plant and to conduct water,
a cuticle to prevent evaporation, and stomates to permit gas exchange
are characteristics that enable plants to live on land.

13.4 Primitive Plants Have Swimming :perm

Reproductive adaptations also were important in enabling plants to
survive on land. Those include the evolution of pollen grains that are
transported by wind and animals, protected spores, and protected em-
bryos. Mosses are restricted to moist habitats because their sperm are 0
flagellated, as are those of animals and algae. For sexual reproduction
to occur in mosses, the plants must be bathed in water so the sperm can
swim to the egg. Mosses can reproduce sexually only if the plants are
located where tater sprays them, or after they are wet with dew or rain.
That greatly restricts sexual reproduction. A more efficient means of
transporting the sperm to the egg would enable plants to produce more
offTring and, thus, increase their chances of surviving on land.
Special structures called pollen grains are found in seed plants. Sperm
develop in the pollen grains, which may be blown by wind or carried by
animals from one flower directly to another. This very efficient means of 6 SCS by Faith Hickman

transferring sperm to the egg under dry conditions is most highly de-
veloped in the flowering plants. Brightly colored flowers with odors at-
tract insects and contain nectar the insect visitors drink. An insect picks
up pollen from one flower and carries it to another while it searches for
nectar. Thus, flowering plants do not require free water for sexual re-
production to take place. They are, therefore, not restricted to moist con-
ditions, and sexual reproduction can occur whenever the sperm and egg
are fully developed.

Figure 13.10 A single stomata in the surface o',a leaf. Figure 13.11 Scanning electron micrograph of
a pollen grain from the cactus Opuntia
polyacantha, X525.

:7taitkirati.

a'

fife.; AsliaiiiiT044 STACK & ASSOCIATES

BSCS

547
 444 Section Three Diversity and Adaptaiicri 'in the Biosphere

Figure 13.12 Moss sporophytes (Polytrichium) growing from the temala

gametophyte plants.

WM. S. Ormond i VISUALS UNLIMITED

13.5 The Life Cycle of Plants Alternates

between Two Generations
Protection of spores and embryos is another adaptation of plants to
life on land. That protection is best developed in the seed plants. To un-
derstand the importance of those characteristics we need to compare the
life cycle of a primitive plant such as a moss with that of an advanced
flowering plant.
0 Sexually reproducing plant:, have two genetic phases known as gen-
eratioir. One generation N diploid and the other is haploid. Because these
diploid and haploid phases alternate, the life cycle of a plant is called
alternation of generations.
We can illustrate the life cycle of a primitive plant with the familiar
mosses you may see along a stream (look again at figure 13.6). The
smooth green carpet of moss is actwily many individual plants crowded
Sperm, when first expelled swim reridutrily As together. Each plant has tiny leaflike structures and rootlike threads that
the spernr enter the viunity ut the tetnale help hold Cie plant to the ground. These small plants are all haploid, and
gametophyte, they move down the riedk to the each is calied a gametophyte (guh MEET oh fyt). In time it will product.
egg Cells of the neck secrete ti fluid, and the gametes, usually in special structures at tne tips of the plants. In wet
sperm move toward the area of greater conditions, sperm are produced in male gametophytes. The sperm swim
concentration of that fluid in a film of water to the egg cell in the female gametophyte, and E zygote
is produced.
The zygote divides and develops into an embryo. Eventually, the em-
bryo grows out of the female gametophyte into a stalklike structure, the
The sporophyte usually contains 6tilvrophyll until sporophyte (SPQR oh fyt), easily visible above the small haploid indi-
the spores zre produced, alter which it uses viduals (figure 13.12). Meiosis occurs within the capsule at the end of
food from the gametophyte
the sporophyte, and haploid spores are formed. The spores are somewhat
protected in the capsule, VI not nearly as protected as the spores of
Many bryophytes also are capable of flowering plants. Moss xpoi.. a... :4:leased from the capsule and are car-
reproducing vegetatively Any immature cell of ried to wherever the wint! or
either the sporophyte or garrietopP le can
ansports them. Most spores fall onto
'unfavorable habitats and die If spore reaches a favorable environ-
produce a new gametophyte Also, some can
produce an asexur.I reproductive body. the
mentusually a moist soil L4ii iE . its wall bursts open. The cell with;..
gemma, which gives rise to a new gametophyte

i
548
 Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 445

Figure 13.13 Life cycle of a moss.

Av Adtd) Gameto
ohne
scolcw (hap
meiosis
capsule
4
(.0 GI 4
ss
spores c.
sporophyte germinating
spore

gametophyte

mature sporophyte
growing on tip of
parent gametophyte

male
sperm gametophyte
fertilization produced
zygote
formed

egg produced female

gametophyte

undergoes mitosis and divides, producing long green threads that re-
semble the filaments of many aquatic algae. The familiar gametophyte
moss plant develops from those threads. The life cycle of the moss is
complete when a spore germinates in this way and grows into another
gametophyte plant. The life cycle of a moss is diagrammed in figure
13.13, and you can compare it with that of a flowering plant in inves-
tigation 13.1.

13.6 Flowering Plants Protect Their Spores

and the Egg-Producing Gametophyte
Advanced plants also have a life cycle with alternation of generations. A student who has begun to a,,guire the spilt of
However, the gametophyte generation is much reduced in Size and re- this Lour,: e, should ask Why are stamens and
mains attached to and protei.:ted by the sporophyte. Let us first examine ..lieved to be modified leaves"' A full
the reproductive structures of flowering plants. answer, involving paleontological evidence is
difficult to give at this point However, in many
The reproductive organs in higher plants are found in flowers. A flower
primitive plants the stamens art broad and flat
is actually a short branch bearing groups of specialized leaves. Some of
fike very narrow leaves Also the arrangement of
these may resemble ordinary leaves in many ways. Others are so dif-
stamens and pistils on the (lower stalk is often
ferent in structure that it is hard to think of them as leaves at all. If you similar to the arrangement of leaves on the
examine a flower such as a buttercup, you see on the underside a number stemspiraling upward

549
446 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.14 Buttercup plant and diagram of its flower structure.

petal
stamen
pistil
sepal

of green, leaflike structures called sepals (SEE pulz). Before the bud
opens, the sepals cover and protect the other parts of the flower. The
1113St conspicuous flower parts in a buttercup, and most other flowers,
are the colorful petals. Petals are often leaflike in shape, but they are
usually not green.
Just inside the circle of petals of typical flowers is a ring of male re-
productive structures, the stamens (STAY menz). In the center of the
flower are one or more pistils (PIS tilt), the female reproductive struc-
tures. Although most plants have both male and female organs within
the same flower, a few produce flowers with only female parts, or only
male parts. Stamens usually have an enlarged tip, the anther, while pis-
tils usually have a pointed tip, the stigma. Despite their shapes, however,
both stamens and pistils are thought to be modified leaves that have been
adapted for reproductive roles.
Let us now relate the reproductive structures to the life cycle, shown
The evolutionary development of the ovule is in figure 13.15. At the base of the pistil is an enlarged portici, the ovary,
considered a major structural adaptatici of that contains one to Luny small structures called ovules (OHV yoolz).
vascular Wants Its enclosure by an integurilent Meiosis occurs in a special cel: i each ovule, resulting in the formation
makes possib:e both better protection and a of four haploid cells, the female spores. These spores do not separate
nutrient supply for the developing female from the sporophyte as they do in mosses. Instead, three of the spores
garaetophyt,
disintegrate. The fourth spore divides three times mitotically, forming
eight nuclei. The nuclei, with their surrounding cytoplasm, form coils.
This is the female gametophyte, and one of the cells is the egg cell.

%.7
 Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 447

Figure 13.15 Life cycle of a flowering plant. The parts are drawn to different
scales.

610616)
Gametophyte
(haploicyj
99ot olP4te

pistil

meiosis

female
gametophyte
development
stamen of pollen
flower

mature
sporophyte

))) pollen

seedling mature
seed developing
embroyo fertilization

iL UJ egg nucleus

Figure 13.16 Female gametophyte of a lily. (a) Meiosis in the developing ovule.
(b) Mature ovule ready to be fertilized; the egg nucleus is one of those on the
right.

.54:;C:14 p or,',...- I p -.

E 1,
N
44
a ,c, ' t,
...
"4 , ....
S.

1
I
-t.., , ,.-

,.. - ' ---.744P5 2". ,,

'I,
.t.
,
-
Oak ilk . _.....1...,tn..14
Al
. '14M3'
a Fhpon MiCroshdes. b Ripon Mcroslides. Inc.

551
448 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.17 Mature pollen grain with two nuclei. A pollen grain is the male
gametrophyte of a seed plant.

John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED

In the stamens, cells in the anthers undergo meiosis, each giving rise
Figure 13.18 A germinated pollen grain with its to four haploid cells, the male spores. Each spore contains one haploid
pollen tube.
nucleus that divides by mitosis, forming two nuclei. A spore wall thickens
pollen around each nucleus, forming a pollen grain. A single stamen may con-
grain
tain thousands of pollen grains. Each mature pollen grain is a male ga-
metophyte.
Now the stage is set for pollination and fertilization. Pollination is
the transfer of pollen from the stamens to the pistil, either between flowers
of the same plant, or between flowers of different plants of the same
species. The stigma at the top of the pistil is sticky, and can trap pollen
grains. Pollen grains reach the stigma by chance. They may be brought
there be wind, by water, or by a visiting animal.
The hard walls of the pollen grains protect the haploid cells until they
land on a stigma. Once there, a thin finger of tissue, the pollen tube,
pollen tube
grows from the pollen grain into the pistil. W.:hin the pollen tube one
nucleus, the tube nucleus, leads the way. The other nucleus divides to
form two sperm nuclei. The pollen tube continues to grow down the pistil,
sperm nuclei
transporting the sperm nuclei to the ovule. One sperm nucleus fertilizes
the egg, forming a zygote. This new diploid cell will give rise to the em-
bryo of the plant. The other sperm nucleus unites with two other female
nuclei known as polar nuclei. That fusion leads to the formation of the
endosperm (EN doh sperm), a mass of food-storing cells. The endosperm
is triploidit has three sets of chromosomes.
X 500 The life cycle of a flowering plant is similar to that of a moss in two
ways. First, meiosis occurs just before spore formation. Second, there is,
alternation of generations between the sporophyte and gametophyte por-
tube nucleus
tions of the life cycle. There are, however, several differences. First, free
water is not necessary for fertilization, as it is in mosses. Second, in flow-
ering plants the gametophytes are much smaller than the sporophytes.
This proLt;ss flowering pants, ,Ivory twv Third, the gametophyte that produces an egg, and the ;pm that pro-
4.trtir nu.,tkq know, a,louUt liAttzat.on duced the gametophyte, do not separate from the sporophyte plant as
they do in mosses. Thus, those structures are much better protected from
the environment than their counterparts in a moss. Finally, the embryo
of a flowering plant grows for a short time, then stops growing or be-

552
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 449

Figure 13.19 Stages in fertilization and embryo development of a flowering

plant.

pollen grain

pollen sperm nuclei

tube
tube nucleus

developing
ovule embryo
endosperm
fusion
nucleus

sperm embryo
egg nuclei
nucleus

a c

comes dormant. The embryo, along with its endosperm, becomes sur-
rounded by sturdy, protective coats formed from ovule tissues. This Figure 13.20 Diagram showing the internal
package is the seed (figure 13.20). The seed protects the young sporo- structures of a seed.
phyte, which remains dormant until environmental conditions are suit-
able for it to germinate and to continue its growth. Moss embryos, on
the other hand, cannot tolerate extreme or prolonged dry conditions.
In general, land plants show a trend toward increasing specialization
of the sporophyte and decreasing specialization of the gametophyte, as
summarized in figure 13.21.
Seed plants !lave been extremely successful because of their adap-
tations to the harsh and changing environment on land. The combination
of the cuticle, vascular tissue, a root system, sperm that develop inside
pollen, spores protected on sporophytes, and an embryo protected in a
seed make flowering plants extremely well suited to life on land. In the
remaining sections of this chapter, we will examine a few examples from
the major groups of land plants.

Self-Review

1. What are the disadvantages of life on land compared to life in the

water?
2. Why is a clump of cells with some division of labor more likely than
a single cell to survive on land?
3. What adaptations do plants have to obtain and conserve water?
4. What is the advantage of pollen-carried sperm compared to swim-
ming sperm?
5. How do the two gene' ations differ in the life cycle of a plant?
6. What is the role of the pollen tube?
7. What happens to the two sperm from a single pollen grain?
8. What part of a flowering plant gives rise to the seed?

553
450 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.21 Evolution and specialization in sporophytes and gametophytes.

Increasing sPecIalizatl°11 43t sPc1"1""te

;plods,

decreasing
specialization
of gametophyte

gametophytes
seed
plant

Investigation 13 1 Investigation 13.1 REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES AND LIFE CYCLES
AND LIFE CYCLES
Introduction
This investigation develop, the BSCS themes The basic principles of sexual reproduction in a moss, a flower, a bee,
of the complemertaritv t t arid loriLtoli, and a human are the same. Their reproductive organs differ, however, as
diversity of type and unity of pattern, does the environment in which each lives and reproduces.
complerrientanty of organism and environment Mosses form mats on logs and on the forest floor. They grow best in
the basis of the genetic of life ant, damp, shaded environments. A clump of moss is composed of many ga-
growth and development in flit, individual metophytes all growing close together. Sporephytes grow out ot the tops
Students will study i) of generations of the gametophytes and often look like hairs growing out of the mat of
and the diversity of organs in plants that are moss. Mosses cannot reproduce without ample moisture.
adapted for sexual reproduut.- Flowering plants are found in many different environments and climates.
Students can work in grou, of 2 or 3 jut it They need moisture to sustain life, but moisture is not required for repro-
is preferable for them to work individually They duction. Flowers have evolved in many different colors, shapes, and sizes.
should be able to compete this invbstigasioh In this iestigation you will learn how the structures of a moss and a flower
a 50minute laboratory period sc7ia reproductive funct:ms in their respective environments.

it- r:-
ti
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 451

Materials (per team) Materials

For moss You can collect living moss plants from fields
at any time during the year It it is winter or a dry
moss plants with sporophytes season, put them in a terrarium in the laboratory.
moss plants with male sex orgars They will revive and start growing in a day or
moss plants with female sex orgois two
4 fresh moss plants Living moss plants with mature f,porophytes
dissecting needle are more difficult to obtair. in the field Preserved
microscope slides specimens can be obtained from a biological
coverslips
supply house
compound microscope
You may want to show the students how to
demonstration slide of filamentous stage of moss (whole mount)
obtain archegonia and anthendia by squeezing
them from the tips of the gametophyles You
For flowers can use e.monstiation slides of archegonia and
anthendL, but whole mounts are preferred
gladiolus flower Whole mounts of the filamentous stage
some other simple flowers for comparison (protonema) should be obtained from a
single-edge razor blade biological supply house or from a local
stereoscopic dissecting microscope university
fresh bean or pea pods Spores of many mosses can be germinated
on agar under illumination This part of the life
Procedure cycle is not critical to the explanation of
alternation of generations, but it is part of the
Part AMoss Plants moss life cycle and should not be ignored
1. Take a moss plant with a sporophyte attached. Separate the 2 gen- Most moss plants are heterct, allicthat
erations by pulling the filamentous stalk of the sporop;qte out of the the male sex organs are on one plant, the
leafy shoot of the gametophyte. female sex organs on another
2. The sporophyte part of the moss has a smooth, leafless stem termi- For part B, gladioli are recommended
nating in a little capsule. With a dissecting needle, break open the cap- because they can be readily oLtained fron, loyal
sule of the sporophyte into a drop of water on a slide. Cover the slide florists. especially if you request them in
with a cover slip and examine under the low power of your micro- advance Sweet peas can be used if you have
scope. facilities to grow them Lilies and snapdragons
(a) What are the structures you observe? also can be used and are usually available from
(b) How are these structures distributed in nature? florists
(c) How are they adapted for life on land? Flowers of Vilica produce pollen that
3. The spores of most mosses germinate readily on damp soil and pro- germinate:, in minutes, and tialca usually can be
duce a filamentous-stage that looks like a branching g-een alga. Ex- obtained from local florists or nurseries
amine the demonstration slide of this stage. If you prefer you can obtain demonstraticn
4. The filamentous stage gives rise to the leafy shoot of the gameto- slides of germinated pollen Iron biological
phyte. How does this leafy shoot obtain water and minerals for growth? supply houses
5. The reproductive organs of the gametophyte are produced at the upper Fresh beans or pea pods i _ usually
end of the leafy shoot. Obtain a male or a female plant and hold it so available in local grocery stores
that the tip is between your thumb and forefinger. Squeeze the tip and
at the same time roll it between your thumb and forefinger. Now sub- Procedure
merge the tip of the leafy shoot in a drop of water on a microscope Part A
slide. Tease out the ::agments from the tip of the shoot with a needle.
Some of the fragments will be the moss sex organs. 2 (a) Spores
6. Follow the same procedure for both male and female mosses. Put a (b) The wind shakes the 1/4,apsule and the
cover slip over the fragthents from each plant. Observe the prepa- spores are shed They are carried or distributed
rations under the low power 01/cur microscope. The male sex organs by air currents
are simple saclike structures that produce large numbers of sperm (c) Spores have fairly thi-1. 4dlis composed
cells. The female sex organs are flask-shaped and have long, twisted of waterproof material that keeps them tram
drying out
necks. An egg is formed within the swollen base of the female organ.
(a) How does a sperm reach the egg for fertilization? 4 The leafy shoot of a moss plant has
(b) Would you expect tc Ind moss plants growing where there was rhizoids which have 3 fund ion similar to roots
little or no water present? Explain why or why not. and root hairs
(c) The union of the egg and sperm results in a cell called the zygote.
Where is the zygote formed?
(d) What does the zygote grow into?

r
452 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

6 (a) PI«. ti; ht^(10;111.1rli Part 8Flowers

tr.c.)uct,
1. Examine the outside parts of a gladiolus flower. The outermost whorl
tb) Rt:prOdoc bon A, ;
of floral parts are green, leaflike parts. These green sepals protected
r" drea Water r-QUIr12:.1 Jur,11, Mt
the flower bud when it was young. Some flowers, lilies for example,
rpr3cluc to,,e tit-110,2 1113t.', the rric,s,
seem to be lacking sepals. Actually they are present and ?ook like an
C-1 In ttrt; tht ht.. gOntUrT I
outer whorl of petals. Petals are usually large and colored, and lie just
(0; An ->mb,yo
inside the sepals. Both sepals and petals are attached to the enlarged
end of a branch. These parts of the flower are not directly involved in
Part B
sexual reproduction. What functions might petals have?
1 The peta,_ (1;14, r t Cr a 2. Strip away the sepals and petals to examine the essential parts of the
art, utar apt r re5 of t ai i -1,)0 flower. You will find a central stalklike body surrounded by 5 to 10
nt delicate stalks. Each of these stalks ends in a little sac. The 3mall sacs
la) In 14 and ,...41ad,,,Lut- ,-1,1fitts 6 It are anthers in which thousands of tiny pollen grains are produced.
th,2 t1oA,, ti, 1r- 11,In'4 Each anther together with its slender stalk is a stamen. The stamens
POItn .,tirvir fill from th,, anther to make up the male parts of a flower. The number of stamens varies
tr,' stigma It attic can be- carncd by IriSeCtS according to the kind of flower.
t ntS or wend In some - -; I kit, t_i13ntL (a) How many stamens are present in the flower you are using?
ra for Dohnation (b) How is pollen carried from the anthers to the female part of the
3 Thlt- -4.c;nia 15 str,_hi and niop-,r flower?
4 (a) Tht, stud. pt, OIL -t nul t ti-, 1.t,, 3. The central stalk surrounded by the stamens is the female part of the
stn; tun-, trit flower. This female part is called the pistil. It is composed of an en-
(t. jrac 4.-t. t.-. larged basal part, the ovary, above which is an elongated style. The
t, .,3(1 th to tht style ends in the stigma. Hov la the stigma adapted to trap the pollen
Th,rt t bi- a path, ,, av that the grains and to provide a place for them to grow?
J Tr ,ttid- Trt: )t,-r 4. With a sharp razor blade, crt the ovary lengthwise. Using a hand lens
`n. r;-11, ;), Ilrh trIt Atli or dissecting microscope, look at the cut surface.
t fir, ,=41 (a) How many ovules can you see inside the ovary?
iv 7r1, r, ,t ,s a rr,itt (b) How close to the egg can the pollen grain get?
tr,; Th. (c) If the pollen grain cannot get to the egg directly, how do the sperm
rtan Th n. A plant cells produced by the pollen reach the egg?
'I, r-1 r 5. The union of egg and sperm causes extensive changes in the female
-rrr reproductive parts. Fertilization of the egg stimulates the growth of the
ovary and the enclosed ovules. Carefully examine a fresh bean or pea
"r ;1,' )A -,1 -1-rrr pod. Open the pod to find the seeds.
(a) What part of the female reproductive apparatus is the pod of a
Discussion bean or pea?
(b) What is the origin of the seeds?
(c) If we plant ripe bean or pea seeds and water the seeds, what will
rte- ar, y they give rise to?
`r- r.- try v ,1, t,ir , :vv.; ,'d) What can you conclude develops within a seed as a result of fer-
(1,;nt -star
tilization?
.r,ty
S *T' ,or tt, Discussion
10 In r,01-;r, Ire ;-; rrrif;
.)r.)t-t), t, I 1,-aft111nt 1. In alternation of generations in a moss, which is the predominant, in-
F r rT
dependent generation?
rr j tHr o: I 114
2. Which is the less conspicuous generation?
e t 4,t" r ;;;r11; ; ,,t 1* r!
3. Compare the life cycle of a moss (with alternation of generations) with
if. `,- to Ir your life cycle (with no alternation of generations).
t, , 4. In what kind of plants would you expect the most variation, flowering
plants or those reproducing by asexual means? Explain your answer.
5. Compare the le cycle of a moss with that of a flowering plant.
6. Do flowering plants represent more or less adaptation to a land en-
vironment than the mosses? Explain your answer.
C'-npter 13 Eukarvotes: Plants 453

To keep in touch with the field of scientific

illustration, Marj contacted the Guild of Natural
Biological Illustrator Science Illustrators (GNSI), based in Washington,
D.C. Knowing Colorado has nothing similar, she
founded the Colorado Chapter of GNSI, and made
friends with a group of local illustrators.
In February 1986, Marj went into business for
herself as a scientific iilustrator and graphic artist.
She contacted old and new local clients and
publishers throughout the country, and spent
many hours doing research and marketing.
Artists sLch as Marj illustrate reports and
journal articles prepared by researchers in
universities across the country. Many also work in
natural history museums. They paint and construct
the background scenery for many kinds of
BSCS by Doug Sokell
displays. These artists may recreate the Alaskan
Marjorie Leggitt is a freelance biological illustrator. tundra to show off a group of polar bears or a
She has been interested in art since she was very South American hillside for a display of llamas.
young. Her family is composed of writers, In her work, Marj does a great deal of research
sculptors, pair ,ers and woodcarvers, so this and uses many references and photos to ensure
interest comeo very naturally to her. From her accuracy. She consults extensively with authors in
family and friends she learned to experiment with plannog an illustration. It is essential that she
materials and colors. Her interest in science, on understand the author's intent, what the illustration
the other hand, is something Marj says she does is meant to portray, and how it relates to the text
not clearly understand. She thinks it might be and to other illustrations. Proper interpretation
because she could do so much drawing in depends on good communication between author
science classes. and artist.
In college, a biological illustration course Marj strongly believes that hard work does pay
sparked her interest, but she continued to study off. At times the hours are long, the deadlines
Fine Arts. After studying for a year in Europe, Marj close to impossible, and the challenges seemingly
realized she missed science and the technical art insurmountable. However, the .s doing exactly
that goes with it. She returned to college and what she wants to be doingfull-time scientific
designed her own program of independent studies illustration.
leading to a degree in scientific art. Included in
that program was an internship at The Denver
Museum of Natural History. After graduation, Marj
illustrated a professor's botanical field guide while
searching for a full-time job in her field. Her
persistence was rewarded by a position at The
Field Museum in Chicago.
Marj later returned to Denver to be married and
had to reestablish her career there. That proved
to be difficult, because opportunities for scientific
illustration were far fewer than in larger cities
where more research was being conducted. For
seven years she worked in art-related jobs,
including geological drafting and computer-aided
graphics. Marj learned a whole new field of art, SCS by Doug Sokell
but she was not satisfied with her direction.

557
454 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.22 Bryophytes: (a) moss, Polytrichium; (b) liverwort, Marchantia

polymorpha.

a.

a BSCS by Carty& Calvin b John Shaw /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Guidepost: Why are bryophytes mostly Nonvascular Plants

restricted to moist
habitats?
13.7 Bryophytes Have No Roots,
Stems or Leaves
[bry OFF ih tuh] Plants in the division Bryophyta are relatively small, very few ex-
ceeding 20 cm in height. Most bryophytes bear structures resembling
Bryophytes are pioneer plants on newly stems and leaves, but they lack vascular tissue. The largest class of bry-
exposed substrates, suL,h as bare rock ophytes is the true mosses. Other bryophytes are liverworts and horn-
surfaces They build up organic materials and worts (figure 13.22).
produce a water- and a mineral-reclaiming Mosses often grow in clumps or small clusters in rock crevices and at
substrate that may then be colonized by
the base of trees. An individual moss plant from such a clump is simply
vascular plants
an upright green, stemlike stalk with threadlike structures called rhi-
zoids (RY zoidz) that function in absorption. The rhizoids also help to
Beq,duSe (Tidily of the plants are less familiar hold the plant in place. Many flat, green, leaflike structures are attached
to student. than are .eed plant., it is important spirally along the stalk. Because true roots, stems, and leaves contain
to have on hand many specimens, preferably
vascular tissue, those terms are not used in describing mosses. Water and
living Collect living moss plants from a field at
nutrients are absorbed throughout the body of the moss, so most mosses
any time of the year If it is winter or a dry
grow in fairly damp places, and a few grow in water. Some become dor-
season, bring the plants into the laboratory and
put them in a terrarium They will revive and start mant during droughts, but are rejuvenated after rain. Many mosses can
growing in a day or two photosynthesize in limited light, so they often are found on the ground
in forest ecosystems where other plants cannot grow.
An important group of mosses is found in boggy places in the cold
and temperate parts of the world. Those mosses, from the genus
[SFAG num] Sphagnum, form peat bogssmall lakes and ponds completely filled with
living and dead moss plants. Peat bogs are formed when a lake slowly
fills up with peat moss plants that die but are not decomposed. The mosses
produce a very acidic condition in the water that keeps decomposers such
as bacteria and fungi from growing. The moss plants build up through
time, stacking layer on layer. People in Ireland and other countries cut
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 455

Figure 13.23 A sphagnum bog.

William J. Weber/VISUALS UNLIMITED

of the peat moss, dry it, and use it for fuel or to build small en- In the suc,L-ebion of a ptat bog Iht Sphagnum
, 4res. Dry peat moss absorbs water very quickly and holds the water forms d floating niat that a si,tablt, habitat for
well. Those characteristics make peat moss attractive to gardeners, who other plants
add it to their soil to lower the pH and to increase the water-holding
capacity.

Self-Review

1. What is a rhizoid?
2. How do mosses absorb?
3. Why do decomposers not grow well in peat bogs?

Primitive Vascular Plants Guidepost: How do groups of vascular

plants differ in structure
and habitat?
13.8 Club Mosses and Horsotails Are
Primitive, Seedless, Vascular Plants
Probably most of the plants you can name are vascular plants. Vas-
cular plants have a continuous system of tubes (a vascular system)
through their roots, stems, and leaves. By means of this system, water,
saga; and dissolved minerals move from one place in the plant to an-
0
other. For land plants, movement of water upward from the soil is very
important. All of the plants described in the remainder of t'-iis chapter
are characterized by vascular tissue.

JJ
456 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.24 A reconstruction of the extinct Figure 13.25 The whisk fern, Psilotum. Note the sporangia along the stems.
plant Rhynia It had no leaves or roots, and
stood about 30 cm high. Sporangia were
produced at the tips of upper branches. The
branches had a core of xylem with phloem
around it. The presence of stomates in the
epidermis indicates that photosynthesis
occurred in the branches. The cells of vascular
tissue (upper right) were oblong and, in the case
of xylem, hollow. Thick-walled spores were
produced in fours in the sporangia, an indication
that the spores were produced by meiosis.

spore cell from

vascular
tissue

W. OrmerodiVISUALS UNLIMITED

epidermis
The oldest fossil plants were vascular. They are best represented by
cortex
Rhynia major, a plant formed of a stemlike structure which you can see
phloem in figure 13.24. Rhynia had an underground stem called a rhizome (RY
xylem zohm), that probably served to anchor the plant and to absorb water.
From the rhizome grew upright branched stems that were covered with
cuticle and that contained stomates. At the tips of the stems were spo-
rangia that split open to release thick-walled spores. The closest living
relative of Rhynia is the whisk fern, Psilotum, shown in figure 13.25.
The club mosses (Division Lycophyta) are low-growing evergreen
crass secion plants that seldom become more than 40 cm tall. Their branching, hor-
of branch 0 izontal stems grow on the surface of the soil or just below ;t. The most
noticeable part of a club moss plant is an upright branch growing from
one of these stems. Club mosses reproduce by spores, which are pro-
stoma duced on modified, specialized leaves. In many species those lea...es form
club-shaped cones at the tips of short, upright stems. The name club
moss is derived from that feature. Club mosses are rather common plants
in much of the eastern and northwestern United States and often are
used to make Christmas wreaths. They rarely occur in the dry states of
the southwest.
Horsetails (Division Sphenophyta) are plants with hollow, jointed,
upright branches that grow from horizontal underground stems. Their
small, scalelike leaves are arranged in a circle around each stem joint,
as you can see clearly in the chapter opener photo. Spores are produced
in conelike structures at the tips of some of the upright branches. The
epidermis with stoma cones can be seen in figure 13.27. In middle latitudes horsetails rarely
reach a height of 2 m, but in the American tropics one species may grow
several meters tall. They are found in moist placer, such as along streams.
Horsetails are harsh to the touch; their tissues contain silica, a com-
0 pound present in sand. American Indians and the pioneers scrubbed pots
ana inns with thcm, thus their common name of scouring rushes.
Lwophyla Als:n toproctic vooetatiip.ly by
gemrnae on :item th tly [RY nyuh MAY jer] [ly KOF ih tuh]
into new plants

The horsetails chow very link. change rn (hest

[sy LOH turn] [sfen OFF ih tuh]
long evolutionary history leacting to the thodut.
Egaselum
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 457

Figure 13.26 A club moss, Lycopodium, with Figure 13.27 Spores of Equioetum are
cones that will produce spores. produced fl-these conelike structures.
.,,..

David S. Addison/VISUALS UNLIMITED

Forest W. Buchanan/VISUALS UNLIMITED

Relatives of the club mosses and horsetails can be traced back to 400
million years ago. During the Coal Age, about 300 million years ago, Figure 13.28 North America in the
-Teat parts of North America were covered by shallow swamps and seas. Carboniferous period (about 300 million years
ago).
The warm and wet environment allowed plants to grow year-round.
Under those conditions giant relatives of today's club mosses, horsetails,
and ferns, as well as primitive seed-producing plants, covered the land.
Some of those plants were more than 20 m tall (figure 13.29). As they 0
died, their large stems were covered with mud and soil before they nom-
pletely decayed. A tremendous number of plants from the Coal Age was
compressed over long periods of time and under high temperature and
great pressure. Eventually, they became what we call fossil fuels, mainly
coal and some natural gas.

13.9 Fern Leaves Grow

from Underground Stems
Ferns (Division Pterophyta), like the club mosses and horsetails, re-
produce by spores. At certain times of the year, small brown spots de-
velop on the undersides of fern leaves (figure 13.30). Each spot consists
of a cluster of sporangia. Each sporangium produces a large number of
spores, which are almost microscopic in size. Spores are far simpler than
seeds. A spore contains no embryo and only a small amount of food.

[ter OFF ih tuh] ..

SIC water and swamp

Egg land

561
458 Section Three Diversity and Adapt; Lion in tne Biosphere

Figure 13.29 Some trees of the coal-age forests: Lepidodendron raid Sigillaria
were club mosses. Cordaites were primitive gyr losperniz. The seed ferns havo
no living species. Calamites were horsetails.

You may find the map in figure 13.28 useful for

relating past geography to present. The Figure 13.30 Sporangia on the underside of a fern leaf.
evidence for such maps lies principally in the
characteristics and the sequences of rocks and 51111n.
,
their associated fossils. The theory of plate
tectonics and continental drift does not
significantly alter a map such as this, because
1'
the map basically concerns a single .3ctonic ..
plate from the r,inp of sand through Central
America no-th to the Arctic region. 144

A studet who would like to prepare some

herbarium specimens will find that ferns are
good plants to start with. They are easy to
collect and press. Further they do not suffer so
much of the color loss that is often
disappointing in pressing flowering plants.
Whether you wish to encourage collecting
depends on your local situation.

OSCS by Cbrlye CslyIn

 Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 459

Figure 13.31 Fern gametophyte (a), and sporophyte (b).

a Stan Elems/VISUALS UNLIMITED b .Pat Armstrong/VISUALS UNLIMITED

When a spore case is mature, it opens and the spn-es are thrown o 0
into the air. Spores are very light and can be carrkd for incredible dis- Figure 13.32 Tree fern on the island of
tances by wind. If a spore falls in a suitably moist place, it germinates Sumatra.
and develops rapidly into a thin, green, heart-shaped plant that is rarely
over 1 cm in diameter (figure 13.31a). The small gametophyte plant is
seldom noticed in the woods and is completely different from the fa-
miliar fern with its large leaves. The gametophyte produces the sperm
or eggs, or in some cases, both. As in mosses, the fern sperm must swim
-in:a film of water to fertilize the egg. The zygote produced by that fer-
tilization eventually grows into the conspicuous spore-bearing fern plant
that most people world recognize. That large plant is the sporophyte
generation of the fern seen in figure 13.3 lb.
The ferns native to most of the United States are shade-dwelling plants
with underground roots and stems. From those stems, roots grow down-
ward and new sets of upright leaves appear above ground each spring.
In Hawaii and elsewhere in the tropics many species of ferns have stems
that grow upright. Those tree ferns may reach a height of 20 m with
E. S Ross
leaves 5 m in length. Most fern species are found in the tropics, but many
can be found in forest ecosystems around the world. Fern spores are easy to grow Collect spores by
spreading fern fronds with spore cases on white
paper Leave them undisturbed. The spores will
be expelled from the cases as the fern fronds
Self-Review dry out. Dry sporangia also burst when placed in
a drop of glycerol; this may be observed under
the low power of the microscope ores can
L What materials do vascular tissues carry? be stored for several years in capped vials, To
2. How did horsetails get the common name of scouring rushes? germinate and grow the g ..metophytes, float a
3. How was coal formed? few spores on a solution of commercial, indoor
4. What events must occur for a fern sporophyte to be produced from plant food in water about 1 cm deep in a petn
a gametophyte? dish. Cover and leave in indirect sunlight or
5. What is a compound leaf? under a growing lamp. Allow about 6 weeks for
the gametophytes to form fully and about 12
weeks to see the sporophytes growing out of
the gametophytes' archegoniums,

563
 460 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Ma, ,1111IN
Investigation 13.2 Investigation 13.2 'INCREASINGLY COMPLEX
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
Introduction
The basic purpose at this investigation is to Biologists sometimes use pair,. of terms such as primitive and advanced
broaden students' fir; hhand cAperience with a or simple and complex when discussing diversity among organisms. In
variety of orgar A secondary purpose chapter 9 we saw that species living today are related to each other through
derives from the dea of genek refatiariship.. their ancestors. From that comes a further idea that some of the species
amon3 organisms It logically follows that living today retain more of their ancestors' characteristics than do other
organisms characteristics have Ltivered species. A species that has changed little from its ancestors is said to be
through successive gelleratioris tit the past That simple or less complex than organisms that vary a great deal from their
some present-day organisms [Tidy ttd.a rt:iddtd ancestors. Conversely, a species that has few of the cnaracteristics of its
more, and others fewer of their ancestors ancestors is said to be advanced or more complex. There may be many
characteristics Ps a k-urallary natuta,I), taliamhg degrees of advancement, so the terms simple and advanced are not ab-
from this position solute terms. They are useful only in making comparisons such as we will
make in this investigation.
Materials Scientists have studieo many kinds of evidence in tne fossil record and
Students are asked to observe intetert,e in living organisms. They have reached fairly general agreement about which
should be kept at a minimum Theretvre, characteristics have been in existence for a long time and which have ap-
organisms should show many of the peared more recently. Table 13.1 is based on such studies.
characteristics needed for correct scoring For
example. gymnosperm specimens should have
Materials (per class)
seeds flowering plant specimens shcaid have
fruits or flowers mosses. ferns, and club 10 labeled specimens of organisms of various divisions,
mosses should bear spore cases Some arranged at stations
distinctionsas between shrub and treeare monocular clic' occopes
difficult to exrilnit in specimens small enough for hand lenses
the laboratory stereomicroscopes
E.<pend considerable effort to provide a t microscope slides
diversity of organisms perhaps not more than 3 cover slips
of the 10 specimens should be flowering plants.
and not more than 1 of these should be
Procedure
herbaceous
Suggestions for organisms folio* For 1. In your data book, prepare a data table like the one below, with enough
microscopegreen algae (Spirogyra. lines for all 10 specimens.
Dedogonium, Ulothrix) yeasts For hand
lens or dissecting scope molds (Ripzopus Name of Organism Numerical Values of Total Rank
Aspergittus), liverworts (Marchantia, Choices Made Advancement
Conocephaluml, mosses (Polytnchum Score
Pogonatum, fvfnium Dicranum), and lichens For 1.
the naked eyeLyi.upiluiii, ferns
(Polyshchum, Polypodium). pine s,..ruce 2.
begonia, Zebnna, household geranium, and etc.
firethorn it you v+itIA tv iiiciuoe
cyanobacteria in the investigator . the key
allows you to do so As atway frost Hiatt:ha, tc 2. Determine the Advancement Score for each of the labeled specimens;
preferable to preserved fvfo:,, the organisms Start at the left of table 13.1. Arrows from the starting point lead to 2
listed above are tairty easy to obtain in the descriptions. Choose the one that fits the organism you are scoring.
autumn Advanced organisms such as plants are represented at each station
Table 13 1 bears d supertual reoemblarh,t, as well as some simple organisms from kingdoms other ,lean the plant
to a dichotomous key, this enables students to kingdom.
grasp the plan of work quickly 3. Proceed across the table by following the arrows and choosing in each
To obtain bread molds, start about 10 days column the desci, t ltl that best fits each organism.
before the work is scheduled If passible, use 4. At each description there is a number. Record the numbers of your
home-baked bread or rolls, ur commercial descriptions in the 2nd column of your data table. Contint, as far as
bread without mold inhibitors Break the; brtaJ the arrows go. The Advancement Score for the organism is the sum
into 10 pieces to avoid later handling Eireac )f all the numbers appearing after the descriptions you used in working
mold spores are usually abundant in the air through table 13.1. The more alike 2 organisms are, the more alike

56
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 461

their scores will be. The greater the difference between 2 organisms, Expo., the tread to the !Thor,itory for a
the greater will be the difference in their scores. Advanced organisms, di) turf, Si)rdt° tt 1,4t,' th iAatt-,r and
such as plants, will have high scores (maximum 26), and simple or- kt.ep d a inaderatel warm it% Pid_
garisms, such as monerans, will have low scores (minimum 3). leftt of tile., if Ire...)tigdttUrt t, a_h
S. When you have the Advancement Score for each of the organisms, that d allows students obzerve ,,rtain traits
give ti'e organism with '1,9 lowest score a rank of 1 and the organism at before reading about It tit t I the text
with the highest score a rank of 10. '",en rank all of the other organ- Tr oh old riot a if A ;atalog
isms according to their scores. Record the rankirgs in the column et .,t A,peildix 3) rIJ this chapter
the right side of your data table. are uSed as reference-es throaghe at the
investigation

Discussion
Procedure
1. Assuming that today's organisms have develoed from simpler, fewer,
Divide the class into group-, of 2 to 4
and older species, would you expect to find less diversity or greater
students each and assign eac1 group to a
diversity as time goes on? Explain.
station Place a specimen of ea:11 kind of
2. Basing your conclusions on the way the advancement score key was
organism at each station lf sufft,:ient specimens
designed, list some of the most important differences among the or-
are not available devise some plan of rotation
ganisms that you observed.
among stations By this time students should be
3. What are some of the less important differences?
able to move readily from one station to the
4. On what basis do you distinguish between the important differences
next You can expedite the work by running
and those that are less important?
through the scoring of a ..,pecimen (one not
5. Using the information included in the table, list the cha.acteristics you
included in the inve tigationt with the students
would expect to find in one of the more simple organisms.
6. Do the same for one of the advanced plants. before they begs leir own work The tabl, in
the Teacher s Edition has 10 numbers that you
7. In what ways does table 13.1 resemble the dichotomous key con-
may want to follow for the 10 stations
structed in investigation 12.2?
8. In what ways does it differ from the key?
(-0111117111 OR page 4/,9

Seed Plants Guidepost: What accounts for the

great diversity of flowers
and fruits?
13.10 Many Conifers Are Evergreens
Humans have evolved with plants, for food, clothing, shelter, and
medicines. "he conifers (Division Conderophyta) are woody plants with
0
[KON ih ferz] [koh NIF er OFF ih tuh]
seeds borne in cones that provide all of the paper pulp mid most of the
lumber used in home construction and furniture. Conifers include pines,
firs, spruces, and junipers, among others.
Almost all conifers are1rees or shrubs, and all are at least somewhat
woody. Many have leaves that are like needles or scales (figure 13.34),
and most of those plants are evergreen. An evergreen tree appears green
throughout the year because it always maintains most of its leaves. How-
ever, a few leaves die at different times of the year and drop to the ground.
Though the number of species is small, the number of individual corhers
is enormous.
Many common conifers are well adapted to life in dry habitats. For
examnle, although pine trees may grow where there is much snow, the
snow is really frozen water and is not available for growth. In the spring,
much of the snow evaporates, and sncwmelt may run off into streams
before it soaks into the soil. Thus, pines cl'J grow in dry places, and their
leaves are well adapted to that. Pine needles are long and narrow. That
Another gymnosperm. the Ginkgo biloba
narrowness Items the amount of water that can be lost from the imaidenhaff ire, t is often called a fossil
a normal evaporation process that occurs from all leaves. In addition to It has remained basit,ally unchanged since the
its Fhape, a pine needle is often covered by a thick, waxy cuticle that late ra'eozolk.. It from a wild pupulatik
further reduces water loss from the leaves. nc,ignous to atria and Japan

565
462 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Crib le 434:::K09;fOr4010rittiljitig Ihi,advarceefifi.n ir:Ocire,'for:an. organism

Leaflike structures with

--)P.- midribs; spaced equally
around stalk. (5)
too true roots, stems, or moss
leaves. May bear hairlike
-Jos- rhizoids
. . .
instead of roots. 7
[4...Not more than 10 cm tall. (4) liverwort
Leaflike structures
without midribs,
PI Emt kingdom. Has in two rows. (4)
structures that look like
roots, stems, or leaves.
(4)

,_41, No seeds. Reproduction

by spores. (6)
True roots, stems, or
ferns 8
--till.- leaves. Usually more
than 10 cm tall. (4)
Produce seeds. (5)

BEGIN All individual parts

HERE microscopic in size.
" Occurring singly or
in chains. (1)
Not green. Usually yeast 1
-40.- white, gray, brown,
of yellow. (1)

Some or all individual

-OP- parts not microscopic
in size. (2)

Not in plant kingdom. Does

not have structures that
look like roots, stems, or
leaves. (1)
Body crustlike and
Ow- flat or upright and
branched. (3)

Green, blue-green,
or gray-green. (2)

body not flat or

-00- leaflike. Usually
aquatic. (2)

566
Chapter 13 Eukaryo:es: Plants
463

trees (1)
trees or shrubs (1)
shrubs (2)
Flower parts in threes. monocots
Leaves parallel-veined. (4) woody
woody vines or :vines W
herbs (2)
herbs (2)
.Flowers present. (5)
10
-110-trees (1)
trees or shrubs (1)
Flower parts in -10- shrubs (2)
fours or fives. Leaves dicots
net-veined. (4)
woody vines vines (1)
or herbs (2)
trees (1) herbs (2)
No flowers. Seeds borne
in cones. Leaves usually gymnosperms 9
needlelike. (5) 4- shrubs (2)

Umbrellalike, shelflike,
or spherical. Usually basidiomycete 3 3
from 1 to 15 cm high. (3)

Hairlike, slender, usually

fuzzy or powdery. Usually mold 2
less than 1 cm high. (2)

Bright green. Generally

on damp soil. (5)
lichen 4
Gray-green. Generally
on rocks or tree trunks. (4)

Blue-green. Prokaryotic.
Chlorophyll diffused
throughout cells, not in 5
distinct structures. (3)

Grabs-green. Eukaryotic.
Chlorophyll in definite 6
structures only. (4)

567
464 Section Three Diversity anc Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.33 Conifers and related plants: (a) juniper, Juniperus monosperma;
(b) cycad, Dioon edule; (c) maidenhair tree, Ginkgo biloba. Seeds of these plants
are not enclosed in tissues as are those of flowering plants.

a BSCS by Doug Sokell b .Kedene V. Schwartz

John D. Cunningham! VISUN S UNLIMITED

Chapter 13: Eukaryotes: Plants 465

Figure 13.34 Many conifer leaves are needlelike or scalelike. (a) Single needles
of Douglas fir- Pseudotsuga menziesii; (b) clustered needles of Ponderosa pine,
-inus ponderosa; (c) scalelike leaves of juniper. Juniperus chinensis "pfitzerii."

a BSCS by Doug Sokell b BSCS by Doug Sokell

BSCS by Doug Sa..%ell

569
466 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.35 Pine cone and seed. Figure 13.36 Male (a) and female (b) pine cones.

Mit

cone scale bearing seed

on its upper surface

b KarieneV:Setiviertz

Conifers reproduce by seeds that are attached to the upper surface

of scales grouped together in cones. A seed developing in a cone may be
rotected by the scales, somewhat as a small coin may be concealed be-
tween the pages of a book. However, if two scales are separated slightly,
winged seed detached you can see the seed between then. (figure 13.35). Thus the seeds in
from scale cones are not completely covered as they are in the fruits of flowering
plants.
Conifer spores are of two kinds, and they are produced-in different
cones (figure 13.36). Pollen develops from spores in the small male cone,
Inquisitive students frk.y pru;,unt yc,u stth twu and pollination occurs in the spring when the pollen is blown onto a fe-
somewhat embarrassing *torn, 2ris the fruits male cone. The larger, more familiar female cones contain the ovules.
of yew and ginkgo. bolt of whii_ri may oui_ur rr Pollen grains, the male gametophytes, lodge in a sticky substance' se-
the autumn around many bLliouls A little creted by the ovule cnd develop pollen tubes. Sperm are formed within
examinaton shows that a yt,* sutd, though the pollen tubes. Within the ovule, the temale gametophytes develop and
deep in pulp, is not completely within it as. for
produce eggs. Fertilization occurs asProximately a year after pcllina-
example, s the seed of a peach A ginkgo
tion, and the seed requires an additional year to mature. Those events,
seed, however, is complitely encased in pulp,
but the pulp is part of the seed itself, not a
are summarized in table 13.2.
structure developed from an ovary as are the
pulp and stone around a peach seed
Therefore, ginkgoes and yews bear naked
seeds, not fruits
 Apter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 467

Fl e l i pine brandies Lan be ,alleded at any

Taiple` 13:2: Seed'dOelepfrient1n
true ut tht, year Caily in tile tiowt,ver, well
Pine tree (sporophyte) Time of occurrence the brand,es have both pollei I and seed cones
The pollen-bearing cone consists of an axis
male cone female cone summer, year 0 bearing spirally arranged microsporuphylls
corresponding to the stamens of 4 flowering
Meiosis spring, year 1
plant The seed-bearing cone is what is normally
small spores large spores thought of as the pine cone Old seed cones
are available almost any time of the year
Preserved young seed cones and pollen can be
pollen obtained from biological supply houses
(young male
game ophyte)

Pollination early summer, year 1

r
pollen tube
(mature
male female
gametophyte) ganietophyte

sperm nuclei egg nucleus

/fertilization late spring, year 2

zygote

summer, year 2
I
embryo

I
1
seed fall, year 2

From Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology, 6th ed., Weier, Stocking, Barbour, Rost,
copyright 0 1982. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley, and Sons. Inc.

13.11 Flowering Plants Have Coevolved

with Their Pollinators
Flowers are the distinguishing feature of the most successful division
in the plant kingdom, the Anthophyta. Although we commonly appre- [an THOF ih wit]
ciate flowers for their beauty, their major role is in reproduction, as we
have seen in section 13.6. When a flower opens, it reveals the reproduc- Try to have on hand an a!: tl ti it I It Ut flows rs
tive structures, the stamens and pistils. Insects, birds, or bits that visit that ud-fits may 11J1 hi,t id' iti

the flower may pick up pollen from the anther Lnd carry it to the next appret.i.ition of diversity At ,ht in whkh
flue h fhl .l is liktily to be, iiitudird wdd tlowr,rs
flower they visit. When pollen is transferred from a flower of one plant
arc, not available, in VI_ northe,rn states and are
to a flower of another, the process is called cross-pollination. The main
likely to be mostly composite. southward Visit a
pollinators of flowers are insects. Pollen also may be transported from
floriti and ask for sprays o, ttowe,rs that have
flower to flower by wind. deteriorated too much to he salable You also
may want to collect flowers in season and press
them Although structure may be more difficult to
visualize, number of floral parts and diversity in
cote' and size are readily visible
468 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.37 A few examples of the diversity of flowers. (a) fairy slipper, an
orchid, Calypso bulbosa; (b) brown-eyed susan, a composite, Rudbeckia
triloba; (c) Dutchman's breeches, Dicentra rubellus; (d) beardtongue flower,
Penstemon.

liathereto A. Wintemitz

C Doug Sokell BSCS by Cady. Calvin

Some flowers, however, seldom or never open. In that case, the pollen
falls on the stigma of the same flower. Such flowers are self-pollinating.
Flower and vegetable gardeners say that they "self." Most plants, how-
ever, have devices that prevent self-pollination.
The sepals and petals are not directly involved in seed formation, so
a flower can function without them. In fact, in a few plants a flower may
consist of only a single stamen or a single p'stil. Petals 7nd their adap-
tation:, however, usually play a major role in flower pollination. Much
of the diversity among flowering plant species ills in their flowers. There
 Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 469

Figure 13.38 Insect-pollinated flowers such as the prickly poppy, Argemone, in

(a) generally have large, colored petals. Wind-pollinated flowers often lack F ,tals
and sepals, and produce an abundance of pollen. Shown here (b) is.the.male
catkin of a willow, Salix. Note the many stamens.

a BSCS

is no better way to appreciate that than to examine different flowers you

can find in a field, a greenhouse, or a vacant lot. That diversity is usually
related to the way the pollen is transferred from one flower to another.
If pollen is transferred from stamen to pistil by insects, the petals of the
flower are often large and brightly colored, as in figure 13.38a. The petals, b -Doug Sokell

moreover, often have small glands that produce a sugar solution called
nectar. Those adaptations attract pollinating insects. On the other hand,
flowers in which pollen is transferred by wind usually have small sepals Figure 13.39 The hummingbird's head is
and petals or none at al They often are located high on the plant and brushed with pollen from the aathers of the red
produce an abundance of pollen (figure 13.3810 Their pistils commonly columbine as it obtains nectar from the base of
the flower.
have large, long, or feathery structures at the tips, which are covered
with a sticky fluid. Those adaptations increase the likelihood that some
pollen will stick to the pistils.
The great variety of flowers has come about by the coevolution of a 0,
flower and its pollination agent. As we have seen, brightly colored flowers
attract certain kinds of animals. Once at the flower the animal may be
able to drink nectar and at the same time may pick up pollen from the
flower. As the animal seeks nectar, i .rollinates other flowers. The word
coevolution if often used to describe such an interaction in which both
organisms become uniquely adapted to each other. Consider this ex-
ample. Hummingbirds need lots of nectar to supply their energy needs.
They do not- have a good sense of smell, but they can see the color red
very well. Flowers pollinated by hummingbirds are well adapted to their
pollinators, as you can see in figure 13.39. The flowers are red, have little
or no scent, and produce copious amounts of nectar. In addition to those
characteristics, the nectar is found at the bottom of a long tube forMed
by the red petals. That shape makes it difficult for other organisms to

N. A. CAlde,
470 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13A0 Stages in the development of tomato fruit from flowers.

rob the flower of nectar. Hummingbirds, on the other hand, have long
beaks that can probe the deep flower to reach the nectar. The stamens
stick out in such a position that the head of the hummingbird is dusted
Ask students what kind of with pollen when it visits these flowers. When the hummingbird flies to
relationship exists butweeti pidi,t did di wild! 11 I another flower of the same species, the tip of the pistil is in a perfect
this case The relationship ippi,,di! ht position to have pollen from the hummingbird's head scraped onto it.
mutual.stic Thus, the flower gets pollinated while the hummingbird drinks nectar.
Other animals are not shaped correctly to fit these flowersneither to
drink the nectar nor to pollinate the flower.

13.12 Seeds Develop within the Ovaries of

Flowering Plants
vlost fruit requires seeds for normal
development If an appk. t a ,ft After pollination and fertilization, seeds begin to develop. The pistil,
on ority one side, only that sidt, often with other parts of the flower, develops into a protective fruit around
Strawberries will riot devt..lop ioni the seed. There may be many seeds in a fruit. Each seed began its de-
seeds velopment when an egg cell in one ovule was fertilized by a sperm from
one pollen grain. In flowering plants, then, an embryo is protected within
Parthenocarpic fruit development is the a seed, and seeds are protected within a fruit.
formation of fruit lackiny seedy The Part of the embryo in the seed consists of one or two modified leaves,
develops tram many immature ovulk,s L.karrink,
called cotyledons (kot ih LEE dunz). Another part is a beginning of a
are bananas, melons, figs, and pineapples
root. Each seed also contains a supply of food that is used when the em-
bryo starts to grow. The food may be stored in the endosperm, or it may
be stored in the embryo itself, usually in the cotyledon.
 Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 471

Figure 13.41 Diversity among fruits. (a) A fleshy fruit. (b) A variety of other
fruits. How does each of the structural adaptations shown here provide for seed
scattering?

fat

BSCS by Carty* Calvin b

Beans and peas are examples of seeds. They are enclosed in protective Maple the paired, winged fruits (Sallidtai are
pods, which are juct one of many kinds of fruits. Each bean or pea con- carried from the parent plant Ly wind
tains a small embryo and a supply of stored food for its early develop- Tuudi me -not If a trust is pin, tied La even
ment. As you know, this stored food is useful to humans as well. Peas toul,,hed when ripe. the dpSult will suddenly
and beans can be germinated easily, and each embryo gives rise to a split' into a number of SegliluntS that roll up with
considerable force, thereby scattering the
plant, which, in turn, gives rise to new flowers and fruits. This aspect of
seeds
plant growth and development is explored further in chapter 18.
Cocklebur When the fruit is mature, the
Apples and oranges are examples of fruits that contain a number of hooked inyoiucre bracts serve to attach the
seeds. Under natural conditions, such fruits eventually decay, leaving fruits to the tur of mdmindis When the artirnals
their seeds behind to germinate and give rise to the next generation. tater disk Lige the fruit, the studs die v, altered,
Fleshy fruits, often red in color, may be eaten by birds or mammals. often at u r siderablc dist.,i from hit parent
Their seeds can be dispersed far and wide after passing through an an- plants
imal's digestive system. Poppy The capsule has a ring of pores at its
Seeds and fruits show as much diversity as flowers. That diversity is top drid developed at the tip ut d lurk; .talk
related to the method of dispersal of the seeds and fruitsthat is, how When slidkei 1.y Wild, the capsule, release tiny
they are scattered from the parent plant. In investigation 13.3 you can 0 seeds through the Doris, .1 ft:N., at a timi

observe some of the structures that aid in seed dispersal. In many cases, Dandek, aintlle seeded tru,t is
equipped with a para,,hute, (Pdppusi
part of the pistil becomes thick and fleshy, as in the fruits of peach, plum,
the fruit is mature, winds deta:h the, fruits from
and tomato. Fleshy fruits often are eaten by animals. The seeds in many
the disk of the inflorescence and Larry them
such fruits have thick coats that permit them to pass through an animal's away
digestive system unharmed. They are dropped later at some distance
from the parent plant. Many fruits are not fleshy but have other adap-
Have some examples of seeds on hand for
tations that aid in scattering their seeds. Those fruits may have spines students to examine In addition to the old
that catch on the fur of an animal that shes up against the plant. The standbys, kAlni (a fruit) dud beans, USu at(11011dS,
fruit is carried from the plant and lat ails off or is brushed off by the k.astur btatis pai yells,
animal. Many fruits and seeds are lightweight and have special winglike and others
projections that help them to be carried away from the plant by wind.
An entire plant, such as the tumbleweed, can be broken off near the
ground and blown about by the wind. As the tumbleweed bounces about,
it drops its fruits and_the seeds within them all along its path.
 472 Section three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.42 Perennial (a) and annual (b) herbaceous plants. (a) Yellow skunk
cabbage, Lysichitum americanum; (b) marigold, Tagetes.

a Doug Sokall,,

Courtasy of W. Atli. Burp** Company

There is also great diversity in the size of the flowering plants and in
the lifespan of their shootsthe parts that appear above ground. Many
A.4 st,4,1,_' « whit 4+, the 0,,i4..,...tht,.44r) .,
flowering plants are trees. A tree bears its leaves well above the ground
1 ,2t1vor-Ad 1 the .4 4, .,t 2505, we .ir
where they are likely to receive more light than do those of shorter plants.
;;ONit. ttfi,..11(.1_011e turn,, (P/f/(::, at tht
10111), filtc. in OW WIlitt Attornta
Because of their size, trees can store lai;e reserves of food in trunks and
r-yr n 4,111 r ttt, to 46011 y, roots and can survive through tad yeers. Trees have relatively long life-
spans. A tree species probably will survive even if the entire seed crop
of any one year is destnaL Most species of flowering plants are not
trees, however. Some, such as roses and raspberries, are 1. Jdy shrubs.
Ott, 4.0twe.e li 1,,..qt,5
Others, such as ivy, grapes, and hundreds of tropical species, are woody
and Woody Wink, r-, tdirty u h, ft k
vines, which grow on rocks, on walls, or on other plants. Most, however,
10 1114; wound rn Winter in thr Iron+, vir
the drAnLtiort rs. not at all ar
are neither trees, shrubs, nor vines, but nonwoody, or herbaceous (her
trectiti....-
banana plant IS e nttally ith BAY shus), plants like those in figure 13.42.
Many herbaceous plants have roots that remain alive in the soil during
winter, when their shoots die. At the beginning of each growing season
the roots send up new shoots. These are perenniah (peh REN ee ulz),
-Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 473

Figure 13.43 Monocot and dicot leaves: (a) pampas grass, Cortideria selloana:
(b) strawberry, Fragaria virginiana chiloensis.

4:

John D. Cunningham /VISUALS UNLIMITED b Karlene V. Schwartz

plants, such as goldenrod, iris, and asparagus. Others are annuals. These
(for example, garden beans, sunflowers, and corn) complete their life
cycle, produce seeds, and die after growing for only one season.
Flowering plants are divided into two large classes. The basic char- 0
acteristic of the monocotyledons, called monocots (MON oh kotz), is
that the embryo contains a single cotyledon. A cotyledon is a seed leaf,
a leaflike structure found associated with the seed or young seedling (re-
view figure 13.20). The monocots include grasses and grain-producing
plants such as wheat, rice, and corn, which are the chief food plants of
the world. Their fruits, the familiar grains, are a major source of chem- Ask students to name monocot plants other
ical energy for humans. The pasture grasses that feed cattle, another than grains that are important human food
source of human food, are also monocots. Without monocots, the human Examples banana:, pineapple. onion:, yams.
and taro
population never could have reached its present state. Our lawn grasses
are monocots as well, so these plants affect our lives in ways other than
as food.
The seeds of the other class of flowering plants, the dicotyledons, or 0
dicots (DY kotz), have two seed leaves. This class is much larger than
the monocot class. Most of the familiar fruits and vegetables, such as
carrots, lettuce, apples, and grapes, are dicots. In addition, the so-called
hardwoods used in furniture, flooring, hockey sticks, and baseball bats
come from dicot trees. Almost all shade trees are dicots, also. Figure
13.44 illustrates the most important differences between monocots and
dicots.

577
474 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 13.44 Comparison of monocot and dicot characteristics.

Monocot
Dicot

sepals
stamen
pistil

petals

netted
venation

parallel
venation

embryonic
shoot

cotyledon

embryonic
root
Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 475

Self-Review

1. What products do humans get from conifers?

2. What adaptations do pines possess for living in dry conditions?
3. Describe an example of coevolution.
4. What part of a flowering plant gives rise to the fruit?
5. What structural characteristics of fruits seem to be adaptations that
are related to seed dispersal?
6. In what ways do monocots and dicots differ?

ofifeAtigifioi-034 SEEDS AND..:SEED DISPERSAL

Introduction Investigation 13.3
SEEDS AND SEED DISPERSAL
Seed producers are the most highly developed group of plants. In flow-
ering plants, seeds are protected by the surrounding tissues of the ovary. The purpose of this investigation is to
The mature ovary usually is called a fruit. Gymnosperms lack an ovary, and
writinue the study of the evolution of flowering
produce naked seeds on cone scales. i ants The flowering plant, as represented by
The survival of plants depends on their ability to reproduce. That, in turn,
the tomato, and the gymnosperm, as
depends on mechanisms to disperse the seeds and fruits so the seeds represented by the pine, give the student the
can grow without having to compete with the parent plants for nutrients opportunity to observe and compare the
and water. structures of advanced vascular plants and to
In investigation 13.1 you examined the structure of flowers and the re- study their reproductive cycles Emphasis should
productive parts of flowering plants. In this investigation, you will compare
be placed on the importance of the seed as a
seed production in the tomato with that in a pine, and examine some of survival mechanism It is an important step in the
the ways by which seeds are dispersed. evolution of plants, especially when we
remember that of all plant species form
Materials (per team) seeds You will need to gather the seeds and
fruits and keep them in your lab The berries
tomato branch with flowers can be .,prayed with Krylon or some other
tomato preservative to keep them intact so they can be
bean or pea seed used for several years Seeds from any pine can
pine branch with cones be used but pinon pine nuts in the shell are
pollen cones ideal Dandelion seeds and seeds from any of
young seed cones the Populus species represent 1 type of wind
old seed cones dispersal mechansm A 2nd type of wind
pine seeds
dispersal mechanism is shown by the fruits of
dandelion seeds
the ash and maple Cocklebur or any other seed
poplar seeds
that will stick to an animal's coat can be used
cockleburs
Pyracantha or any other fruit can be 'led as an
mistletoe fruits
example of a bird attractant Mistletoe fruit
pyracantha fruits
contains a laxative
maple fruits
For a going further activity, gather some
ash fruits
locust seed pods in the fall Give each student 1
hand lens
seed and challenge her or him to get the seed
stereoscopic dissecting microscope
to germinate (Locust seeds must be exposed
compound microscope
to freezing temperatures of winter.)
microscope slide
cover slip
Materials
single-edge razor blade
Teams of 2 to 4 students are appropriate
Tomato plants can be obtained from local
nurseries in the spring, or you can plant your
own about 3 months before you need them for
this investigation The cherry tomato varieties or
some other early maturing variety would be best

r. ,t 79
476 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

to plant Cherry tomatoes would be best for Procedure

dissecting, especially if you must purchase them
from local stores
Part ASeeds
Fresh pine branches can be collected at any 1. Compare the tomato branch and the pine branch.
time of the year Only in the spring, however, will (a) In what ways are they similar?
the branches have both pollen and seed cones (b) In what ways are they different?
You can collect these in the spring arid :.pray (c) The tomato plant and the pine tree are the mature sporophytes.
them with a plastic coating to preserve them for Compare the two whole plants.
use later in the next sLtio,-,1 year Old stud 2. Use a hand lens to observe the male and female reproductive struc-
cones are available almost ar. time 3f thu yuar tures enclosed in the flower of the tomato. Most tomato plants are
Preserved young seed cones and pollen cones self-pollinating, which means that pollen is transferred from the an-
can be obtained from bik.ilogical rhAlsts thers to the pistil of the same flower. What are the advantages of self-
Each group should have a tomato branch a pollination in the tomato?
tomato, a pine branch a potter; conu a young 3. Male and female reproductive parts of pines are located in different
seed cone, an old seed cone. a pea or bean structures. Seed cones are produced singly or in groups of 2 to 5 on
seed, and pine seeds it will simplify dissection it the branches. Pollen cones usually occur in closely packed clusters
you soak the pea or bean set& for 24 hours of 10 or more near the tip of a branch. What is the advantage to the
prior to the laboratory investigation Each team pine of producing more pollen coned than seed cones?
also needs I each of thu other seeds and truits 4. Observe one of the pollen cones. The small, spirally arranged cone
listed scales that make up most of the pollen cone are modified leaves. Ex-
amine a cone scale under the dissecting microscope. Find the 2 elon-
Procedure gated spore cases on the lower side.
5. Crush a spore case on a clean glass slide. Add a cover slip and ex-
Patt A
amine the slide under high power. Note the pollen grains with the little
1 (a) Both have stems an -ayes bladders. What is the role of pollen grains in the life cycle of the pine?
(b) The pine leaves art modified as needles 6. Examine one of the young seed cones. The spirally arranged cone
the tomato stems are green Mu tomato has scales are fleshy and may be a little difficult to pry apart. Carefully
flowers the pine has cones separate the scales and observe the ovules, a pair of white or cream-
(c) The pine tree is much larger than the colored bumps on the upper side near the base of each scale. The
tomato Both have the usual plant structures of ovules will grow into seeds, as do the ovules in flowering plants.
roots, stems, and leaves (a) How are the ovules of a pine protected?
2 The pollen is easily transferred to the (b) How does a sperm cell reach an egg in the ovule of a pine?
stigma by gravity, wind, insects or bads (c) Ovules develop into pine seeds. How are the seeds shed from
3 It is advantageous to have Large numbers cones? You may want to fool: at an old seed cone that has shed
of pollen cones because the more pollen most of its seeds to help you answer this question.
produced, the wider its dispersal by the waits 7. Cut a tomato in half lengthwise (from tne stem end to the bottom).
and the greater the chance of pollination and Locate and remove scme of .the tomato seeds. Tomato seeds are
fertilization very small and difficult to dissect. Bean and pea seeds are similar to
5 They form pollen tubes and Sperm cells tomato seeds, but they are much larger and easier to observe. Cut a
that fertilize the eggs bean or pea seed in half lengthwise. Describe the bean or pea seed.
6 (a) By the surrounding tough cone 8. Examine a pine seed, keeping in mind the environment in which it must
scales survive if A is to grow into a pine tree. Break the seed open and remove
(b) Through a pollen tube the contents. What could be the function of the seed coat in the bean,
(c) As the cone scales open, the seeds fall pea, or pine seed?
7 The description should include a seed 9. Make a lengthwise cut through the pine seed and observe the cut face.
coat, endosperm, and probably the cotyledons. If you made the cut properly, you will see the embryo surrounded by
if these have been emphasized previously the endosperm.
8 To protect the sued until germination (a) Compare the internal structure of the bean or pea seed and the
9 (a) They should be the same, except for pine seed.
the cotyledons in the bean or pea seed (b) What might be the function of the endosperm in the seeds?
(b) H is used by the embryo for growth
Part BSeed Dispersal
Part 1. Assemble the different types of seeds and fruits at your work area.
2, (a) The maple, ash, poplar. and maple 2. Blow gently at the seeds and fruits.
seeds (fruits also) should take flight (a) What happened?
(b) Structures on the seeds or fruits catch (b) Why did A happen?
the wind and the seeds or fruits are light in (c) What advantage to a plant is illustrated by this demonstration?
weight
(c) Some seeds can be blown great
distances to new possible habitats
 Chapter 13 Eukaryotes: Plants 477

3. Some fruits or seeds attract birds. 3 (a) The colors of many fruits serve as an
(a) What characteristics do you observe that might serve to attract attractant to birds Albo the taste 01 some twits
birds? may attract birds
(b) Which plants have physical attractants that might function in seed (b) The pyra,antha and Illistttor; fruits (or
dispersal? others you may have added)
4. Some fruits contain a chemical that acts as a laxative. 4 (a) This guarantees ci rapid movement of
(a) How would this function in plant dispersal? the fruit through a bird s digestive. system Other
(b) How might the contents of bird droppings assist in survival of the ttu's requirt, long periods of time the digestive
new seedlings? syE tern in order to germinate
5. Rest the sleeve of your blouse or shirt on the seeds and fruits. (b) A readily ava table source of substrate
(a) What type of dispersal is illustrated by the result? and or fertilizer is guaranteed
(b) What kinds of organisms must be present in the environment to 5 (a) Dispersal by adhering to animal fur
disperse this kind of seed? (b) Animals must be present to disperse the
6. Some types of seeds have tough seed coats to protect the seeds. seeds
Some even require exposure to fire to break the seed coat open so 6 (a) Pine seed
the seed can germinate. (b) This will vary with the seed Let students
(a) What type of seed do you have that might function like this? try until they can break the seed coat
(b) How much force is required to break open the seed coat? Add
weight until the seed breaks open. Discussion
1 Pine and tomato sporophytes are trees or
Discussion shrub-like They are the dominant. independent
stages of tha life cycle Moss sporophytes are
1. How do the tomato and pine sporophytes compare with the sporo-
small, and depend on the gametophyte for
phyte of a moss in terms of size and method of nutrition?
nourishment
2. Which would have a better chance of survival, the spore of a moss or
the seed of a pine? Explain. 2 The pine seed, with its thick coat,
abundant stored food and embryo, has a much
3. Which would have a better charv.:e of survival, the spore of a moss or
better chance of survival than the tiny spore of
the seed of a bean or pea? Explali..
either the moss or the fern
4. What are some of the ways seeds are dispersed?
The pea or bean seed, for the same
5. How might some plants develop a dispersal mechanism that relies on
reason cited in 2 above
the presence of other organisms?
4 Seeds are dispersed by wind, animals.
6. What would happen to the distribution of plants that produce cock-
and water Some stick to fur and clothing others
leburs if they lived on an island where there were no animals?
are enclosed in fruits that are eaten the seeds
7. Explain how some poplar trees might inhabit an island in the middle of
are released undigested in the feces
a large lake.
5 -I he animal dispersal mecha' sms could
develop where some seeds were transported oy
animals to environments where satiable growing
conditions exist Those seeds with this
mechanism would continue to be dispersed from
Summary the parent plants
6 The plants would probably be limited to
The ancestors of plants were probably simple multicellular algae. A one small area where competition for resources
multicellular organism has many advantages over a single cell, including would be keen
its size, a division of labor, and ability to conserve water. Other adap- 7 The poplar fruits Gould be blown great
tations that permit plants to absorb and hold water are roots, vascular distances a.ross water by winds
tissue, and the cuticle. All plants have a life cycle that alternates be-
tween two different generations, a gametophyte and a sporophyte. In
flowering plants, however, the egg cell, the gametophyte that produced
the egg, and the spore that produced the gan-?.tophyte all remain pro-
tected in the flower. Mosses are nonvascular plants that lack roots, stems,
and leaves, and that have other primitive characteristics, such as swim-
ming sperm cells. Club mosses, horsetails, and ferns are all seedless vas-
cular plants, and many of their ancestors prcduced today's fossil fuels.
Gymnosperms and flowering plants are both seed-producing vascular
plants, but flowering plants have a fruit that covers their seeds. The great
diversity of flowers and fruits is the result of coevolution of the plants
and their agents of pollination or dispersal.

581
478

1
Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

..1
Application Questions Problems
I. Which organisms in this chapter would you I. In what ways do plants that live entirely in water
consider to be primitive organisms? Which would differ in structure, reproduction, and limiting
you consider to be advanced? Explain your answer. factors from plants that live entirely on land?
2. What advantages and disadvantages does a seed- 2. Observe the plants that grow without human help
producing plant have compared with one that in a city. Try to discover the characteristics that
produces only spores? How do you interpret the enable them to live successfully in an urban
words advantage and disadvantage here? environment.
3. Explain the following statement: the plant parts 3. How many of the different kinds of plants discussed
that furnish the greatest amount of human food are in this chapter can be found in your locality?
either seeds, roots, or underground stems. Consider wild and cultivated plants, indoor and
outdoor plants, and aquatic and terrestrial plants.
4. Choose some cultivated plants. Investigate the
history of their domestication. Examples: wheat,
apple, potato, cotton, corn, cabbage, sugarcane.

Suggested Readings
A. W. Galston, P. J. Davies, R. L. Satter, 1980, The Life of D. H. Morse, "Milkweeds and Their Visitors" Scientific
the Green Plant 3rd Ed. (Eng!ewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- American (July 1985). The insects and other animals that
Hall). Covers the basic structure and function of higher- frequent milkweed form a model community for the study
level green plants. of interactions among species.
C. W. Hinman, "Potential New Crops" Scientific American G. A. Rosenthal, "The Chemical Defenses of Higher Plants"
(July 1986). Buffalo gourd, crambe, jojoba, kenaf, and Scientific American (January 1986). Some compounds
other plants may soon provide novel foods and materials. poison or repel herbivores; others mimic insect hormones,
D. F. Mandoli and W. R. Briggs, "Fiber Optics in Plants" interfering with their growth.
Scientific American (August 1984). Columns of cells in G. A. Strobel and G. N. Lanier, "Dutch Elm Disease"
seedlings may act as "light pipes" to channel light to key Scientific American (August 1981). Biological controls are
pigment molecules. aimed at the fungus that causes the disease and the beetles
P. C. Mangelsdorf, "The Origin of Corn" Scientific American that spread it.
(August 1986). Breeding experiments are cited to support
the author's theory that corn had not one ancestor, but two.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 Mosses may be considered primitive because they lack 1 :Stems and leaves of aquatic piants have '10 cuticle, thus
vascular tissue, cuticle and reproductive, structures that allowing the plant to absorb nutrients and gases diractly
protect the embryo Thus they are confined to moist from the water The leaves are smaller and thinner than
environments flowering plants are considered advanced those of and plants and lack supporting tissue The thin,
because of the structures that adapt them to ,.e dry land ribbon like leaves provide a large surface area for
environment, especially the pollen tube and .lie seed absorption of carbon dioxide and diffused light Aquatic
2 The second question must be considered first Advantage plants generally have large chluroplasts They lack stomates
and disadvantage would be interpreted in terms of but ha. large air spaces in leaves and stems that aid in
reproductive effeckaness But since both spore bearers buoyaiK..y Roots are a wally smaller than those in terrestrial
and seed bearers are abundant today and have been for plarks, and have few or no branches, and no root hairs
long geological ages, it follows that the advantages and Aquatic plants generally lack flows rb and seeds and
disadvantages have balanced out in the long run reproduce vegetatively
Advantages Seed-bearing plants Embryos in seeds Water is not a limiting factor for aquatic plants Sunlight,
have already started to develop, seeds curitain a reserve however, can be a limiting fa...tor because ;.ie light reaching
food supply, fruit or seed coats may provide protection and the plant is diffused by the water
mechanisms for dispersal Spore-bearing plants (3(..ciUSt:: 2 Thi. can be a challenging problem Some characteristics
they are small, spores can be produced in prodigious that might be suggested are (a) seeds readily carried
numbers, spores have low density and high surface-to- (usually by viand) from on place to another because
volume ratio, characterist, that lavor dispersal by winds available places for growth art, s..attered, (b) ability to
and air currents survive when lithe water is available in soils that are likely to
,
 Disadvantages Seed-bearing plants Since seeds be shallow and deficieat in humus, (c) ability to grow with
contain foods, they may be eaten by animals and digested short periods of full sun because tall buildings shade many
unless protected by resistant coats, in many cases seeds urban sites much of the day, (d) ability to withstand such
are produced in relatively small numbers Spore-beaiing environmental chemicals as salt, carbon monoxide, and
plants, Food stored in a spore is very limited sulfur dioxide These are also characteristics that need to
3 We use as foods the plant parts in which food is stored be considered by persons wl,o wish to grow ornamental
Food storage in seeds represents an adaptive characteristic plants in city environments.
that increases reproductive effectiveness per seed Food 4 Two good references are H. G. Baker, 1972, Plants and
stored in underground parts of herbaceous plants is Civilization, 2nd ed (Belmont, Calif Wadsworth) and R W.
protected from animal depredation and trampling and, in Schery, 1972, Plants for Man (Englewood Cliffs, N.J..
certain climates, from damage by extremes of environmental Prentice-Hall).
temperatures or by desiccation.

continued from page 461

Discussion 1. If species were formerly fewer and

The numbers in the table have been worked simpler, then the more numerous and more
out so that, when summed, they will provide low highly developed species of later times would
scores for organisms generally considered logically be more diversethat is, there are
simple by scientists and high scores for the more kinds.
plants that are generally considered advanced. 2-4 The greater the difference in score
For purposes of this investigation, simple and between characteristics at any one dichotomy,
advanced are adequately explained in the the more miportant the difference was
introduction to the student materials. Bear in considered to be by the maker of the table
mind and communicate to students the 5, 6 This entails listing the characteristics
controversial nature of the scores. For example, common to organisms that scored low and high,
it is probable that many mycologists would respectively.
7, 8 It is dichotomously branching on the
justifiably object to the rather low score that is
assigned to fungi. basis of contrasting characteristics It does not
lead to an identification

583
C. 'co
 Kenneth A. Pals

This caterpillar'soon will enter a resting stage from which it will emerge a6,3`black swallowtail butterfly. What is its function in the
life cycle of the butterfly, and how is it adapted for that function?

584
 Teaching strategies for this t,hapter pages

CHAPTER 14 736-38
Key ideas
--the ottects of a mobile way of lite on animal
structure
the variety of adaptations in aniinais for their
environments
body intake and loss of foods. gases and
Eukaryotes: Animals water
coordination of body systems for internal
balance and for living in the environment
bt.havtor as an adaptation to the environment

Introduction
The animal kingdom presents an enormous diversity of organisms,
adapted to a wide variety of habitats and life-styles. Although they dis-
play an endless variety of structural and functional modifications, all
animals share certain basic characteristics. All are essentially multicel-
lular in organization. All are heterotrophic. Most are motile for some
part of their lives and are able to react to their environments rather
quickly.
Most animals share a common evolutionary origin. Thus, in spite of
their great diversity, animals share basic features that developed in an-
cestral forms. Even unrelated groups, if they occupy similar habitats,
may develop similar solutions to common problems.
Animals have been grouped into approximately 30 'phyla. In this
chapter, we will explore the problems of animal life and some of the
adaptations that animals have evolved to solve those problems. We also
will examine briefly how some animals carry out the major functions of
life. A more detailed discussion of functions in the human animal is the
subject of the first three chapters in Section 4.

The Animal Way of Life Guidepost: What are the major

problems of animal life,
14.1 Bilateral-Symmetry Adapts Animals and what are some of the
solutions?
for Movement
Animals are heterotrophic and generally must seek food. As a result,
evolution through natural selection has favored a motile life-style. Mo-
tility is easier if the organism is elongated in the direction of movement.
It also is helpful if sensory organs that can detect food, light, and other
stimuli are concentrated in the end that meets the environment first.

481
535
*-0
482 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.1 Body symmetry.

dorsal

anterior ,iimaggithei posterior

radial symmetry bilateral symmetry ventral

a

Finally, motility is promoted if the organism has a balanced body, with

neither side heavier or larger than t?-e other. The evolution of a body
plan with bilateral symmetry (by LAI ul SIM eh tree) adapted an-
imals for a motile life-style. In that body plan, there is an anterior (an
TIR ee er) or hcad end that goes first, and a posterior (pah STIR ee er)
or tail end that follows. The right and left sides are approximately mirror
images of each other. Most animals also have a top and a bottom, or a
dorsal (DOR sul) and a ventral (.'EN trul) surface.
A:tive movement, in turn, requires coordination. Thus, evolution has
favored develo,,ment of a head where sensory organs and nerve cells are
gathered. Those are the forerunner of a brain. Structures that help an
animal capture prey tend to be located at the head end, and digestive,
excretory, and reproductive structures toward the tail end.
Organisms that arc, sessile (SES il), or nonmotile, generally have a
body plan of radial (RAYD ee ul) symmetry. The body parts radiate
from a center, ruch as spokes radiate from the hub of a wheel. Radial
symmetry is adaptive for a sessile or drifting life-style becau25-1.11C an-
imal meets the environment equally from all sides. However, sessile or-
ganisms are very limited. They depend on food that floats by, or they
must create water currents to bring food to them. They cannot actively
seek mates and must rely on chance meeting of eggs and sperm. In gen-
eral, sessile animals arc much less complex than motile ones.

14.2 An Animal's Environment Imposes

Specific Demands
0 Animals may live in the sea, in fresh water, or on land. Each of those
environments imposes special demands on the organism. The ancestral
environment was probably the sea, and it remains the most uniform and
least stressful place for animal life. Oxygen is usually adequate, tem-
peratures and salt content are fairly constant, and there is no danger of
drying up.

5vb
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 483

Figure 14.2 Animals vary greatly in size. The microscopic Daphnia (a) contains
perhaps a few hundred cells; the elephant (b) millions.

,?:trv-41.?"""

a T. E. Adams r VISUALS UNLIMITED b IISCS by J. B. Thornton

In fresh water, the salt- and oxygen contents vary greatly. On land,
TAW 144:-.44.101tinkrakkihiSing
oxygen is plentiful, but there is constant danger that the organism will spectrum of, sirs in lying things
dry up. Temperatures fluctuate daily and seabonally. Air does not pro-
vide the buoyancy of water, so large, terrestrial, or land, animals require Blue whale 10°
good supporting structures. On the other hand, there is less resistance
to movement in air than in water. Appendages (uh PEN dij ez)struc-
tures attached to the bodydo not hinder movement on land as they do Human 105

in water. Thus appendages specialized for locomotion could evolve in

terrestrial animals. Hamster 102

14.3 Increase in Size Leads Bee

to Increased Complexity
Organisms exhibit an enormous range in size, as can be seen in table Large amoeba 10-a
14.1. During the course of evolution, most animal groups have shown a
trend toward increasing size, an adaptation made possible by their mul-
ticellularity. Increased size imposes restrictions that require increased
division of labor among the parts. The resulting specialization leads to
0 Tetrahymena
(flagellate)
10-7

greater complexity in the organism. Plasmodium 10-'°

Individual cells, however, remain remarkably constant in size in all (malaria parasite)
organisms. Large animals have more cells than small animals, not larger
cells. The presence of more cells makes possible more specialization, but Mycoplasma (PPLO) 10,
(bacterium)
requires more coordination.
For example, small animals can easily exchange materials with the
environment by diffusion. Diffusion is too slow to move materials within
Adapted from On Size and Life by Thomas A,
a large animal, however. As size increases, animals require special sys- McMahon and John Tyler Bonner. Copyright 0 1983
tems to obtain oxygen, remove wastes, and transport substances. Gas by Thomas A, McMahon and John Tyler Bonner.
exchange, waste removal, and transport systems must be coordinated. Scientific American Books, Inc., distributed by W. H.
Freeman and Company, New York.
In general, the larger the animal, the more complex are the controls
necessary to coordinate its activities.

567
484 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

The descriptions of the eight phyla seieLti..d ate Those, then, are some of the problems of animal life. In the next sec-
purposely brief Emphasis is plat,ed instedd on tion, we will examine briefly a few of the animal phyla. Each of the ex-
new structures that evolved and that better
amples we have selected demonstrates a new solution to one of the
adapted the animals to Perform some of the life
problems of animal life. We have focused on specializations and modi-
functions
fications that have improved adaptation of thr organisms to the envi-
ronment. You will find des' viptions of additional animal phyla in appendix
3, A Catalog of Living Things, pages 969-994. You can become v-
quainted with animal structure in investigation 14.1.

Self-Review

1. VP.iat are the advantages of bilateral symmetry? Of radial sym-

metry?
2. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of aquatic and terres-
trial environments for animals.
3. Describe how increased size leads to increased complexity.

Investigation 14.1 Investigation 14.1 ANIMAL STRUCTURE:

ANIMAL STRUCTURE, THE FETAL PIG THE FETAL PIG

The pig's anatomy is more typical of Intro -suction

human's and is, therefore, more desirable for No species can fully Illustrate animal structure. Fetal pigs have some
study than a frog's It also makes more advantages. They are mammalsenough like ourselves to throw some
ecologic,a1 sense to use an organism that is the light on our own structure. Yet they are sufficiently unlike us to provide some
result of meat production than one that is important contrast. A false notion about dissection is that all you do is cut
becoming increasingly scarce in our and slice. An animal specimen is a marvelously assembled and intricate
environment set of structures held together by connective tissue. Dissection involves
Any size 130 nun or larger is suitabte it is making careful incisions to expose parts, then using a probe to separate
not necessary to purchase initcted speoineris organs and other structures from their coverings. In a sense, one's intent
If your specimens have be T1 preserved with is to carefully unwrap the animal's structures without damage.
formaldehyde. provide plan Moves. and The pig you will dissect is a fetal pig. Fetal pigs have not been born.
caution your students about prolonged contad They were removed from their mother's reproductive tract before birth.
with the preservative Evidence of their fetal condition can be seen by examining the stomach
Students should be able to follow the area for the attached umbilical cord.
directions and accurately locate and identify
organs However, be prepared to lend
assistance Some students will consider the Materials (per team of 2)
dissection impossible to do when they meet with fetal pig
a little frustration You can prevent this by being dissecting pan
available to them pair of scissors
At least 2 periods but no n ore than 4 will be scalpel
needed for the complete investivation dull probe
length of string
metric ruler
dissecting needle

ft" 4,-

th.)
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 485

Part AExternal Anatomy

Procedure
1. The period of gestation for the pig is 112-115 days. The age of your
fetal pig can be estimated by measuring the body length from the tip
of the snout to the attachment of the tail. Compare this length to the
data given on relative sizes of a fetal pig at different times during ges-
tation.
21 days, 11 mm
35 days, 17 mm
49 days, 28 mm
56 days, 40 mm
100 days, 220 mm
115 days, 300 mm
Record the age of your specimen in your data book.
2. Determine the sex of your specimen. Males can be identified by the
presence of small sacs containing the testes, located at the posterior
end of the trunk between the upper ends of the hind legs. The opening
for the penis, the urogenital opening, is located just posterior to the
umbilical cord. In the female, the urogenital opening is situated im-
mediately ventral to the anus. A small fleshy structure, the genital pa-
pilla, projects from the urogcrital opening. Both sexes have two rows
of nipples.
3. Examine the umbilical cord. This structure is present only during fetal
life (pregnancy) and is lost shortly after birth. It is located on the ventral
abdominal surface. Through it pass the vessels (2 umbilical arteries,
1 umbilical vein, and an allantoic duct, which is difficult to see) that
carry nutrients and waste products between the fetus and mother,
through the placenta on the mother's uterus wall;
4. Cut a very small piece off the end of the umbilical cord and note the
location of the vessels mentioned above on the freshly cut end.

Discussion Discussion
1. What was the gestation age of your fetal pig? What is the basis of this Part A
determination? 1 Age will be determined by the length in
2. What is the sex of your fetal pig? What is the basis of htis determi- mm
nation? 2 Males can be identified by the presence
3. The fetus-mother relationship is considered to be similar to a parasite- of testes and or the position of the urogenital
host relationship by some biologists. How would you support this po- opening. females, by the position of the
sition? urogenital opening and/ or the position of the
genital papilla
3 The fetus (parasite) gets all of its nutrients
Part BThe Dissection
directly from the mother (host)
Procedure
1. Tie your specimen on it back in the dissecting pan. Tie the left foreleg
to right foreleg with a piece of string passed under the pan. Do the
same with the hind legs. As you proceed, you may have to tighten the
strings.
2. For the following work, use the outline drawing, figure 14.3, which shows
where incisions (numbered in sequence), are to be made. Numbered
incisions with symbols apply to the sex of the animal.

539
486 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.3 Fetal pig.

Ward's Natural Science Esti.tIshment. Inc.. Rochester. NY

3. Using forceps, lift the skin to be cut, beginning with #1 at the belly,
anterior to the umbilical cord, and make a small slit with a scalpel.
Then, using scissors, insert and cut to the chin. Pull upward on the
umbilical cord slightly while you make these cuts, to avoid cutting the
abdominal organs.
4. After you have made incision #2, you will notice that the umbilical cord
and flesh immediately around it cannot be laid back freely on the body.
Look for a dark tubular structure extending from the umbilical cord
forward to the liver (the large brownish organ at the anterior end of
the abdominal cavity); this is the umbilical vein. Tie a small piece of
string around the vein in two places and then sever the vein between
the cords. The umbilical cord can now be pulled down between the
hind legs of your specimen.
5. Continue with incisions 3, 4, and 5, always being aware not to cut into
the abdominal organs.
6. Notice that the diaphragm (#6) must be freed by cutting its edge where
it is in contact with the body wall.

Part B Discussion
Skin and muscles of the abdomen. What two structures had to be cut during dissection to expose internal
organs?

5&u
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 487

Part CThe Digestive System

Procedure
1. Examine the liver and notice it is divided into three lobes.
2. Use your probe to raise the right lobe of the liver. (Note that right and
left refer to your specimen's right and left.) Observe the gall bladder,
a small, greenish sac embedded in the underside of the liver.
3. Trace the thin duct leading from the gall bladder. This is the common
bile duct, which empties into the intestine.
4. Immediately under the left lobes of the liver lies the stomach. Follow
the intestine from the stomach toward the posterior, until it joins the
colon, or large intestine. Notice that the intestine is held in place by a
thin membrane, the mesentery.
5. Where the intestine and colon join, there is a pouch, called the caecum.
In humans, the tip of this pouch is the appendix.
6. Trace the colon toward the posterior. Just before it reaches the anus,
there is a slight enlargement, the rectum.
7. Where the stomach and intestine join, there is a tight ring of muscle
in the wall of the digestive tract. This is the pyloric valve. At the anterior
end of the stomach, there is another muscular ring, the cardiac valve.
8. After the animal is born, food is carried from the mouth to the stomach
by way of the esophagus. Trace the esophagus toward the mouth as
far as possible without disturbing other organs.
9. The sheet of muscle through which the esophagus passes is the dia-
phragm. The diaphragm separates the chest and abdominal cavities.
10. The pancreas, a small, pinkish, grainy organ, is also part of the diges-
tive system. It lies just under the stomach, insido the bend made by
the first section of the intestine.

Discussion Part C
1. If iou were to open the stomach of your specimen, what kind of food 1 None A fetal pig %vas not born so it never
would you expect to find? ate any food.
2. What is the source of food for the fetal pig? 2 Food diffuses from the mother's blood to
3. List in order the organs through which food actually passes starting the fetus's blood in the placenta
with the mouth and ending with the anus. 3 Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
4. You may have observed a dark organ that partly hides the stomach intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus
on the left side of your specimen. If not, lolate it now. This organ is 4 It functions as part of the circulatory
the spleen. Why was it not mentioned as part of the digestive system? system

Part DThe Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

Procedure
1. Open the chest cavity, using scissors to cut through the sternum, or
breast bone. Be careful not to cut too deeply, or you may damage the
heart and lungs which are just below the sternum.
2. Notice that the chest cavity is triangular in shape. It is enclosed on the
sides by the rib cage and on the bottom by the diaphragm.
3. Tucked between the lungs, which fill each side of the chest cavity, is
the heart. The heart is enclosed in a membrane called the pericardium.
4. Spread the heart and lungs with your probe, and trace the esophagus
from the abdominal cavity up through the chest cavity.
5. Locate the trachea, or windpipe, which is ventral to the upper part of
the esophagus. The trachea continues down into the chest cavity,
where it branches into each lung.

59.E
488 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

6. Continue the dissection in the neck region. Expose-the upper part of

the trachea, where there is an enlarged organ made of cartilage. This
is the larynx, or voice box.
7. Posterior to the larynx and wrapped around the ventral side of the
trachea is a rather large gland, the thyroid.
8. Return to the heart and carefully peel off the pericardium. Use your
dissecting needle to pick away the connective tissue surrounding the
blood vessels that leave and enter the heart.
9. The blood vessels are mostly on the anterior and dorsal surfaces of
the heart. These surfaces make up the atria of the heart. These cham-
bers receive blood returning to the heart through the veins.
10. Locate the right and left ventricles of the heart and thecoronary artery
that runs across the ventral surface, separating the 2 ventricles. This
blood vessel supplies the heart muscle with blood.
11. Entering the dorsal surface of the heart are 2 large veins. These are
the superior and inferior vena cava. You will heed to lift the heart and
rotate it to your right to see where these enter the right atrium. The
veins bring blood back to the heart from the anterior and posterior
parts of the body.
12. The pulmonary veins carry blood back to the heart from the lungs.
They empty blood into the left atrium, also on the dorsal surface. Lo-
cate these veins.
13. Blood is carried to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. It appears on
the ventral surface of the heart near the top where it leaves the right
ventricle. Locate this artery.
14. Beneath the pulmonary artery where it arches over the top of the heart
lies the aorta. This large artery leaves the left ventricle and carries
blood to all parts of the body except the lungs.
15. If you dissect carefully, you may be able to locate a short connecting
blood vessel between the pulmonary artery and the aorta. This is called
the ductus arteriosus. At the time of birth, this vessel closes off and
ceases to carry blood.

Part D Discussion
1 Working with the ribs it increases and 1. What is the function of the diaphragm?
decreases the size of the chest cavity s.ausirig 2. To what organ system does the thyroid gland belong?
inhaling and exhaling 3. How can you distinguish between the atria and ventricles of the heart?
2 The endocrine systam 4. What is the function of the ductus arteriosus in the fetal heart?
3 Ventriclt.s are more muscular than the 5. What adaptive advantage is gained by its closure at birth?
atria
4 Allows most of the blood to bypass the
lungs that are not functioning during fetal life Part EThe Urogenital System
5 At birth the pig begins to breathe Procedure
Oxygenation of blood can occur in the lungs
1. Carefully remove the organs of the digestive system from the abdom-
inal cavity. This will expose the organs of the excretory and repro-
ductive systems. Use your dissecting needle to remove any fat deposits
there may be around these organs.
2. Locate the kidneys, a pair of dark, bean-shaped organs lying on the
dorsal wall of your specimen.
3. Remove the peritoneum (the membrane lining the abdominal cavity
and covering the kidneys) and observe the branches of the aorta that
bring blood to the kidneys. These are the renal arteries.
4. Lying just below the renal arteries are the renal veins. These drain
blood from the kidneys into the inferior vena cava for return to the
heart.

532
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 489

5. The third tube leading out of the kidney is the ureter. Follow this duct
toward the posterior, until it enters the urinary bladder. The ureter drains
urine from the kidneys for temporary storage in the urinary bladder.
6. Spread the hind legs as far as possible. Use scissors to cut through
the cartilage of the pelvic girdle (the set of bones to which the legs
are connected).
7. Spread the pelvic girdle and expose the urethra. This duct leads from
the urinary bladder to the urogenital opening through which urine is
eliminated from the body.
8. Male reproductive system: Observe the pair of small sacs near the
posterior end of your specimen. Inside these sacs are the testes.
Carefully open one sac and locate the sperm duct as it runs forward
to join the urethra. The penis is a muscular tube immediately beneath
the bladder.
9. Female reproductive system: Just posterior to the kidneys are the two
ovaries. Leading from each ovary is a short duct, the oviduct, or Fal-
lopian tube. These are embedded in fairly heavy connective tissue.
Trace them to the uterus. Near the base of the uterus is a slight con-
striction marking the cervix. Posterior to the cervix is the vagina.

Discussion Part E
1. The uterus in the pig is divided into a Y-shaped structure. The arms I Place of fetal development
of the Y are called the horns of the uterus. Human females do not 2 Geater opportunity for multipie births
have a divided uterus. What is the function of the uterus?
2. What is the adaptive advantage to the pig to have the divided uterus
that you observed?

Diversity and Adaptation Guidepost: What major adaptations

have evolved in the animal
in Animals groups, v.nd how are
animals complementary to
14.4 Sponges and Coelenterates Are their environment?
Adapted to a Sessile Life-style
Sponges (Phylum Porifera) are an ancient group with an extensive 0 [poh RIF er uh]
fossil record dating back to the early Precambrian period, more than 600
million years ago (figure 14.4). They are all aquatic, and the several
thousand living species occupy a variety of marine and freshwater hab-
itats. They show considerable diversity of form, and many are brightly
colored, as seen in figure 14.5.
Sponges are sessile animals without any apparent symmetry. Their
cells are loosely organized and do not form.true tissues. The name Por-
ifera, pore-bearer, aptly describes the body of a sponge. The body is
adapted to function as a water-filtering system, and consists of a bag
pierced by many pores and canals, as shown in figure 14.6. Water con-
taining oxygen and microscopic food is pulled in through the pores by
the beating flagella of specialized cells that line the inner body. Water

; .1 593
,J, ,...1 %-i
490 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.4 Evolution of animals throughout the earth's history,

'94
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 491

Figure 14.5 Sponges: (a) barrel sponge, Xestospongia mura; (b) a red sponge Figure 14.6 Body plan of a sponge
from the family Demospongiae.

a outek unst

Jeff Gutekunat
b

containing carbon dioxide and other cellular wastes flows back out of
the body cavity through an opening called a mouth. The body wall is
supported by interlocking particles of hard or tough material that form
a kind of skeleton.
Coelenterates (Phylum Cnidaria) are aquatic animals usually found [sih LEN teh raytz]
in shallow, warm marine habitats. They include the freshwater hydras
((figure 12.4), corals, jellyfish, and sea anemones. Many harbor mutu- [ny DAR ee uh]
alistic algae within their cells, enabling them to thrive in nutrient-poor
waters. Coral reefs, limestone ridges just under the surface of the sea,
are formed by secretions of several species of coelenterates. These for-
mations are home to the greatest diversity of animal life in the water.
Corals have produced islands such as the Bahamas and Bermuda. Coral
skeletons have been used to make jewelry since before Roman times. The
fossil record of the coelenterates, like that of the sponges, goes back more
than 600 million years. (Refer to figure 14.4, page 490.)

595
. . ,
492 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.7 Coelenterates: (a) cpral,

Astrangia; (b) jellyfish, Cyanea capillata;
(c) great green anemone, Anthopleura
xanthogrammica.

CM Faiiisierrrom STACK i ASSOCIATES

b Neil G. McDaniel /TOM STACK It ASSOCIATES C StanEliwns /VISUALS UNLIMITED

Coelenterates are radially symmetrical and, thus, are adapted to a

Figure 14.8 Coelenterate body plan.
sessile or drifting life-style. They have two basic body forms. Both the
mouth reef-building corals and the freshwater hydra have a tubular body that
is usually attached to a surface. The free-swimming or drifting jellyfish
forms are like an inverted bowl with dangling tentacles. The body of a
coelenterate is little more than a thin-walled bag with an outer and inner
tissue layer, as shown in figure 14.8. Sandwiched between the layers is
a jellylike material that contains a network of nerve cells and contractile
fibers. Digestion occurs in the central cavity of the bag, hence the name
coelenteratehole or cavity plus gut. Food is taken in and undigested
particles are released through the same opening. The opening is sur-
rounded by tentacles containing specialized cells that sting prey on con-
tact and give the phylum its name, Cnidaria.
Sessile coelenterates that live attached to each
othersuch as the coralsare fastened at the
ends opposite their cavity openings, and their
tentacles stretch upward. Other coelenterates
such as jellyfishswim or float atout in the
water. Their cavity openings are directed
downward, and their tentacles hang beneath.

5J6
 Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 493

Figure 14.9 Flatworms: (a) free-living planarian, Dugesia; (b) parasitic liver fluke,
Clonorchis sinensis; (c) tapeworm, Anaplocephala.

a. John D. C4InnIngbiniii*Ale UNLIMITED b E J Cable /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

ODDS by Doug Soke II

14.5 Flatworms Are Bilaterally Symmetrical

and Have Three Tissue Layers
Flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes) are the simplest animals to have Q [plat ih hel MINTH eez]
bilateral symmetry and three tissue layers organized into organs and
organ systems. As a result, they show greater specialization and division
of labor than either sponges or coelenterates. Flatworms are a very suc-
cessful phylum adapted to a great variety of habitats. Many are parasitic Figure 14.10 Flatworm body plan. Note the
much-branched gut.
and infect members of almost all other phyla. Parasitic forms include
tapeworms and flukes. Free-living forms such as planarians may be ma-
rine or live in moist soil or fresh water. Little is known of flatworm origins,
because their soft bodies do not form fossils.
The flatworm digestive system, or gut, is diagrammed in figure 14.10.
It is a much-branched sac with one opening that serves both to take in
food and to eliminate wastes. The branches are an adaptation that brings
food directly to the ?ells or within diffusible distance. Parasitic forms
often have no gut, an adaptation to an environment in which they can
absorb digested food directly from the host organism. Because of the fiat
body plan, oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse readily in and out of
all cells. An excretory system regulates water content.

597
494 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation ht the Biosphere

14.6 Roundworms and Mollusks

Have a One-way Gut
Suspended in a Body Cavity
[nem uh TOHD uhj 0 Roundworms (Phylum Nematoda) are slender cylindrical animals that
are present in almost every kind of ecological niche. There may be a
million nematodes in a shovelful of good garden soil. They are efficient
predators or parasites, and they can infect almost all plants and animals,
often causing serious disease.
Roundworms have a complete digestive tract with two openings, an
ldaptation that permits continuous processing of food. The one-way gut
is generally tubelike and is suspended in a fluid-filled body cavity within
the body wall. The resulting tube-within-a-tube (figure 14.12) is the basic
body plan of animals in the remaining phyla.
[MOL tusks] Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca) are a large phylum that includes snails
and slugs, clams, oysters, scallops, and squid and octopuses. They live
[mot LUS kuh] ;n a great variety of aquatic habitats, from the shallows-of the shores to
the greatest ocean depths. Their great diversity is due to their adaptation
to different habitats and life-styles and to a variety of feeding methods.
Mollusks are a major source of food for humans and other animals, and
many are noted for their intricate shells.

Figure 14.11 Nematodes: (a) in garden soil; (b) Trichineila spiralis, a parasite. Figure 14.12 Roundworm body plan, a tube
within a tube.

9.

a USDA. Ogee of Communication

b
 Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 495

Figure 14.13 Mollusks: (a) garden snail, Helix

pomata; (b) rock scallop, Hinnites giganteus;
(c) octopus, Octopus vulgaris.

4.1

WWww W. &Aft
a

SIN Trona /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES C The Miami Seaquarium. Miami. Roads

Mollusks have a soft body in which the ventral wall is modified into
a head-foot region adav,a1 for feeding, sensory reception, and locomo- Figure 14.14 Molluscan body plan.
tion (figure 14.14). They have a circulatory system and structures spe-
cialized for gas exchange. Their most distinctive characteristic, however,
is the mantle (MANT ul), a modified body wall that forms a cavity and
encloses the internal organs. The mantle and mantle cavity play many
roles in the life of a mollusk. The mantle secretes the shell and forms its
lining. It may be modified into gills or other structures. Muscular
pumping of the mantle maintains a current of water that brings in food
and oxygen and carries out wastes. The jet propulsion of squids and oc-
topuses is created by the mantle and its cavity. Many mollusks protect
themselves by withdrawing the head or foot into the cavity, which is sur-
rounded by the shell.

14.7 Annelids and Arthropods Have [AN eh lidz] [uh NEL in dull]
Segmented Bodies
The basic adaptive feature of annelids (Phylum Annelida) is their
segmentation. The annelid body is a series of ringlike compartments,
0 Ask students how lack of appendages in
earthworms might favor burrowing, For an
animal living in a narrow burrow, not much wider
each similar to the next. Many internal body organs are repeated in one than the animal itself, movement is no doubt
compartment after another- The fluid-filled body cavity also is seg- impeded by appendages extending out from the
mented. That provides a powerful aid to burrowing and swimming, as animal's body. Efficient locomotion in a confining
muscles contract against the fluid pressure in each segment. space is made possible by friction between he
body surface and the burrow walls, plus the
squirming motions characteristic of burrowing

ans9
496 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.15 Annelids: (a) night crawler, Lumbrkus; (b) marine annelid,
Sabel lasted,: (c) leech, Plecobdelle.

a escs by Calv. b. SEAN PoSit/TOM STAiSCI-ASSOCIATES

Jet* 0: '.I VISUALS UNLIMITED

Although earthworms are more familiar, most annelids are aquatic.

Figure 14.16 Arthropod body plan. Note the Marine annelids are an abundant and diverse group and are very im-
appendages.
portant in food chains. They live under rocks or in coral crevices, burrow
appendages in sand or mud, or secrete tubes from which they extend feathery ten-
tacles for feeding. Worm burrows are known from the Precambrian pe-
riod. Leeches have several adaptations related to predation and
bloodsucking. Those include suckers, cutting jaws, and the production
of anticoagulants.
Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) are the most numerous animals on
earth, comprising more than three-quarters of all species. They are
abundant in every kind of habitat, have a wide variety of feeding habits,
and are uniquely able to adapt to changing conditions. Those charac-
teristics have contributed to their great evolutionary success.
Arthropods have segmented bodies usually made of two or three dis-
tinct parts: a head, thorax (chest), and abdomen. Many of the segments
have a pair of jointed appendages, an adaptation that ensures efficient
locomotion. Appendages often are modified for specialized functions such
as food getting, sensory reception, or swimming. The basic arthropod
body plan is shown in figure 14.16.

[AR throh podz] [ar THROH puh duh]

 Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 497

'Figure 14.17 Chelicerates: (a) horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus; (b) crab
spider, Xysitcus; (c) harvestman; (d) scorpion, Hadrurus arizonensis; (e) water
mite, Hydracwina.

a Salsa H. Teo!". Jr/VISUALS UNLIMITED IIM Pluisk/TOM STACK II ASSOCIATES

C IMICS w Crly WAN d C. Mae Moroaa Jolla SA.* TM: STACK i ASSOCNTES

There are two major groups of living arthropods. (An extinct group,
the trilobites (figure 21.8, page 761), form an important part of the fossil
record.)
Chelicerates include horseshoe crabs, sp:ders, harvestmen, scorpions, 0
and ticks and mites. Their first two body parts are joined to form a head- Throughout much of the United States there are
thorax. They have four pairs of legs and two pairs of chelicerae, ap- two kinds of spiders that cause ill effects in
pendages adapted for feeding. Spiders are the most familiar chelicer- humans the black widow and the brown
ates. Most spiders make webs, and all have poison glands, which they recluse Chigger mites are annoying in much 01
use to kill their prey. Only a few, however, are dangerous to humans. the East Wood ticks carry the rickettsias of
Many ticks and mites transmit parasites that cause serious diseases such Rocky Mountan spotted lever. particularly
as Rocky Mountain spotted fever. (paradoxically) in the Northeast
Mandibulates include the crustaceans, millii5edes and centipedes, and [man DIB yoo layts]
the insects. Most have three distinct body parts, and jawlike appendages,
mandibulae, adapted for food-getting. The crustaceans are mostly
0
[krus TAY shuns]
aquatic, and many of their appendages have been adapted for swim-
ming. They breathe by means of gills and have two pairs of antennae or
"feelers." Lobsters, crabs, and shrimp are probably familiar, but most

601
 )
498 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.18 Crustaceans: (a) spiny lobster,

Panulirus argus; (b) cyclops (with egg sacs),
Cyclops varicans; (c) sow bug, Oniscus.
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 499

Figure 14.19 Insects: (a) crane fly, Tipulidae; (b) giant hunting ant, Dinoponera
grandis; (c) buckeye butterfly, Precis lavinia coenia; (d) leafhopper,
Graphocephala coccinea, (e) stag beetle, Lucanidae.

Datok11 b e4)«g: D. Dodge/TOM STACK I ASSOCIATES Yll AW. W. Schulz

d Rod Planck /TOM STACK I ASSOCIATES George D. Dodge I Dale R. Thompson/ TOM STACK I ASSOCIATES

crustaceans are small or microscopic animals that exist in huge numbers

in all bodies of water. In the ocean those crustaceans are the basic food Figure 14.20 The immensity of the class
supply for many animals, from tiny fishes to giant whales. Although they insecta might even be a topic of discussion at
some cocktail parties.
are primarily an aquatic group, a number of crustaceans have adapted
to a life on land. Sow bugs and pill bugs are common in moist places THE FAR SIDE By GARY LARSON
and under rocks.
Insects are the most numerous and diverse arthropods. There are per-
haps a million species, and about a billion individual insects for every
human on earth. Insects have three body parts, one pair of antennae on
the head, and three pairs of legs on the thorax. The abdomen usually is
0
clearly segmented. Most adult insects have one or two pairs of wings
attached to the thorax. Many insects undergo metamorphosis (met uh
MOR phuh sis), a change in body form and in the function of many body
parts that occurs during development (figure 14.21). The immature, or
larva (LAR vuh), stage is generally a "feeding machine" such as a cat-
erpillar that may do great damage to crops and ornamental plants. Adults
often live only long enough to mate and lay eggs. Insects have adapted
to all major terrestrial habitats.

"Think about It, Ed. The class Insect" contains

26 orders, almost 1,000 families, and over
10,000 described species but I can't shake
the feeling we're all just a bunch of bugs."
The Far Side. Copyright 1986 UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE.

603 Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved.

500 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.21 The life cycle of the Cecropia moth, or American silkworm. An
egg develops into a small caterpillar in 10 days. The caterpillar, or larva, eats
leaves, molts four times and grows up to 10 cm in length in several weeks. It
then spins a cocoon around itself, and the pupa develops within the cocoon. The
adult moth emerges in the spring.

0,,-

otg caterpillar
(larva)
caterpillar molts several times

egg

adult moth pupa builds cocoon

14.8 Chordates Have Internal Skeletons

and Well-Developed Brains
O At some time in their lives, all chordates (Phylum Chordata) possess
paired gill slits, a dorsal, tubular, nerve cord, and a notochord (NOH
toh kord)a flexible, rodlike structure that extends the length of the
body. In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by a backbone made up
Another class of fish is the agnathans These of pieces called vertebrae (VER teh bray) that surround the nerve cord.
fish lack paired fins Their skeletons are poorly Vertebrates also have paired appendages such as legs, wings, and fins.
developed and notochords are present in adults
Their well-developed brain is adapted to provide good coordination. The
as well as in embryos The best-known
organs and systems of chordates share a basic unity of plan. Ecologically,
agnathans are the lampreys, which greatly
reduced the fish population of the Great Lakes
they are highly adaptable and are able to occupy most kinds of habitat.
several years ago. A lamprey attaches itself to a
Cartilaginous fishes have an internal skeleton made up entirely of
fish. rasps a hole in the body. and sucks out the cartilage rather than of bone. Cartilage is the substance that gives shape
body fluids of its victim That method of feeding to your ears and nose. It is stiff enough to give support but more flexible
by suction is necessary in agnathans, because than bone. Most cartilaginous fishes lack a flap over the gill slits. The
unlike all other vertebrates they have no jaws class includes sharks and rays. The rays have oddly flattened bodies
adapted to feeding on the sea bottom.
Ask students how the shape of a fish relates to O Bony fishes have skeletons made of the hard substance we call bone,
the manner in which it swims, In general. a fast- and they have an outer covering of scales. Almost all fishes obtain their
swimming fish has a slender, tapered, oxygen through covered gills, although air-breathing lungfishes have
streamlined body Bodies of slower-swimming
evolved lungs for gas exchange. Among bony fishes there is great diver-
fishes are usually much less streamlined, and
sity that involves structural adaptation to many aquatic ecosystems. In
movement of pectoral and pelvic fins is of
greater importance in their propulsion Some
fact, of all the vertebrate classes, this one has the most species, and the
fishes, trunkfish for example, have quite rigid bony fishes occupy almost all the waters of the earth.
bodies, and their fins play the major role in
locomotion. Locomotion of fishes is actually a
complex matter.

604
1
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 501

Figure 14.22 Cartilaginous fishes: (a) nurse shark, Ginglymostoma cirraturn,

(b) sting ray, Dasyatis americana.

b Dove Woodward

Figure 14.23 Bony fishes: (a) queen angelfish, Pomacanthus; (b) muskellunge,
Esox.

a The Miami ieeivoriuni; Mak Florida P. C&:&/VISUALS UNLIMITED

Amphibians generally live on land as adults, but return to water to

reproduce. They include frogs, toads, and salamanders. Their eggs are
laid in water, where the young develop. Biologists think that amphibians
evolved from air-breathing lungfishes. Amphibian limbs, which are not 0
very efficient, evolved from the lobed fins of the lungfishes.
Reptiles are completely terrestrial animals. Their embryos develop in
eggs with leathery shells that are laid on land. An outer covering of scales
prevents excessive water loss in a land environment. They breathe by
means of lungs all their lives. Reptiles are thought to be the ancestors
of birds and mammals.
All birds have feathers, and all animals with feathers are birds. No
other class of animals is so easy to characterize. All birds have wings,
0
too, though not all can fly. Flight gives birds the greatest motility of any
animal. In addition, all birds hatch from eggs that have hard shells. Birds
differ from most other chordates in having a nearly constant body tem-
perature, an adaptation that enables them to maintain a high rate of
metabolism at all times.

605
502 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.24 Amphibians: (a) leopard frog, Rana pipiens; (b) newt,
Pseudotriton tuber.

a b Da4M. D«wiiloiii STACK i ASSOCIATES

Figure 14.25 Reptiles: (a) Western long-nosed snake, Rhinocheitus lecontei

lecontei; (b) iguana lizard, Iguanidae.

a C, Allan Morgan b OSCS by Girlie Calvin

What is a feather? Student interest in birds is There are many structural adaptations in both the feathers and the
often high, and this is one of many reference wings of birds. Feathers form the soft down of ducks, the long beautiful
questions that might be pursued plumes of ostriches, and the waterproof coat of penguins. Penguins never
fly, but they use their short, broad wings for swimming. Albatrosses,
Except for fishes, no group of vertebrates
which ha-,y long, slim wings, spend almost all their lives gliding on air
shows as much color diversity as birds Some
students might like to study that phenomenon
0 currents. Modification of structures such as feet and beaks has been im-
portant in the adaptation of birds to many kinds of ecosystems.
Students usually think of dinosaurs as being the
From a tiny shrew, which measures about 15 cm, to a giant blue whale
largest animals. Not so 30 m long (the largest animal that has ever lived), all mammals share
0 two characteristics. First, all have hair. It is sometimes not very evident,
and in some whales it is completely absent after birth. Second, all species
of mammals feed their young with milk, a fluid secreted from mammary
glands in the skin. That adaptation allows a long period of development
under parental care and increases the chances of survival of the young.
Further, mammals maintain constant temperature regardless of the en-
vironmental temperature, a characteristic they share with birds.

606
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 503

Figure 14.26 Birds: (a) downy woodpecker, Dendr000pus pubescens; (b) red-
shouldered hawk, Buteo lineatus; (c) Canada warbler, Wilsonia canadensis;
(d) pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis carolinensis.

a Doug Sokol!

`I

Kobort C; Slinpson/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES d Doug Sokol(

Although they have many characteristics in common, mammals show Most students should be able to mention many
great diversity in size, structure, and color. Much of that diversity comes structural adaptations in mammalsbeginning
from modifications for motility and for eating different prey. Those mod- with themselves
ifications have adapted mammals to function in a variety of specific eco-
logical niches. Mammals today belong to three major groups.
Monotremes lay eggs. Marsupials have pouches in which the young de-
velop. Placentals have special internal structures that nourish the young
until birth.

607
504 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.27 Mammals: (a) lion, Felis, leo; (b) buffalo, Bison bison; (c) northern
sea lion, Eumetopias jubala; (d) porpoise, Tursiops; (e) red kangaroo, Megaleia
Tula; (f) raccoon, Procyon Iola.
.

Milton J. TImY, Jr/ VISUALS UNLIMITED Torn J. Ulrich / VISUALS UNLIMITED

Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 505

Self-Review

1. What characteristics do sponges and coelenterates share, and how

are they different?
2. What adaptations of evolutionary significance are shown by flat-
worms? By roundworms? By annelids?
3. What is the distinctive structure of mollusks and what functions does
it perform?
4. Describe characteristics that distinguish a spider, a crustacean, and
an insect.
5. What characteristics distinguish chordates from other phyla?
6. What structural adaptations distinguish the vertebrate classes?

in X4:2 I ,ERSITY :I 'ANIMALS!. Investigation 14.2

reit,," to WE T DIVERSITY OF ANIMALS.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY
Introduction
This investigation will provide you with an opportunity to sharpen your This investigation is not intended to be an
skills of observation. abbreviated type study of animal phyla. Its
primary purpose is to sharpen students'
observations of living animals Secondarily,
Materials (per class) through it students obtain firsthand acquaintance
pencils with 5 major patterns of animal structure These
paper are used frequently as references and they
materials supplied by your teacher provide firsthand evidence for the important
theme of structurefunction relationship

Procedure Materials
Make an enlarged copy of the table below. It should extend across 2 The principal teaching problem is one of
facing pages in your data book. riach of the 13 spaces should allow for logistics It is sometimes diffk.ult to assemble all
several lines of writing. the animalsin a healthy, active condition
simultaneously However, most of these species
Characteristics Hydra Planaria Earthworm Crayfish Frog are worth maintaining as permanent residents of
your laboratory, thereby eliminating the problem
1
of timing orders from suppliers Sue J 0
2 Needham, 1937, Culture Methods for
Invertebrate Animals (New York Dover
3
Publications)
You may wish to add or substitute other
animals Suggestions Tubilex, crickets, and
13 grasshoppers If substitutions are made, you
must revise the specific directions

In the Characteristics column, copy the italicized key words for each of
Station 1
the following questions. (If more than 1 question follows a number, copy
only the first.) The 13th space is for any additional observations you may 6 to 12 Irving hydras
make. 3 stereomicroscopes or hand lenses
3 Syracuse watch glasses
1. What do you think is the habitat of the animal? Does it live in water, small culture of Daphnia
on land, or in both places? 3 dropping pipets
2. Is body symmetry radial or bilateral? 3 monocular microscopes
3 small watercolor-type brushes
3 prepared slides of longitudinal sections
of hydra

,,uij 609
 506 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Station 2
3. Does the animal have a skeleton?If it has, is it an endoskeleton or an
6 to 12 living planarians exoskeleton?
6 stereomicroscopes or hand lenses 4. Is the animal's body segmented or is it unsegmented?
3 Syracuse watch glasses 5. Which kind of gut does the animal have, an alimentary canal or a
6 to 12 small pieces of raw liver digestive sac?
3 small watercolor-type brushes 6. Does it have paired appendages?
3 monocular microscopes 7. How does the animal obtain oxygen? (Through lungs, gills, skin, or a
3 prepared slides of cross sections combination of these?)
of planana, 3 whole mounts 8. Are there any sense organs visible? If so, what kinds are they, and
where are they located?
Station 3 9. How does the animal move from one place to another?
6 to 12 living earthworms 10. Does it make any kind of movement while it remains more or less in
one spot?
3 hand lenses
moistened paper towels 11. How does the animal capture and take in food?
12 boxes containing damp soil
12. How does it react when touched lightly with a dissecting needle or a
3 monocular microscopes small watercolor-type brush?
3 prepared slides of cross sections All the specimens for 1 species of animal and the materials and equip-
of earthworms ment needed for observing them are arranged at 1 station. Each team will
have a turn at each station.
Station 4 Following are directions for observing each species. Some will help you
3 living crayfish make the observations needed to answer the questions. Some will direct
aquarium your attention to additional observations that you should record in the 13th
3 small watercolor-type brushes space of your table. You may find some observations impossible to make.
3 finger bowls Therefore, you may have blank spaces on your table. Do the best you can.
6 to 10 small pieces of raw liver Remember that you are recording your observations, not what you have
2 preserved crayfish
read or heard about the organism.
3 dissecting needles
Station 1. Observing Hydras
Station 5
(a) Observe food capture and feeding in hydras under a stereomicro-
prepared frog skeleton scope or hand lens. Place a single hydra in a small watch glass with
3 live frogs
some of the same water in which it has been living. Wait until the animal
3 battery jars attaches itself to the dish and expands its tentacles. Then slowly add
freshly dissected frog a few drops of a Daphnia culture.
2 dropping pipets (b) Observe the hydra's reactions when it is gently '.ouched with the wa-
3 dissecting needles tercolor brush.
aquarium
(c) Examine a prepared slide of a longitudinal section of hydra under a
monocular microscope. Try to determine the presence or absence of
a skeleton and of an alimentary canal.

Station 2. Observing Planarians

(a) Use a stereomicroscope or hand lens. Place 1 or 2 planarians in a
small watch glass that contains pond or aquarium water. Add a small
piece of freshly cut raw liver. Record your observations.
(b) Use a monocular microscope to examine cross sections of planarian.
Examine whole mounts with a stereomicroscope. Determine the pres-
ence or absence of skeleton and alimentary canal.

610
 Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 507

Station 3. Observing Earthworms Procedure

(a) Pick up a live earthworm and held it gently between your thumb and It is assumed that the use of the data book
forefinger. Observe its movements. Are there any regions on the body for laboratory records is now an established
surface that feel rough? If so, examine them with a hand lens and re- habit
cord your observations. The 5 stations should be as far from each
(b) Watch a worm crawl about on the slightly moistened tabletop until you other as the plan of your laboratory permits
determine which is its anterior end. Use a hand lens to examine both Movable tables and peripheral facilities allow the
ends of the animal. How do its anterior and posterior ends differ in best arrangement, but adaptations can be made
structure? in other situations Six students per station is
(c) Place an earthworm on some loose soil and observe its movements ideal, but 8 can be accommodated Each group
as it burrows. should be permitted about 10 minutes at each
(d) Using a monocular microscope, examine cross sections of the body station. Therefore, the observation time
under low power and high power. Try to determine whether it has a occupies all of an ordinary class period
skeleton. Consequently, directions for observation must
be thoroughly studied before the laboratory
period, and everything must be in readine.ss at
Station 4. Observing Crayfish
each station when the class arrives.
(a) Observe the movements of the appendages and the pattern of lo- You may wish to direct students to omit
comotion of a live crayfish in an aquarium. Observe the antennae. some of the general questions or you may wish
Touch them gently with the watercolor brush. Note the animal's re- to add questions. Be sure that any added
action. questions can be answered from the material
(b) Put a small piece of liver in a dish with the crayfish. Observe how the available. this is not the time to send students
crayfish eats. scurrying to reference books. Some directions
for specific animals may have to be bypassed
feeding the frog probably causes the most
Station 5. Observing Frogs
difficulty.
(a) Examine the prepared skeleton of a frog. Compare it with a dissected
preserved specimen. Determine the position of muscles and other soft Discussion
tissues in relation to the bones.
Concentrate first on the structure-function
,(b) Study the breathing movement; of a live frog that is not moving about.
idea, then, return to specific observations if time
To do this, observe from the side with your eyes at the level of the allows.
animal.
(c) Observe the movements of a frog swimming in an aquarium. How do
these movements compare with those of a frog hopping and moving
about on a laboratory table? Your teacher will show you how to catch
and hold a frog without injuring it.
(d) If a hungry frog is available, your teacher may be able to show you
how it captures food.

Discussion
When you have completed your observations and recorded the data,
review what you have learned about each of the items in the table. By
reading across the table, you should be able to compare and contrast the
characteristics of the 5 animals you have studied.
For each animal, select 5 functions that it performs as part of its way
'of life. Describe how, in each case, its structure enables it to perform these
functions.

611
508 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Guidepost: What adaptations enable Life Functions in Animals

animals to perform the
basic functions of life?
14.9 Digestion May Be Intracellular
or Extracellular
0 Animals have evolved a variety of mechanisms for food-getting.
Sponges demonstrate a rather primitive method. Individual cells with a
single flagellum keep a current of water moving through the sponge.
When a food particle comes by, a cell may engulf it and draw it into a
vacuole, just as a Paramecium does. The process of taking food particles
Ask students to suggest land animals that wait
into a body cavity .... called ingestion (in JES chun).
for their prey to come by Frogs wait for insects
Most aquatic and land animals, however, actively pursue their food
to come within snatching distance Spiders wait
for prey to bemiie entangled in their webs
and have means to capture it. Some predators poison their prey. For ex-
ample, the tentacles of a coelenterate have stinging capsules. Each cap-
Ask students what other animals they know that sule contains a long, coiled, hollow thread with barbs near its base. When
poison their prey. Snakes will probably come to a food organism brushes one of the tentacles, the thread is shot out with
mindfirst though most snakes are not such force that it pierces the body of the victim. A paralyzing poison is
poisonous Then there are spiders, scorpions, injected into the prey, which is then drawn into the coelenterate's body
even mammals such as st.. 'Ws The list is long cavity by the tentacles.
A leech has another way of obtaining food. It attaches itself to its
Ask students what liquid-sucking arthropods victim by means of a posterior sucker. It makes a wound with its three-
they know. Mosquitoes, ticks, aphidsanother toothed jaw and sucks the victim's blood. Many arthropods also use liquid
long list is possible, nutrients as a food source.
Among vertebrates, jaws, beaks, and teeth are structures that aid food-
getting. There are many adaptations of those structures. For example,
a snake can unhook its lower jaw from its upper jaw and move the two
independently. Those adaptations permit a snake to swallow prey that
is larger than its own head.
A comparison of body plans reveals that only
one figure shows an anus Some students may 0 Ingested food enters a digestive cavity inside an animal's body. There
anticipate a problem of waste disposal, refer are three types of digestive cavities: vacuoles within individual cells; sacs;
them to a zoology book and tubular alimentary canals. These are diagrammed in figure 14.28.

Figure 14.28 Kinds of digestive cavities: (a) intracellular (vacuole) in a cell of a

sponge; (b) extracellular with one opening (sac) in a hydra; (c) extracellular with
wo openings (alimentary canal) in a roundworm.

mouth\

AIP
mouth
X111 X 19 X 12
anus

digestive
cavity
digestive
vacuole cavity

a b c

612
 Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 509

Only relatively small molecules can pass through plasma membranes.

However, most nutrient particles that animals ingest are not molecular Figure 14.29 Alimentary canal of a bird. Food
size. Even the microscopic particles that sponges take in are much too is swallowed without being chewed and is
stored temporarily in the crop. Sand and small
large to pass directly into cells. Food that is ingested by animals must
pebbles in the gizzard aid in grinding the food.
be broken down into small molecules. The processes of that breakdown
are known collectively as digestion.
The breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller ones is the phys-
ical part of digestion. Most mammals have teeth that cut or :rind food
into smaller pieces. In many animals, however, movements of the diges-
tive cavity break down food. The gizzard of a bird, for example, is a
specialized part of the stomach that grinds up food (figure 14.29). Some small intestine
birds swallow sand and small pebbles, which aid the grinding.
Physical digestion, such as chewing, increases the surface area of the
food. Increased surface area means that the chemical part of digestion crop
can take place more quickly. Here enzymes take over the breakdown of
food. The chemical part of digestion is similar in all animals, and we will
examine the process in the human animal in chapter 15.
In sponges and to some extent in coelenterates and flatworms, chem-
gizzard
ical digestion takes place in a vacuole inside a cell. That is intracellular
(in truh SEL yoo ler) digestion. The vacuole is formed when a food par-
esophagus
ticle is surrounded by a section of plasma membrane. A plasma mem-
brane, however, is made up of lipids and proteins, the same substances
'that make up foods. Why is the cell itself not digested? Saclike bodies
called lysosomes contain the digestive enzymes but are not digested by
them. A lysosome fuses with a vacuole, and chemical digestion occurs
within that new structure. Small molecules produced by chemical diges-
tion pass out of the vacuole into the cell's cytoplasm. Only then can the
nutrients be used by the cell. Most of the fiber digestion in the rumen is by
In most animals digestion takes place in an extraceflular (ek struh numerous anaerobic bacteria up to a billion
SEL yoo ler) space. Enzymes are secreted from cells into a digestive per ml of rumen contents. Presumably the
cavity. There is great variation in the form and complexity of digestive bacteria benefit. and the cow obtains much of
systems. In the digestive sac of a coelenterate, some of the cells lining its nutrition from bacterial products. so the
the cavity secrete enzymes. In the simple gut of a roundworm, all diges- relationship is usually termed mutualistic. No
tive enzymes are produced by cells in the lining. In most animals, how- sectional diagram can display the complexity of
' ever, digestive enzymes are secreted by tissues specialized as glands. Some the digestive apparatus of a cow, only a 3-
dimensional model can do so
herbivorous vertebrates, such as cows, have special chambers (rumens)
that contain cellulose- digesting microorganisms and, thus, are able to Cellulose digestion in horses and rabbits occurs
utilize fibers. in projections of the large intestine The horse
Small food molecules are absorbed from the gut into an animal's cells. uses very little of this digested material Rabbits,
The rate of absorption depends on the surface area of the gut lining. The however, produce coecal pellets that they
greater the surface area, the faster is the rate. The lining of the gut has promptly re-eat They also produce fecal pellets,
many folds, an adaptation that increases surface area. which they do not eat.

14.10 Animals Use a Variety of Methods

for Gas Exchange and Transport
Animal cells depend on cellular respiration to release energy for living.
Therefore, they must be able to obtain oxygen and transport it to all
their cells. They also must be able to rid themselves of carbon dioxide,
the waste product of respiration.

3, 0 63
510 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.30 (a) Gas exchange in hydra.

(o) Gas exchange in fishes and insects. Gills are
made of thin filaments richly supplied with blood
vessels. Each filament ;s made of delicate plates
containing many capillaries. In insects, oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged through the
branching tracheae.

bony supports

covering
removed

°gill filaments

large
blood vessels

gill filaments

bony support
chitin
capillaries support

trachea
large
blood vessels.;
b
614
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 511

In small animals, such as hydras, gas exchange occurs entirely through

the body wall. The body surface is large compared with the volume of
0
living substance. That means that the surface area is large enough to
allow sufficient amounts of oxygen to enter the organism by diffusion.
As body size increases, however, the ratio of surface area to volume be-
comes smaller. In general, large animals do not have large enough body
surfaces to allow sufficient gas exchange. Thus, they must have organs
that increase the surface area through which respiration can occur.
In aquatic animals such organs are usually gills. Most often they are
feathery or platelike structures. Dissolved oxygen diffuses in and carbon
0
dioxide diffuses out through the gill cells. Gills are remarkably similar
in a wide variety of animals.
Terrestrial animals lose a great deal of water through their respira- Ask students whether that is important for
tory organs, because water can diffuse through any surface that permits aquatic animals They should consider the gills
diffusion of respiratory gases. Also, cell surfaces must be kept moist so of a fish living in fresh water The question
gases can diffuse through them. For that reason, terrestrial animals that should cause some students to recall the
breathe through gills (sow bugs, for example) must live in places where problems of water diffusion discussed in
air is moist and evaporation is slow. That also is true of land animals chapter 5
that take in oxygen through their body surfaces (slugs, earthworms, and
frogs, for example).
Many terrestrial animals live where the air is dry. They need an ex- Ask students if they know of any terrestrial
tensive surface inside the body where air can be kept moist. There are vertebrate that normally has only one lung Most
two principal ways of meeting that requirement. In hi:ects and some snakes only have one lung The question may
other arthropods, a complicated system of tubes extends to all parts give one of your students a chance to display
of the body. The tubes carry oxygen directly to most cells. Body move- his or her knowledge Many teenagers are
ments help move air through the tube system. In air-breathing verte-
brates, air passes into lungs. Lungs ate divided into such a large number
0 reptile fanciers

of tiny air sacs that they appear spongy (see figure 16.19, page 592).
Respiratory gases diffuse through the enormous moist surface area pro-
vided by those sacs.
In a single-celled organism, movement of the cytoplasm provides an
adequate transportation system. In some multicellular organisms such
0
as sponges and coelenterates, almost every cell has part of its surface
exposed to the environment. Each cell can obtain its own oxygen and get
rid of its own wastes. All cells may not take in food, but no cell is very
far from others that do. Diffusion and active transport are sufficient to
move substances into cells.
A similar situation exists in free-living flatworms. In roundworms,
however, there is a fluid-filled body cavity surrounding the digestive tube.
As the roundworm wriggles, the fluid is squeezed about from one place
to another. In that way substances dissolved in the fluid are carried to
and from the body cells.
Most animals that have body fluid have a circulatory system. Such a
system includes a pump and a series of tubes through which nutrients
can be delivered and waste products removed from the cells. In arthro-
pods and most mollusks blood is pumped through blood vessels that empty
0
into body spaces. The blood moves about sluggishly through those spaces
in contact with the tissues. Eventually it gets back into another set of
vessels, which carries it back to the pumping point. Such an incomplete
vascular system is called an open circulatory system.

615
 512 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.31 Diagrams of fluid transport in four invertebrate animals.

(: Coelenterate Roundworm

digestive
to

Crustacean
dorsal blood vessel

digestive tu
ventral blood vessel

Annelid
dorsal blood vessel

The diagram. of the circulatory system of an

annelid is somewhat misleaditt9 bet..ause the
«mnt.ctions between vessels in the dorsal and
venhat body wails t.annot be shown In a
tomitudinal section capillary network digestive tube

Annelids, on the other hand, have a closed circulatory system, which

you can study in investigation 14.3. In that system blood flows within
vessels through all of its course. An earthworm has a system with five
pairs of hearts and a complex set of finely branched vessels. Those vessels
eventually empty into a large dorsal vessel, whch returns the blood to
the hearts. Valves in the dorsal vessel keep the blood flowing in only one
direction through the system. Vertebrates, including humans, also have
a closed circulatory system.

616
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 513

i0,00198.0614.3 TEMPERATURE' AND CIRCULATION

Investigation 14.3
Introduction TEMPERATURE AND CIRCULATION

The function of the circulatory system of a multicellular animal is affected The appropriate earthworms can be ordered
by many environmental factors. You probably could suggest several hy- through a biological supply house such as
potheses about the effect of temperature on the rate at which the system Carolina or Ward s They also can be obtained
pumps blood. How would increasing temperatures affect the rate at which at bait shops as night crawlers it you have a
an animal's heart beats? In this investigation you will discover the effects hot water tap in the classroom, this will provide
of environmental temperature on the pulse rate of the dorsal blood vessel water of more than necessary warmth
of an earthworm. In doing so, you also will develop skills in using the inquiry Otherwise, it is recommended you use water in
process. 500 ml beakers o adjustable hot plates set on
tow (approximately 40° C) Because ice and
Materials (per team) warm water will be in high demand in the
classroom, it is preferable to have 3 or 4 such
large earthworm sites scattered about the room
thermometer Because students will be working with a living
clean, chemical-free dissecting tray earthworm, the container used for observation
tap water must be clean and free of chemicals such as
paper towels formalin If your dissecting trays do not it this
warm water bath description, substitute some other type of dish
clock for timing or pan
Have students work in groups of 2, 1
Procedure counting pulse beat and the other timing and
recording data The wurms can be recycled
1. Place an earthworm into the pan dorsal side up. The dorsal side will during the day, but they will be most responsive
be much darker and rounder than the ventral side. if used in alternate periods Thus 30 worms for
2. Moisten the earthworm with a few drops of water. Place a damp piece an entire day of biology classes should be
of paper towel gently over the head region, and the worm will wiggle enough
and move very little. Touch the worm as little as possible.
3. Locate the dorsal blood vessel running directly dowr 'he center of the Procedure
dorsal surface. Find the part of the vessel where you can most easily
see the actual pulsing of the vessel. Make a trial count of the number Exact temperatures are not necessary The
of beats in 1 minute. important thing is that there be a range from
4. Construct a hypothesis about the effects of various temperatures on very tow to about 40' C If the 5 temperatures
the pulse rate of a worm's dorsal blood vessel. Record this hypothesis at which data were collected are fairly close
in your data book. among the teams, data could be averaged
5. You will expose the worm to 5 different temperatures from nearly
freezing (ice water) to uncomfortably warm but not hot. (The worm will Discussion
die at temperatures greater than 45° C.) 1 Graphs should show that the greater the
6. Add just enough ice water tc the tray to submerge your worm (ap- temperature, the faster the pulse beat
proximately 1 cm). 2 So there will be enough time for the nJw
7. Lay the thermometer in the pan so that the bulb is submerged. temperature to cause corresponding
8. Wait 3 minutes to allow the worm to adjust to the temperature. physiological changes in the worm The effects
9. Read the temperature of the water and immediately begin counting will not be immediate
the pulse rate for 1 minute. Record the beat rate/min and the tem- 3 There is insufficient oxygen in the water to
perature in your data book. allow the worm to breathe through its skin
10. Pour off the wrter and let the worm breathe for 2 minutes. 4 This will stabilize the physiology of the
11. Add water that is about 10° C to the tray as in procedure 6. worm Jumping from high to low temperatures
12. Repeat procedures 7-10 with the 10° C water. ma; cause effects that are inconsistent or not
13. Repeat procedures 6-10 with water at or close to 20° C, 30° C, and dut to the immediately prei-eding temperature
40° C. 5 Patterns will vary, but most likely the beat
14. When you are finished collecting data, return the worm to the place rate will in,rease with temperature This
designated by your teacher. These worms will be retired to a nice com- relationship may even be close to linear
post pile.

617
tc 1.1:1
514 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

6 Responses will vary Discussion

7. There are many possibilities here.
1. Graph your temperature and beat rate/min data in your data book.
including changes in water temperature during
Remember to plot the independent variable on the horizontal axis.
the counting. insufficient lag time for the worm
2. Why is it important to wait a few minutes after adding water to the
actually to respond to each new temperature,
pans before counting the pulse rate?
the worm being out of its natural habitat causing
3. Why must the water be poured off to allow the worm to breathe?
unrepresentative beat rates, and possible
4. What would be the experimental advantage of starting either with the
overuse of the worm as a subject
coldest or warmest temperatures and working gradually in the other
8 Responses will vary considerably
direction instead of skipping around to different temperatures?
5. Cescribe any patterns revealed by the curve on your graph. Does the
data support or refute your hypothesis? Explain.
6. To how many other kinds of organisms can you generalize your data?
7. What are some flaws or sources of error in the experimental proce-
dure used here? Be very critical.
8. If you were to test your hypothesis again and had no limit on equipment
or materials, how would you design the new experiment?

14.11 Excretory Systems Maintain Water

Balance and Chemical Composition
of Body Fluids
Anything that an organism gets rid of may be Waste substances are removed from cells by a process called excre-
waste It is waste if the organism has too much tion (ek SKREE shun). What do we mean by wastes? Some products
of it But our criterion for what is "too much" of
of metabolism are poisonous, for example, ammonia, which is formed in
a substance is that an organism habitually gets
the breakdown of proteins. Some substances, however, are toxic only if
no of it
large amounts accumulate. Sodium chloride is a normal cell substance
that is toxic in large amounts. Ordinarily this salt constantly diffuses
into cells from the fluid surrounding them. The normal proportion of
sodium chloride in cells can be maintained only by continuous excretion.
In general, then, any substance can be called "waste" if an organism has
too much of it. -
In small aquatic animals wastes may simply diffuse out through
plasma membranes. Sponges and coelenterates also excrete wastes di-
rectly through their body surfaces. That can happen because all their
cells are close to a water environment. Most animals, however, have spe-
cial devices for ridding their bodies of wastes.
Animal cells constantly produce water through cellular respiration.
What happens to that water depends on the kind of environment in which
an animal lives. For example, the cells of a jellyfish contain a mixture
of substances in water. Outside the plasma membranes is another mix-
turethe salty seawater. Normally the concentration of water mole-
cules inside and outside the jellyfish is almost equal. As fast as metabolic
water is produced, it diffuses into the environment. That is true of many
other marine invertebrates as well.
In fresh water, on the other hand, there are very few dissolved sub-
stances, and the concentration of water molecules is high. In the cells of
a freshwater planarian, the concentration of dissolved substances is high,
and the water concentration is low. Therefore, water is always diffusing
into a planarian. Metabolic water is constantly added to this excess. We
might expect that all this water would build up inside a cell and increase

fs;
618
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 515

Figure 14.32 (a) The excretory system of a planarian. A flame cell and an
excretory pore are shown enlarged. Wastes and excess water removed by flame
cells are eliminated through pores in the body wall. (b) Excretory tubes in the
earthworm. The near side of the body, including the alimentary canal, is cut
away. Most of the segments of the body have a pair of excretory tubes, one on
either side. Capillaries from the circulatory syste, surround the excretory tubes.

flame cells

excretory pores

ducts

part of internal tissue

between body segments capillaries

excretory
tube external opening
of an excretory
tube on the
near side of
bristles the body

ciliated internal
opening of external opdning of an excretory
excretory tube tube on the far side of the body

its volume. Eve !ally, the cell might burst unless water was somehow
expelled from : . experiments have shown that freshwater animals ex-
crete water by active transport.
Terrestrial animals are in a similar situation. You, for example, take
in a great deal of fresh water. Your cells also produce water by metab-
olism. As a land animal, however, your greatest danger is of drying out.
Animals maintain water balance within their cells through a variety
of structures. In planarians that function is performed by a system of
flame cells, shown in figure 14.32a. They are spread throughout the body
and are connected by tubules. Each flame cell has cilia that project into
a tubule. 4tfastes enter the flame cell. The waving action of the cilia moves
fluid and wastis through the tubule. Many tubules join and eventually
empty wastes into the environment through a pore. In this system there
are many flame cells and many pores.
Most annelids, mollusks, and crustaceans have a different excretory
system. In those animals the functional unit is a tubule leading from the
body cavity to the outside (figure 14.32b). Again, there are many tu-
bules. Wastes enter the tubules from the body cavity. Around each tu-
bule there is a network of capillaries, and wastes from the capillaries

, 619
516 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

may be added to the wastes already in the tubule. At the same time,
useful materials may be absorbed back into the blood or body fluid. Each
tubule leads to the outside where the wastes are emptied. In vertebrates
somewhat similar tubules are found in the kidneys, as v. e will see in
chapter 16.
0 Excretory organs evolved chiefly as water-regulating devices. In most
animals, however, they also regulate the excretion of wastes, especially
those that contain nitrogen. Amino acids contain nitrogen and are used
by cells to build proteins, but an animal may take in more amino acids
than it can use. Proteins are constantly broken down into amino acids.
Unlike carbohydrates and fats, amino acids and proteins cannot be stored
in large amounts. Therefore, there usually is a surplus of amino acids.
That surplus cannot be used for energy until the amino group (NH2)
is removed from each amino acid.
In vertebrates, amino groups are removed mainly in the liver. Am-
monia (NH3) is formed in the process. It is quite toxic but also quite
soluble. If a large supply of water is available, the ammonia can be car-
ried out of the body in solution. In freshwater fishes, nitrogenous wastes
may be excreted through the gills.
In other vertebrates the kidneys are the main route for excretion of
nitrogenous wastes. In birds, reptiles, and insects, amino groups are ex-
creted as uric (YOOR ik) acid. Uric acid is almost insoluble and is ..0C-
creted with only a small loss of water. In most adult amphibians and
mammals, amino groups are converted to a waste called urea. Unlike
uric acid, urea is soluble. It diffuses into the blood, from which it is re-
moved by the kidneys. It is then excreted in solution in the urine.

Figure 14.33 The insoluble nitrogenous wastes (uric acid) of these brown
pelicans paint the rocks white. In some places where many sea birds gather, the
wastes are collected and used as fertilizer.

Staley Studio

620
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 517

14.12 Nervous Systems Enable an Animal

to Respond to Stimuli and to
Coordinate Activities of the Other
Systems
In general, the rapid adjustments characteristic of animals are brought
about by nervous systems. Although sponges have no nervous systems,
they still are able to adjust to changes in their environment, or stimuli
(STIM yoo ly).
Coelenterates have nerve cells, some of which are specialized to re-
ceive only certain stimuli. The nerve cells are connected in a network
that permits simple coordinated responses.
Flatworms have nerve networks, but they also save a centralized 0 The ear flaps at the anterior end of a planarian
system of two nerve cords that extend along the length of the body. At k..ontain chemical receptors by whik..h the animal
the anterior end is a large mass of nerve tissue, a ganglion (GANG glee detects fooda kind of sense of smell
un). A ganglion is a center where nerve impulses are exchanged. Flat-
worms also have cells specialized for receiving stimuli. The eyespots of
planarians are examples. Those eyespots cannot form images, but they
Students may be interested in devising
can detect the direction and intensity of light.
experiments to test an earthworm's ability to
Annelids have well-developed nervous systems. A main nerve cord detect various kinds of stimuli This problem is
extends along the ventral side of the body. Many ganglia occur along the entirely open to student ingenuity Library
nerve cord. A large ganglion, sometimes called a brain, is found at the research may lead the students to Charles
anterior end of the body. Although earthworms have no obvious sense Darwin's work with earthworms Darwin
organs, they can detect many stimuli. Other annelids have specialized performed many experiments on what
sense organs, including eyes. constituted stimuli for earthworms He even
Among mollusks and arthropods there is a great variety of nervous played the piano for earthworms
systems. All are basically of the annelid type. However, they are more
numerous and varied than those of annelids.
A dorsal, tubular nerve cord, usually called a spinal cord, is a dis- 0
tinctive characteristic of the chordate phylum. In vertebrate chordates
an anterior enlargement of this nerve cordthe braindominates the
rest of the nervous system. Nervous systems of several animals are com-
pared in figure 14.34.
Ability to receive and to react to stimuli from the environment is one
of the basic characteristics of living things. That ability is developed to
different degrees in different organisms. Most animals detect different
kinds of stimuli by using specialized receptors. In humans, for example,
receptors in the skin of the fingertips are sensitive to pressure but not to
light. Receptors in the eyes are light sensitive, but they are not sensitive
to sound waves.
In most animals some receptors are concentrated in special organs.
You are well acquainted with your principal oneseyes, ears, and nose.
Other kinds of receptors, such as those sensitive to pressure, touch, cold,
and heat, are distributed widely in your skin.
No organism has specialized receptors for all the stimuli in the en- Ask students to explain the lat-k of receptors in
vironment. Many cave-dwelling animals have no receptors for light. You Lave- dwelling animals They should be able to
have no receptors for electromagnetic waves that carry radio and tele- do so in evolutionary terms Beware of
Lamarkian exnlanations
vision signals. Lack of ability to detect light is ordinarily no handicap
to cave-dwelling animals. However, if a cave-dwelling animal leaves its
cave, its inability to see might mean disaster. You use instruments such
as television that change electromagnetic waves to sound and light waves.
For those you do have receptors. However, you can suffer from nuclear
radiation Without being aware of your exposure unless you have an in-
strument to detect it.

621
, ;1
518 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.34 Nervous systems in five diverse kinds of animals.

Coelenterate Flatworm

ganglion Ali

X 12
X 20

Annelid
II
brain
X1

ventral nerve cord ganglion

Crustacean
brain
..............------*"---

X 1/2 ganglion

ventral nerve cord

Mammal

622
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 519

Figure 14.35 Sensory receptors are specialized to detect certain kinds of

stimuli. (a) Receptors in the skin detect touch, vibration, heat, cold, and pain.
(b) Rods and cones in the retina of the eye detect light. Rods detect light
intensity; different cones are sensitive to the different colors of blue, green, and
red.

naked
nerve
ending
(pa n)

nerve ending
around hair Krause's
(touch)
corpuscle
Ruffini's ending (cold)
(heat)
Meissner's
Pacinian corpuscle corpuscle
(pressure & vibration) (touch)
a b

14.13 Muscles and Skeletons Provide

Support and Locomotion
In animals, motion usually involves muscle cells. Sponges again are
an exception. They have no muscle cells, although individual cells are
capable of movement. Their larvae swim by means of cilia, just as many
protists do.
Coelenterates have specialized cells that allow the animals to move
their tentacles. Flatworms have cells organized into definite muscle tis-
sues, but locomotion still is accomplished largely by cilia. In all other
animal phyla, muscle tissues are organized into bundles (muscles). The
muscles are controlled by nervous systems.
The skeleton of a sponge consists of small, rigid parts scattered through
the soft, living tisst :s. Those parts support the softer tissues. The stony
skeletons built up by corals support the animals and also protect them
from predators. In mollusks the skeleton (shells) are chiefly protective.
Support and protection are functions of arthropod and chordate skel-
etons. In those phyla, skeletons also function in the movements of the
animals, especially in locomotion. Arthropod skeletons are external, with
the muscles attached to the inner surfaces, as shown in figure 14.36.
Those exoskeletons (EK soh SKEL eh tunz) are composed of chitin, a
tough, flexible material. In many arthropods, calcium compounds, de-
posited along with the chitin, make the exoskeleton hard and strong.
623
 520 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Thin flexible chitin joints permit bending. Although exoskeletons pro-

Figure 14.36 Relation to muscles to skeletons. vide good support, they do not allow for growth. Arthropods must pe-
Why are two muscles shown in each example?
riodically shed their exoskeletons and produce new ones.
o Vertebrates leave endoskeletons (EN doh SKEL eh tunz)skeletons
inside their bodies (see figure 14.36). Muscles are attached to the out-
side of an endoskeleton. The skeletons may consist of either cartilage or
bone; both contain cells that secrete new material. Thus the skeleton can
grow as the animal does.

14.14 Reproductive Systems Are Adapted

to Animals' Environments
Reproduction is primarily sexual in the animal kingdom. Even in spe-
cies that have asexual methods, such as many coelenterates, sexual re-
production takes place frequently. In animals, alternation of haploid with
diploid generations is unknown. In coelenterates there is an alternation
of a sexual generation with an asexual generation, but both are diploid.
Vertebrate Furthermore, male and female gametes are different in animals, and
meiosis occurs just before or during gamete formation.
In most adult animals, an individual has either ovaries or testes, not
both. Often that difference in the gonads is accompanied by differences
in appearance (figure 14.37), behavior (figure 14.38), or other charac-
teristics. In some animals an individual has both ovaries and testes. That

Figure 14.37 Some secondary sexual characteristics in animals. Can you think
of other instances where the male and female of a species do not closely
resemble each other?

chitin

muscle

Arthropod

Muscles work in pairs, one in opposition to the

otner. Muscles only pull. never push

female

deer

624
0
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 521

Figure 14.38 Specialized behavior called courtship precedes mating in many animals.

In the breeding season the

ventral surface of the male
stickleback develops brilliant
color that attracts the female.

X 1/10

The male fiddler crab

attracts attention by
waving its one large
claw.

The male reddish egret

adopts this position when
courting.
Male bighorn sheep engage
in butting duels.

X 1/25
 r.

522 Section Three Dive .ity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Timing may be occasioned by moonlight itself

Many animals are known to receive from the Figure 14.39 Grunions, Leuresthes tenuis, spawning on a California beach.
environment visual clues that influence their
pituitary glands and, thus, their entire sexual
cycles However, a critical factor for the success
of spawning is a high tide Exceptionally high
tides (spring tides) occur when the moon is in
conjunction with the sun (new moon) or in
opposition to it (full moon).

JO Fa:oft/TOM STACK I ASSOCIATES

is true of many annelids, most flatworms, and some crustaceans and mol-
lusks. An animal that has both ovaries and testes is called a herma-
phrodite (her MAF roh dvt). Even among vertebrates, hermaphroditic
individuals occasionally occur. However, they are not normal in any ver-
tebrate species.
Sperm cells swim, and that requires a liquid. Animals that live in
water can release eggs and sperm directly into their environment (figure
14.39). That is external fertilization. However, sperm contain only a very
small amount of stored food. Hence, they can survive only a short time
after being released from the male parent. Obviously, then, if a sperm
Is to unite with an egg, both must be released at approximately the same
time and place.
The contrast between internal and exterial In many phyla fertilization is internal. In that case the male places
AL -1, provides examples of the sperm directly into the body of the female. There the sperm swim through
complementPriiy of strdctural adaptation with
part of the female's reproductive tract. The two gametes meet at some
function For example, production of fewer egr
point between the ovary and the opening to the environment. Internal
in organisms where fertilization is internal is
accompanied by behavioral char ges 0.1
fertilization is not necessary for aquatic animals, but it does occur among
ease the efficiency of fertilizat.on many crustaceans and all cartilaginous fishes. Among terrestrial ani-
mals internal fertilization is necessary because sperm cannot swim
though air.
To most students parthenogenesis and In some animals and tinder cer.alit conditions, an ovum may develop
hermaphroditism seem highly abnormal What is into a new individual without fertilization by a sperm. Such reproduc-
abnormal in one group of organisms may be
tion by parthenogenesis (par theh noh JEN eh sis) occurs, for example,
normal in another Encourage students to
recognize that definition of normal is necessary
among aphids. During summer, many generations of aphids are pro-
duced in that manner. There is a problem here, because gametes are
generally haploid, and fertilization is necessary to restore the diploid
number of chromosomes. What happens when there are successive gen-
In high school laboratories hydras seldom erations without fertilization? Usually, animals that reproduce by par-
produce sexual structures The stimulus for thenogenesis produce diploid eggs. Therefore, offspring are diploid
sexual reproduction seems to be relative without fertilization. In some species of bees and ants, individuals pro-
concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide duced by parthenogenesis are indeed haploid as expected. Those indi-
that are seldom present naturally. You may viduals are always male.
obtain prepared slides of hydras bearing Coelenterates reproduce both sexually and asexually. Hydras, for ex-
gonads and of budding hydras from biological ample, reproduce asexually by budding (figure 14.40) through much of
supply houses. the year. Under certain conditions, however, they produce ovaries and
ti

626
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 523

testes. Most species are then hermaphroditic, an adaptation that in-

creases the chances of fertiiization in sessile or slow-moving animals. Figure 14.40 A hydra can reproduce either
asexually or sexually.
Eggs in the ovary are fertilized by sperm shed into the water.
Flatworms have a complex reproductive system. Most are herma-
phroditic, but do not fertilize their own eggs. Instead, two worms
exchange sperm. Free-living forms also reproduce asexually by frag-
mentation; even a small piece can regenerate into an entire worm. Par-
asitic forms such as Schistosoma have complex life cycles involving many
larval forms and two or more hosts, as you can see in figure 14.41. Par-
asitic forms produce huge numbers of eggs, an adaptation that increases
budding
the chances for survival.
In roundworms, the sexes are separate, and asexual reproduction does
not occur. The females may release as many as 200,000 eggs a day, and Asexual
the egg cases and developing embryos can survive for many years before reproduction

\
resuming growth. As with flatworms, parasitic forms have complex life
cycles with several hosts.
Earthworms are hermaphroditic, but the ova in an individual are not
fertilized by sperm of the same individual. Tubes from the ovaries lead
to the surface of one segment. Those from the testes lead to the surface
of an adjoining segment. Fertilization is internal. When two earthworms
copulate (KOP yoo layt), or mate, sperm of one individual are deposited
in a special sac of the other. Likewise, sperm from the second worm are hatching
deposited in the first. As ova move from the ovary, they pass the sperm- hydra
storage sac. Sperm are released, and the ova are fertilized.
adult
In fishes and amphibians fertilization occurs externally, and the zy- hydra
zote develops In the water. Fertilization is internal in all other verte-
brates. The zygote may develop in an egg laid by the female, as in birds
and most reptiles, or within the body of the female, as in mammals.

Sexual
14.15 An Animal's Behavior Helps It Adapt reproduction
to Its Environment
All living organisms are continually doing something. They respond
to stimuli from their external environment. They also respond to stimuli
within their bodies. Many communicate with other organisms. They feed.
They reproduce. They do other things. The sum of all these activities of
an organism is what biologists call behavior. Behavior is influenced by
other organisms of the same kind, other organisms used as food, and
embryo
other organisms that try to use this organism as food. Behavior also in-
cludes all the responses of an organism to things such as the changes in
light, temperature, day or night, time of year, and each other charac- Ask students how many parents an earthworm
has. Two. An earthworm zygote results from the
teristic of the ecosystem in which the organism lives.
union of a sperm of one individual with an ovum
For example, planarians are frequently found in wet, dark habitats
of another individual, even though the individuals
under stones. If you remove one of those stones, the planarians respond are hermaphroditic
to the increase in light intensity by an increase in movement. They wander
from side to side as well as move forward. Eventually they come upon Earthworms kept in a terrarium occasionally can
another dark spot and the response stops. be found in copulation. Earthworm cocoons.
When a male moth emerges from its cocoon and detects the odor pro- resulting from the secretions of the clitellum, can
duced by a female of its species, it flies upwind toward the source of the be purchased from biological supply houses
odor. The first time a tree squirrel sees a nut, it tries to bury the nut,
even if it has never seen another squirrel do so. Young spiders weave If you have students who are tropicalfish
webs as well constructed as those of older spiders. fanciers, encourage them to set up an aquarium
with breeding fish.

[shis toh SOHM uh]

i A Q'

i) ',..\ ti
524 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Figure 14.41 Life cycle of Schistosoma haematobium. Adult flukes in the veins
of a human host produce fertilized eggs that are expelled with the urine. In the
water, the larval stages, or miracidia, hatch from the egg and infect snails, the
intermediate hosts. Further changes take place in the snail, and immature worms
or cercaria emerge. The cercaria penetrate the skin of a human, migrate into the
small blood vessels and are carried by the circulatory system to small veins in
the bladder, where they mature. Adult worms may live 30 years and produce
thousands of eggs each day. This parasite is widespread in many parts of the
world and causes serious disease.

,-*
eggs pass
into bladder

adult flukes egg containing

(male and female) embryo
In veins of bladder

vv
Infection miracidium
through skin

cercarium

snail

62.
 Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 525

Figure 11.4% Earthworms copulating. The thickened bands aid in the transfer of
sperm and later secrete a protective coating around the developing embryos.
How many parents does an earthworm have?

XI

.4 7

Figure 14.43 The cat's behavior tells an observer that it is aware of the bird's
presence.

PECS by Richard Tolman

Those are examples of innate (in NAYT) behavior, or instinct. Be-

havior is considered to be innate if it occurs in response to a particular Figure 14.44 Chaffinch. This is a European
stimulus the first time an individual is exposed to that stimulus. Innate species that has been used in behavior studies.
behavior has a genetic basis, and it develops as a result of natural se-
lection.
Innate behavior can be modified through experience. For example, a
young squirrel opens a nut satisfactorily. As the squirrel becomes older
and more experienced, however, its efficiency at opening nuts increases
greatly. Chaffinches (figure 14.44) reared from hatching in soundproof
rooms develop a song pattern basically like that of wild chaffinches, but
their songs never include all the notes of the wild song. When the birds

629
526 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

hear the wild song, however, they learn it. Evidently a basic song pattern
Figure 14.45 Laughing seagulls exhibiting is innate, but something is added to the innate behavior during the life
learned behavioraccepting food from tourists of the birds. Leaning takes place in both squirrels and birds.
on Siesta Key, Florida.
Learning occurs when experience brings about a lasting change in
behavior. There is a wide range in learning abilities among different kinds
of anima13. Thus far, it seems possible to explain the behaviors of sponges
and coelenterates without assuming that learning has occurred. Studies
of planarians, however, have shown that they are capable of a simple
kind of learning. On the other hand, learning does not always occur even
in organisms with well - developed nervous systems. For example, many
kinds of beetles, ;f put on a tabletop, will crawl to the edge and fall of
No matter how many times that happens, they never learn to avoid the
edge of the table.
e Learning occurs frequently in vertebrates. Fcr example, along the
coast of Florida, gulls feed on a variety of things. They have learned to
follow ships to pick up food scraps thrown overboard. The laughing gulls
on Siesta Key are fed by visitors to the beaches in the area. The gulls
have learned to take food from a picnicker's hand or to pick up sera*
tossed on the ground. In general, learning gives an animal flexibility to
adapt to a changing environment by acquiring new behavior patterns.
Most adaptive behavior, however, has both innate and learned comp $-
nents.
Many biologists are interested in how behavior functions in the sur-
vival of individuals and of species. Behavior is a reaction to the environ-
ment, both internal and external. Organisms react to manr environmental
factorsto heat and cold, to the pull of gravity, and to light, sound,
chemicals. An organism also reacts to the objects around it, both livint
and nonliving. If an animal reacts to its particular environment in a way
that helps it to survive, the behavior of that organism can be called suc-
Fijelda ka* FR.. Inc.
cessful.

Self-Review

1. How do the various food-getting dev:ces of animals illustrate struc-

tural diversity?
2. In what ways do digestive cavities differ among animals?
3. Why does a very small aquatic animal require no breathing system?' 1

4. How do gills and lungs function in gas exchange?

5. What kinds of animals can survive without circulatory systems?
6. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems.
7. What are the basic functions of excretory systems?
8. Compare the nervous system of a vertebrate with that of a flatworm.
9. How do skeletons differ in vertebrates and arthropods?
10. Under what circumstances is internal fertilization necessary?
11. How does behavior reflect adaptations?

6:30
Chapter 14 Eukaryotes: Animals 527

Summary
Animal form and function are direct results of their heterotrophic
life-style. Evolutionary development favored a motile life-style that im-
proved. the ability to obtain food. Motility called for streamlining and
led to the evolution of bilateral symmetry and a head where sensory or-
gans and nerve cells are concentrated. Larger animals have more choice
of food sources but also more cells, requiring more coordination and
greater specialization. Systems (solved to handle basic functions such
as digestion, gas exchange, transport, excretion, and reproduction. Evo-
lution, through natural selection, has resulted in a variety of adaptations
that enable animals to solve the problems of life that different environ-
ments impose on them.
In this chapter we have begun to explore some of the diversity of an-
imals, and how they function. In the next section we will look more closely
at form and function in one particular animal, the human.

Application Questions Problems 1

1 Birds and mammals maintain constant body 1. Hemoglobin acts as a respiratory pigment in
temperature. In what way is that adaptation an animals of several phyla, but there are other such
advantage? pigments in the animal kingdom. Investigate this
2 What features of arthropods and vertebrates matter, considering the following questions:
enabled them to adalt to a terrestrial life? (a) Do all respiratory pigments act in the same
3. What are the advantages of hermaphroditism? way?
4. Would you consider parthenogenesis a sexual (b) What are the chemical similarities and
method of reproduction? Why or why not? differences among respiratory pigments?
5. One of the major principles of biology is that an (c) Do respiratory pigments provide any clues to
organism's structure is related to its function. the evolutionary relationships among animal
Choose one organism from any phylum and explain phyla?
how that organism illustrates that principle. 2. List the principal life functions of animals. Then
6. One of the major principles of biology is that an compare the structures by which each is
organism and its environment are complementary. accomplished in a sponge, a planarian, an insect,
Choose one organism from any phylum and explain and a mammal. Because all of those animals exist
how that organism illustrates that principle. in large numbers, we must conclude that despite
7. Suggest how behavior can be a factor in evolution. such diverse structures they all successfully carry
on their life functions. Explain how that can be.
3. Make a list of animals from a number of phyla and
arrange it in order of the care given the young
from least to most. List the same animals in order
of numbers of young producedfrom most to least.
Explain any relationships you can find between the
two lists.

631
kJ 21J
528 Section Three Diversity and Adaptation in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
,13. M. Galdikus, "Living with the Great Orange Apes" B. L. Partridge, "The Structure and Function of Fish Schools"
National Geographic (June 1980). Orangutans, as well as Scientific American (June 1982). Interestit . well-
chimpanzees and gorillas, can learn to Mhtmuntcate with illustrated discussion of fish schools.
humans by signing. S. J. Shettleworth, "Memory in Food-Hoarding Birds"
J. D. Ligon and S. H. Ligon, "The Cooperative Breeding Scientific American (March 1983). Interesting experiments
Behavior of the Green Woodhoopoe" Scientific American were conducted in trying to determine now birds remember
(July 1982). Among these East African birds, one pair in where they cache their food.
each flock breed while the nonbreeding adults assist in the P. G. Veit, "Gorilla Society" Natural History (March 1982).
raising of the breeders' chicks. Well-illustrated article dealing with the endangered
E. A. Newman and P. H. Hartline, "The Infrared 'Vision' of mountain gorillas of Zaire, Uganda, and Rwanda.
Snakes" Scientific American (March 1982). Infrared and
visible-light information are integrated in the brain to yield
a unique wide-spectrum picture of the world.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 Chemical reactions generally speed up as temperatures 1 Students should encounter hemocyanin, chlor,:cruorins. and
increase and slow down as temperatures decrease hemerythnns in researching this problem. Most of the
Constant body temperature allows cads and mammals to respiratory pigments contain one or more divalent metal
maintain high rates of metabolism and to be active at a wide atoms won, copper. vanadium) It is thought that these
range of environmental temperatures Reptiles and other atoms are the sites of oxygen attachment. In general, there
animals that cannot maintain constant body temperature are is a greater variety of respiratory pigments in primitive phyla
less active in cool environmental temperatures than in more recently evolved phyla
2 Their skeletons, efficicnt g- 3 exchange systems, systems 2 There are various levels at which this problem might be
for excreting nitrogenous wastes, Internal fertilization, and answered The basic point is that different methods of
shelled eggs or internal development of the embryos successfully maintaining life functions depend on living in
3 For sessile or slow-moving animals, no search for the other different environments A sponge s methods are not
sex is necessary to ensure fertilization In the case of successful where a mountain goat s are and vice versa.
animals that exchange sperm, any other individual will do 3 An excellent source of information on care given young of
4 Parthenogenesis occurs in tle context of sexual varolus species of animals and on number of offspring
reproduction and can best be described n, aningfully as a produced is P 1 Altman and D S Dittmer eds., 1974.
variation of it However, in parthenogenesis the basic point Biology Data Book. 2nd ed (3 vols ) (Washington. D.0
of sexual reproduction. the uni ,n of two cells to form a new Federation of American Societies for Expcnmental Biology),
individual, is lacking Even self-pollination is sexual This source also contains information on litespan If the
reproduction in which union of gametes of different origins above reference is not available, there are many other
has been abandoned sources of information, including biology textbooks and
5, 6 Answers depend on student selection The chapter encyclopedias, but the information may be scattered.
provides numerous examples of both principles Students should be able to gen- ralize that the greater the
7 Behavior, the total response of an animal to its environment care of the young, the fewer the number of offspring.
is an important aspect of evolution Just as structures and
their functions change, the total behavior of animals also
evolves and changes Those organisms or species that
have behavior patterns most suitable for survival and
reproduction are favored by natural selection

632
r ,
AP,'`

.'s0 t
01
V
1111*.;1
I
4.
V'
t
S
0 ,
A'
4.
ti
 Section Four

Functioning
Organisms in the
Biosphere

Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food

and Energy
Chapter 16 The Human Animal:
Maintenance of Internal
Environment
Chapter 17 The Human Animal:
Coordination
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form
and Function
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant:
Maintenance and
Coordination

Organisms vary greatly in size. A

redwood tree may be 100 m tall and a
blue whale may weigh 150 metric tons. A
bacterium, though, may be only 0.4 Am
wide and weigh a small fraction of a
milligram. We have been treating these as
equal units interacting with other
individuals and with the abiotic
environment.
Now we shift to the inside to see how
internal structures determine what an
organism does. What produces the
activities seen from the. outside? We have
seen how energy goes'from one organism
to another, but what happens to this
energy within each organism? In
attempting to answer these questions we
will focus on two familiar organisms:
humans and flowering plants.

BSCS by Carly* Calvin

531
 -Of
44.4n.,44

Carly. Calvin

What nutrients are proy!ded by this lunch of hamburger, fries, and soft drink?
 Teaching strategies for th,S chapter pages

CHAPTER 15 T38-40
Key ideas
the steps in mechaniLat and chem.cal
digestion
the site of and steps in cellular respiration
the nutrients nef,ded by humans and other
animals

The Human Animal: the evolutionary basis of early human diets

the risk factors for cardiovascular disease

Food and Energy

Introduction
Did you ever think about what happens to the hamburger, fries, and soft
drink you had for lunch? You know that you are growing and that the
food you eat is used to build your body. But are you made of cow protein
and potato starch? How do the plant and animal tissues you eat become
human cells and tissues? Let us follow your lunch through the digestive
tract to see what happens to it and how it becomes a part of you.
The processes by which organisms obtain, process, distribute, and use
nutrients are known collectively as nutrition. This is not to be confused
with digestion. Digestion is the process by which nutrients are broken
down into molecules that can then be transported to and used by the
0
working cells of your body.

Ingestion and Digestion Guidepost: How is food prepared for

absorption?
15.1 Food Must Be Reduced in Size before
Chemical Processes Can Begin Figure 15.1 A cross section of taste bud.
Let us begin with the first bite of that hamburger. Ingestion is the 0 pore
process of taking food into the entrance of the digestive tract. In humans, epithelium
this entrance is called the oral cavity and is bounded by the teeth, tongue,
and palate. Here the chewing action of the teeth begins the mechanical
breakdown of food. This grinding action breaks the large pieces of ham-
0
burger and bun into smaller pieces, much like chopping a log into kin-
dling to help start a fire.
As you are chewing your hamburger, your highly muscular tongue
keepe,the food in contact with the teeth, moves it to mix it with saliva
(a watery secretion that contains digestive enzymes and begins chemical
digestion), and manipulates it into position for swallowing. In addition,
the tongue is richly supplied with sensory nerve endings in the form of supporting cell sensory
receptor cell nerve fiber
taste buds (figure 15.1) that keep you informed about the taste and tex-
533
636
534 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Secretion of saliva is under autononit. control ture of ingested food. The tongue then moves the moistened and ground
That is why the thought of food can cause hamburger to the back of the oral cavity, where it is swallowed. You can
salivation. observe the sensitivity of the taste buds in your tongue in investigation
15.1.

Investigation 15.1 1061110M* 15.1 YOUR CHEMICAL :SENSES

YOUR CHEMICAL SENSES
Introduction
Introduction Many animals have nerve endings that are sensitive to chemical sub-
In this investigation the power of suggestion stances. Arthropods have such receptors in their antennae and feet. Ver-
is great Students should be warned about it tebrates have them in their mouths and nasal passages where the senses
Most will try to be objective if they are of taste and smell are found.
cautioned This also may be a good time to The study of these senses in nonhuman animals is complicated by a
discuss the difficulty of experimentation that lack of communication. Humans can at least give descriptions of particular
involves a report from a nonhuman subject stimuli. Even then there are difficulties in interpreting such reports. So a
complete understanding of sense organseven in humansis not easy.
Materials
For procedure A, weigh out a number of Materials (per team of 2)
grams of the various materials corresponding to For procedure A
the percentage and dissolve in enough water to
make 100 ml of total solution of each You can 2 ml 10% salt solution
make the 1% acetic acid solution by mixing 1 ml
2 ml 5% sucrose solution
of concentrated (glacial) CH,COOH and 99 ml 2 ml 1% acetic acid solution
of WO w.ap the cotton swabs in paper and 2 ml 0.10/0 quinine sulfate solution
sterilize them in an autoclave, of pt., chase syracuse watch glass
sterilized swabs. 2 beakers filled with water
Small battery jars or 1-gallon pickle or 4 cotton swabs
mayonnaise jars (available from cafeterias) waste jar for every 6 students
make convenient waste jars
Suggestions for additional solutions in
For procedure B
procedure B grapefruit juice and garlic salt solutions of orange juice, milk, onion juice, 2% vinegar, sugar, dill pickle
Both should be dilute juiceany 3 or all 6
handkerchief (for blindfold)
3 to 6 paper cups

Procedure
Figure 15.2
Part ATaste Receptors
During this procedure you will locate the taste receptors on your tongue
for four kinds of chemical substances.
1. Decide who will be student A and student B.
2. Read through all the procedures for part A and do not begin with pro-
cedure 3 below until you understand your part in the investigation.
3. Student A: Pour about 2 ml of 10% salt solution into a watch glass.
Student B: Make a copy of figure 15.2 and label it salt.

637
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 535

4. Student A: Dip a cotton swab into the solution for about 10 seconds. Procedure
Thoroughly drain excess solution from the swab. Touch the swab to Student assistants are very useful in this
the tongue of student B at the point marked 1 in figure 15.2. investigation In procedure A, for example, only
Student B: Keep your mouth open during the testing of all five points 1 or 2 stock bottles of the solutions are required
on your tongue. Hand signal to your partner: 1 finger if you sense no if student assistants deliver the solutions
taste, 2 fingers if you sense a mild taste of salt, and 3 fingers if you needed
sense a strong taste of salt. In procedure B a system for labeling the
5. Student A: At point 1 in the tongue drawing, place a minus sign () unknowns must be devised so that the
if your partner signaled with 1 finger, a plus sign (-F ) if the signal was discussion following the experiment will be
2 fingers, and a double-plus sign (-F -F) if 3 fingers were signaled. meaningful
6. Student A: As soon as the response at point 1 is recorded, toucil the Students should have an opportunity to
swab to B's tongue at point 2. discuss the procedure before they begin
Student B: Use the same hand signals to A to indicate no taste, mild Blindfolding is not necessary if students can
taste, or strong taste of salt. keep their eyes closed during that part of the
7. Student A: Record the signaled sensation. Repeat the procedures for activity.
points 3, 4, and 5 on B's tongue.
Student B: Signal in the same way as you did for points 1 and 2. Discussion
8. Student A: Record the signaled responses for points 3, 4, and 5.
Student B: Rinse your mouth thoroughly with water. Most of one answers depend on the data
9. Student A: Break the swab you have been using and discard it. Pour collected Stress the importance of carefully
the salt solution from the watch glass into the waste jar. Rinse the obtained data rather than right and wrong
watch glass. Pour about 2 ml of 5% sucrose solution into the watch answers Individual differences in taste ale to be
glass. expected
5 The assumption is that the nerve enoings
Student B: Make a copy of figure 15.2. Label it sweet.
in the nose have a great deal to do with
10. Repeat procedures 2-9 with the sucrose solution.
sensations reported as taste
11. Repeat procedures with about 2 ml of 1% acetic acid solutionsour
and with a 0.1% solution of quinine sulfatebitter.
12. !f time permits, switch the roles of students A and B and repeat the 4
taste tests.

Part BTaste and Smell

During this procedure you will investigate the relationship between taste
and smell. It is important that the student being tested not know what the
substance is.
1. Read through all the procedures for part B and do not begin with pro-
cedure 2 below until you understand your part in the investigation.
2. Student A: Copy the table shown below in your data book.

subject Solution Nose Nose

Presented Closed Open
Taste Identify Taste Identify

Student B: Blindfold student A. Obtain a paper cup, labeled A, con-

taining a few milliliters of test solution 1.
3. Student A: Holding your nose tightly, sip the solution. While still holding
your nose, report its taste and try to identify the substance in the so-
lution.
Student B: Record these reports on the chart.

638
 <` I

538 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

4. Student A: Without holding your nose, sip the same solution. Again
report its taste and try to identify the substance.
Student B: Record these reports on the chart.
5. Repeat the procedure with student B as the subject and use test so-
lution 2.
6. Repeat the procedure with student A as the subject and use test so-
lution 3.
7. Continue alternating the function of students A and B until all the test
solutions have been used.

Discussion
On the chalkboard, make 4 large diagrams as in figure 15.2. Label them
salt, sweet, sour, and bitter. Assemble all the data obtained in procedure
A. At each test point on the diagrams, record the total number of minus,
plus, and double-plus responses.
1. What are some of the possible causes for variability in the data?
2. Which kinds of variability are the result of "errors of observation"?
Which kinds ara the result of physiological variability?
On the chalkboard, list the solutions (1, 2, 3, and so on) used in pro-
cedure B. Tally separately the tastes reported with nose closed and with
nose open. Also tally the identifications of solutions.
3. Are the kinds of tastes reported with the nose open more varied than
those reported with the nose closed? Less varied? Neither?
4. Are the identifications made with the nose open more accurate than
those made with the nose closed? Less accurate? Neither?
5. What assumption is involved in holding the nose closed?
6. Do the data from procedure A support the hypothesis that receptors
of the four kinds of taste are equally distributed on the surface of the
tongue? Explain.
7. If the data fail to support this hypothesis, where on the tongue is each
kind of taste receptor located?
8. On the basis of the data from procedure B, write a brief statement
relating the sense of taste to the sense of smell.

For Further Investigation

1. Hold a bottle containing oil of cloves about 1.5 cm from your nose and
vigorously and continuously inhale, exhaling through your mouth. How
much time passes before you can no longer clearly c'otect the smell
of cloves? You now have "olfactory fatigue." Immediately smell pep-
permint oil. Can you detect its odor?
2. Stick your tongue out and keep it out during the following procedure.
Dry your tongue with a piece of gauze or paper towel. Place a few
crystals of sugar on your tongue and note the time. How much time
passes before you can taste the sugar? Rinse your mouth with water.
Again stick your tongue out, but do not dry it before placing sugar
crystals on it. How much time passes before you can taste the sugar?
Rinse your mouth with water. Try the same procedure with salt crys-
tals. Again measure the time. What conclusions can you draw from
your results?

633
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 537

Figure 15.3 Movement of food through the alimentary canal. Peristalsis in the
wall of the esophagus forces food through it and into the stomach.

15.2 Specific Actions and Reactions Take

Place alolti3 the Digestive Tract
The esophagus is the tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach.
iris made up of two layers of muscles: an outer one running the length
of the esophagus and an inner circular layer. Together, these muscles
move the hamburger to the stomach by a process known as peristalsis
(per ih STAWL sis) (see figure 15.3). Food is pushed along by contrac-
tion of the circular muscle immediately behind the swallowed food as
the muscle in front of it relaxes. Peristalsis proceeds in a wavelike se-
quence down the length of the esophagus.

640
 538 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 15.4 The human digestive system is a continuous tube with highly
specialized organs and tissues along its length. Mechanical and chemical
digestion are followed by absorption.

esophagus

pancreas
liver ?stomach

er

testine

estine

'rectum
891.1s

The journey your hamburger takes is normally a one-way passage

through a tube, the digestive tract or gut, which begins at the mouth and
ends at the anus. Figure 15.4 shows the human digestive tract and sum-
marizes the activities that take place in it. As the food moves along ap-
A gastroscope, an illuminated tube of optic proximately 9 m of digestive tract, it goes through various sections that
fibers with a lens system, makes possible direct function as a disassembly line. The stomach is an enlargement of the gut
viewing of the interior of the stomach in an
between the esophagus and the intestine, and has a circular muscle or
anesthetized patient.
sphincter (SFINK ter) at either end that closes the opening. The stomach
is often thought of as an organ of storage to be packed with food. How-
ever, the food remains there only long enough to be prepared for en-
trance into the small intestine.

641
 Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 539

15.3 Chemical Dige. ion Reduces Large

Food Molecules to Smaller,
Absorbable Molecules
In the stomach the food is churned and diluted to a creamy consis-
tency, the proper pH is established, and enzymatic action is begun. Here O
your food undergoes further mechanical breakdown with the kneading
and churning action of the stomach muscles. This motion also helps mix Pepsin begins the digestion of proteins in the
in a watery fluid known as gastric juice, which is secreted into the stomach stomach and has an optimal functioning pH of 2
cavity by glands in the stomach wall (figure 15.4). Gastric juice contains
hydrochloric acid, which aids in the Jreakdown of proteins into poly- Malfunction of the lower esophageal or cardiac
peptides. The digestive enzymes that catalyze that breakdown require a sphincter, in which it does not close adequately,
low (acidic) pH in order to function effectively. The hydrochloric acid results in food reentering the esophagus after
mixing with gastric juices The high acid content
in the gastric juice provides an appropriate environment in the stomach.
causes "heartburn" that may be relieved with
By means of the churning and the action of gastric juice and digestive
antacid preparations
enzymes, the contents of your stomach, your hamburger lunch, sow be-
come like a cream soup. The partially digested hamburger is held in the
stomach by contraction of the pyloric valve, the sphincter between the
stomach and small intestine. The pyloric valve relaxes irregularly,
spurting the partially digested food little by little into the small intestine,
emptying the stomach in about four hours.
So far, your-hamburger has done some traveling, been ground into a
soupy mixture, and partially digested. What happens now? Food enters
the small intestine, a tube approximately 6 m long whc,, e chemical diges-
tion is completed and absorption of food molecules takes place. Absorp- 0 The stomach wall absorbs some water, certain
tion occurs when the molecules move through the intestinal walls and drugs, and alcohol.
enter the bloodstream. The blood carries the molecules to the cells, where
the food finally becomes a part of you.
Food m ziocules go through, their final chemical breakdown in the small
intestine. From chapter 4 you will remember that there are four types
of molecules used in all living cells as building materials and a source
of energy. The four are carbohydrates, uroteins, fats (lipids), and nucleic
acids. These are the molecules that your body needs and that your food
must supply. However, you cannot use cow protein, bread carbohydrates,
or the DNA of a potato. Just as an old brick building can be torn down
and the bricks reused to pave a patio or to construct a fireplace, so your
body tears food molecules apart to form the building blocks it needs.
Only these building blocks are absorbed; only they can be used to syn- The small intestine secretes hormones that help
thesize the specific molecules that make up your body. to regulate the production of bile, pancreatic
juice, and intestinal juice
What are those building blocks? They are the small molecules that
make up the biological molecules mentioned abom The carbohydrates
are strings of simple sugars, proteins are composed of amino acids, and Approximately 2 to 3 liters of clear yellow
simple fats are made up of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acids. intestinal juice is secreted each day It has a pH
The small intestine accomplishes the task of splitting the large mol- of 7.6 and contains some mucus, enzymes, and
ecules through the action of digestive enzymes. Enzymes and digestive water.
juices enter the upper part of the small intestine from the pancreas, the
liver, and the intestine itself. All have a high (basic) pH and help neu- Individuals who cannot tolerate milk and milk
tralize the hydrochloric acid of the \soupy mixture entering from the products may have a deficiency of the enzyme
stomach. That is important because the enzymes of the small intestine lactase, which is necessary to doges; the milk
sugar lactose. A lactase deficiency is found in
require a neutral environment.
30 to 70% of black and Oriental adults and their
The pancreas delivers its pancreatiC (pan kree AT ik) juice through
children Intake of milk by these individuals may
a duct to the small intestine. Pancreatic juice contains several enzymes cause gas buildup and diarrhea. Only 1 5 % of
that catalyze digestion of polypeptickesrfals, and polysaccharides (see Caucasians develop these symptoms, the
figure 15.4). Intestinal juice, secreted by glands in the wall of the small difference may be related to the dependency of
intestine, contains other enzymes. These function in the digestion of the their culture on milk and milk products.
dipeptides and disaccharides.
C 1..

b
540 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

The fats must be pretreated before they can be digested. This func-
Figure 15.5 A cross section of the small
tion is performed by bile, which is secreted by the liver and stored in the
intestine. Intestinal villi are shown enlarged in the
photomicrograph and drawing. Digested gall bladder. Bile breaks down the fat droplets into fine particles that
foodstuffs enter the blood and the lymph can be reached by the pancreatic enzymes, which then digest the fats
through the villi. into fatty acids and glycerol.

15.4 Absorption Takes Plane

in the Small Intestine
intestinal Almost all absorption of nutrients occurs in the lower part of the small
cavity intestine. The process of absorbing food molecules is very much like
inner muscle wiping up a spillthe larger the sponge, the more will be absorbed. If
layer
you flattened every wrinkle and bulge of the human small intestine, its
outer muscle total surface area would be about 300 m2, about half the size of a bas-
layer
ketball court. That enormous surface area is possible because of the
presence of folds in the intestinal wall that are covered by tiny bulges
known as villi (see figure 15.5). These villi are covered by cells whose
surface membrane is folded into fine projections called microvilli. Amino
acids and simple sugars are, respectively, the end products of protein and
carbohydrate digestion. These amino acids and simple sugars are ab-
sorbed by diffusion or active transport through the walls of the small
intestine into the blood.
Most of the fatty acids and glycerol recombine during absorption to
form fat. Fatty acids with 12 or fewer carbons are absorbed directly into
the blood capillaries and carried to the liver for processing. Those fatty
1 acids with more than 12 carbons do not enter the blood directly. Rather,
they are absorbed by the lymphatic (lim FAT ik) syqem, about which
you will learn in chapter 16.
Struwe/Monkmeyer Press These absorption processes are selective but not infrilible. There is
no control mechanism to prevent absorption of excess food, and many
harmful molecules can masquerade as useful ones and be absorbed. An
example is DDT, an insecticide that was used heavily on food crops until
1972, when its use was prohibited in the United States. When eaten, it
villus
was absorbed and stored in fatty tissue and in human
artery
15.5 The Large Intestine Absorbs Water
In a typical diet approximately 800 g of food and 1200 ml of water
vein
are ingested per day. To these are added the following digestive secre-
tions: (approximate amounts)
lymph 1500 ml saliva
vessel 2000 ml gastric secretions
kiet.fiovitfi 140,4 muscle 1500 ml intestinal secretions
layer
500 ml bile
1500 ml pancreatic secretions.
Of this total, about 9000 ml, 8500 ml are absorbed in the small intestine
Have students oampare their tyr.m,ai die' with and 350 ml in the large intestine. The remaining 100 ml of water plus
that of a younger child and an older adult Have 50 ml of solids are expelled from the body as solid matter.
them suggest reasons for the difference

6 43
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 541

Normally, digestion and absorption are completed in four to seven

hours. Substances left in the small intestine then pass into the large in-
testine, where more water is absorbed. No further absorption of food
substances occurs in the large intestine. Undigested foods, indigestible
substances. mucus, dead cells from the digestive tube lining, and bac-
teria are concentrated by water removal to form the waste matter, or
feces (FEE seez). If the fecal matter remains in the large intestine too
long, almost all the water is reabsorbed and a very dry feces is passed.
The feces leave the digestive tube through the anus (AY nus).
But what of the 8850 ml of absorbed solids and liquids? In the next
section we will trace the fate of molecules intended as fuel for the energy
producing processes

Self-Review

1. Distinguish between mechani.;a1 and chemical digestion.

2. Name the four basic nutrient molecules and the form in which each
is absorbed.
3. How does the function of bile differ from other intestinal juices?
4. Distinguish among ingestion, digestion, and absorption.

Clic:liar Respiration Guidepost: How do cells obtain energy

from food molecules?
15.6 In Cellular Respiration, the Energy from
Food Molecules Is Released Gradually
Cells require a continuous supply of energy for cellular work such as O
maintaining order, moving substances, building organic molecules, and
growing. Energy for cells must come either from food or from storage
molecules. As a result of the digestive processes described in the previous
sections, your hamburger lunch has been reduced to amino acids, simple
sugars, fatty acids, and glycerol, and has been delivered to your cells.
How do your cells obtain energy from thes iaolecules?
Cells release energy from the basic molectLs of food through the You may want to review with your ..tuck ft, the
process of cellular respiration, a kind of burking. In burning, a great deal 0 -onLepts presented in ses.tions 4 5 and 4 6 ,a;-,
of energy is liberated all at once in the form of heat and light. Cells way to introduoe tilt tupit, of 4,0lular ft sp,alion
release the same amount of energy gradually, in a stepwise series of re-
actions controlled by enzymes. As a result, the energy is freed in small
amounts that can be captured and stored in ATP molecules. As we dis- LIlLyllieS may deb:Unfit
cussed in chapter 4, energy stored in ATP is like "small change"it is fi,...fklion pathways, will lot tc....11owt2d t,y ioNetirtt)
readily available for use in cellular work. the ac!tvation .inergy of a specific pathway

644
542 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

In investigation 15.2, you will be able to measure the amount of heat

given off as a food substance burns and to calculate the amount of energy
that heat represents.

D::ERERGY
Investigation 15.2
FOOD ENERGY
Introduction
Introduction Organisms require both organic and inorganic compounds. Their en-
ergy requirements are provided by organic foods. All foods contain energy.
This investigation helps to develop the idea
How much energy? Do equal amounts of different foods contain the same
that energy is contained in common food
amount of energy? In this investigation you will use a calorimeter (figure
substances and that it can be measured It also
15.6) to measure the amount of energy in some foods.
develops the idea that energy released from
This energy will be measured in calories. Recall that a calorie is the
foods is associated with a corresponding
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 ml (1 g) of water
chemical change in the food itself
10 C. Calorie values of foods in diet charts are listed in kilocalories (1000
calories) or kcals. Accepted caloric values for some common foods will
be given to you later by your teacher.
Figure 15.6 The calorimeter setup. You will measure the difference in temperature (AT) of a measured
volume of water. The. temperature change is caused by the absorption of
the heat given off by the burning of a known mass of food.

Materials (per team)

For calorimeter:
tin can 6-8 cm wide, 10-12 cm tall
tin snips
hammer and nail
needle-nosed pliers
heat-resistant test tube 18 mm X 150 mm
cork
cork pad or piece of plexiglass
straight pin or needle
thermometer (10-110° C)

For testing food:

calorimeter
3 pieces each of peanuts and walnuts (0.2 g each)
balance
The energy released in this investigation is
graduated cylinder, 10 ml
rapid and uncontrolled. Point out that such an
safety matches
undirected release of energy within the organism
test tube holder
would be harmful, Organisms control energy
releass in a series of enzymatically regulated
steps, as students will soon learn Procedure
1. Construct the calcrimeter, using figure 15.6 as a guide. CAUTION: Tin
Procedure can edges are sharp.
If students work in groups of 2 or 4, it is (a) Use the tin snips to cut a V-shaped opening at the base of the
possible to complete this exercise in 1 can. It should be no more than 1/3 of the height of the can.
laboratory period (50 minutes) Howuver, an (b) Use a hammer and nail to punch a hole in the center of the closed
additional 30 minutes be required for end of the can. With the needle-nosed pliers, ream this hole until
students to make the calorimeters Once they the 18 mm X 150 mm test tube will fit snugly in the can.
are made they can be used for several years (c) Punch about 10-15 more holes in the closed end of the can.
before new ones are needed 2. Weigh out three 0.2 g pieces of peanut, and three 0.2 g pieces of
Cut the food into 0.2 g pieces before class walnut.
to save time.

64 5
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 543

3. Place one of the peanuts on the needle held up by the cork. The following sample data for peanut may
4. Place the calorimeter over the nut, needle, and cork setup. Adjust the help studentswith the calculations.
test tube so that it is about 2 cm above the nut.
5. Remove the calorimeter from over the nut. Be very careful not to change T, = 37
the position of the test tube. Measure 10 ml of water and put it in the T, = 20°
test tube. AT = 17°
6. Copy the table below into your data book. 17 X 15 = 255 calories
255 + 0.2 = 1275 cal/g
1275 + 1000 = 1.275 kcal/g
1.275 X 100 = 127.5 kcal/ 100g
Temperature of Water, °C Food Energy
Before After Kcal Data for food energy in kcal of common
Burning Burning Difference calories Kcal per Gram substances that were burned in highly efficient
calonmeteri are as follows:
Walnut sample 1
Walnut sample 2 kcal/
Walnut sample 3 Food 100 g

Average Bacon 626

Butter 733
Peanut sample 1 Lard and other shortenings 900
Peanut sample 2 Mayonnaise 720
Salad or cooking 6.1 90C
7eanut sample 3
Almonds 640
[Average Brazil nuts 695
Cashews 609
Dried coconut 579
7. Measure the temperature of the water in the test tube. Record it in the Peanut butter 619
table. Remove the thermometer. Roasted peanuts 600
8. Set fire to the nut. Quickly and carefully position the calorimeter over Walnuts, black 672
Walnuts. English 702
the burning nut.
Cornflakes 359
9. Burn the nut completely. As soon as it burns out, measure the tem- Puffed rice 363
perature of the water. Record it in your table. Bread. white 261
10. Repeat the procedure until you have data for 3 samples of walnut and Pretzels 362
3 of peanut. Change the water in the tube each time. Allow the tube Dried lima beans 341
to cool off before putting in a new water sample, or use a second tube. Kidney beans 350
CAUTION: Do not touch the tubes or calorimeter while the., are hot.
Use a test tube holder to handle the hot test tube. Discussion
11. Find the average difference in temperature for each sample. Now cal-
culate the number of kcals produced per gram. To do this, multiply 1 This will depend on student techniques
the increase in water temperature (average difference) by 10, the and results. The values will be much lower than
number of ml of water used. Next divide this number by 0.2 (the number the listed values for the food The inefficiency of
of grams of food burned). This will give you the calories produced per a homemade calorimeter is the cause Results
gram of food. To convert this into kcals, divide this number by 1000. that are 20 to 40% of listed values are not
The kcals listed in most diet charts are per 100 g, per ounce, per cup, uncommon
or per serving. To compare your results, you may need to convert to 2 Incomplete combustion. faulty
common units. observations and data recording, or imoerfect
design of calorimeter may account for the
differences.
DiscuSsion 3 The results would be very close to the
1. How do your data (adjusted for 100 g) compare with the values for values in published charts of the calorie
100 g of the same or similar food listed by your teacher? contents of the foods.
2. How do you account for any differences? 4. The food that gave the highest
3. If the same amou:it of each food you tested were completely used in kcal '100 g oe the best energy source.
the cells of the human body, what would you expect the energy release 5 It is possible that some foods may not be
to be? metabolized as efficiently as others even though
4. Which of the foods you tested seems to be the best energy source? they contain more kcaltunit,
5. Why might some foods with fewer kcals be better energy sources than 6 AU the energy car be traced to the sun
other foods with more kcals? through photosynthesis
6. What was the original source of energy in all of the foods tested?
JJ

646
544 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

15.7 Glucose Is the Primary Source

Figure 15.7 Simplified diagram of the reactions
in cellular respiration.
of Energy for Cells
Oxygen is required for many of the reactions of cellular respiration.
Oxygen and small food molecules are transported in the blood to every
cell. They move across the plasma membrane by diffusion or active
©transport, and can be used by the cell in a variety of ways. The primary
food molecule used in cellular respiration is the simple sugar glucose,
which has the formula C6H1206. During respiration, the energy stored
in the glucose is released as the molecule is gradually broken down to
produce six carbon dioxide molecules. The overall reaction may be sum-
..tarized in the following equation:
enzymes
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
Coal -P-P-12 (glucose) (oxygen) I carbon\ (water)
kdioxide ]

This equation summarizes a complex series of reactions that involves

mitochond many steps. We ca n consider those steps in four groups: (1) glycolysis,
(2) intermediate reactions, (3) Krebs citric acid cycle, and (4) the elec-
tron transport system. Figure 15.7 is a very simplified diagram of those
reactions.
In glycolysis (gly KAWL uh sis), glucose is split into two 3-carbon
molecules and a small amount of the energy is transferred to ATP. The
reactions of glycolysis take pt.ace in the cytosol. In the intermediate re-
actions and the Krebs citric acid cycle, the two 3-carbon glucose frog-
CO2 ments are disassembled and six carbon dioxide molecules are formed.
Hydrogen atoms also are released. They are picked up by specialized
molecules known as carriers that transfer them to the fourth and last
()series of reactions. This final series of reactions is the electron transport
system, during which the relatively large amount of energy in the glu-
cose molecule is stored in several smaller amounts in ATP. In the elec-
tron transport system, each hydrogen atom is separated into an electron
LEI -PPP and a proton and transferred through many small steps to oxygen, finally
forming water. The intermediate reactions, the citric acid cycle, and the
electron transport system all take place in the mitochondria (see figure
15.8).

15.8 Glycolysis Begins the Energy-Yielding

Pricess
In our study of cellular respiration, we will begin with a single glucose
molecule and follow it through the series of reactions known as glycol-
ysis. Three important things happen to the glucose during the glycolysis
reactions. First, the carbon chain is broken into two pieces. Second, some
ATP is formed. And third, hydrogen atoms are made available for use
in the electron transport system. Figure 15.9 presents a simplified dia-
Stress that energy cannot be created nor gram of the chemical events of glycolysis. Refer to this figure as you
destroyed, only transferred in chemical read.
reactions

Glycolysis (glyco = sugar. and lysis = to split

or break down). The citric acid (or Krebs) cycle
was first hypothesized by H A Krebs in 1937

.6 i.t1 7
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 545

Figure 15.8 (a) A mitochondrion in the pancreas of a bat, as photographed

through an electron microscope (X25,000). (b) A three dimensional drawing of
the mitochondrion shown in (a).

a Courtesy of Keith R. Porter

outer
membrane

inner-
msimbrane,

1A:re-membrane
- space

inside of
,mitochondrion

Glucose contains a ge amount of chemical energy, but it is a rel- tc)c,d-

atively stable molecule. Some energy must be expended to start the unti, t., fart rOr'rg
energy-releasing process, just as energy (in the form of a match) is re- th-
quired to start a fuel burning. The starting energy is provided by the ,L.'t ,Nithuut a ,tivation
transfer of phosphates from two ATP molecules, converting them to ADP r:t rgi

843
546 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 15.9 Glycolysis. See accompanying ext for explanation.

Glycolysis

64j
 Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 547

Figure 15.10 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD+.

NH2

(figure 15.9a). The resulting molecule readily enters into the next re-
action (figure 15.9b), in which the 6-carbon chain is split into two 3-
carbon molecules. In the remaining reactions of glycolysis (ilsure 15.9c),
these 3-carbon molecules are rearranged to form two molecules of py-
ruvic acid. In these rearrangements, no further energy is expended. In-
stead, these reactions yield energy.
Four ATP molecules are produced in glycolysis, a net gain of two ATP
molecules. In addition, hydgogen atoms released during the reactions are
picked up by a carrier molecule called nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
-(nik uh TEEnuh myd AD uh neen DY NOO klee oh tyd), or NAD'.
NADH is formed. The function of a carrier molecule is to transr:- sub-
stances from one reaction to another, much as a mail carrier transfers
letters from the post office to your home. NAD+ transfers hydrogen atoms
(electrons and protons) from the reactions of glycolysis to the electron
transport system.
The end products of glycolysis are two molecules of pyruvic acid, two In anaerobic organisms and in ruusdes
ATP molecules, and the hydrogen atoms picked up by NAD+. Most of operating under anaerobic c.onditions, glycolysis
the chemical energy in the original glucose molecule is still retained in is the main source of energv
the pyruvic acid molecules.

15.9 Into Reactions Prepare

Pyruvic Acid for the Krebs Cycle
Pyruvic acid molecules are transported into the mitochondria, but they
do not enter directly into the Krebs cycle. First they undergo reactions
that link glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. In these intermediate reactions,
each molecule of pyruvic acid is broken down, and a molecule of carbon
dioxide is released. Hydrogen atoms, also released during these reac-
tions, are picked up by NAD+. The remaining 2-carbon fragment com-
bines with a carrier called coenzyme A (CoA). A temporary compound
known as acetyl CoA is formed. These reactions are shown in figure
15.11a.

650
548 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

15.10 The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle

Completes the Breakdown of Glucose
The third group of reactions in cellular respiration, the Krebs citric
acid cycle, is diagrammed in figure 15.11. Study the figure as you read
about these reactions, which take place in the mitochondria.
Acetyl CoA from the intermediate reactions enters the Krebs cycle.
Here the 2-carbon group is transferred to a 4-carbon compound called
oxaloacetic acid. Coenzyme A is released and is then available to pick

Figure 15.11 The intermediate reactions and the Krebs citric acid cycle.

cam

CoA
(acetyl

CO2

65i
Chapter 15 The Human Anirrial: Food and Energy 549

up another 2-carbon fragment from pyruvic acid for transfer to the Krebs
cycle. The 6-carbon compound thus formed is citric acid (figure 15.11b).
The formation of citric acid is the beginning of the Krebs cycle. During
this sequence of reactions, the remaining two carbons of glucose are re-
leased as carbon dioxide. By means of many rearrange- 1;s, the oxal-
oaceti;sacid is regenerated, allowing the cycle to continae. During one
of those rearrangements, sufficient energy is released to combine a phos-
phate with ADP, forming a molecule of ATP (figure 15.11c). Many hy-
drogen atoms also are released in the Krebs cycle. These are picked up
by NAD+ or another carrier for transfer to the electron transport system
(figure 15.11d).
In the citric acid cycle, breakdown of the carbon chain in glucose has
been completed. As a result of glycolysis, the intermediate reactions, and
the citric acid cycle, one 6-carbon glucose molecule has been broken down
into six 1-carbon molecules: the carbon dioxide you exhale. These re-
actions are often called the carbon pathway. The direct energy gain has
been two ATP molecules produced in glycolysis and another two ATPs
formed during the citric acid cycle. Most important, both processes have
released hydrogen atoms that are transported to the electron transport
system by carrier molecules.

15.11 Energy from Glucose is Packaged as

ATP in the Electron Transport System
During this final series of reactions, illustrated in figure 15.12, the
hydrogen atoms are separated into electrons and protons. The electrons
are passed along a series of electron carriers located on the inner mem-
brane of the mitochondrion. As the electrons move from one carrier to
the next in a succession of reactions (central part of the arrow in figure
15.12), energy is released. Some of that energy is used to actively trans-
port protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. The pro-
tons become concentrated in the space between the two membranes (right
side of the arrow). As a result, a proton gradient is built up, much like
the diffusion gradient discussed in section 5.6. Protons then move down
their concentration gradient through a group of enzymes in the inner
membrane. The ADP and phosphate combine to form ATP. In that
way, much of the energy from the electrons is transft rred to ATP.
As the electrons and protons reach the end of these reactions, they
are reunited to reform hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen immzdiately com-
bines with oxyg. n to form water, ending the process. Normally, 32 mol-
Summary of ATP produ,Iton fapproximatt,
ecules of ATP are formed in the electron transport system for each
molecule of glucose. With the 4 ATPs formed earlier in glycolysis and
maxima valuo.,.$) per "Id
NATiti 3 ATP
the Krebs cycle, a total of 36 ATPs is formed in cellular respiration. That nH = 2 ATP
represents approx'.:nately 44 percent of the energy available in a mole- Acetyl CoA = 12 ATP
cule of glucose, a remarkable efficiency. An automobile engine, by com- = 36 ATP
parison, converts only about 25 percent of the energy in gasoline into a Paimttatt; = 129 ATP
usable form. 116-carbon tatty aced)

. 65 ti
tj
 . ..

.5 IP

.1 S
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 551

The Krebs Cycle Plays a Central Role

in Cellular Metabolism
All three classes of foodstuffscarbohydrates, fats, and proteins
may be used as sources of energy in respiration. Breakdown products of
all three eventually enter the Krebs cycle. Carbohydrates can enter the
carbon pathway as glucose or pyruvic acid. Fats are first separated into
glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is converted to one of the 3-carbon
intermediates of glycolysis and thus enters the carbon pathway. Fatty
acids are broken down to the same 2-carbon fragment as carbohydrates
and form acetyl CoA. The acetyl group is then decomposed in the Krebs
cycle to give oti two molecules of carbon dioxide,
When proteins are used in respiration, they are first decomposed to
amino acids. The amino group is removed, and the remaining carbon
skeletons may be broken down into the same 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-carbon
molecules that are shown in figure 15.13. These compounds Limn enter
the carbon pathway at various points and are finally decomposed b; the Both at and protein molecules may be
Krebs cycle to give off carbon dioxide. converted to glucose in the Wei
As figure 15.13 shows, the Krebs cycle plays a central role in the 0
carbon pathway. Of equal importance, the intermediate compounds of
the Krebs cycle, glycolysis, and the intermediate reactions provide carbon
skeletons with which cells can synthesize other compounds. These bio-
synthesis (by oh SIN thuh sis) reactions provide the cell with enzymes
and all other materials needed for maintenance, cell repair, and growth.

15.13 Energy Releasing Processes

Are Essential to Life
The role of oxygen in cellular respiration cannot be underestimated.
Without its presence, the entire process stops because all the electron
carrier molecules become "loaded" and cannot transfer their loads.
Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons. If oxygen is not present in suf-
fi-ient amounts, electron flow stops, and the electron transport system The importank,e of regeneration of NAD. should
backs up like a plugged drain. NAD+ is unable to transfer the hydrogens be stressed An analogy would be that of the
it is carrying and is, therefore, unable to pick up more hydrogens. As a log jam that stops the movement of a river
result, the Krebs cycle also stops.
When muscles are severely taxed, as in strenuous exercise, the lungs There is great awareness today of the
and circulatory system may be unable to meet the oxygen demands of importance of aerobic exercise This might be a
the muscle cells. Under such conditions, glycolysis continues, even good place to explain that such exercise
without oxygen, producing two ATPs, pyruvic acid, and NADH. The increases the ability of the lungs and circulatory
pyruvic acid does not proceed to the Krebs cycle, however. Instead, two system lc supply oxygen to the muscles and,
hence, Increases the length of time muscles can
continue to contract

654
 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 15.13 Respiratory and biosynthesis pathways. The Krebs cycle plays a
central role in both.

3
polysaccharides
t
monosaccharides

proteins fats
11
77.
glycerol

amino acids fatty acids

C.- ATP

cYtosoi
mit'chondrion

to

CoA

w Krebs
cycle

hydrogens

5-0- ATP
"--.- ATP
C-.- ATP

02
1
, E
Chapter 15 TXie Human Animal: Food-and Energy 553

Figure 15.14 Conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid in muscles. This reaction,
in which NADH also is converted to NAD+, enables glycolysis to continue,
supplying energy in the form of ATP to the muscle cells.

NADH NAD+
H3 CH3

=0 H C OH
-->
=0 C=0

OH OH

pyruvic acid lactic acid

(from glycolysis)

hydrogen atoms are transferred from NADH to the pyruvic acid, con-
verting it to the 3-carbon molecule lactic acid (figure 15.14). The NAD+
is freed to pick up more hydrogen, and glycolysis can continue, providing
limited amounts of ATP. The lactic acid accumulates in the muscles,
eventually reducing the ability of muscle fibers to contract, and causing
muscle fatigue.
To illustrate the vital nature of these processes, consider what hap-
pens when they are stoppedfor example, by the action of cyanide, one
of the fastest acting poisons. It combines chemically wi,th the final car-
rier in the electron transport system and blocks the production of ATP
by the mitochondria. Without ATP, cellular activities cannot continue.
A person becomes unconscious within a minute and usually dies within
three to six minutes.
Now your lunch has served one of its tw., purposesto provide usable
energy for your life functions. The second purpose is to reassemble the
absorbed molecules into larger molecules to build or repair cells in your
body. Usually, this second process, known as biosynthesis, seems , pro-
ceed without problems. However, biosynthesis is dependent on the pres-
ence of appropriate building materials. Those include the carbon
skeletons formed in the carbon pathway as well as various minerals and
vitamins that must be obtained in the diet. In the next section we will
examine some of the requirements for biosynthesis and some of the ways
that today's environment might make it difficult to obtain those require-
ments.

Self-Review

1. Why can food be considered a fuel?

2. What is the difference between the release of energy in burning and
the release of energy in cells?
3. What role does glucose play in cellular respiration?
4. In what chemical compound is energy stored?
S. How are fats and proteins used in cellular respiration?
6. In what ways does the Krebs cycle play a central roit, in cellular
metabolism?
554 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

alitlinSAMOttrthOtkill****...
Name Food Sources Function Deficiency Symptoms
A, retinol Liver, green and yellow Formation of visual pigments; Night blindness, flaky skin,
vegetables, fruits, egg yolks, cell growth, especially of lowered resistance to infection,
butter epithelial cells growth stunting, faulty
reproduction
0, calciferol Fish oils, liver, action of sunlight Increases calcium absorption Ricketsdefective bone
on lipids in skin from gut; important in bone al ' formation
tooth formation
E, tocopherol Oils, whole grains, liver, Protects red blood cells, plasma Fragility of red blood cells,
legumes, green leafy vegetables membranes, and vitamin A from muscle wasting
destruction; important in muscle
maintenance
Synthesis by intestinal bacteria; Synthesis of clotting factors by Internal hernorrhagii:g
green leafy vegetables, cheese, liver (deficiency can be caused by
liver oral antibiotics, which kill
intestinal bacteria)
BComplex Vitamins:
B1, thiamine Whole grains, legumes, nuts, Carbohydrate metabolism Beriberi, loss of appetite,
liver, heart, kidney, pork indigestion, fatigue, nerve
irritability, heart failure
B2, riboflavin Liver, kidney, heart, yeast, milk, Forms part of electron in Sore mouth and tongue, cracks
eggs, whole grains electron transport system at corners of mouth, eye
irritatiz,n, scaly skin
Pantothenic acid Yeast, liver, eggs, wheat germ, Part of Coenzyme A; essential Fatigue, headache, sleep
bran, peanuts, peas for energy release and disturbances, nausea, muscle
biosynthesis cramps, loss of antibody
production
Niacin Yeast, liver, kidney, heart, meat, Coenzyme in energy Pellagra, skin lesions, digestive
fish, poultry, legumes, nuts, metabolism; part of NAD+ and problems, nerve disorders
whole grains NADP

B6, pyridoxine Whole grains, potatoes, fish, Coenzyme for amino acid and Skin disorders, sore mouth and
poultry, red meats, legumes, fatty acid metabolism tongue, nerve disorders,
seeds anemia, weight loss, impaired
antibody response
Biotin Liver, kidney, yeast, egg yolks, Fatty acid, amino acid, and Skin disorders, appetite loss,
whole grains, fish, legumes, protein synthesis; energy depression, sleeplessness,
nuts, meats, dairy products; release from glucose muscle pain
synthesis by intestinal bacteria
Folacin (folic acid) Liver, yeast, leafy vegetables Nucleic acid synthesis, amino Failure of red blood cells to
acid metabolism mature, anemia, intestinal
disturbances and diarrhea
B12 Liver and organ meats, muscle Nucleic acid synthesis Pernicious anemia
meats, fish, eggs, shellfish, milk;
synthesis by intestinal bacteria
C, ascorbic acid Citrus fruits, tomatoes, green Essential to formation of Scurvy, failure to form
leafy vegetables collagen and intercellular connective tissue, bleeding,
substance; protects against anemia, slow wound healing
infection; maintains strength of
blood vessels; increases iron
absvption from gut; important
in muscle maintenance
MNIEMMEIR.
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 555

Nutrition Guidepost: What nutrients do humans

need for optimal growth
and health?
15.14 Our Digestive System Is the Re 3:114-
of Evolution,
The function of the digestive system is t break
and to selectively absorb the resulting smaller moleculm, whith supply
the needs of the cells in your body. However, this ilystem &A only utilize
the materials that you supplythe food you_decide 'to at Assuming
that you decided to have that hamburger, fries, and :4;ft drink for lunch,
what options have you given your body? Will the food you ingested pro-
vide the necessary nutrients for your body to contirute growing and func-
tioning?
There are several types of nutrients. Carbohydrates and fats are pri- O
mary sources of energy. Proteins supply building materials and enzymes
but also may be used to provide energy. Vitamins and minerals are es-
sential substances that form cofactors in cellular respiration and other
cellular activities. Thus they help to release the energy of carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins; and to maintain normal body funchn. Major func-
tions of the vitamins and minerals are shown in tables 15.1 and 15.2.
Our genes dictate the form snd function of our bodies, including the Historic evidence.: indicates that as recently as
structure .and operation of the digestive system. The human genus has 1910 the typicai diet hislUdtid Ot. ot
existed for about 2 million years, and our prehuman hominid ancestors potatoes and whole grains such as corn. rye,
appeared at least 4 million years ago. During that time the human diges- Ind barley There was very little red it or
st.i,:ar consumed
tive system evolved in accordance with a dietary selection that changed
'very little until this century. From the available evidence, that pattern Evidence has been found In pollen and bone
was high in fiber and vegetable matter and low in fat, refined sugar, and content of garbage middens rn caves. preserved
salt. During the last 50 years, our diet has become high' in fat, refined coprolyteb. and tooth wear patterns For more
sugar, and salt, and low in fiber. During that time there also has been a ititormation, set' Paleolithic Nutrition. by S 13
rise in forms of disability and illness that may be partly linked to our Caton and M Konricr. The- Nev., Ertgurr(1 Journal
new dietary habits. i1 Aledione i31 January 1985)

15.15 Human Detary Habits Are Related

to fleeth
Recent research indicates that several dietary habits may be respon-
sible for damage to the human body. Those include eating too much
0 Processed foods ate any that have been
chemically or physically treated Processing is
processed food, eating too much fat, not eating enough eomplex car- used to prevent spoilage. maintain nutritional
bohydrates, and eating more kcals than are needed or expended. qua ut maintain or enhar e flavor or
In 1977, the Senate Select C.Jmmittee on Nutrition and Human Needs appearanci. . and snake food convenient to ,se
investigated the problem of obesity (excess body fat) and the entire
structure of the American diet. Its goal was to promote health and lon- With (11C Studerita how much of their diet
gevity by reducing the incidence of major disorders thought to be linked k in-lined by (1) habit or family pattern,
to our present diet. Among those are heart disease, cancer of the colon, ic; peer relations and pressure. or (3) lack of
stroke, hypertension Thigh blood pressure), obesity, diabetes, and dis- undcrstaticling of good natritional practices
eases of the arteries and the. liver. This committee recommended that
Americans adopt the following dietary goals:
1. Maintain a balance between kcal intake and kcal expenditure that
results in ideal weight.
2. Reduce consumption of sugars that are refined (cane or beet sugar:
sucrose) or processed (corn sugar, syrups, molasses, and honey),
which are added to foods.

658
fa
 556 Section Four Functioning OrganiarriS in the Bit) Sitere

Tatil*-15.2NineralS'important in humans
Name Food Sources Function Deficiency Excess
Major Minerals
Calcium Dairy products, green Development of bones Stunted growth, poor Excess blood calcium,
(Ca) leafy vegetables, eggs, and teeth, muscle quality bones and teeth, loss of appetite, muscle
nuts, dried legumes contraction, blood rickets, convulsions weakness, fevur
clotting, nerve impulse
transmission, enzyme
activation
Chlorine Table salt, most water Water balance, Metabolic alkalosis, Vomiting; elemental
(CI) supplies, bleach hydrochloric acid in constipation, failure to chlorine is a poison used
stomach gain weight (in infants) for chemical warfare
Magnesium Whole grains, liver, Component of Infertility, menstrual Loss of reflexes,
(Mg) kidneys, milk, nuts, green chlorophyll; bones and disorders drowsiness, coma, death
leafy vegetables teeth,,coenzyme in
carbohydrate and protein
metabolism

Phosphorus Dairy foods, egg yolk, Development of bones Bone fractures, disorders As phosphorus increases,
(P) meat, whole grains and V:, 1, energy of red blood cells, calcium decreases;
metaPolism, pH balance metabolic problems muscle spasm, jaw
erosion
Potassium Whole grains, meat, Body water and pH Muscle and nerve Abnormalities in heart
(K) bananas, vegetables balance, nerve and weakness beat or-stoppage, muscle
muscle activity weakness, mental
confusion, cold and pale
skin
Sodium Table salt, dairy foods, Body water and pH Weakness, muscle High blood pressure,
(Na) eggs, baking soda and balance, nerve and cramps, diarrhea, edema, kidney disease
powder, meat, vegetables muscle activity dehydration
Sulphur Dairy products, nuts, Component of some Related to intake and Excess sulfur amino acid
(S) legumes amino acids, enzyme deficiency of sulfur amino intake leads to poor
activator acids growth

3. Increase consumption of complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)

and naturally occurring sugars, which are found in fresh fruits, veg-
etables, and whole grains.
4. Reduce fat consumption, particularly of saturated fats and those
that contain cholesterol.
5. Reduce salt intake.
A comparison of these dietary goals with the current American diet is
shown in figure 15.15. What differences and problem areas do you see"

15.16 Fats Play Important Roles in the Body

Lipids are the most concentrated source of food energy available. They
release approximately 9 kcals for every gram of fat, compared to only
4 kcals per gram from either proteins or carbohydrates. They aid in cho-
lesterol metabolism and in the absorption of vitamins A, D, E, and IC:
They are used in the production of hormones and hormonelike sub-
stances and z.tructurally, in cellular membranes. They also supply essen-
tial fatty- acids. Essential nutrients are those that the body cannot produce
at all or in adequate amounts and that, therefore, must be obtained di-
rectly from ingested foods.

,mac B59
 Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 557

,Tab lel 2 -Continued

Name Food Sources Function Deficiency Excess
Trace Minerals
Cobalt Common in foods, meat, Component of Vitamin Rare Dermatitis, excessive
(Co) milk 812, essential for red production of red
blood cell formation corpuscles
Copper Liver, meat, s-afood, Production of Anemia, bone and Toxic concentrations in
(Cu) whole grains, legumes, hemoglobin, bone connective tissue liver and eyes of persons
nuts formation, component of disorders, scurvylike with genetic inability to
electron carriers conditions, an early death metabolize
"Fluorine Most water supplies, Prevents oacterial tooth Tooth decay, bone Mottling and brown spots
(F) seafood decay weakness on teeth, deformed teeth
and bones
Iodine Seafood, iodized salt, Component of thyroid Inadequate synthesis of Antithyroid compounds
(I) dairy products hormone, which controls thyroid hormone. goiter
cellular respiration (enlarged thyroio),
cretinism
on Liver, meat, eggs, Component of Iron-deficiency anemia. Accidental poisoning of
(Fe) spinach, enriched bread hemogiobin (oxygen and chronic fatigue, children, cirrhosis of liver
and cereals electron transport weakness
system)

Manganese Liver, kidneys, legumes, Ions necessary in protein Infertility, menstrual Brain and nervous system
(Mn) cereals, tea, coffee and carbohydrate problems disorders
metabolism: Krebs cycle
Molybdenum Organ meats, miZ<, whole Enzyme component Edema, lethargy, Weight loss, growth
(Mo) grains, leafy vegetables, disorientation, and coma retardation, end changes
legumes in connective tissue
Zinc Liver, seafoods, common Essential enzyme Slow sexual development, Nausea, bloating, and
(Zn`, foods component; necessary loss of appetite, retarded cramps; depresses
for normal senses of growth copper absorption
taste and smell

Although fats are nutritionally important, Americans in general con-

sume too much and the wrong kind, as you can see in figure 15.15. Two
types of lipids are of particular concern: saturated fats, which include
.animal fats such as lard and butter, and unsaturated fats, which include
most vegetable oils. Fats containing fatty acids with no double carbon
z--bOnds (two carbon atoms sharing two chemiCal bonds) are saturated fats
and tend to be solid at room temperature. Fats that contain one or more
double carbon bonds in their fatty acids tend to be liquid at room tem-
peature. They are known as monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fats,
depending on the number of double carbon bonds present. (Review figure
4:18, page 113.).
Reducing intake of fat, particularly of cholesterol and saturated fat,
is important because of the apparent link between high blood cholesterol
0
level and heart disease. Research over the past 30 years has indicated
that high dietary intake of both cholesterol and saturated fat tends to
elevate blood cholesterol level. Conversely, a diet rich in polyunsaturated
Tat often has the effect of lowering blood cholesterol. Excess cholesterol Fir obtailed discussion of these research
can be deposited as bulky fat streakscalled plaques on the inner lining findings, see How LDL Receptors InfIL.nce
of the arteries. The resulting disease, atherosclerosis (ATH uroh skleh Cholesterol and Atherosclerosis by M S
roh sis), is caused by an accumulation of plaques that inhibi he flow Brown and J L Goldstein, &tent& American
(November 1984)

660
..jkt..J 1)
558 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 15.15 Content difference between current diets and proposed dietary
goals.

current diet dietary goals

10%
16% saturated
saturated
1---10% mono- 30% fat
unsaturated
42% fat 1096 poly-
19% mono- unsaturated
unsaturated

7%-poly- 12% protein

unsaturated

12% protein

58%
carbohydrates
46%
carbohydrates

From Dietary Goals for the United States, 2nd edition. 1977
(Select Committee on Nutrition and Hrs.ran Needs).

Figure 15.16 Atherosclerosis occurs as a fatty deposit on the walls of an artery

ii
Ripon Microslidas Inc.
s

661
 Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 559

TOIC104'-sfilepOs:k.torii4fAiktOlwitti.tika
Physiological End
Risk Factors Result Rasult

eating & drinking too much

overweight
hot exercising enough

high total fat consumption

high saturated fat consumption elevated

blood
low poly-unsat.: sat. fat ratio cholesterol
higher risk of
high cholesterol consumption
heart disease

high salt consumption elevated

blood
overweight - pressure

Oiabetes accelerates the

atherosclerotic
smoking process

Reprinted from Dietary Goats for the United States, 2nd ed. 1977. (select Committee on Nutrition and Human
Needs).

of blood (figure 15.16): A clot might eventually form, blocking the ar-
tery and causing a heart attack or stroke. Factors that inciease risk cf
0
heart disease are shown in table 15.3. Data show that half of all the
deaths in the United States are caused by this type of disease.
In the last 30 years, autopsies of individuals between the ages of Some of this research dates to the Korean
18:and 30 have revealed significant development of chelesterol deposits Conflict, when a systematic study of Americans
in the arterits. A recent study has shown fatty streaks in arteries of chi' killed reveale6 what were then cono.dered
di..1n as young as 2 years, indiCating fiat atherosclerosis might begin in advanced" stages of atherosclerosis See also
childhood. Thus it bec importaf... to adoptmoderatc-fat and mod- the editorial in The New England Journal of
erate - cholesterol diets early in life before life-style pattern have been Medicine (16 January 1986).
established. In investigation 15.3, you can-evaluate your own risk of de-
veloping cardionscular disease.

5:3 ASSESSING RISK FOR

11104000.140.- Investigation 15.3
,PARPIOYASMAR.;,:PlAgA' ASSESSING RISK FOR CARDIOVASCULAR
Introduction DISEASE

Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death in the United States. Materials

Several factors are known to contribute to cardiovascular disease. We can
control some of these factors, but not others. One sphygmomanometer is adequate for tl is
in this activity, you will examine your chances of-acquiring cardiovas- activity If you are unable to of 'lin a
sphygmomanometer, have you students omit
,./Oular disease. At your age, you can make apprdpriati. nodifications in your
Item 6 on the self-check.
life-style thatcould reduce the risk of developilt cardiovascular problems.

Materials (per teain,of 2 students)

tape'measure
bathroom-scald
sphygmothanometer (optional)

662
;t1
ti y.1a
560 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Procedure Procedure
Some students may be veil self - conscious Part ACalculating Your Ideal Weight
about having peers know their "eat weight
Work with your partner to make the measurements.
Please allow students to omit any part of this
activity that could cause them emotional 1. Measure your wrists in centimeters at their smallest circumferences.
disco-nfort. Add both measurements and divide them by 2 to.get an average.
If your students have a tape measure that left wrist + right wrist
contains English units, have them multiply their average
2
height in inches by 2_5 to convert their height to
centimeters.
2. Measure your forearms, calves, and ankles at their largest circumfer-
ences. Calculate an average for each as in step 1.
3. Add the 4 averages (wrist + forearm + calf + ankle) and divide the
sum by 17.07 for males, 16.89 for females.
wrist + forearm + calf + ankle
quotient
17.07 or 16.89
4. Square the quotient (quotient X quotient = )
5 Measure your height without shoes.
6. Multiply your answer in step 4 by your height.
height X quotient2 =
7. Then, multiply the answer in step 6 by 0.0111 to obtain your "ideal"
weight. (This answer is in kilograms. To convert this value to pounds,
multiply it by 2.2.)
height X quotient2 X 0.0111 X 2.2 = ideal weight in pounds
8. Determine your actual weight by weighing yourself on a bathroom scale.
Compare your actual weight with your ideal weight. Is your real weight
over, under, or ec.ival to your ideal weight?
9. Find the difference between your actual and ideal weight.

Part BA Self-Check
1. Take the self-check below. If you do not have a sphygmomanometer,
omit item 6 of the self-check.
4. After c -impleting the self-check, use the self-check score interpreta-
tion to determine your risk of cardiovascular disease.
Self-Check
Directions: Please read each item and score the appropriate number in the
space to the right of the number.
Points for each item:
1 Statistics show that males are more likely to suffer heart at-
tacks than females. If you are (a) male, score 1 point, or (b)
female, score 0.
2. Heredity can influence your chances of heart disease. If one or
more of your parents, grandparents, or sibiings have suffered
a heart attack, you may have an irherited tendency toward this
condition. If one Jr more of your parents, grandparents, or sib-
lings have suffered a heart attack (a) before age 60, score 12
points, (b) after age 60, score 3 points, or (c) neither a nor b,
score 0.
3 Diabetes is related to heart disease in that a person with dia-
betes is more likely to build up fat,/ deposits in the arteries.
If you have (a) diabetes and are now taking insulin or pills,
score. 10 points, or (b) no diabetes or can control it with diet,
score 0.
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 561

4 Smoking has been shown to contribute to cardiovascular dis-

ease. Substances inhaled during smoking damage the lining of
blood vessels. If you (a) smoke 2 packs or more per day, score
10 points, (b) smoke' 1-2 packs per day or quit less than a
year ago, score 6 points, (c) smoke less than 1 pack per day
or quit 1-10 years ago, score 3 points, or (d) never smoked,
score 0.
5. High amounts of cholesterol in the diet can clog or narrow the
arteries. This places added stress on the heart and arteries. If
you eat (a) 1 serving of red meat per day, over 7 eggs per
weak, use bstter, whole milk, and cheese daily, score 8 points,
(b) red meat 5-6 times a week, 4-7 eggs per week, use mar-
garine, low-fat dairy products, and some cheese, score 4 points,
or (c) poultry, fish, and little or no red meat, 3 or fewer eggs
per week, use margarine and skim milk, score 0.
6 High blood pressure increases the heart's work and places wear
and tear on blood vessels. If you are able to measure your
blood pressure, score this item. Otherwise, omit a score. If your
blood pressure at rest measures (a) 160/ 150, score 8 points,
(b) between 160/ 105 and 140/90, score 4 points, or tc) less
than 140/90, score 0.
7 Overweight people run a higher risk of heart disease than those
not overweight. (Refer the calculation of the difference be-
tween your ideal and actual weightitem Q in part A.) If you
are (a) 25 pounds overweight, score 4 points, (b) 10-25 pounds
overweight, score 2 points, or (c) less than 10 pounds over-
weight, score 0.
8 Aerobic exercise is that type of activity that temporarily in-
creases your heartrate, stimulates sweat production, and
causes deep breathing (jogging, bicycling, swimming, and sim-
ilar activities). If you engage in aerobic exercise (a) less than
once per week, score 2 points, (b) 1-2 times per week, score
1 point, or (c) 3 or more times per week, score 0.
Total Score

Self-Check Score Interpretation

Risk cf Heart
Attack, Stroke, or
Cardiovascular
Total Score Disease
26 points or more high risk
25 -14 points medium risk
13 points or less !ow risk

Use the following information if item 6 (blood

pressure analysis) was omitted.
22 points or more high risk
21-12 points medium risk
11 points or less low risk

Discussion Discussion
In the `,rst part of this activity, you calculated your ideal weight. The value The main objective of this acuity is to make
you obtained is an approximation of what your body weight should be. It your students aware of the risk factors of
is normal for your actual weight to vary 1 to 10 pounds from your ideal Lardievascular disease Most high school
weight. students are young enough to make
modifications in their life-styles to minimize their
chances of acquiring cardiovascular disease

664
t).
562 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Kcal Tally
Meat Sandwiches Breakfast Dishes
140 Beef pot roast, lean only (2 thin 280 Bacon and tomato 95 Bacon, 2 crisp strips
slices, 4" x 2") 360 Bologna 76 Bread, white, 1 slice
85 Ham, boiled, 1 slice 330 Cheese 85 Cornflakes, 1 cup
245 Hamburger patty 545 Cheeseburger 135 Doughnut, cake type
115 Meat loaf, 1 slice 445 Hamburger 100 Egg, friec
130 'Pork chop, 1 iean 265 Egg salad 80 Egg, poached, hard cooked
280 Hot dog, 1 bun 110 Egg, scrambled
Chicken 310 Roast beef 60 Griddle cake, 4 inch cake
360 Salami 110 Oatmeal, cooked, 3/4 cup
105 Bread stuffing, 1/2 cup
170 Pork sausage, 2" patty
215 Chicken breast, 1/2, fried
Soups 95 Pork sausage, 1 link
185 Chicken, '4, broiled
100 Shredded wheat, 1 biscuit
485 Chicken potpie, individual 190 Bean, navy, 1 cup
150 Turkey, light 1 slice 103 Beef, 1 cup
173 Turkey, dark, 1 slice
Fruits
100 Chicken noodle, 1 cup
149 Split-pea, 1 cup 70 Apple, raw, 1 medium
Fish 185 Potato, 1 cup 75 Grapefruit
40 Fishstick, 1, breaded 90 Tomato, 1 cup 70 Orange
80 Vegetable, 1 cup 35 Peach
230 Halibut, 1 steak, broiled
100 Pear
195 Ocean Perch, breaded, fried, 1
Vegetables 35 Raspberries, red, 1/2 cup
piece
30 Strawberries, '/2 nup
215 Tuna, in oil, 1/2 cup 165 Beans, baked w/pork, 1 cup
110 Tartar Sauce, 1 tablespoon 15 Beans, green, snap, wax, or yellow,
cooked, 1/2 cup
Drinks
Dairy 75 Beans, Lima, 1/2 cup 117 Apple juice, 1 cup
35 Beets, diced, 1/2 cup 175 Cocoa (all milk), 3/4 cup
100 Butter or margarine, 1 tbs
15 Cauliflower, 1/2 cup 0 Coffee or tea
59 Cheese, American, 1 slice
5 Cucumber, 6 thin slices 144 Cola, 12 ozs
60 Cottage cheese, '4 cup
5 Lettuce leaves, 4 :mall 1 Cola, diet, 12 ozs
165 Milk, whole, 1 glass
60 Peas, green, 1/2 cup 75 Grape juic 3, 1/2 cup
15 Pepper, g,aen, 1 medium 190 Milk, skim, chocolate
Main Dishes
90 Potato, baked or boiled, 1 135 Orange juice, 1 cup
460 Beef potpie, 1 individual 10 Potato chips, 10,medium 190 Milk, skim, chocolate, 1 glass
180 Beef stew, 1 cup 155 Potatoes, French-fried, 10
17C Chili con came with beans, canned, 240 Potatoes, fried, 1/2 cop Candies/ Cookies/ Snacks
1/2 cup 235 Potatoes, hashed brown, 1/2 cup 110 Animal Crackers, 10
240 Macaroni & cheese, 1/2 cup 115 Potatoes, ninl;ed, 1/2 cup 97 Brownie, plain, w/nuts
153 Pizza, cheese, '/8" wedge 15 Sauerkraut, 1/2 cup
157 Pizza, sausage, '/8" wedge 103 Brownie, frosted, w/nuts
30 Tomato, fresh, 1 medium 145 Candy bar, chocolate, 1 oz
215 Spaghetti w/meat sauce, 3/4 cup
100 Chocolate kisses, 51
,Desserts 110 Cookie, plain, 3"
Salads
330 Apple pie, 1 slice 90 Marshmallow
50 Coleslaw 420 Chocolate cake, fudge icing, 2" 50 Oreo
245 Potato salad, 1/2 cup wedge 105 Peanuts, 10
185 Waldorf salad. 1/2 cup 80 Gelatin, plain, 1/2 cup 23 Popcorn, plain, 1 cup
300 Lemon meringue pie, 1 slice 41 Popcorn, oil & salt
265 PuMpkin pie, 1 slice 134 Popcorn, sugar coated
50 Pretzels, 3-ring, 10

6 a
Chapter -15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 563

The second part of this activity dealt with an assessment of your chances 1 Answers to s question will vary
of acqUiring cardiovascular disease. The information you obtained in this depending on the score of eak.i. stildent s self-
notion should be used only a° a guide. However, this information can be check
useful in examining your life-sly. . Using this information, please respond 2 Risk factors of cardiovascular disease
to the following questions: th it i person cannot change by modifications in
life-style are
1. Based on your self-check score, do you appear to have a high, me-
(a) Sex (males are statistically at a higher
dium, or low risk of cardiovascular disease?
nsk)
2. What aspects of your life that could increase your chances of cardio-
(b) Possible inherited predispositic toward
vascular disease are you incapable of changing?
cardiovascular disease
3. What modifications, if any, can you make in your life-style to reduce
(c) Diabetes (in young people, usually an
your chances of having cardiovascular disease?
inherited disease)
However, it is important to note that, though
For Further Investigation items (b) and (c) cannot be eliminated. thy can
be constantly monitored and the risk of each
Does your daily diet have the proper number of kcals to maintain your
one can be minimized For example, in some
ideal weight? To find this out, keep a record of what you eat for 5 days.
cases, diet can be regulated to minimiz.a the
Obtain an average of your kcal intake 'or the 5 days. Find out if your
risks of these factors
average kcal intake is appropriate for your weight. (A quick calcula-
3 individuals can make several modifications
tion to determine your approximate kcal needs per day is: ideal
in their life- styles to reduce their chances of
weight X 15 = kcal needs per day.)
cardiovasailar disease Some modifications
=hide
(a) Ginning smoking or rec icing the number
of cigarettes smoked each day.
15.17 Carbohydrates Provide Energy,
(b) Reducing the arm.. it of cholesterol in
Nutrients, and Fiber the daily diet
Fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are important in the diet be- (c) Continually monitoring blood pressure if
a peron hzs high blood pressure the person
cause, in addition to providing the carbohydrates that are the body's
should seek proper medical assistance High
primary source of energy,-they provide minerals and vitamins essential
blood pressure can be controlled by diet.
to good health. Refined sugars, on the other hand, provide only kceas medication. or by a combination of these two
"empty" kcals with no other nutrients. In the United States between factors
1910 and 1976, the annual consumption of refined sugar and related (d) Reducing or controlling weight problems
sweeteners increased 32 percent. During the same period, consumption it a person is overweight he she should seek
of fresh fruit decreased by 43 percent, while that of processed fruits in- proper medical advice and assistance to
creased 275 percent. Consumption of soft drinks doubled between 1962 remedy the problem
and -1975, and in 1980, carbonated beverages accounted for 20 percent (e) Developing a realistic plan of regular
of all refined sugar used. Other reports indicate that 3 of every 5 kcals aerobic exercise medical advice should be
ingested by Americans come from fats or added sugars. sought to prevent any adverse affects that an
improper exercisc program could pose to the
person s health
Figure 15.17 Some high-fiber foods.
For Further Investigation
The students can use the Kcal tally on page
562 Another source of a calorie chart is tht.
Comprehens,ve; List of Foods, 1980, National
Dairy Council. Rosemont, IL 60018 The National
Dairy Council has a variety of int xpensive or
fre..; materials relatPi, to nutrition and health

BSCS by Doug SokeU

t) 366
564 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Have students research the proLubs of teh oily In the American diet, processed and convenience foods with their high
sugar Contrast This Witt the processing of rdv content of refined sugar are increasingly replacing more nutritious foods
milk, that is, pasteurization, homogenizatiori dud that supply vitamins and minerals. Refined and processed sugars are
addition of vitamin P
0 added to almost every type of processed and convenience food. The food
industry has many terms for the sugars and sweeteners it uses, such as
sucrose, raw sugar, turbinado sugar, brown sugar, total invert sugar, corn
syrup, honey, fructose, levulose, dextrose, lactose, and others. All can
contribute significantly to obesity and to the $10 billion-a-year dental
bill for cavities alone. In some cases, because of the current labeling
laws, it is not possible for consumers to determine how much refined or
processed sugar they actually consume.
Animals such as cows are able to utilize
cellulose and other fibers because of the
0 Fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are al Jo sources of dietary fiber
or roughage. Dietary fiber consists of cellulose and other carbohydrates
presence of mutualistic bacteria in their gut The that are abundant in plants I nd in unprocessed plant foods. Humans do
bacteria have the necessary enzymes to
not have the necessary enzymes to digest those substances. Instead, fiber
degrade fiber It shculd be notet, -tat this
absorbs water rather like a sponge, causing bulkier feces that move more
research involved studying the frequency.
weight, and consistency of le,-20s
quickly and easily through the large intestine.
The current emphasis on fiber intake began with some observations
made by a number of British physicians. They noted the reduced `inci-
dence of dise....;es such as cancer of the colon and atherosclerosis in cer-
tain African rural villages. The diet of those villagers is low in processed
food and high in fiber. However, when those villagers moved to urban
areas and began eating the low-fiber, high-fat diet of Western cultures,
they suffered occurrences of the same diseases as longtime urban dwellers.
The physicians proposed the hypothesis that a high-fiber diet would pro-
tect against the diseases of Western cultures. That hypothesis, however,
is still being tested, and caution is advised in adding large amounts of
fiber to the diet. Bran, in, particular, may interfere with absorption of
calcium and other mineral's.

15.18 Protein Provides Your

Body Framework
Protein is needed daily for repair and main'inance of body tissues,
as well as for normal growth and development. Protein is important in
the diet because it supplies the amino acids we need to make our own
protein. Humans can synthesize 8 to 10 of the 20 amino acids they need.

Figure 15.18 Beans are rich in lysine (LYS) but deficient in the sulfur-containing
amino acids methionine (MET) and cystine (CYS). Wheat is deficient in lysine but
strong in methionine and cystine. When eaten together in a 1:1 ratio, beans and
wneat provide a good balance of these essential amino acids.

LYS". LYS
strong $ deficient
MET,
CYS EMMET,
CYS
deficient strong

beans eaten together wheat

alone alone

bean^-1-wheat=complementary protein con ia1ion

Reprinted by permission of Frances Moore" Lappi and her agents
Raines d Raines. Copyright 0 1971. 1975 and 1982 by Frances
Moore Leppe

s'6 6 7
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 565

The othersthe essential amino acidsmust be present in our food.

Eggs, milk, fish, soybeans, cheese, meat, and poultry provide complete
proteins. Complete proteins are those that contain all of the essential
amino acids in the proportions needed by the body. Grains, nuts, and
seeds also are good sources of protein, but they usually provide neither
all of the essential amino acids nor the reouired amounts or proportions.
However, it is possible to obtain complet protein by combining those
foods so that a missing amino acid in one is provided by the other. Grains
and milk, grains and legumes (beans, peas, and peanuts), and legumes
and nuts are examples of such combinations. Vegetarian diets should
cont tin a balance of soybean products, leafy dark-green vegetables, and
some dairy products to supply the necessary balance of amino acids.
Mest Americans exceed the protein requirement of 0.5 to 0.8 g per
kilogram body weight per day. Contrary to popular claims, excess pro-
tein does not cause "muscle building." Listead, it is respired to provide
energy or converted to fat and stored.

15.19 Eating Disorders Are Widespread

In attempting to reduce caloric intake and, thereby, lose weight, many
individuals fall victim to eating disorders. These victims are usually
teenage girls and young women. One of these disorders is bulimia (byoo
LIM ee uh). Typically, the individual will overeat and then attempt to
get rid of the kcals through self-induced vomiting or by using laxatives.
Another disorder, anorexia (an oh REX see uh), is characterized by Have .tudtrits in yruups ut malt,' and telltale,'
a rapid and substantial weight less due to self-starvation or extreme di- devtiup their ideal linage for the uppottt stx
eting. Some individuals may exhibit eating patterns of both bulimia and tIO ttiS imagt aftet,ted by TV and
COIT1Mercals
anorexia. This is referred to as bulimarxia (byoo lih muh REX see uh).
since 1980, these disorders have increased at a rate unparalleled in med-
ical history. It is now estimated that 1 out of 5 college-going wumen
suffers from bulimia, and 1 in every 100 teenage girls or young women
exhibits anorexic habits. Only I out of every 10 persons suffering from
an eating disorder is a male.
Those prsons who suffer from either of these diseases have an irra-
tional fear of being fat, have low self-esteem, and are unable to see them-
selves as tliey actually are. Eves in advanced cases, where the individuals
may weigh only half of their original weight, they still perceive them-
selves as fat. The disease may result in the cessation of the menstrual
cycle, skin rashes and dry skin, loss of hair and na quality, denial cav-
ities, and gum diseases. The sufferer may require hospitalization and
therapeutic interventions such as behavior modification and individual
or group therapy. In its extreme form, affected individuals may die from
damage to vital organs, heart failure, rupture of the esophagus, c: other
causes. The mortality rate of these disorders is, perhaps, the highest of
any condition ci4Ssified as a psychiatric disorder. Even diagnosis of these
disorders is a problem. It is important to consult a doctor if an eating
disorder is suspected.

668
ti 66 Seam Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 15.19 Anorexiaan eating disorder that can, if untreated, lead to

death.

15.20 Americans Consume too many Kcals

and in the Wrong Proportion
Havt, students loce,e and compare weight 0 Americans now consume about. 3 percent fewer kcals than they did
charts lo..ied on frame size, age or sex in 1910, but they have become so sedentary that 2 out of every 5 are
Compare these to determine if there is a
overweight. Furtherrr3re, the intake of refined sugars and animal fats
consensus on an "idea; weight "
has increased, with the result that some overweight individuals are ac-
tually malnourished due to the absence of essential nutrients in their
rt.
diets. problem is that the average American takes in more food than
his or her body requires but does not ingest the proper amounts of basic
and essential nutrients.

66,3
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 567

0:01,40"6:44ritili441044astfoO47,106 .

Kcals Protein Carbohydrates Fats

(grams) (grams) (grams)
Hamburger 606 29 51 32
Fries 215 3 28 10
Soft drink 145 0 41 0
Totals: 966 32 120 42

Age Sex Recommended Kcals in Percentage

Daily Kcal this Meal of Total
Intake Kcals
15-18 Male 2800 966 = 34.5
15-18 Female 2100 966 = 46.0

Nutrient Grams X Kcal/g = Total Actual Recommended

(energy content) Kcals Percentagl Percentage
of Daily of 'Oaily
Kcal Intake Kcal Intake
Protein 32 X 4 = 128 4.6 (male) 12
(4 kcal/g) 6.1 (female) 12

Carbohydrates 120 X 3.8 = 456 17.1 (male) 58'

(3.8 kcal/0 22.9 (female) 58'
Fats 42 X 9.1 = 382 13.5 (male) 30"
(9.1 kcal/g) 18.0 (female) 30"
Only 10% of the total carbohydrate intake should be refined carbohydrates-770h of the carbohydrate in this lunch is refined.
"Only 10% of the total fat intake should be saturated fatsall of the fat in this lunch is saturated.

Does your diet supply you with all the nutrients you need? Look at
table 15.4, an analysis of your fast food lunch. If you are a male between
the ages of 15 and 18 years, you have consumed 34.5 percent of your
daily recommended kcal allowance. But if you area female in the same
age group, you took in 46 percent of your kcals for the day. Those kcal
recommendations are based on activities for the average high school stu-
dent, which include walking to school and some daily physical activity,
such as physical education class. If you are on one of the athletic teams
and work out regularly, your allowance would be increased. If you are
less active, then the number of kcals may have to be decreased to avoid
gaining weight.
Of the carbohydrates in your lunch, only 28 g, or 23 percent, are com-
plex carbohydrates. The 92 g of refined carbohydrates represents 77 per-
cent of the total carbohydrate intake, rather than the recommended 10
percent. All of the 378 kcals of fats eaten are probably saturated fats.
Current recommendations state that. only 10 percent of the total daily
intake of fats should be saturated fats.

670
568 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Many questions about diet and nutrition remain to be answered by

research. Until more information becomes available, the most reason-
able recommendation is to eat a variety of foods in moderati,,n and to
reduce intake of processed and convenience foods.

Self-Review

1. What are the basic food molecules the human body needs to func-
tion properly?
2. What are the three major causes of dietary damage to the human
body?
3. What are the major sources of refined sugar in our diet?
4. What are the possible problems related to excess fat intake?
5. What is the role of celILlose in our diet?
6. What problems are associated with taking in too many or too few
keels?

Summary
Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into small mol-
ecules. The process begins with mechanical breakdown in the mouth,
and successive stages take place in the various compartments of the gut.
Most of the chemical breakdown occurs in the upper part of the sr
intestine, in the presence of specific digestive enzymes. The end products
of digestion are absorbed from the small intestine and delivered to the
cells by the blood and lymph. Inside the cell, the food molecules may be
stored, respired to obtain usable energy, ..ised to synthesize other nec-
essary molecules.
In cellular respiraton, the energy stored in food molecules is con-
verted to the "small change" of ATP molecules. The reactions of res-
piration take place in the cytosol __:ochondria,and in addition to
providing usable energy in the form of ATP, provide carbon skeletons
for biosynthesis. Carbohydrates, especially glucose, are the major source
of energy in respiration, but fats and proteins also can be respired. These
nutrients, as well as vitamins and minerals that are required in small
amounts, must be supplied in the diet. Increased intake of processed
foods, fats, and refined sugars by Americans and people of other indus-
trialized nations appears to be related to major health problems such as
obesity and heart disease.

67
Chapter 15 The Human Animal: Food and Energy 569

Application Questions Problems

1. How is chemical digestion related to the chemical 1. What are some of the factors in our society that
syntheses carried on by cells? might cause a high school student to become
2. What changes occur in thc pH of the human anorexic or bulimic?
digestive system as food passes through it? 2. People living in different parts of the world have
3. Why are feces semisolid though digested food in the very different diets. Most of the population in
small intestine is semiliquid? Africa, Asia, and Australia cannot drink milk.
4. Contrast the major events of glycolysis and the Investigate why-that is so.
Krebs cycle with the electron transport system. 3. Because of the success of the artificial kidney a
Which of these reactions yields more energy? biomedical ^ngineer wished to design an artificial
5. Explain the central role of the Krebs cycle in 1 digestive system. What major functions would you
cellular respiration -nd cellular synthesis reactions. have to buld into the artificial digestive system?
6. Why do we need complete proteins in our diet?
7. In what ways are vitamins and minerals imp-I ant
to health?

Suggested Readings
M. S. Brown and J. L. Goldstein, "How LDL Receptua G. Kolata, "How Important Is Diary calcium in Preventing
Influence Cholesterol and Atherosclerosis" Scientific Osteoporosis?" Science (1 August 1986). Reports on the
American (November 1984). Explains what LDL receptors latest research on the importance of dietary calcium.
are and why Americans have too few of them. T. Monmaney, "Vii.tmins: Much Ado About Milligrams"
S. B. Eaton and M. Konner, "Paleolithic Nutrition: A Science 86 (January/February 1986). Concerns the
Consideration of Its Nature and Current Implications" The controversy of establishing and revising Recommended
New England Journal of Medicine (31 January 1985). Dietary Allowances (RDAs).
Discusses the diet of early huittans and how it has affected
our current genetic composition, and compass modern
nutrition with that for which we are genetically
programmed.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 Chemical digestion provides raw indterials fur biosynthesis 1 The dynamics of parent and sibling relationships may play a
2 Conditions in the storndi.li dre highly ak.016, whereds those role Low self esteem is often a factor. anoretics may strive
in the small intestine are close to neutral for the slim look emphasized in the media Young peopie
3 Water is absorbed in thc large intestine seem particularly susceptible at puberty or when
4, In glycolysis and the Krebs cycle k,aiburi dre bruketi, contemplating a move Any stress or life change can trigger
hydrogens removed, and d small dniourit of ATP is made In anorexia or bulimia, for example, divorce, death, broken
the electron transport system a large amount of ATP is romance, or r dicule
made as electrons give up energy 2. Milk contains the sugar lactose People in tl.e 3 continents
5. The K.ebs cycle provides the pathway for the final mentioned car.so: lise-the sugar because they have little of
breakdown and energy release of all food molecules the intest.ial enzyme 1,ntase
Larbohydrates, fats, and proteins ale k.ompounds formed 3 The principal functions that the artificial system musi nave
in the cycle provide carbon Nkeietut all ttie major would be movement of food through the system. digestion,
biosynthetic pathways. and absorption
6. Complete proteins are required to supply essential amino
acids in the correct proportions
7. Vitamins and minerals act as cofactors or form parts of
enzymes or carriers essential to cellular respiration and to
biosynthesis reactions If these reactions cannot take place
at optimum rates, health is impaired

.1 672
f
NeP
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages

CHAPTER 16 T40-42
Key ideas
the cooperation of body systems to produLe
homeostasis,
transportation of materials by the circulatory
system.
protection of the body by the immune system.

The Human Animal: supply of oxygen to the body by the

respiratory system.
removal of wastes from the body
Maintenance of Internal
Environment

Introduction
Once you have eaten, digested, and absorbed a meal into the cells of the Point out that th, ultimate destination of food is
digestive tract, there still remains the process of distribution. Not only the working cell
must the absorbed food molecules be delivered, but they must be care-
fully controlled so the supply of food suits the needs of the cells. Excesses
may be as harmful as shortages. This balance is part of the homeostasis
of the body.
In the last chapter we followed the fate of a typical luncheon as it Relate the problems of unicellular organisms to
became the source of building materials and energy for your body. In those of large multicellular ones in the
this chapter we will trace the route by which this food is delivered to the distribution of nutrients and the elimination of
working cells of your body by the circulatory system. We will examine wastes.
how cells are supplied with oxygen and other necessary substances, and
how wastes are removed. Because the warm, liquid environment of the
cells is very desirable to hostile organisms, we will study how the im-
mune system defends your body against them. We will see how the cir-
culatory, respiratory, excretory, and immune systems interact to regulate
the internal environment of the body.

Circulation Guidepost: How does the circuiatory

system distribute materials
to all functioning cells?
16.1 Pushed by the Heart's Pumping Action,
Blood Circulates through a Series of
Tubes
Humans, like most animals that have a body fluid, have a system of
tubes through which fluid flowsa circulatory system. A muscular pump
(heart) propels a fluid containing special cells (blood) through tubes
(vessels). The direction of flow is controlled by valves inside the tubes.

6.74 571
-'c
tt `J.)
572 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Each of the four maior circuitspulmonary,

The basic function of a circulatory system is to transport materials
hmatic portal, renal and systems: involves a
set of arteries, eapiilaries and returning veins
throughout an organism's body. This system provides the raw materials
needed by the cells and removes wastes from the cells' environment.
0 Human circulation occurs in a closed system. A single, muscular heart
with four chambers pumps blood through the system. There are three
kinds of blood vessels. Arteries have rather thick muscular walls and
carry blood away from the heart. Veins have relatively thin walls with
less muscle. They carry blood toward the heart. Capillaries (KAP ih layr
eez) are thin-walled, narrow tubes that connect arteries and veins.

Figure 16.1 A simplified drawing of the human circulatory system. Oxygen-rich

blood is shown in red, oxygen-poor blood in blue.

veins from lung

right atrium
left atrium
right ventricle left ventricle

6 70r-
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 573

By ingenious experiments, William Harvey in the 17th century showed

that blood leaves a vertebrate heart through arteries and returns to the Figure 16.2 A typical capillary bed.
heart through veins. He reasoned that blood circulates, but never ac-
tually saw blood passing from arteries to veins, because the use of mi-
croscopes was not yet widespread. Later in the century, another scientist
first observed capillaries connecting the arteries and veins (figure 16.2).
This observation confirmed Harvey's reasoning about circulation.
In humans, as in all mammals and birds, the heart is separated into
right and left sides. Each side has its own set of veins and arteries. In
humans, the right side receives blood from almost all parts of the body
and then sends it to the lungs. The left side receives oxygenated blood
from the lungs and returns it to all parts of the body. Each side has
two chambers. The first chamber, or atrium (AY tree um), forms the
upper part of the heart and receives incoming blood from the tissues of
the body. The thin-walled atrium bulges with this blood, and as the
lower heart muscle relaxes, the blood flows into a second chamber, the
thick muscular ventricle (VEN trih kul). These structures show clearly
in figure 16.3.

Figure 16.3 A drawing of a section throw. human heart and the blood
vessels leading to and from it.

aorta
pulmonary artery

pulmonary veins

superior
vena cava

left atrium

valves between valves between

atria and ventricles and
ventricles major arteries

right atrium

inferior
vena cava
left ventricle

right ventricle

676
 574 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Atnoventricular valves (called tricuspid on the 0 The atrium and the ventricle are separated by tissue flaps called valves
right side, bicuspid or mdral on the lett) point (figure 16.4). The structure of these valves prevents blood from flowing
into the ventricle When intraventricular pressure back into the atrium when the ventricle contracts. When the contraction
rises (ventricular systole), the atrioventricular
occurs, the muscular wall of the ventricle squeezes the blood, forcing
valves are driven closed. Heart action can be
closed the tissue flaps between the two chambers. That prevents back-
adequately visualized only in motion
flow into the atrium, and the blood is forced out of the heart into an
artery. When blood is pumped from the heart, the flaps at the entrance
to the artery are forced against the artery wall. Blood then can flow
through the vessel away from the heart. When the ventricles relax be-
tween heartbeats, back pressure of the blood forces the flaps away from
the artery wall. They block the artery so that blood cannot flow back
toward the heart. In the veins, blood flow is helped by contraction of
0 surrounding muscles, as shown in figure 16.6. Valves prevent backflow,
so the blood flows only toward the heart.

Figure 16.4 Valves of the human heart.

Figure 16.6 Movement of blood in veins is

brought about by pressure from adjacent
muscles. Compression forces blood in both
directions. but valves prevent blood from flowing
backward, away from the heart. v.
C. Yokochi and J. W. Rohen. Photographic Anatomy of the Human
Body. 2nd ed , 1978.

to heart
valve
open

contracted
muscles

Figure 16.5 Threu steps in the pumping action of a mammalian heart. Why
does the blood not flow back into the arteries when the ventricles contract?

relaxed
muscles
valve
closed

677
 Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 575

Capillary walls are only one cell layer thick. As blood flows through
the capillaries, some substances move from the blood through the thin
walls into the body tissues. Other substances move from the tissues into
the blood at the same time. The exchange of materials occurs by dif-
, fusion, because substances in the tissues and in the blood are present in
unequal concentrations.

16.2 Blood Consists of Cells Suspended

in a Liquid Known as Plasma
Blood is a complex tissue formed of cells and other substances sus-
pended in plasma (PLAZ muh), a clear straw-colored liquid. Plasma is
0 Do your students know the difference between a
solution and a suspension'? It you did not study
90 percent water and 10 percent dissolved substances. The dissolved sub- the differences in chapter 4, this is a good time
stances consist of about -8 percent proteins, called plasma proteins, and to check their knowledge
0.9 percent minerals. The other 1.1 percent includes absorbed food mol-
ecules such as simple sugars, amino acid,, and fatty acids, as well as Water has a viscosity of 1.0 compared to blood
respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), waste products, and reg- viscosity of 4 5 to 5.5 Blood has a pH range
ulatory substances (hormones and enzymes). from 7 35 to 7 45 and a salt (NaCI)
Some of the plasma proteins play important roles in homeostatic concentration of 0.85 to 0 90%
functions, such as blood clotting and maintenance of blood osmotic pres-
sure. Others are essential products of the immune system, which pro- Albumin constitutes 55% of the plasma proteins
tects the body against invasion by organisms or foreign particles. and is largely responsible for bloou viscosity
The two types of human blood cells, red cells and white cells, are Fibrinogen functions in blood clotting and
manufactured in the bone marrow. Red blood cells are specialized for constitutes about 7% of the plasma proteins.
the transport of oxygen. As a red :ell matures, it loses its nucleus and Immunoglobuhns include the antibodies.
other cell structures. It becomes filled with hemoglobin (HEE moh gloh
bin), an iron-containing pigment that combines readily with oxygen.

Figure 16.7 The exchange of materials at a capillary. What do you think is

happening at points 1, 2, and 3?

678
576 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

lack of either sufficient hemoglobin or red blood Later in this chapter we will see how hemoglobin acts in transport of
cells causes anemia. You might ask your respiratory gases. Because they lack a nucleus, human red cells live only
students to consider why an anemic individual is 110 to 120 days. Then they are removed from circulation and destroyed
less active than a normal one The reasoning is
in the liver and spleen. Iron from the hemoglobin is salvaged in the liver
Activity requires an energy source This energy
derives from cellular respiration Cellular
and used by bone marrow cells to make new red cells.
respiration requires oxygen Oxygen is delivered White blood cells (figure 16.9) play a major role in defending the
through oxyhemoglobnthus deficiency of body against invading pathogens. There are several kinds of white cells
hemoglobin leads to deficiency of activity that differ in size and function, but all contain a nucleus. Because they
lack hemoglobin, white cells are colorless unless stained. Their differ-
In addition to phagocytosis of bacteria, active ential reaction to stains aids in their microscopic identification. White
leukocytes also are capable of releasing tha cells can move about like an amoeba, slipping through the thin walls of
enzyme lysozyme that destroys certain bacteria

Figure 16.8 A comparison of some characteristics of blood elements. This is a

term used by those who wish to emphasize that platelets are only fragments of
cells.

Diameter Number
Element Main function
n /Am; per rfIrTI.:

4,500,000-
7-8 oxygen transport
5,500,000
red blood cells

9-12
7,000- defense against
10,000 microorganisms
white blood cells

300,000
2-4 blood-clotting
(much variation)
platelets
,411V

Figure 16.9 Human blood from a healthy individual Some red blood cells
appear to have holes because they are thinner in the middle. White blood cells
are stained a darker color; the white blood cell in (a) is a lymphocyte; that in (b)
is a macrophage. Both are important in the immune response.

a Ed Reschke b Ed Reschke

C72
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Envirch sment 577

capillaries and wandering among cells and tissues. Some white cells en-
gulf bacteria or other pathogens as an amoeba does. Others synthesize
antibodies, complex proteins that react with pathogens and other foreign
substances. We will discuss these cells in more detail in section 16.6.

16.3 Clotting Is an Interaction between

Platelets and Plasma Proteins
Normally, when you suffer a small wound, the blood at the skin sur-
face clots or hardens. Blood clotting is a complex sequence of events that
involves some thirty factors, as well as smai cell fragments called
platelets (PLAYT lets). Clotting begins when plasma and platelets come
in contact with a rough surface, such as a torn tissue. The platelets be-
come sticky and attract more platelets, forming a plug that partially
seals the wound. They also release substances that act with clotting fac-
tors in the plasma to begin a chain of chemical reactions (figure 16.10a).
As a result of these reactions, a substance called prothrombin (proh
THROM bin) activator is formed. In the presence of calcium, pro-
thrombin activator catalyzes the conversion of prothrombin, a plasma
protein, to thrombin. Thrombin then acts as an enzyme to convert the
soluble plasma protein fibrinogen (fy BRIN oh jen) to its insoluble

Figure 16:10 The fibrin strands provide a network in which platelets are
trapped, forming a blood clot. A blood clot is the result of a complex cascade of
enzymatic reactions that ends when the soluble protein fibrinogen is converted to
insoluble fibrin strands.

active (A)
clotting
factors

inactive (I) /00"Nliasig

plasma
clotting A
factors

prothrombin activator
cairlCium

prothrombin thrombin

fibrinogen fibrin
MIcrogribh taken by Richard G. Taylor In the laboratorls1 of Dr.
Jon C. Lewis and Dr. Roy R. Hardpan of Wake Forest University.

680
 578 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Fipure 16.11 The heart attack and possibilities for recovery.

scar tissue

, ',fie
..,,
,,,v,:,-,th.,1
,,,,,,-,,-..
,-A

44
f
iv wirt-1::A IT, i
1,11117
b. With smaller blood vesselstaking c. If tine heart attack is not too
over from the blocked artery, scar severe, the scar tissue will shrink
tissue begins to form in the dead over several monthseventually
muscle cells. normal heart function may be
established.

a. The hearts own system of

blood vessels supplies the
muscular walls of this powerful
pump with food and oxygen.
Sometimes blood flow may be
blocked (circled area). The
muscles are damaged by lack of
oxygen and foods.

form, fibrin (FY brin). The fibrin forms a retwork of threads that trap
platelets and other materials and form the clot (figure 16.10b).
Scientists believe.; that dotting within blood Cloning also may occur within uninjured blood vessels, forming a
v sseis is a continuous process that is clump of cells known as a thrombus. A heart attack may be caused when
ombated by normal dot preventing and Liut a thrombus blocks one of the arteries that delivers blood to the heart
dissolving processes
itself. As a result, blood flow to an area of the heart is cut off. Muscle
cells stop contracting and may die due to lack of nutrients and oxygen.
Within hours, smaller blood vessels begin to enlarge and take over the
role of the blocked artery. Scar tissue forms in the dead cells. Over
period of several months, the scar tissue shrinks, and normal heart func-
tion may be reestablished. The processes leading to formation of these
internal clots are still being investigated, but the presence of cholesterol
deposits inside an artery seems to be one causative factor, as we have
seen in section 15.15.

16.4 Cells and Materials Move between

Blood Vessels and Tissue
The maintenance of this internal environment is The water and minerals of plasma normally pass through capillary
essential to the survival of the t.ells and plays a walls to and from body tissues. White cells also move freely between
vital role in homeostasis blood vessels and tissues. Red blood cells, however, do not leave the blood
vessels, and only small amounts of plasma proteins are found in tissues.
Thus the fluid that bathes tissue cells is lower in protein content than
the blood plasma.

I
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 579

Some of this tissue fluid may ooze back into the blood capillaries.
Most of it collects in a set of vessels different from those in which blood
is carried. Here the liquid is called lymph (LIMF), and the tubes that
carry it are called lymph vessels. These vessels join to form larger vessels.
As you move, muscle contractions squeeze the vessels and move the lymph
along. In the walls of the small intestine, lymph vessels in the villi absorb
fat.:: Many of the metabolic wastes of cells also pass into the lymph.
Thus it has a higher fat content and a higher waste content than does
blood.
At many points the vessels of the lymph system divide into tiny twisted
passages, forming lymph nodes. Lymph flows slowly through the nodes.
Here pathogenic;urganisms and other foreign materials that have en-
tered the body are engulfed by white blood cells in the lymph. The lymph
system thus is a part of your defense system. It is shown in figure 16.12
on page 581.
Eventually all lymph vessels join, forming a duct in the region of the
left shoulder that empties into a vein. the fluids that moved into the
tissues at the capillaries return to the blood before it enters the heart.

Self-Review

1. What are the differences among arteries, veins, and capillaries?

2. Explain how our four-chambered heart functions.
3. How is blood kept flowing in one direction?
4. How does plasma differ from whole blood?

Velticjatiiin 15.1 HEART. RATE IN A; MAMMAL Investigation 16.1

HEART RATE IN A MAMMAL
Introduction
In investigation 14.3, you studied the heart rate of the earthworm. The Thus ,ar in the course, investigations have
pulSing blood vessel was so close to the very thin body wall of the animal been rather rigidly structureo For the most part
that you could observe the heart action without dissection. In most large this is necessary in classroom situatio.,a where
animals such direct observation of the heart is impossible. There are, how- space is limited, students vary greatly in
ever, a number of indirect ways by which the heart rate in a mammal can and logistical problems are complex Individual
be determined. students who wish to obtain practice in the
In investigation 14.3, you also studied the effects of varying environ- planning of experiments have had the
mental temperatures on heart rate. In birds and mammals (after hatching opportunity to do so in many of the items fisted
or birth) the heart lies in an internal environment where a relatively stable under For Further Investigation It seems
temperature is maintained independently of the external environment. Thus, desirable, however, to provide an opportunity for
the problems and methods that are suitable for the study of heart rate in all students to participate in the designing of an
mammals are quite different from those suitable for such study in earth- experiment.
worms. The hints in the procedure should be
This situation provides an opportunity. You have had several months of sufficient for most students The teacher need
experience carrying out experimental procedures and drawing conclusions only set reasonable limits on the activities
from data. You should now be able to set up a problem, work out a pro- proposed by the students If the class is divided
cedure for gathering data, carry out the procedure, and then draw con- into teams, each may have different ideas about
clusions. procedure Such differences can be of value
when results are discussed
Materials
watch or clock with second hand

682
580 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Pairs or teams of students should put their Procedure

data into a form suitable for presentation to the
1. In carrying out this investigation, the only requirements are.
class. The data should be accompanied by an
(a) Your problem and your procedure must deal with the heart rate
interpretation of meaning or by a conclusion
in a mammal.
The investigation should not be allowed to
(b) Your equipment must be limited to a watch or clock with a second
end without class discussion Emphasis should
hand.
be placed on evaluation of the ways in which
2. The following statements may help you:
the teams formulated the problem a7,d the
(a) Humans are mammals.
suitability of their procedures Consider the role
(b) An increase or decrease in the activity of an animal may be re-
of controls, influence of sex, variability of data,
flected in changes of heart rate.
and meaning of normal heart rate In the course
(c) Physicians use stethoscopes to listen to the heart rate. With Only
of such a discussion, most of the ideas relevant
a watch, nurses can easily determine the rate.
to heart physiology will be developed 11.1.101, .01

Guidepost: How does the immune Immunity

system protect the body
from invasion?
16.5 The Body Has Several Defenses
against Foreign Invaders
Immunity is the capacity of the human body to resist most foreign
invadersorganisms or toxins that might damage tissues and organs.
The body has two types of immunity against these foreign substances.
The first is nonspecific immunity, which involves intact skin and the in-
flammatory process. The second is a specific immune response made by
the immune system.
The viscous nature of mucus allows it to trap The layer of intact skin and mucous membranes that covers the outer
many microbes that attempt to enter the and inner surfaces of the body provides a barrier against invasion. Mu-
respiratory and digestive tracts cous membranes are protected by secretions of mucus. Some membranes
consist of ciliated cells that sweep foreign objects away. Other surfaces
are washed by fluids such as saliva or tears that contain substances ac-
tive against microorganisms.
If the skin barrier is breached, the inflammatory response is acti-
vated. Substances in the circulating blood and lymph initiate this re-
sponse. For example, if you cut your finger, the injured cells release
histamine and other substances that cause nearby capillaries to swell
and become "leaky." Various kinds of white blood cells pass through the
capihry walls and gather at the site of injury, where they engulf micro-
organisms that may have entered through the cut.

16.6 Protection by the Immune

System Is Very Specific
In contrast to the nonspecific defenses described in section 16.5, the
response of the immune system to foreign invaders is very specific. The
immune system includes the structures shown in figure 16.12 as well as
the bone marrow and a variety of interacting white blood cells.

683
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 581

Figure 16.12 The human immune system. In addition to the entire lymphatic
system, the tonsils. thymus, and spleen are important components of this
system.

tonsil

thymus

points at which lymph

lymph nodes vessels empty into veins

path of lympn vessel

behind heart

lymph nodes
spleen

lymph nodes

The primary cells of the specific immune system are small white blood B cells differentiate into cells that produce
cells called lymphocytes (LIM'. )11 syts). Like other blood cells, they de- antibodies. which circulate to the site of
invasion This is called humoral immunity T cells
velop in the bone marrow. B cell lymphocytes mature in the bone morrow.
migi ate from the blood to all tissues of the body
T cell lymphocytes migrate to the thymus gland and mature into at least
Thus their action is known as cellular immunity.
three different types of T cells. B cells and T cells interact closely, though
they take part in different forms of the immune response. B cells secrete
large proteins called antibodies that act against foreign substances in
the blood. T cells serve to regulate the immum: response. They act pri-
marily against infected host cells, but they also act to reject organ trans-
plants.
Both B cells and T cells are activated by antigens (ANT ih jens)
substances the body recognizes as being foreign. Antigens are usually
large proteins or cubohydratcs that make up the cell walls or other parts
of microorganisms such as viruses, fungi, and bacteria. Other large mol-
ecules or parts of molecules also can serve as antigens.
Each circulating B cell displays on its surface several copies of a six-
cw.r. antibody. If an antigen with a shape that fits the antibody enters
the Woof" ?he two or bind togethef, A T er.11 then combines

684
582 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

B cells come in thousands of different types, with the B cell-antigen complex and stimulates the B cell to enlarge and
each capable of combining with a specific divide rapidly. Two types of offspring cells that produce the same kind
antigen. For more information. see The of antibody are formed: plasma cells and memory B cells. Plasma cells
Molecules of the Immune System," by secrete thousands of antibody molecules into the bloodstream. There,
S Tonegawa. Scientific American (October
the antibodies combine with the antigens that stimulated their produc7
1985).
tion. Memory B cells remain in the circulation for many years, even a
lifetime, and protect against repeated invasions of the same antigen.
The production of mature plasma cells that can secrete antibodies at
the maximum rate of 3,000 to 30,000 molecules per cell per second re-
quires about 5 days. During this time, if the antigenfor example, mea-
sles virusalso is multiplying, symptoms of the disease are present. The
second time the measles virus invades the body, however, memory cells
immediately begin large-scale production of antibodies, and the infec-
tion usually is overcome before symptoms appear. Thus we say a person
is immune to measles.
This immunity, brought about by the, rapid response of memory cells,
is the basis for vaccination against many infectious diseases. Vaccines
are prepared from weakened, killed, or closely related or modified path-
ogens. When injected into the body, the vaccine stimulates production
of plasma and memory cells, usually without producing disease symp-
toms. The immunity is very specific. Immunity to measles does not pro-
vide immunity to other diseases such as chicken pox or mumps.

Figure 16.13 The cells involved in the immune response, B Figure 16.14 Activation of B cells begins with a macrophage,
cells, T cells, and macrophages, all arise from unspecialized which processes and displays viral antigens. Helper T cells
cells in the bone marrow. The B cells (plasma cells and memory recognize these surface antigens and activate B cells. The B
B cells) and the macrophages are released directly to the body. cells produce memory B cells and antibody-producing plasma
The T cells (helper, inducer, cytotoxic, and suppressor T cells) cells.
are modified in the thymus before being released.
macrophage
B cells T cells

helper T cell

virus

I antigen

"self" marker
B cell

B cell receptor

macrophage
plasma cell memory B o

685
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 583

Biology Today
The antigen used to stimulate antibody
production does not have to be an infectious
Monoclonal Antibodies agent. For example, researchers at the National
Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune Institute of Health have produced a monoclonal
system to fight infection. They are highly specific. antibody against a blood protein that is present in
That is, they are effective against only one type of high levels in persons who have the genetic
antigen, or infectious agent. Antibodies are disorder cystic fibrosis. The antibody can be used
produced in large quantities in the body during an for early diagnosis of the disorder. Cancer
infection. Until recently, biologists were unable to specialists think that monoclonal antibodies can
produce large quantities of a given antibody be produced against specific antigens on the
artificially. That changed in 1975, when two surface of cancer cells. It might be possible to
immunologists, Georges Kohler and Cesar use the antibodies to carry drugs or radioactive
Milstein, developed a technology that uses two treatments directly to the site of the cancer. That
different kinds of cells. process would reduce the damage to other cells
Antibodies are produced by B cellsone kind and tissues that often results from less well-
of specialized cell in the immune system. B cells targeted use of drugs and radiation. Monoclonal
do not grow well in culture. They tend to die off antibodies are now used to screen donor blood
after a few generations. Cancer cells, however, for hepatitis virus and may someday be used to
are immortal: they grow in culture almost detect the virus that causes acquired immune
indefinitely. In fact, that is the problem with cancer deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
cells in the body. They grow in an uncontrolled The applications of monoclonal antibodies
manner and ultimately invade surrounding tissue. increase almost daily. This technology is but one
Kohler and Milstein developed a technique to example of our growing knowledge about the
fuse B cells and cancer cells. The process (see regulation of genetic and cellular events.
figure) begins by injecting mice with a specific
antigenfor example, the virus that causes
hepatitis. The mice produce B cells (antibody-
producing cells) against the virus. The B cells then
are collected and fused in culture with a special
type of cancer cell called a myeloma cell. The
resulting hybrid cells are called hybridoma cells. Spleen Cells Myeloma cells
They are grown in a special culture that eliminates
Fusion
both the parent B cells and the myeloma cells.
Only the fused hybridoma cells remain. Those
1) Culture in medium
cells have the characteristics of both parent cells: that kills unfused myeloma
IZJ cells (amused spleen
they produce the specific antibody of the B cell, C.). Cells die spontaneously)
and they have the essential immortality of the Clone each
Positive Culture
2) Test each supernatant
myeloma cell. for antibodies

The hybridomas are grown, or cloned, in

culture, to produce large quantities of the desired
antibody. The resulting product is called a
monoclonal antibody.
r 0Test each supernatant

0 0 f';',)c \ for antibodies

Expand Positive Clones
The technology developed by Kohler and
Milstein, for which they won the 1984 Nobel Prize
in physiology and medicine, has allowed biologists Propagate

to produce many highly specific antibodies for

medical diagnosis and treatment and for use in
research. Because they are chemically uniform, Monoclonal antibodies Monoclonal antibodies

monoclonal antibodies are sriperior to antibodies Reprinted with iermiSsion of Macmillan Publishing from
extracted from animals (the conventional method). INTRODUCTIC TO IMMUNOLOGY by John W. Kimball. Copyright
19 1983 by Joh t W. Kimball.

666
584 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 16.15 Macrophages initiate the destruction of virus-infected cells. A

macrophage displaying viral antigens activates cytotoxic T cells, which directly
destroy infected cells, and helper T cells, which activate B cells (see figure
16.14). The B cells produce plasma cells, which in turn produce antibodies. The
antibodies bind to the antigens, forming a clump of particles that can be
consumed by other macrophages.

cytotoxic T cell infected cell

4
virus

antigen A

macrophage
"self" marker

T cell receptor

helper T cell
B cell receptor

plasma cell

41110- 11,
A:t7L"
B cell antibodies macrophage

memory B cell

Antibodies themselves do not destroy antigens. Instead, by combining

with the antigens, they prepare them for destruction by other compo-
nents of the immune system. The antigen - antibody complex may be en-
gulfed and digested by white blood cells called macrophages (MAK roh
fayj ez), or acted on by a group of blood proteins known as complement
(KOM pleh ment) that can digest holes in foreign cells, causing them
to burst.
Excellent discussions of T cell activity are found Unlike B cells, T cells do not bind directly to antigens. The antigen
in "The T Cell and Its Receptor." by P Marrack must be engulfed by a macrophage and presented on its surface in an
and J. Kappler, Scientific American (February appropriate way before binding can take place. After binding, T cells
1986) and "The Immune System in AIDS," by
divide and develop into functional cells specific to antigen. Memory T
J. Laurence, Scientific American (December
1985).
cells also are formed. Cytotoxic (syt oh TOKS ik) or "killer" T cells act
against the body's own cells that are infected by a virus or other mi-
croorganism. A virus inside a cell cannot be acted on by antibodies. As
the virus multiplies, however, virus antigens appear on the cell surface.
Cytotoxic T cells bind to thes antigens and cause the cells to burst,
exposing the viruses to antibody action (figure 16.15).
Other types of T cells, helper T cells and suppressor T cells, play reg-
ulatory roles. Helper T cells serve to activate both B cells and other T

687
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 685

Figure16.16 Activation of T cells begins with macrophages that process viral

antigens. After a macrophage has engulfed a virus, it displays viral antigens on
its surface. Helper T cells are activated when they encounter these surface
antigens. The activated helper T cell can produce all the T cell types (helper,
inducer, cytotoxic, and suppressor T cells) as well as activating El cells (see
figure 16.14).

macrophage

A virus
helper T cell
A antigen

"self" marker

T cell receptor
Ltv
AO (enlarges)

T cells

cells. They enable B cells to manufacture and secrete antibodies. Sup-

pressor T cells moderate the activities of B cells and other T cells and
help to terminate the immune response.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by a virus
that destroys helper T cells, so the other cells of the immune system
cannot function or function poorly. As a result, the patient loses protec-
tion against infections of all kinds.

16.7 Many Problems Can Arise

with the Immune System
The primary role of the immune system is to distinguish "self" from
"nonself." In the developing embryo, the immune system learns to rec-
ognize substances that are present as "self." Sometimes this recognition 0 "Autoimmune Diseases," by N R Rose,
breaks down, and the immune system makes antibodies against the in- Scientific American (February 1981) and
dividual's own body cells. Such disorders are known as autoimmune dis- "Systemic Lupus Erythematosus," by D. Korner,
eases. In one autoimmune disease, antibodies are formed that interfere Scientific American (July 1980) are good
with nerve stimulation of muscles, which results in muscular weakness. sources of information on this topic

683
`.i
,i. '''. t)
586 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Anaphylaxis is a localized reaction, such as hay

fever, asthma, eczema, or hives. But 1-00.10fP -groP'4040:4;ON100:4000:
anaphylactic shock is a life-threatening effect on Antigen on Red Antibody in
the circulatory and respiratory systems Blood Group Blood Cell Plasma
0 none anti A, anti B
A A anti B
B B anti A
Figure 16.17 The events leading to Rh
AB A, B none
disease. Fetal red cells may enter the maternal
blood during childbirth, stimulating formation of
Rh antibodies in the mother's plasma. Those
antibodies may pass into the fetal blood during In another, antibodies are produced against the individual's own DNA,
a subsequent pregnancy, destroying the fetal thus disrupting many body functions. An autoimmune response is sus-
red cells. pected in a number of other disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and
multiple sclerosis.
Allergies are an apparently maladaptive response of the immune
system to foods or substances commonly found in the environment, such
as pollen and dust. Sensitive individuals produce a class of antibodies
that combine with specialized cells found in the skin and membranes of
the eye, nose, mouth, respiratory tract, and intestines. These cells, in
turn, release histamine and other substances that cause the congestion,
sneezing, and itching typical of "hay fever," or cramps and diarrhea in
the case of food allergies. Treatment involves use of antihistamines, which
suppress some of the allergic symptoms, but which also cause side effects
such as drowsiness.
Problems may arise with blood type. You learned in chapter 8 about
the ABO blood groups of humans. The different blood groups are not
compatible, and transfusing blood of one type into blood of another type
can cause a fatal reaction. The incompatibility comes about because an-
tibodies in the plasma of one blood type react with antigens on the red
cells of another. The reaction causes the red blood cells to clump or ag-
glutinate (uh GLOOT in ayt). Unlike other antibodies that are produced
only in response to an antigen. ABO blood group antibodies develop
spontaneously and are normally present in the blood. Each blood group
is characterized by the presence of a particular antigen and a different
antibody, as shown in table 16.1.
Blood group systems other than ABO also are present in humans, and
sometimes cause problems in transfusions. The Rh system is the most
widely known of these. Individuals who are Rh positive have Rh antigens
on their red blood cells; those who are Rh negative do not. Antibodies
to Rh antigens are not normally present in plasma, as are those of ABO
blood groups, but may develop if Rh positive blood is transfused into an
Rh negative individual.
Serious problems may arise in pregnancy when an Rh negative woman
has an Rh positive baby. In the first pregnancy, there is usually no problem
for the fetus unless the woman was previously sensitized by a transfusion
of Rh positive blood. During birth, however, red cells from the infant
may enter the mother's blood, stimulating formation of Rh antibodies
in her plasma. During a subsequent pregnancy, those antibodies may
pass into the fetal blood, causing destruction of fetal red cells. Those
problems are prevented by injecting an Rh negative mother, within 72
fetal red blood cells with hours of delivery of her first child, with Rh antibodies. The Rh anti-
Rh antigen
bodies destroy the fetal Rh positive red cells in her body, and her im-
maternal antibodies mune system is not stimulated to form antibodies.
against Rh antigen

68j
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 587

The immune system also is responsible for rejection of organ trans- immunosuppressive drugs are given with organ
plants. Rejection is due to T cells, which identify the transplanted organ transplants to reduce possibility of rejection
as foreign antigen. Within a few days after transplantation they invade These must be carefully controlled so the
immune system is not depressed to the point
the tissue and begin to destroy it. To prevent this reaction, drugs are
the body has no protection against infection
given to suppress the immune response. This makes the transplant re-
cipient very vulnerable to infection, the chief cause of death among kidney
transplant recipients. Efforts to control the immune response and to match
more closely donor and recipient tissues are active areas of research.

Self-Review

1. What is the difference between specific and nonspecific immunity?

2. In what ways do B cells and T cells differ?
3. How are antibodies produced?
4. Why does the second exposure to a pathogen usually not produce
disease?
5. What are some problems that can arise with the immune system?

:0::)34QQar' : IPAWN Investigation 16.2

BLOOD AND IMMUNITY
Introduction
Your blood serves a variety of functions. Some of the most important This is not a traditional blood-typing exercise
of those functions are related to immunity. Whole blood is slightly heavier Instead, it is meant to have students observe
than water and 3 to 4 times thicker than water. It contains a number of and suggest ideas about what they see
complex chemical components. Its cells, which are formed mostly in the (clumping, or agglutination, of red blood cells)
red marrow of bone, include red cells, white cells, and cell fragments called Prior to the activity, mask the labels on the
platelets. In this investigation, you will examine some components of blood antiserum vials and relabel antiserum A as
and discuss how they relate to certain aspects of immunity. substance 1, and antiserum B as substance 2
Also mask the identification of any human blood
you use.
Materials Depending on school policy, you may permit
Part A students to draw their own blood or draw it
yourself. Never allow one student to draw blood
1 sterile blood-letting lancet from another student. If drawing blood is not
1 alcohol prep pad possible, then contact blow banks or hospitals
2 toothpicks and request blood samples (4 types) from them.
1 clean microscope slide
Allow about 15 minutes for the small group
substances 1 & 2 discussions Then have 1 member of each
piece of paper towel group share that group's ideas with the class.

Part B Part A

prepared slide of stained human blood Discussion

charts, photographs, and diagrams of blood components 1 Clumping, or agglutination. should be
obvious except for type 0 individuals. Students
should observe some variations.
Part AIdentification of Blood Components
2. Responses will vary, yet the desire is to
Procedure have students relate what they see to antigen/
1. Place your slide on the paper towel and label the towel 1 at one end antibody interaction You may or may not get
of the slide and 2 at the other end. these terms from your students depending on
2. Carefully cleanse one of your middle fingers with the alcohol prep pad their past experiences. Once the idea of
and allow the alcohol to dry. (If you do not wish to draw your own interaction is developed, you may decide to
blood, use the human blood your teacher has available for you.) introduce the terms.

690
588 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

3 If clumping is visible, this activity in

3. Puncture your finger with the sterile lancet and wipe away the first drops
circulatory pathways may cause death of blood with the alcohol pad. CAUTION: Never use the same lancet
4. In ail 4 examples, the reaction or lack of more than once.
reaction hvolves antibody/antigen interaction 4. Gently squeeze your finger and place one drop of blood at the end of
The specificity of the interaction accounts for the slioe labeled 1 and a second drop at the end labeled 2.
the variations.
5. Gently press the alcohol pad against your finger and the bleeding will
stop, if it has not already done so.
6. Obtain the vial labeled substance 1 and place a drop of this next to
the drop of blood labeled 1. Place a drop of substance 2 next to the
drop of blood labeled 2.
7. Use a toothpick to mix subtance 1 with the blood. Use a different
toothpick to do the same with substance 2. T y to avoid spreading the
mixture of blood and substance too much, because this may cause
the blood to dry too rapidly. Take care to prevent mixing of substance
1 with substance 2 as you mix these components.
8. Observe the blood and substance mixtures. What, if anything, do you
see happening? Check with 2 or 3 of your classmates and notice
whether they have similar or different reactions. Record what you see
in your data book.
9. Your teacher will collect the data from each student and record r' 3ults
on the chalkboard. Reactions or the absence of visible reactions with
blood and substances 1 and 2 will be recorded.

Discussion
In small groups of 2-4 students, consider the following:
1. What seems to be happening (or not happening) when blood is mixed
with 1 of the 2 substances?
2. Develop 3 hypotheses (more, if possible) that might explain how blood
and the substances cause the type of reaction you have observed.
3. If substance 1 caused a reaction with the blood with which it was mired,
would that type of reaction be desirable in a blood transfusion? Why
or why not?
4. From the data recorded on the chalkboard, formulate a statement that
might account for the following observations:
(a) Blood will react with substance 1 but not 2.
(b) Blood will react with substance 2 but not 1.
(c) Blood will react with substances 1 and 2.
(d) Blood will react with neither substance, 1 or 2.
5. Be prepared to discuss your hypotheses and statement with the entire
class.

Part BExamination of Stained Blood

Procedure
1. Examine the prepared slide of stained human blood under the high-
power objective of the microscope. Identify the red blood cells. They
are small and have biconcave edges. How is this shape related to the
function of these cells, which are rich in hemoglobin?
2. After you have examined and considered the structural and functional
properties of red cells, look for cells that will appear different in number,
size, and staining reaction in contrast to red blood cells. Find as many
different types of these white cells as possible.
3. The size and characteristic shape of the nuclei will help you identify
some of these white cells. With the aid of photographs, charts, and
diagrams of blood cells provided by your teacher, identify as many
different kinds of white cells as possible.

60.E
 Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 589

Discussion Part B
1. Although a red cell has a nucleus during its development within bone Discussion
marrow, the nucleus is lost as the red cell matures and takes on its 1 Blood is responsible for 02 transport to
function in support of the life of the individual. This lack of a nucleus tissue and for removal of CO2
seems to increase the cell's efficiency. Damaged red cells are de- 2 White blood cells destroy and remove
stroyed by macrophages. This occurs mainly in the liver and spleen. foreign matter and cellular debris
What is the specific function of red cells?
3 The number of white cells should
2. White cells do most of their work outside of the circulatory system, increase
but they are transported by blood to areas of need. What particular
4 Plasma contains antibooies and the
role do white blood cells perform?
factors that make up complement. White blood
3. What do you think might happen to the number of white cells during cellsparticularly lymphocytes and
an infection?
macrophagesare basic to the immJne
4. Which blood components are involved in the immune response? response
5. Why do so many diagnostic tests for disease conditions involve blood 5 Syphilis, various forms of anemia, serum
analysis? Identify as many conditions as you can that can be diag- cholesterol levels. blood glucose levels.
nosed by blood tests. exposure to the AIDS virus, and many others
may be cited
Part CA Liver Transplant
Part C
Procedure
Procedure
Read the following true story and discuss the questions in small groups.
Have students read "A Life on Standby"
A Life on Standby Allow about 20 minutes for small groups to deal
with the discusz,ion questions. Have 1 member
Their suitcases are always packed as 11-year-old Tommy and his pat- of each group share thc group's thoughts with
ents wait for a phone call. That phone call will make the difference the class Help students relate similarities
between life and death for Tommy. 1 his family awaits word from Chil- between blood matching for transfusions with
dren's Hospital that a donor has been found for a liver transplant tissue typing for transplants
an operation that Tommy needs to save his life. The family has been
told that the call will likely come within the next 3 months, and the
parents will have less than 6 hours to get Tommy to the hospital. Nearby
companies have volunteered the use of their aircraft to fly Tommy and
his parents to the hospital. Plans for a special charter flight have also
been made in the event that these planes are not available when the
call comes.
Tommy's parents discovered their son's affliction when he was only
2 weeks old and doctors became concerned about the yellow tone of
his skin. Tommy was born without bile ducts; he had his first operation
before he was 3 months old. He has undergone 12 operations and
has been hospitalized about 60 times. He was near death several times.
Although Tommy is afraid that he is going to die, his mother says that
her son's attitude is terrific. He still enjoys the pastimes of other chil-
dren his age and passes the school vacation time by fishing, bicycle
riding, and playing with his friendsand waiting for that important phone
call.
The only symptoms that Tommy is dealing with a life-and-death
struggle are his yellowed eyes and a pouch he must wear on his side.
Doctors have decided to do the liver transplant now because Tommy
faces a growth spurt that his liver may not be able to withstand.
(Adapted from the article "Lakewood Boy, 10, on 'Sta. ( Status for Liver Transplant,"
The Denver Post116 July 19851.)

Tommy's medical expenses thus far have exceeded $1 million. The liver
transplant operation could cost as much as $300,000. The family's medical
insurance does not begin to cover all of these bills. About $7000 has been
raised through local fund-raising activities, and contributions are still being
sought to help pay for an operation needed to save the life of a young boy.

G 0 e)
ki 4..,
590 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Discussion Discussion
1. It is difficult to find a liver that will be 1. Why must Tommy wait so long for an operation that is SJ desperately
recognized as "self" by the recipient of a needed?
transplant, 2. When the phone call finally does come, what further problems or com-
2. The major concerns are surgical risk to plications might occur as a result of the operation?
the patient from anesthesia, infection, and organ 3. How might Tommy's physicians increase the chances that he will not
rejection, reject the transplanted liver?
3 Drugs to suppress the immune system 4. The cost of transplant surgery is exceedingly high. Most medical in-
(immunosuppression) generally decrease the surance plans do not provide coverage, because the insurers con-
chance of rejection of transplant tissue side transplant surgery as experimental. Discuss this issue with
However, the risk of infection is increased. members of your group.
4. Ideas will vary. Accept all ideas.

Guidepost: What role do the Gas Exchange and Excretion

respiratory and excretory
systems play in
maintenance of 16.8 Cellular Respiration and Gas Exchange
homeostasis? Are Not the Same
Cellular respiration often is confused with the process that exchanges
0 vital gases with the environment. Cellular respiration is primarily a pro-
cess of energy release. However, because it uses oxygen and releases
Carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbon dioxide, gas exchange also is involved. As the carbon dioxide ac-
carbonic acid, which ionizes readily. cumulates, it produces acid conditions that are poisonous to cells and,
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 therefore, must be removed. Oxygen is present in the environment sur-
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 rounding you. The overall process of exchanging oxygen and carbon
dioxide with the environment and the blood is accomplished by the re-
spiratory system and is called respiration. Respiration may be studied
in three stages. The first is the process of breathing that involves the
movement of air in and out of the lungs. The second stage is the ex-
change of gases between the internal surface of the lungs and the blood.
The third is the exchange of gases between the blood and the tissue cells.

In mammals, control of breathing movements is 16.9 Air Moves from the External
a function of the concentration of CO2 in the Environment into the Lungs because
blood, Students can experience this regulation in
the following experiment: Hyperventilate by
of Pressure Differences
taking several deep breaths of fresh air, and Thrt respiratory organs function to exchange gas molecules between
then time the interval they can hold their the inner surface of the lungs and the blood. Breathing moves the air
breaths. After breathing normaliy for 5 to 10 that has been inhaled by the mouth and nose through a series of air tubes
minutes, they again time the interval they can into the lungs.
hold their breaths. Usually the time is longer
after hyperventilation than after normal
0 Movement of the air is accomplished by the action of two groups of
breathing. The increased ventilation does not
muscles. The first is the diaphragm (DY uh fram), a muscular wall that
increase the 02 content of the blood, but it does
divides the body cavity into two parts. The second is the rib muscles.
remove more than the usual amount of CO2. It These muscles act together to change the size of the chest cavity. When
then takes longer to build up the concentration you inhale, your diaphragm moves down, your ribs move up and out,
of CO2 to the point where the respiratory renter and the cavity enlarges. When the chest cavity expands, the pressure
is switched on But the physical and chemical within the chest falls. As a result, the pressure within the chest cavity
control of respiration is intricate, and the details is lower than the atmospheric pressure outside, and air rushes in. When
still challenge physiologists. you exhale, the volume of the chest cavity is reduced, the internal pres-

ll

693
 Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 591

Figure 16.18 Movements of breathing in humans.

sure becomes greater than the atmospheric pressure, and air is forced
out. The rhythmic increase and decrease in the volume of the chest cavity
is the mechanical pump that drives air in and out of the lungs.
Atmospheric air is dry, sometimes cold, and often dirty. Th( air you
breathe passes through your nose and down the trachea (RAY kee uh),
or windpipe. The air is moisttned, warmed, and cleaned by cell_ lining
the air passageways. These passageways enter the lungs and end in the
alveoli (al VEE oh ly). The alveoli are grapelike clusters of cavities formed
by one-layered sheets of cells. Each lung has millions of these cavities,
whose walls are enveloped by a network of capillaries. The human re-
spiratory system and details of the alveoli are illustrated in figure 16.19.
It is through the alveolar walls that oxygen diffuses into the blood-
stream. The lung can exchange large volumes of gases in a very short
time because the many alveoli of the lung provide an enormous amount
of surface area. If all the alveoli of the human lungs were spread out There are approximatey 300 million alveoli in
flat, the surface would cover an area of about 70 m2the size of about the human lungs.
five parking spaces.
Some diseases may affect the normal functioning of the respiratory
system. In the disease emphysema, the alveolar walls lose their elasticity.
It becomes difficult to empty the lungs of air low in oxygen and high in
carbon dioxide. This, in turn, decreases the amount of fresh air; con-
taining more oxygen and less carbon dioxide, that may be brought in for
air/blood gas exchange. This disease is associated with smokin or living
in areas of high air pollution. The condition becomes progressively worse,
and sufferers may become completely incapacitated.

694
592 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 16.19 The parts of the human respiratory system involved in breathing.
The lung has been cut away to expose the branching system of bronchial tubes.
Part of the lung has been enlarged to show air sacs and their relation to
capillaries. Millions of air sacs in each lung give the tissue a spongelike
appearance.

cluster of air sacs

nasal cavity

nostril

pharynx

epiglottis A4?"1
1.
9
larynx

vocal chorus

trachea

bronchi
lung

artery

vein

diaphragm

capillaries in
which 02 and CO2
exchanges occur

16.10 Respiratory Gases Are Transported

in the Blood
Once oxygen has diffused from the alveoli into the blood, it mist
be transported to the tissues, where cellular respiration takes place.
Q Because oxygen does not dissolve readily in plasma, special oxygen-
transporting molecules are required. In humans and all other verte-
brates, the red blood cells are packed with hemoglobin molecules, as we
noted in section 16.2. When the concentration of oxygen is relatively
high, as in the alveoli, each hemoglobin molecule combines with four
oxygen molecules. In the tissues, the concentration of oxygen is rela-
tively low, and the hemoglobin readily gives up its oxygen. Hemoglobin
enables our blood to carry about 60 times more oxygen than it could by
plasma alone.

695
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 593

Figure 16.20 Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Oxygen from the alveolus
enters red blood cells and combines with hemoglobin (Hb) to form
oxyhemoglobin (Hb02). The oxygen is carried in this form to body cells, where it
is released (see left side of illustration). Carbon dioxide diffuses from body cells
into the red cells. There it combines with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3),
which ionizes to bicarbonate (HCO3) and hydrogen (H+) ions. The bicarbonate
diffuses into the plasma. The hydrogen ions combine with hemoglobin (H.Hb).
Some of the carbon dioxide combines directly with hemoglobin (HbCO2). In the
lung capillary, the reverse reactions occur. Bicarbonate ions from the plasma are
converted to carbon dioxide and diffuse intc the alveolus.

red blood cells

----\
J._

1 02
0

4i
0
_body cells.
s
i\ A re -if-rso 0

'-' '' 696

594 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

© Carbon dioxide is more soluble than oxygen in the blood, and a small
amount dissolves in the plasma. About 25 percent is transported by he-
moglobin. Most of the carbon dioxide, however, is carried in the blood
as bicarbonate ion (HC031. Carbon dioxide first reacts with water in
the blood to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid then ionizes to form
hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. As with oxygen transport, relative con-
centrations of carbon dioxide in the alveoli and the tissues determine the
direction of this reversible reaction. You can observe some of these re-
actions in investigation 16.3.

Investigation 16.3 Investigation 16.3 CARBON DIOXIDE AND YOU

CARBON DIOXIDE AND YOU
Introduction
Procedure Organisms constantly produce carbon dioxide when they use energy. It
combines easily with water. You can test for the presence of carbon dioxide
Encourage students not to take a deep
by bubbling your breath through water. You can measure the amount of
breath before they bubble air ttuough the straw
carbon dioxide in the water using two chemicals: phenolphthalein andlo-
This adds an experimental variable to the
procedure that will affect the data
dium hydroxide. Phenolphthalein remains colorless when carbon dioxide is
present but turns pink as carbon dioxide is removed. Sodium hydroxide
reacts with carbon dioxide in water and removes it. In this investigation the
Discussion
rumber of drops of sodium hydroxide needed to bring water to a pink color
1 They must subtract the number of drops will be used to indicate the amount of carbon dioxide in that water. If you
needed to remove CO, from the tap water have time, both partners should do all the steps in the investigation.
(control) from each of Weir experimental
numbers The assumption is that in each of the
three experimental procedures the same number Materials (per team of 2)
of drops of NaOH are needed each time to 1% phenolphthalein solution in dropping bottles
remove this CO, 0.4% NaOH solution in dropping bottles
2 Bar graphs depend on student data 100 ml graduated cylinder
3 As physical activity increases. CO.. 2 flasks, 250 ml each
production increases rubber stoppers to fit flasks
4 Body size. physical condition, smoking or soda straws
nonsmoking habits and or fatigue piece of white paper
stop watch (or watch with second hand)

Procedure
1. Measure 100 ml of tap water and transfer it to a flask.
2. P Id 5 drops of phenolphthalein solution to the tap water and swirl the
flask to mix the materials. If the mixture is pink, there is very little or
no CO2 in the water. Save this sample of water. Cork it and use it as
your standard of pinkness (control).
3. If there was no color change, the tap water must have some CO2 in
it. To find out how much, add NaOH solution drop by drop. It will help
if you do this over a piece of white paperthe pink color will be easier
to see. Swirl the water constantly while adding the NaOH. Count the
drops. Stop when you have added enough NaOH to turn the water
slightly pink. Cork this sample of water and use it as your standard of
pinkness (control).
 Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 595

4. Copy the table below in your data book and record the number of
drops of NaOH you added to get your control.

Activity Drops of NaOH

Needed to
Remove CO, from
Water
Control

Sitting

Mild exercise

Vigorous exercise

5. In the following steps, try to match thy coior o the control sample.
6. Prepare a second flask with water and phenolphthalein as you did the
first flask,
7. Sit very quietly for 1 minute. Put a soda straw in the water. Blow air
from your lungs into the water through the straw for 10 seconds.
8. Swirl the water gently while adding NaOH drop by drop (count the
drops), until the water turns pink. If the pink disappears, add more
NaOH. When the water stays at the pink the matches your control,
record the number of drops of NaOH you used.
9. Discard this sample and clean the flask.
10. Fe4are a new 100 ml water sample with 5 drops of phenolphthalein.
Exercise for 1 minute by walking in place. Immediately, bubble air
through the water sample for 10 seconds. Record the number of drops
of NaOH needed to get the standard pink color. Discard the sample
aria clean the flask.
11. Repeat procedure 10. This time, exercise more vigorously for 1 minute,
(Run in place, dance, or do jumping jacks.)

Discussion
1.If you had to add drops of NaOH to tap water to get a oink color to
use as a control (procedure 3), what must you do to the number of
drops you recorded for sitting, mild exercise, and vigorous exercise?
Z. Make a bar graph of your rorrected experimental data. Include 1 bar
for each of the 3 experimental conditions.
3. Now is the production of carbon dioxide related to activity?
4. What factors other than exercise might play a part in determining the
amount of carbon dioxide given off?

16.11 The Kidneys Are Major The removal of nitrogenous wastes is complex.
Homeostatic Organs and t is likely to be new to most students Take
some class time to go over this bnction Stress
The internal chemical environment of the body must be closely reg-
ri the fact that blood flow through kidneys is
ulated at all times. Such regulation involves excretal cellular wastes,
410 controlled by the nervous and endocrine
controlling concentrations of ions and other substances, and maintaining systems, and in this way water content of the
water balance. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen compounds are the chief body is kept in balance Students can generalize
cellular wastes. In the previous sections we saw how the lungs function from this that the action of the kidney is
to excrete carbon dioxide. Excretion of nitrogen compounds, regulation correlated to ecological systems by means of
of ion concentrations, and maintenance of water balance are functions the coordinating systems
of the kidneys.

8
596 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 16.21 Urinary system in the human.

blood vessels
to and from
kidneys

The kidneys are the principal organs by which Figure 16.21 shows the urinary system of a human. The kidneys are
balance of water, glucose, salts and many dark red, bean-shaped organs about 10 cm long. They are located on
other substances that o,ur in living bodies is each side of the back wall of the body cavity, just above waist level. Each
maintained within more or lesa narrow rangts of kidney contains r.bout a million working units, or nephrons (NEF rahnz).
tolerance They do riot men ly excrete they also 0 A nephron is a long, coiled tubule, one end of which opens into a duct
selectively reabsorb
that collects urine. The other end of the tubule forms a cup that encloses
a mass of capillaries. Other capillaries form a network that closely sur-
rounds the entire nephron, as seen in figure 16.22. This intimate rela-
tionship between the blood and the kidneys is essential to kidney function,
as we will learn in the next section.
The cup of the nephron is called Bowman's capsule. The ball of cap-
illaries in the cup is a glomerulus (glah MER yoo !us). The tubule wall
is just one cell thick, and is in direct contact with a capillary wall, also
a single cell thick. Often the tubule and capillary walls appear to merge
into one undivided structure.
The tubule of each nephron leads into a collecting duct. Collecting
ducts of all the nephrons empty into the ureter (YOOR et er), a large
tube that leads from each kidney to the urinary bladder. Urine is stored
in the bladder until it is discharged to the outside through another tube
called the urethra (yoo REE thruh).
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 597

Figure 16.22 A section through the human kidney and an enlarged view of one
nephron with its surrounding capillaries.

branch of
artery

tubule

capillaries

Kidney

Nephron

16.12 Nephrons Filter the Blood

Three processes are involved in the function of the nephrons: filtra- Gionieruiar blood pressure may by 60 mm Hg as
compared to 30 mm Hg in other capillaries This
tion, secretion, and reabsorption. These processes are summarized in
figure 16.23. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus, where the fluid portion 0 increased pressure aids absorption of material
from the bfood
of the blood is forced into Bowman's capsule. Blood cells and most of
the plasma proteins are retained in the glomerulus. The filtrate in Bow-
man's capsule contains nitrogenous wastes, ions, and much of the blood's
water content. About 150 to 180 1 of fluid enter the nephrons each day,
yet only about 1.51 of urine are eliminated from the bladder. That means Without reabsorption d human would have to
that more than 99 percent of the fluid arriving in Bowman's capsule is drink almost d bathtub full of water ei a1/4,h day

returned to the blood.

700
 598 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 16.23 Major steps in the formation of urine.

blood to

am. mommell.

blood from
body

71.04:109TV
Some
044AeOritc..),IfROIrPZ...:
P.10.44,ceitslarid*Qtflf#

urine

Secretion and reabsorption take place in the tubule of the nephron.

As the filtrate moves through the tubule, cells of the tubular wall selec-
tively remove from the surrounding capillaries substances left in the
plasma after filtration. The cells then secrete these substances into the
filtrate. Penicillin is removed from the blood in this manner.
Kidney stones may be formed from Cells of the tubular walls also reabsorb useful substances from the
accumulation of uric acid crystals or calcium filtrate and transport them back into the blood. Glucose, amino acids,
deposits, and may block the passage of urine
essential ions such as sodium and potassium, and most of the water are
Stones are more common in and regions of the
conserved in this manner. Secretion and reabsorption require active
world, where water is scarce and sufficient fluids
transport for this exchange of materials.
are not obtained to "wash out" the crystals
The nephrons maintain appropriate blood-sugar level by glucose
reabsorption. If the concentration rises too high, as in patients with di-
Golycosuro is a malfunction of the tubular abetes, not all of the glucose can be reabsorbed, and some will be ex-
carrier mechanism that causes glucose to creted in the urine. If the blood-sugar level is low or normal, almost all
appear in the urine even though blood sugar the glucose in the nephrons will be reabsorbed into the blood and no
level is normal
glucose will be present in the urine.
Water/salt balance is regulated at the far end of the tubule and in
the collecting ducts. Here, about 99 percent of the water that has left
the capillaries and entered the nephrons is reabsorbed into the blood.
The mechanism is complex and involves maintenance of a high salt con-
centration in the tissues surrounding the tubule and collecting ducts. As
a result, water leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. The reabsorption
of water is under hormonal control, and the final concentration of the
urine occurs in the collecting duct.

70 i
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintdnance of Internal Environment 599

As a net result of the kidney's activities, blood-sugar level is regu-

lated; nitrogenous wastes are removed from the blood; water/salt bal-
ance is regulated (and water reabsorbed into the blood); and excess salt,
within limits, is excreted. However, the kidneys cannot excrete high con-
centrations of, saltnor can the skin glands, through perspiration. Nor-
mally, in a nutritious diet containing few processed foods, you do not eat
or drink many substances with high salt concentrations. However, people Drinking seawater is not merely d matter
shipwrecked on the ocean can easily die from dehydration by drinking involving salt excretion It also involves water
the salt water. Instead of replenishing their body water, they will lose diffusion from the iumr.n of the alimentary banal
still more water than before as the kidneys attempt to excrete the salt. into the wall
The kidneys have still other functions, such as pH regulation, but the
three we have just discussedblood-sugar regulation, water/salt bal-
ance, and nitrogenous waste excretionare the major ones. If the kid-
neys fail, the balance of vital and poisonous blood constituents cannot
be maintained, homeostasis fails, and death follows. Investigation 16.4
develops the relationship between structure and function in the kidney.

Self-Review

1. What is the difference between respiration and cellular respiration?

2. Describe the mechanism by which air is moved into and out of human
lungs.
3. Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in your blood.
4. List the major regulatory functions of the kidneys.
5. Describe the structure of the nephron.
6. Explain how filtration, secretion, and reabsorption contribute to for-
mation of urine.

100stigatioiv 16.4 THE .KIDNEY, AND ,HOMEOSTASIS

Investigation 16.4
KIDNEY AND HOMEOSTASIS
Introduction
The cells of the human body are surrounded by liquid that is remarkably This investigation is based on A BSCS
constant in its properties. The continued regulation of the many dissolved Classic; InquiryThe /Wiley & Homeostasis.
compounds and ions in this internal environment is referred to as home- developed by Media Design Associates, Inc ,
ostasis. Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3189 A
The kidneys are extremely important in maintaining homeostasis. They worthwhile option would be to use the Classic
function rapidly and sensitively in regulating blood composition and main- Inquiry in place of this investigation Besides
taining optimum concentration of dissolved substances. About 1700 I of doing what the investigation is designed to do, it
blood flows through the kidney6 of an average person in a single day. Of will introduce you students to a new type of
this amount, about 170 I is filtered through the glomeruli into the nephrons, learning strategy, and it will give you an
but only about 1.5 I of this filtrate is excreted as urine. The amount varies, opportunity to present this material in an
depending on the individual's health, activity, water and salt intake, tem- interesting manner
perature, and many other factors.
600 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

You may choose to present this investigation Part A-Blood v. Urine

to the class as a whole, to have students work
in small groups and then summarize the results Procedure
in class, or to assign the questions as The relationship of structure and function in the kidney is illustrated in
homework, followed by class discussion figure 16.22, page 597. Use it and the data given in table 16.2 to answer
the discussion questions.
Part A
Discussion
Table 16.2 Comparison (*materials in blood and urine
1 Urine is a very dilute fluid that has a
greater percentage of water than does blood.
% in Blood as % in Urine as
It Enters Kidney It Leaves Kidney
2 Protein molecules remain in the blood
because they are too large to pass through the Water 91.5 96.0
glomerular membrane.
Protein 7.0 0.0
3. Glucose molecules are much smaller than
protein molecules and pass into the nephron Glucose 0.1 0.0
Since these molecules are not found in the urine,
Sodium 0.33 0.29
they must be reabsorbed Ask some leading
questions to get students to develop these Potassium 0.02 0.24
ideas. 0.03
Urea 2.70
4 If sodium intake is increased, the
percentage of sodium in the urine is increased
This is an example of homeostasis in action
5. A very s. ali quantity of potassium is Discussion
found in the blood. The percentage increases 1. What do the data for water indicate?
markedly in the urine 2. Protein molecules are not normally found in the urine. Give some pos-
6. The percentage of urea in the blood is sible reasons for this.
very low compared to the percentage in the 3. The information for glucose is similar to that for protein. Can you ex-
urine. One obvious function of the kidney is to plain these data?
remove urea from the blood 4. Look at the sodium data. Based on these data, what may happen to
7 Some materials in the blood are filtered the sodium content in the urine of a person who increased his or her
from the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule of intake of sodium chloride?
the nephron Some of the materials are 5. How does the data for potassium differ from that of sodium?
reabsorbed from the tubule back into the blood 6. How would you interpret the data given for urea?
in the capillary. The materials remaining in the 7. Summarize the functions that take place between blood and urine and
tubule become urine and are excreted as a the structures where these functions occur.
waste product,

Part B Part B-Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion

Before students begin to discuss the Procedure
questions in part B, discuss the data in The micropuncture method was used in a second study of the 6 ma-
table 16 3 so there is no question as to their terials presented in table 16.2. A very fine pipette was used under a mi-
meaning It is important that students croscope to withdraw samples of fluid at 4 points along the nephron and
understand the numbers are proportions of collectii,g tubule. Stud" table 16.3, which shows the data that were col-
molecJies and not actual numbers of molecules lected using this technique. Use the data to answer the discussion ques-
tions.
Discussion
Discussion
1 Of the 30 molecules that are filtered. all
but 1 are reabsorbed That 1 is secreted. The
1. Which function, secretion or reabsorption, is greatest as far as the
reabsorption function is greatest
movement of water is concerned in the kidney? ,
2 None of them-proteins do not normally
2. Proteins are involved in which of these 3 functions?
enter the nephron.
3. Compare the protein and glucose data. What is different? Explain this
difference.
3 No protein was found in the tubule, but 20
4. In some samples glucose is found in the urine. What might cause this?
molecules of glucose were Glucose molecules
5. Why are excess glucose molecules in the blood excreted?
are smaller than protein molecules and pass
from the glomeruli into the tubules
6. The data tells us that the concentration of sodium in the blood is greater
4 The kidney might be diseased Too much
than in the urine, yet most of the sodium molecules in the urine move
glucose is eaten for normal body needs
back into the blood. What process makes this movement possible?
Glucose balance in the blood is up.et because
of a lack cf insulin.

703
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 601

5 An optimum quantity of gluk,ose rs

Table:18:3''Compirisori of materials at 'it points" eking the nephron
essential tur proper funi..tioning ut body sells
In Blood In Tubule' In the In Blood The kidney functions es a homeostatic organ by
Entering from Urine Leaving" excreting the excess glucose molecules
Glomerulus Glomerulus Nephron
6 Going against a concentration gradient
Water 100 30 1 99 means active t ansport
7 It can become very toxic
Protein 103 0 0 100
8 This discussion should summarize the
Glucose 100 20 0 100 basic points developed in this investigation The
following points from the chapter also should be
Sodium 100 30 1 99
developed during the discussion
Potassium 100 23 12 88 (a) Substances are selectively removed from
the blood as they flow through the kidney
Urea 100 50 90 10
(b) As blood flows through the ,,iornerulus,
The numbers in this column represent proportions, not actual numbers of molecules For water and many other molecules and ions are
every 100 molecules of water in the blood. 30 are found in the tubule filtered in the nephron The concentrations of
"The numbers in this column were obtained by subtracting the proportionate number of
these materials are changed in the nephron
molecules of the substance in the urine from the proportionate number of molecules of the
substance originally in the blood (100). tubule through the processes of diffusion,
selective reabsorption, and sturetion
(c) The kidney has both excretory and
7. Urea is a by-product of amino acid metabolism. Next to water, urea is regulatory !unctions By allowing the passage of
the most abundant material found in urine. If urea were allowed to ac- certain substances and retaining others in
optimum concentrations. the kidney plays a
cumulate, what might happen?
8. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal envi- major role in maintaining the composition of
body fluids
ronment in an organism. Discuss your ideas about how the kidney
functions as a homeostatic organ.

Temperature Regulation Guidepost: How do humans maintain a

constant internal body
temperature?
16.13 The Rate of Chemical Reactions
Is Influenced by Temperature
Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur within 0
a cell or organism. Like other chemical reactions, these enzyme-
controlled reactions are influenced by changes in temperature. Within
limits, they slow down at low temperatures and speed up at high tem-
peratures. Therefore, maintaining a constant internal temperature is an 0
advantage; it allows for more efficient chemical processes to take place.
It also permits an animal to be active when environmental temperatures
are low.
In humans and other animals that are able to maintain a constant
internal temperature, the temperature of the skin and the tissues just
beneath it may fluctuate. Internal body temperature in most individuals,
however, changes very little in the course of a day. On arising, your tem- Death results if body temperature rises to
perature is usually about 36.2° C, and it increases to perhaps 37.6° C beim. n 44 4 and 45.5° C or drops to between
by late afternoon, averaging about 37° C. It is important that body tem- 21 1 and 23 9° C
perature be maintained within these narrow limits.
In order to accomplish this, the body must balance the amount of heat 0
it produces with the amount it lose- Therefore, when you become ov-
erheated, as during strenuous exercise, the extra heat must be dispelled
from the body. Otherwise, the body temperature could increase to the
point at which enzyme functions would be impaired.

704
602 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

In chapter 15, we learned that one of the by-products of cellular res-

piration, is heat. It is this heat, produced by the breakdown of foods, that
maintains our body temperature. Because muscles and organs such as
the kidneys are the most active tissues, they carry on more cellular res-
piration, and, thus, produce more heat than any of the other body tissues.
Therefore, the activity of the muscles determines the rate of heat pro-
duction. When you sleep, there is little muscular movement, and heat
It is believed that high body temperatures inhiba production decreases. As you exercise or shiver, your active muscles pro-
the growth of certain bacteria and viruses duce more heat.

16.14 Major Heat Loss Occurs through

Evaporation and Radiation
Most of the heat loss, 80 percent or more, occurs through the skin.
The balance takes place through the normal function of the respiratory,
digestive, and excretory systems.

Figure 16.24 Exchanges that taka place between internal and external
environments.

heat
and H2O food and water

heat -NI\
skin
lungs

kidney
cells

gut

705
 Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 603

Figure 16.25 Lizard absorbing radiated heat. Animals such as this do not have
internal mechanisms to regulate body temperature.

NOS by Cady* Calvin

Evaporation at average temperatures and normal rates of activity is

only one of the methods of cooling the body. However, at very high tem-
peratures or during vigorous activity, it is the only method by which heat
can be lost through the skin. Have you ever noticed that the same tem- Sunstroke or heatstroke occurs when
perature on two different days may feel hotter on one of the days? At a temperature and relative humidity are high,
temperature of 38° C (100° F) and a high humidity of 90 percent, you making it difficult to lose heat by radiation or
would feel hotter than at the same temperature with a humidity of 45 evaporation Internal temperature may reach
percent. That is because evaporation takes place more rapidly in a dryer 43.5° C, at which brain cells may be affected or
environment, thus cooling your skin more efficiently. destroyed.
Radiated heat is transferred from one object to another even when
the two do not touch. You can feel the radiant heat of the sun without
actually being in contact with the sun's surface. The skin gains or loses
heat through radiation depending on the environment. If the environ-
ment is cool, body heat is lost through radiation, and conversely, in a hot
environment heat is gained by radiation from hot surfaces.

16.15 Internal Temperature Is Controlled

by the Brain
Heat loss or gain also may be affected by the amount and type of In heat exhaustion or prostration there is normal
clothing worn, the ingestion of hot or cold food or liquid, or even by or slightly lower body temperature accompanied
standing in a breeze. Internal body temperature can remain constant by profuse perspiration Salt loss and heart
only if the rate of heat loss is the same as that of heat production. Re- problems may cause dizziness, cramps,
ceptors that respond to temperature changes are necessary to keep body vomiting, and fainting.
temperature constant. In the hypothalamus, an area of the brain that
we will discuss in the next chapter, there are receptors that detect changes
in blood temperature. These receptors act as a thermostat to regulate
body temperatures, much as a thermostat controls a furnace, air con-
ditioner, or water heater.

706
 604 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 16.26 How heat dissipating and heat conserving mechanisms operate to
maintain normal body temperature.

environmental
factors

return to
normal blood
temperature
37°C

Though loss of water through perspiration The body thermostat is set at 37° C. When the temperature of the
depends on the relative humidity, in general,
blood increases by as little as 0.01° C, the cells of the hypothalamus
evaporation of I g of water removes 0 58 kcal
send messages to the sweat glands and blood vessels of the skin. In re-
of heat In heavy exercise, evaporation of 4
sponse the sweat glands increase their rate of secretion. The blood ves-
liters per hour can remove 2000 keels of heat
sels in :11e skin begin to dilate, or become larger, allowing for greater
blood flow to and heat loss from the body surface. If body temperature
continues to increase, this process will speed up the rate of sweating and
dilation, causing more heat loss from the skin.
In a very cold environment, the reverse of this process occurs. When
the temperature of the blood reaching the hypothalamus drops, mes-
sages are sent that slow production of sweat and that constrict, or narrow,
the blood vessels in the skin. If this reaction does not raise the temper-
ature sufficiently, a second mechanism is initiated. Shivering and vol-
untary muscle contractions cause an acceleration of cellular respiration
and heat production. That is why when you are very cold, you use more
oxygen and tire more quickly.

70V
Chapter 16 The Human Animal: Maintenance of Internal Environment 605

The use of hypothermia (the lowering of body temperature) is often

called for in open-heart surgery and other prolonged surgical proce-
dures. The purpose is to lower the body's activity rate until after surgery.
However, the mechanisms involved in survival of extremely low body
temperatures are still poorly understood.

Self-Review

1. What is the advantage of maintaining a constant body tempera-

ture?
2. What are some of the mechanisms by which your body attempts to
keep you warm in very cold weather?
3. How does the body prevent damage from overheating as you are
vigorously exercising?
4. How does the human body regulate its body temperature?
5. How is body temperature related to homeostasis?

Summary
The body requires a constant internal environment so that its cells
can function effectively. Homeostasis, the maintenance of this stable en-
vironment, is achieved by cooperative action of all body systems. The
heart and blood vessels that make up the circulatory system are spe-
cialized to deliver raw materials and remove wastes. The immune system
serves to protect the body from foreign invaders. The respiratory system
supplies the body with oxygen, and aids the excretory system in elimi-
nating wastes. In addition, the excretory system plays a central role in
regulating the concentration of many essential substances in the blood.
Constant'internal temperature enables chemical reactions to proceed at
optimum rates. These systems all ate coordinated by the nervous and
endocrine systems, which we will examine in detail in the next chapter.

Application Questions Problems

1. Describe the route followed by a molecule of 1. In cases of kidney. failure, the patient must undergo
oxygen as it moves from the air of your external periodic hemodialysis on a kidney machine. How
environment to a mitochondrion in one of your does this machine function? Compare it with the
muscle cells. functions of the human kidney.
2. A temporary reddening of the skin sus face is 2. Why do surgeons place their patients in
sometimes called a flush and sometimes a blush. hypothermia before procedures such as open-heart
The first term often is used in cases of fever, the surgery? W)..ai are the advantages?
second, to describe a reaction to some situation in 3. Because fix heart is often damaged by disease,
the external environment. Is the body mechanism much work has been done on designing artificial
the same in both cases' If it is, how does it hearts. What problems must be overcome in order
operate? If it is not, what are the differences? to design an effective artificial heart?

708
606 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

3. Trace the pathways of the hamburger, fries, and 4. Under what circumstances would you apply
soft drink you might have had for lunch. Describe cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)? What are
what happens to the food molecules from the time the precautions you must observe in exhaled air
they are cbsorbed in the intestine until their ventilation and external cardiac compression?
remains are excreted in the urine or eliminated
through the anus.
4. Distinguish among excretion, secretion, and
elimination. Explain which system(s) of the body
are involved in each.
5. Construct a diagram or concept map indicating the
relationship between the circulatory and respiratory
systems.
6. What is the effect of the presence of respiratory
pigment such as hemoglobin on the transport of
oxygen?
7. How are breathing and gas transport affected by
climbing to high altitudes?

Suggested Readings
P. D. Buisscret, "Allergy" Scientific American (August 1982). N. R. Rose, "Autoimmune Diseases" Scientific American
A very interesting article investigating the reasons why (February 1981). Occasionally the immune system
people suffer from allergies. malfunctions and attacks the body's own tissues.
B. Dixon, "Overdosing on Wondcr Drugs" Science 86 (Way R. B. Schlesinger, "Defense Mechanisms of the Respiratory
1986). Reckless use of antibiotics is creating tougher gcrms System" Bio Science (January 1982). Provides an overview
worldwide. of the defense mechanisms of the mammalian respiratory
R. L. Edelson and J. M. Fink, "Thc Immunologic Function of tract.
Skin" Scientific American (June 1985). Examines the R. A. Stallones, "The Rise and Fall of Ischemic Heart
various roles of the body's largest organ. Disease" Scientific American (November 1980). Since the
P. Huyghc, "Your Heart: A Survival Guidc" Science Digest 1960s, deaths due to heart attack and other results of the
(April 1985). Examines the various characteristics of and obstruction of the arteries has decreased. The reasons are
prevention of heart discasc. investigated in this article.

s..; 70,9
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1, Nostril, pharynx, trachea, bronchus, air sac, capillary, 1 The basic principle of the artificial kidney is to pass blood
attaches to hemoglobin in blood. Then through vein, heart, through very minute blood channels bounded by a thin
aorta. artery, capillary, and diffuses into cell Used in cellular membrane, On the other side of the membrane is a
respiration at mitochondrion. dialyzing fluid (chemically similar to blood plasma) into which
2, Both flushing and blushing result from vasodilation affecting waste substances from the blood pass by diffusion.
the capillaries in the skin. In the kidney. blood flows Through a capillary network
3. The hamburger, fries and soft drink contain carbohydrates, surrounding a nephron All constituents of plasma except
fats, proteins, and cellulose Students ,ed merely consider pititains move in both directions by diffusion or active
the enzymes affecting (or failing to affect) these substances transport.
and the general story in this and the previous chapter In the artificial kidney, blood flows between two thin
4: Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes from cells and sheets of cellophane. The dialyzing fluid is outside the
the blood; secretion is any substance other than waste sheets. All constituents of plasma except proteins diffuse in
produced and released by a cell or a gland, and elimination both directions depending on concentration.
is the removal of undigested matter from the body. 2. Artificially induced hypothermia slows the heart and greatly
Excretionkidneys and lungs, secretionkidneys and depresses body metabolism. During open-heart surgery it is
glands; eliminationdigestive system possible to stop the heart for many minutes at a time,
5. A variety of diagrams can be constructed based on the Cooling is not so great as to cause serious physiological
information in the chapter. effects.
6. Increase manyf old the amount of oxygen that can be 3, Artificial heart transplant recipients all have experienced
transported, strokes. That problem must be overcome. The artificial
7, Because the partial pressure of oxygen decreases as heart also must be light-weight and portable, maintain blood
elevation increases, the breathing rate must rise to offset pressure, and not damage blood cells,
the lower availability of oy.ygeii. Gas transport becomes less 4 CPR should be applied only to a victim who is not breathing
efficient, and at extremely high altitudes brain and body and who does not have a pulse. (The pulse should be
function are impaired. checked for 5 to 10 seconds at the carotid artery,) II the
victim has a pulse, then only mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is
necessary. If there is respiratory arrest, the heart can
continue to pump blood for several minutes and existing
stores of oxygen in the lungs and blood will continue to
circulate to the brain and other vital organs, If resuscitation
is begun in time, a rescuer can prevent cardiac arrest.
When there is primary cardiac arrest, oxygen is not
circulated and the stored oxygen is depleted in a few
seconds, That is why the chest compression of CPR is vital
when no pulse can be detected.
One of the first precautions is proper training in the
techniques of CPR II you come across a victim in need of
CPR and you are properly trained, you should be careful
about the following: (a) Check carefully for a pulse.
Performing external chest compressions on a patient who
has a pulse may result in serious medical complications.
(b) For proper air ventilation and blood flow to the brain, be
sure the victim's head is not placed higher than the chest.
(c) Distention of he stomach may result if too much air is
breathed into the patient or if the airway is partially or
completely blocked. That might promote vomiting or reduce
the amount of air that can reach the lungs. (d) Be sure that
hand position is correct. Applying pressure too low on the
chest may cause internal bleeding because the sternum may
cut into the liver. (e) Fingers should not rest on the victim's
ribs during compression. Pressure of the fingers on the ribs
increases the likelihood that ribs may be fractured.
(0 Compressions should be smooth, regular, and
uninterrupted except for rescue breathing. Avoid sudden or
jerking movements Any jabs can increase the pot,sibility of
injury to the ribs and internal organs and might reduce the
amount of blood that can be circulated by each
compression, (Information from "Standards for CPR snd
ECG." Journal of the American Medical Association (6 June
1986).)

,,;.)s 710
 Q

Tom Suck /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES.

The gymnast displays coordination involving the nervous, hormonal, muscular, and skeletal systems.
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages

CHAPTER 17 T42-43.
Key ideas;
the maintenance of homeostasis by the
nervous and endocrine systems,
the role of the autonomic nervous system in
homeostasis;
the dependence on stored energy for muscle
The Human Animal: action;
the actions of drugs on mental and physical

Coordination performance.

Introduction
In performing any activity involving movement, you must integrate
several systems of your body. Have you ever wondered how a gymnast
is able to execute such complex moves with so few mistakes? One answer
is practice, bct how does simply repeating an action result in such pre-
cision? If we wish to analyze a gymnast's routine or even your ability to
run, we must consider the function and integration of the skeletal, mus-
cular, nervous, and hormonal systems. Both conscious and unconscious
mental processes are needed simply to initiate the behavior that results
in movement. Behavior may be defined as any action that occurs in re-
sponse to a signal, either internal, such as a thought, or external, such
as visual stimuli from the environment. Before the gymnast can begin
her demanding and precise exercise routine, she must marshal the many
internal and external factors that affect movement and behavior. In this
chapter we will examine some of the mechanisms that make such inte-
gration possible.

Human Movement Guidepost: How do muscles and bones

enable humans to move?
17.1 Muscle Contraction Depends
on Energy from ATP
Humans and other animals have three types of muscles, each with a
different function. Striated (STRY ayt ed) muscle moves the skeleton
in response to conscious control, and is thus called voluntary muscle.
This type of muscle is involved in adjustments to the external environ-
ment such as raising your arm to swat an annoying mosquito. Smooth
muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, the digestive tract, and
portions of the lower respiratory tract. Smooth muscle functions in the

609
 610 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 17.1 (a) Skeletal muscle, showing the characteristic striations.

(b) Smooth muscle showing contraction bands. This tissue contracts in wavelike
motions. (c) Drawing of several smcoth muscle cells. Smooth muscle hasclearly
defined cells with a central nucleus. (d) Cardiac muscle.

-3

Ed Reschke b John D. Cunningham /VISUALS UNLIMITED

a

Fred Hessler/ VISUALS UNLIMITED

c d

0 operation and regulation of the internal environment. Cardiac (KARD

ee ak) muscle is specialized striated muscle found only in the heart.
Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are not generally under the con-
scious control of the individual; they are involuntary muscles.
Figure 17.2 shows a striated muscle at successively greater magni-
fications. As you can see in (a), the muscle consists of individual fibers
that run the entire length. Each muscle fiber, the equivalent of a muscle
cell, is made up of many parallel fibrils (c), and each fibril is composed
of protein organized into thick and thin filaments (d). The thick and thin
filaments are arranged in an overlapping pattern (e) that gives striated
muscle its characteristic appearance under the microscope. In muscle
contraction, portions of the thick filaments attach to the thin filaments
and pull the thin filaments toward each other (f).
Muscle contraction helps maintain posture,
accomplishes movement, and produces heat
0 Muscle contraction is initiated by a nerve impulse and requires the
presence of calcium ions. ATP provides the energy. The supply of ATP
in a muscle fiber, however, can sustain full contraction for only about a
Stress that the only direct source of energy is
sewnd. In order for a muscle fiber to continue contracting, the ATP must
ATP, some of which may be stored in reserves
be rapidly regenerated. This is made possible by utilizing three energy
in the thick myofilaments
sources. The first is creatine phosphate (KREE uh tin FOS fayt), a

"g=g1=='11iii'-
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 611

substance in the muscle cell that can pass its energy to ADP. Creatine 0
phosphate provides immediate regeneration of ATP. The second energy Figure 17.2 Successive magnifications from
source is the ATP formed during normal cellular respiration, and the muscle to fiber to fibril to filaments. Striated
muscle contracts when the thick filaments
third is glycogen (GLY koh jen), the storage form of the glucose you temporarily attach to the thin filaments and pull
take in. Glycogen is stored in muscle and in the liver. In the muscle cells, them toward each other.
when glycogen is broken down to glucose, it is respired to produce more
ATP. In the liver, when glycogen is broken down to glucose, it is released
into the blood in the presence of chemical messengers known as hor-
mones. As an athlete mentally prepares for exertion, he triggers the re-
lease of .here hormones, which prepare the body for action. Later in this
Chapter we will discover how the brain initiates the secretion of those a. muscle X 1%
hormones.
1

17.2 Interaction of Bones and Muscles

Produces Movement
rzTrn" ,N77717.' .,
Movement is achieved by the contraction of muscles that are attached
to the bones. The skeleton consists of two kinds of tissue, cartilage and
bone. The hardness of bone results, in part, from deposits of calcium and
magnesium compounds. Both cartilage and bone contain cells that se-
crete these compounds. These living cells and their secretions enable the b. fibers X 1700
skeleton to grow as the child grows. Though most of the skeleton begins
as cartilage, nearly all of it is gradually replaced by bone. At your age

Figure 17.3 Nerve endings on striated muscle fibers. Nerve impulses stimulates
the nerve endings to secrete their chemical messengers, initiating the events that
result in contraction of the muscle fibers.

c. fiber X 4500

d. fibril X 16000

e. filaments relaxed position

John D. Cunningham /VISUALS UNLIMITED

44 f. filaments contracted position

r "
612 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 17.4 Human skeletal and muscular systems.

skull

cervical vertebrae
clavicle
triceps
scapula
pectoral's major sternum
ribs

humerus
rectus abdominis

radius
ulna
external oblique lumbar vertebrae
innominate

carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
rectus femoris

femur

patella (kneecap)

tibia

fibula

tarsals

metatarsals
phalanges

From Mader, Sylvia S , Inquiry into Lie 4th ed, 0 1985, Wm, C.
Brown Publishers. Dubuque. Iowa. All rights reserved. Reprinted
with permissian,

the replacement process is well advanced. Some parts of the skeleton,

however, remain as cartilage. The tip of your nose and the external parts
of your ears will never become hard bone and will continue to grow to
some extent.
The jointed bones of a vertebrate skeleton act together with muscles
to produce movement. A joint is where two or more bones meet and allow
for some type of movement. Muscles supply the force to move these parts.
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 613

Figure 17.5 A flexor-extensor muscle pair in the human arm. Flexors bend a
limb at a skeletal joint; extensors straighten the limb again.

_biceps biceps
/contract relax

triceps
contract
triceps
relax

flexed extended

A muscle attached to a bone is like a rope attached to a wagon. With a

rope you can pull an object, but you cannot push it. If you want to move
the wagon back to its original position, you must attach a rope to the
other end and again pull it. Muscles ad in the same wayin pairs (see
figure 17.5). To touch your hand to your shoulder, you contract one set
of muscles. When you return your hand and arm to the extended posi-
tion, you contract another set of muscles and relax the first set. These
two sets of muscles work in opposition to each other. All your skeletal
movements are performed by contraction and relaxation of opposing sets
of muscles.

17.3 Cardiovascular Fitness Depends

on Regular Exercise
Even when an animal appears to be at rest, its muscles are not com- Flaccid muscles have less than normal tone arid
pletely relaxed. The muscles of any healthy organism are always in a may be caused by disease or lack of sufficient
state of partial contraction that is called muscle tone. This produces the use Within six months to two years muscle will
be replaced by fibrous tissue When this
firmness that can be felt even in "relaxed" muscles.
process is complete, it cannot be reversed
Today, physical fitness is a household word and a large business. For
many, fitness means losing weight, whereas for others it means building
muscles or improving muscle tone. The primary benefit of fitness, how-
ever, is to improve the ability of the lungs, heart, and blood vessels to
The normal heart can increase its output to four
deliver oxygen to the cells. This is known as cardiovascular (KARD ee
or five times normal under stress conditions and
oh VAS kyoo ler) fitness, an expression that refers to the fitness of the to six or seven times normal in endurance
heart (cardio) and the vessels (vascular). athletes. Cardiac reserve is the maximum
The American Heart Association recommends exercising 20 to 30 percentage that cardiac output can increase
minutes a day, 3 days a week, as one way to prevent coronary problems. above normal. In a normal young adult, cardiac
The heart, like any muscle, gets stronger when it is exercised. The av- reserve may be 400%, and in the trained athlete
erage person's heart pumps about 51 of blood per minute. During intense as high as 600%

716
614 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure-17.6 A muscle builder.

Figure 17.7 The use of technology in athletic training.

John Morgan

exercise that may rise to 301 per minute. At that rate a marathon run-
ner's heart can deliver as much as 40001 of blood to the body during a
43 km raceenough to fill a 12 gal gas tank 80 times.
Cardiovascular fitness is importan' for everyone's health. To achieve
movements of an Olympic calibre athlete, however, requires a great deal
more. Centers such as the U.S. Olympic Training Ce ter in Colorado
Springs, Cclorado, use the latest in modern electronic technology. Ath-
letes are subjected to a battery of tests by sports psychologists and
exercise physiologists. The test equipment that is used includes the
 ChOter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 615

electroencephalograph (ee LEK troh en SEF uh loh graf), which mon-

itors electrical brain activities, and computers, which provide dynamic
computer-enhanced images of body functions. Here the human body is
treated as if it were a machine, and its muscles and limbs were pulleys
and levers. Because of progress in sports medicine, experts believe that
the 1996 Olympics will see athletes reach the limits of human perfor-
mance in those events involving a short burst of energy. Researchers also
predict that within a decade or two, women will equal or surpass men
in marathon events.

° Self-Review

1. Name the three types of muscles, where they are found, and how
they are controlled.
2. How is the supply of ATP in muscle regenerated?
3. How does cardiovascular fitness differ from physical fitness?

MM.

xpcpcoig9w,:' Investigation 17 1
EXERCISE, ENERGY, AND MUSCLES

Introduction To introduce the inveotigation, review

As we become more aware of our personal physical fitness and its im- sections 15.6-15.12 and 17 1-17 3, and the
portance in competitive athletics, we place greater emphasis on learning terms aerobic and anaerobic Group size can
about the interaction between exercise, energy, and muscles. Rather than range from 1 to 3. Class discussion time should
asking how muscles work, we ask questions concerning energy/muscle be provided for at leant the procedure questions
relationships. We also ask how energy-producing processes interact, or in part B and both discussion questions
which physiological aspect has the greatest influence on performance levels
during specific activities. Procedure
In this investigation you will examine results from two experiments con- Part A
cerned with energy/muscle relationships. You will then use these data, to-
gether with your readings in chapters 15 and 17, to determine how cellular 1 Anaerobic energy is used to initiate
respiration relates to muscle structure and function. exercise activity, but aerobic proc asses are
required for its continuation
2 (a) From the reading in section 17 1,
Procedure students should answer creature phosphate for
Part AEnergy Production During Physical Activity initiating exercise because it provides for
immediate ATP regeneration
Energy can be produced by two different cellular processes, anaerobic (b) Glycogen, because it is converted to
(without 02) and aerobic (with 02) respiration. How much energy does each glucose by the liver and released into the blood
contribute during physical activity? To answer this question, human sub-
jects were asked to perform running and bicycling exercises for different Part B
lengths of time. For each time period, total energy production (output) was
measured and the amount contributed by anaerobic and aerobic respi- 1 Fast fibers are more prone to fatigue than
ration determined. The results are shown in table 17.1. slow fibers and would be less important for
sustained activity levels.
1. Using the results in table 17.1, form a hypothesis to describe the re- 2 Sprinters would be less dependent on
lationship between anaerobic and aerobic respiration during exercise. sustaining their activity and could be expected
2. (a) In terms of muscle chemistry, which is more important for initiating to represent the 33% slow-fiber group in figure
exercisecreatine phosphate or glycogen? 17 8 By comparison, marathoners most likely
(b) Which one is more important in continuing exercise? Explain, represented the 790/o slow-fiber group because
they depend more on endurance
3 (a) Sprinters have greater body strength,
larger body frames (skeletal mass) and
muscles, and are heavier

718
 616 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

(b) No Muscle structure and energy

production difference suggest cell conditions Table 17.1:13Alative enerpitontribOtioris Ofierobid and anaerobic
that are genetically determined. processes
Work Time Energy Output
Discussion Maximal (kcal)
Exercise
1, Because endurance is associated with Anaerobic Aerobic Total
aerobic respiration in table 17 1 and low fast- Processes Processes
fiber muscle content in figure 17.8, slow muscle
10 sec 20 4 24
fibers appear to be potentially more efficient in
terms of aerobic respiration and fast muscle 1 min 30 20 50
fibers potentially more efficient in terms of
2 min 30 45 75
anaerobic respiration.
2. Stress the relationship between 5 min 30 120 150
ndurance and aerobic respiration. This activity 10 min 25 245 270
is designed to help students see that
relationship. Concern for the "right" ranking 30 min 20 657 677
should be minimized 60 min 15 1200 1215
Person Rank Aerobic Requirement From Gollnick, P. D. and Hermansen, L.. "Biochemical adaptations to exercise: Anaerobic
(ml/kg/0.1 min.) metabolism." Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, Vol. 1. Edited by J. H. Wilmore. New
York, Academic Press, 1973.
Football 10 51.4
Swimmer 3 68.6
Recreational
Part BMuscle Structure and Activity
runner 6 60 9 Muscles consist of fiber bundles containing 2 fiber types: slow and fast.
Ice hockey 5 63.0 Because muscles of different individuals vary in their percentage of slow
Untrained 12 38 4 and fast fibers, it would oe important to ask: Does muscle structure influ-
Elite distance ence physical performa ice? One experiment to test this possibility used 2
runner 1 76.9 groups of athletes. Muscles in 1 group consisted of 67% fast fibers and
Basketball 11 47.2 33% slow fibers. The other group had 210/0 fast fibers and 79% slow fibers.
Cyclist 4 67 1
While group members performed 100 knee extensions, strength measure-
ments were made for each knee extension. Figure 17.8 shows the results
Tennis 8 55.0
of the experiment.
Cross-country 2 75.0
1. Based on Figure 17.8, what conclusions can be made about the role
Soccer 7 58 4
of muscle structure during physical activity?
Gymnast 9 53.0
2. Similar results were obtained when 2 types of runners, sprinters and
marathoners, performed a similar test. What types of muscles would
you expect sprinters to have? Marathoners? Explain.
Figure 17.8 Comparison of leg strength 3. (a) Compare sprinters and marathoners in terms of their physical dif-
changes in high (67%) and low (21%) fast
ferences.
muscle fiber groups during knee extension
exercises.
(b) Would you expect it to be possible to retrain a world-class runner
of one type to be competitive at the same level in the other event?
Why or why not?

Discussion
1. Based on the data in table 17.1 and figure 17.8, how would you de-
scribe the relationship between energy production and muscle struc-
ture?
2. Examine the list of sports people below and rank them from 1 to 12
in terms of their aerobic energy ;demands.
football players basketball players
swimmers cyclists
recreational runners tennis players
ice hockey players Pross-country skiers
untrained persons soccer players

0 25
.. 50 75
number of contractions
100
elite distance runners gymnasts

Adapted from Teach. P.: "Muscle fatigue in man with special

reference to lactate accumulation during short term intense
exercise," Acta Physlol. Scend. 480 44. 1980.

71.9
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination

The Nervous System Guidepost: How does the brain

coordinn-3 body movements
and behavior?
17.4 Neurons Transmit Nerve Impulses
In general, rapid adjustments of animals to the environment are
Figure 17.9 In this typical neuron, note that the
brought about by the nervous system. These ad!ustments or movements
axon always carries impulses away from the cell
are initiated by an internal or external signal known as a stimulus body.
(STIM yoo lus). The information is carried through the nervous system O
by neurons (NYOO rahnz), or nerve cells (figure 17.9). Each neuron
has an enlarged region, the cell body, that contains the nucleus. Most dendrites
cell bodies are located in the brain or spinal cord. From the cell body
extend one or more long projections called nerve fibers. In humans, the
fibers of some neurons are almost a meter long. Nerves are bundles of
nerve fibers.
Neurons transmit nerve impulses. A stimulus occurring at the end of
a nerve fiber starts a process of chemical and electrical changes that
travels like a wave over the length of a neuron. This wave of change is
the nerve impulse.
The chemical reactions that occur in the nerve impulse require oxygen
and energy and produce carbon dioxide and heat. Electrical changes also
take place. The plasma membrane of a resting neuron is electrically more
positive on the outside than on the inside (figure 17.10a). This difference
in electrical charge is due to the differential permeability of the mem-
cell
brane to sodium and potassium ions. body carried toward
Stimulation of a neuron causes a small segment of the plasma mem- the cell body!
brane to become more permeable to sodium ions. As positively charged
sodium ions rush into the neuron, there is a sudden change in electrical
charge of the membrane (figure 17.10b). That local change is the nerve
impulse, and it starts a similar change in the next small segment. In that
manner, the impulse moves from one end of the neuron to the other as
a wave of local chemical and electrical changes (figure 17.10c).
Neurons are separated by a very small space called a synapse
(SIN aps). When an impulse reaches the end of a neuron, it causes the
release of a neurotransmitter (N POOR oh trans MIT er). That is a axon Impulses
chemical substance that diffuses across the synapse and causes a new carried away
nerve impulse to start in the next neuron. Because transmission across from
the cell body
a synapse takes place only in one direction, neurons conduct impulses
only in one direction. Neurotransmitters also cause muscles to contract
and certain glands to secrete hormones.
Nerve impulses may travel at speeds greater than 100 m per second
in large fibers. The impulses are of short durationusually a few ten-
thousandths of a second. However, the neuron cannot carry another im-
pulse until it has had time to recover. To restore the resting state, sodium branches
ions must be pumped back outside the plasma membrane by means of of axon
active transport. Only after recovery can the neuron respond to a new
stimulus.
In humans three kinds of neurons can be distinguished by their func- 0
tions. Sensory neurons receive impulses from a receptor. Receitors are
specially modified sensory neurons such as the cells in the retina of the
eye that react to light. Sensory neurons then transmit nerve impulses to
an associative neuron, which transmits impulses from one type of neuron
to another. Motor neurons carry the impulses to an effectorthat is, a The difference in electrical charge on the
muscle or a gland. The effector responds to the impulse with movement outside and inside of the membrane is the
electrical potential. This electrical potential is a
or secretion.
form of potential energy, much like a snowball
on top of a hill,

720
618 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 17.10 (a) A resting neuron. The plasma membrane is more positive on
the outside than on the inside; plus and minus signs indicate the relative
difference in electrical charge. (b) A stimulus is applied. The electrical state
reverses as the impulse is initiated. (c) The impulse moves as a wave of changes
in electrical charges. (d) A second stimulus is applied after recovery. (e) Both
impulses, spaced apart, move along the axon.

second stimulus

first stimulus

Figure 17.11 Kinds of neurons.

motor
neuron

motor erid;
motorrieu'ion fiber'. :plates in
'effector"'

length of nerve
fiber abbreviated
associative sheath around
neuron synapse
neuron fiber
,

vribeedoi4
10,1,396!,lea,On-

sensory
neuron

721
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 619

Figure 17.12 Some functional areas of the human cerebrum.

motor area:
muscles of limbs, body, and head (except
for muscular walls of internal organs)
sensory area:
touch and other
tactile sensations
premoter area:
coordination of movements
of limbs and body.
impulses from the
speech: premotor area are passed
impulses are along to the motor area.
passed to the
motor speech area.

motor-eyes (1):
vision turning movements of eyes
(and head); opening and
closing of eyelids; dilation
of pupils of eyes
motor-eyes (2):
turning movements
of eyes (and head)
motor-speech:
hearing smell movements of
the vocal cords
taste

17.5 The Central Nervous System

Coordinates Conscioi Thnctions
The activities that you can control are coordinated by the central ner-
vous sy5tem. This system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which
connect directly with many nerves. The central nervous system receives
and processes incoming sensory information, and determines and initi-
ates the appropriate motor response. Thinking, reading, speaking, and
Learning are rnnetions that involve the cerebrum (seh REE brum) and
ifs outera-tot.,. itlyers, the zerebrtal cortex (seh E EE brul KOR tells).
The wordinatiim of muscles involves the cerebeituni (ser eh BEL urn)
as well as the cet.:brum. The central nervetts system coordinates some
activities that you can control in part but do not wally think about,
such as your rate of breathing.

17.6 The Autonomic Nervous System

Coordinates Unconscious FunctiorJ
Much activity in your nervous system happens without your being
aware of it. Most of this unconscious activity is under the control of the
autonomic nervous system. The autonomic system -.zips to control blood
pressure, stomach movements and secretion., urine formation and ex- See "The Brain," Scientific American
cretion, body, temperature, and many other functions necessary to the (September 1979), for a wealth of information
maintenance of a steady state. It coordinates the activities of the internal and excellent graphics.
environment through a system of interconnecting neurons. The auto-
nomic system also enables the body to respond to emergencies, and plays
a major role in emotions. Some of the actions of the autonomic nervous
system are shown in figure 17.13.

722
 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 17.13 The autonomic nervous system is made up of two divisions that
act like a brake and an accelerator. The parasympathetic nervous system
generally acts to maintain normal body function. The sympathetic nervous
system acts to prepare the body for emergencyit is the fight or flight system.
The two divisions have opposing effects on a variety of organs and body
functions.

Parasympathetic Sympathetic
nervous system nervous system

constricts pupil dilates

salivarY sympathetic
glands nerve chain

constricts bronchi 1111 la relaxes

speeds,
slows heartbeat / strengthens

increases contractions h decreases

decreases secretions land stimulates
s mu a es a a er ucose re ease
stimulates secretion decreases
increases motility decreases

contracts relaxes

relaxes sex organs excites I

The autonomic system is separated into 2 The functions of the autonomic nervous system are, in turn, con-
antagonistic divisions the sympathetic that is trolled by the hypothalamus (hy poh THAL uh mus), a part of the brain
involved in the fight or flight reactions and the
located under the cerebrum. The hypothalamus also is part of the system
parasympathetic that coordinates many
of glands that produces hormones. Thus it links the nervous system and
maintenance activities and the sense of well-
being. The two divisions act much .ke an
the hormonal system in coordinating many body activities.
accelerator and a brake.
17.7 Complex Interactions Prepare
the Body for Muscular Activity
Suppose that you had to run to catch the school bus. The sudden mus-
cular activity exerts pressure on the veins in your extremities, increasing
the rate at which blood returns to the right atrium of your heart. The

723
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 621

Figure 17.14 Some of the pathways involved in preparation for muscular

activity such as that of a gymnast.

sight

cells
(increased rate
of respiration) heart
(increased rate)

extra blood stretches the walls of the atrium, stimulating sensory neu-
rons located there. Impulses are sent through the sensory nerve fibers to
your brain. There, motor neurons leading to your heart are stimulated
to fire nerve impulses. As a result, your heart contracts more rapidly.
All this occurs in a fraction of a second, but for the athlete, this delay
could be critical.
As the gymnast prepares begin a routine, her heart starts to beat
faster due to direct stimulation of the cardiac muscle by the autonomic
nervous system, How does this occur when the endings of the sensory
nerves arc in the walls of the heart and cannot receive direct stimulation
The s; :pathetic system prepares the body for
from the external sights and sounds? As the gymnast sees the crowd and the fight or flight reactions.
concentrates on the first step, her brain, prepares her body for action. In (a) Contracts blood vessels in skin and
response to practice during which a series of brain pathways has been intestine.
repeatedly stimulated, -eser brain unconsciously coordinates not just the (b) Raises blood pressure.
muscles but all the services, including htr hurt and respiratory rates, (c) Diverts blood to the muscles
that the body must supply to make possible the exercise. The gymnast (d) Causes the heart to beat faster and
takes the first step, and familiar neuronal pathways take over. stronger.
The coordination of the nervous and muscular systems is elegantly (e) Muscles of hair follicles cont.zrq.
portrayed in the actions of the gymnast. Such coordination evolved lot (f) Peristalsis stops.
(g) Anal and bladder sphincters relax,
simply as a mechanism to catch prey and avoid predators, but alsc as a
mechanism to direct human behavior for survival and reproduction.

t °4
622 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Human behavior, however, is not a product of the nervous system alone.

It is strongly influenced by the presence of chemical substanceshor-
monesproduced by the endocrine system, as we will learn in the next
section.

Self-Rel;icAN

1. Distinguish between a nerve and a neuron.

2. What is the relationship between a stimulus and a nerve impulse?
3. Briefly describe the electrical and chemical changes involved in a
nerve impulse.
4. How do the three types of neurons differ in function?
5. Contrast the functions of the cerebrum and the autonomic nervous
system.

Investigation 17.2
Invssttgation .',6ENSORY:RECEPTORP.
SENSORY RECEPTORS
Introduction
It is essential that there be as little distraction How do we know about the world in which we live? We receive infor-
as possible during this investigation. Students mation through receptors. The activities of these various receptors, co-
must work quietly and concentrate totally on ordinated by the brain, are called the senses: touch, sight, hearing, smell,
each task. There must be complete and taste, for example. In this investigation you will test some aspects of
understanding of the procedures before each the senses involved in touch and sight.
part is attempted.

Materials (per team of 2)

centimeter ruler
blunt dissecting needle (or probe)
colored pencils (red, blue)
meter stick

Part ATouch
Procedure
It is advisable to work in pairs during the test situations that follow. One
partner applies the stimulus while the other indicates the sensation evoked.
All the data should be recorded in your data book.
1. On a sheet of notebook paper 4 cm square, trace with a ruler a 1 cm
square. Cut out the 1 cm square so that the larger square has a hole
in it that is 1 cm2 in area. This paper template can be used to find the
number of touch receptors in 1 cm2 of skin surface.
2. The subject should close his or her eyes. Then place the template on
the underside of the subject's wrist and with a probe touch the skin
very lightly. Try not to depress the skin surface. The subject should
indicate by saying "des" whenever he or she feels the touch.
3. Trace a similar template in your data book. Map the subject's touch
receptors by using a red dot to represent a touch receptor (a "yes"
response) and a blue dot to represent an area touched without sen-
sation.
4. Try 3 different areas on the wrist. Record responses in the same way
as in procedure 3.
5. Count the number of receptors (a "yes" response) in each area and
divide by the number of areas tested.

72 5
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 623

6. Proceed in a similar manner to locate touch receptors on the upper Discussion

arm, back of the neck, and the fingertips. Record your data as before. Part A
1 Variable. dependent on student data
Discussion 2. The greatest number of touch receptors
1. (a) How many touch receptors per cm2 of wrist surface did you find? normally will be found on the palmar surface of
(b) Of upper arm surface? the fingers (about 100 per cm'). The back of
(c) Of back of the neck surface? the neck probably will have the fewest
(d) Of fingertip surface? receptors.
2. Which area had the greatest number of touch receptors? The fewest 3 The fingers are undoubtedly the structures
receptors? of the body used most frequently in tactile
reception, and correlated with this is the
3. Suggest some hypotheses for the differences in receptor frequency in
dresence of sensory receptors. Genetics and
these various areas.
evolution are, of course, the determiners.
4. What is the relationship, if any, between hairs on the skin and touch
4. Most hair seems to be associated with a
receptors?
touch receptor. The movement of the hair itself
evokes the sensation of touch. These data
Part BSight support the fact that hair is a tactile organ,
(Cat's whiskers are an example.)
Procedure
Each student should work alone in this part.
1. Take a piece of paper and place a cross (+) and a circle (0) on the
paper 6.5 cm apart. Make the cross and circle about the size of the
ring holes in your notebook paper.
2. Enclose these marks within a 5 by 10 cm rectangle.
3. Hold the paper about 60 cm away from your eyes and close your left
or right eye. Slowly bring the paper closer while keeping your open
eye fixed on the cross. hecord in your data book what happens to the
circle and the cross as you bring the paper nearer.
4. Draw a line from the cross almost to the circle, interrupting it in the
vicinity of the circle and continuing it again on the other side of the
circle.
5. Now repeat procedure 3. Record what happens to the line in the vi-
cinity of the circle.

Discussion Part B
1. What happened to the circle and the cross as you brought the paper 1. The circle disappears.
nearer your eye in procedure 3 above? 2 The line appears to be continuous and
2. What happens to the line in the vicinity of the circle in procedure 5 the circle disappears.
above? 3, The eyes are not equally discriminating at
3. What do these experiments indicate about the sense of sight? all distances and in all relationships.

Part CReaction to Stimuli

Procedure
Work in pairs for part C.
1. The subject will sit down with an arm resting on the desk so that the
hand is extended past the edge of the desk. Then curl the last 3 fingers
of the extended hand into a fist, leaving the thumb and forefinger free.
The thumb and forefinger should be parallel to the ground and 3 to 4
cm apart.
2. The experimenter will stand and hold a meter stick vertically between
the thumb and forefinger of the subject. The lowest number on the
meter stick should be between the subject's thumb and forefinger.
3. Without any warning, the experimenter will drop the stick.
4. The subject will try to catch it with just the thumb and forefinger of the
extended hand.
5. Record the point on the meter stick at which the subject caught it.

726
;, . ti-
 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

6. Repeat the test 4 more times, recording this distance each time. De-
termine the average for the 5 trials.
7. Repeat the exercise while the subject is counting by 3s to 99. Average
the time (distance on the meter stick) it takes the subject to catch the
meter stick while counting.
8. Repeat the procedure while the subject's eyes are closed. The ex-
Part C perimenter will snap his or her fingers to signal when the stick is re-
1. The dropping of the stick is sensed by the leased. Calculate the average for these 5 trials.
eye The message is relayed to ,he brain, which
sends a message to the hand muscles, which
contract and catch the meter stick Discussion
2 Principally, those of the eye 1. In the 1st test, what happens in other parts of your body before you
3 Increases the time The brain is react and catch the meter stick?
distracted. 2. What receptors are involved?
4 Much shorter with the eyes open 3. in the 2nd test, what effect does thinking have on the reaction time?
5 Faster response rate when the eyes are 4. Compare the reaction time in the 1st test with that in the 3rd test. In
used than when the ears are used to detect the which situation was reaction time shortest?
signal 5. What can you conclude about the reactions to the different signals?

Guidepost: How do chemical The Endocrine System

messengers influence
internal and external
events? 17.8 Hormones are Chemical Messengers
Some cells secrete chemicals that influence the growth, development,
or behavior of other cells. Chemicals that are produced by one set of
cells and that affect other cells are known as hormones. Hormones may
be secreted by individual cells scattered among other cells of the human
body. Usually, however, the secreting cells are grouped into tissues or
distinct organs known as glands. Glands that secrete tears, sweat, and
The first endocrine hormones to be recognized
and studied were the male sex hormones Early
saliva empty their products into a tubule or duct and are called exocrine
practices of castrating cattle to make them (EK soh krin) glands. Glands that secrete hormones generally have no
fatter and more docile gu bauk to the earliest ducts. They empty their secretions directly into the circulatory system.
agriculture ages Eunuchs (human castrates) The hormones then are carried in the bloodstream throughout the body.
were used as harem guard and, be,,ause tney 0 Because these endocrine (EN doh krin), or ductless, glands interact with
retained their childhood soprano voiles, maie
church choir singers
0 each other, we can say that there is an endocrine system. Endocrine glands
are capable of sensing the level of specific hormones in the blood and
responding by increasing or decreasing their own secretions. The en-
docrine system is slower to respond than the nervous system, but its re-
sponse is of longer duration. Thus the two complement each other very
well.

17.9 The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary

Control Many Other Endocrine Glands
Synthesis of various hormones in humans has
Once known as chief among the endocrine glands is the pituitary (pih
been shown to follow circadian rhythms
TYOO ih ter ee), often called the master gland because it secretes hor-
corticosterolds peak between 4100 " and 8 00
A Pdi growth hormone levels rise about an hour
mones that control the rate at which some of the other endocrine glands
after falling asleep and testosterone peaks function. However, the pituitary itself is controlled by hormones from
about 9 00 AM People are more likely to be the hypothalamus. Some of these hormones pass through blood vessels
born or die between 3 00 and 4 00 Iv That is into the pituitary, causing the pituitary to release its own hormones. Other
also the time of lowest body temperature. 1. It hypothalamic hormones pass through secretory neurobs tad are released
significant that the Three Mile Island crisis from the pituitary. Thus, the hypothalamus is a major link between the
occurred at 4:00 A M nervous and endocrine systems. Its hormones affect the pituitary and

72 7
 Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 625

Figure 17.15 The major endocrine glands in the human body. The dotted lines
show organs such as the stomach and kidneys.

pineal body
hypothalamus
pituitary gland

parathyroid glands
(behind thyroid)
thyroid gland

thymus gland

adrenal glands

pancreas
(islets of Langerhans)

ovaries
(in females)

testes
(in males)

some other glands. In turn, pituitary hormones control the thyroid and
the adrenal glands and, through the gonads, also regulate reproductive
activities such as the menstrual cycle and ovulation, sperm production,
embryonic development, and the production of the secondary sex char-
acteristics.
The thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck and secretes hor-
mones, one of which, thyroxin (thy.ROK sin), regulates the rate of cel-
lular respiration. If too little of this hormone is produced, the rate of
cellular respiration decreases. A person with too little thyroxin stores
food rather than using it in energy release, which results in an increase
in weight. Other effects are sluggishness, sleepiness, and lowered body
temperature. Too much thyroxin, on the other hand, increases the rate
of cellar respiration, so very little food is stored. A person with this
condition generally loses weight, has excess energy, and is very nervous.
The thyroid is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary in the feed-
back system shown in figure 17.16.
0
The adrenal glands are found adjacent to the kidneys and are also
uncicr the control of the hypothalamus and pituitary. The adrenal glands
produce important hormones that regulate salt and water balance and
0
also enable the body to respond to stress. In investigation 17.3, you can
examine the interaction of those hormones to stress conditions.

728
 "
ro
'044
ro
ro
ro
ro
41.
ro
ro
ro
ro
ro
cL
ro
ro
ro ro
ro
ro
ro
ro
ro ro
ro
ro
ro
ro
ro

Y1' '
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 627

,71
401;0100054,0*.Ole_,.
Gland/Organ Hormone Target Principal Action
Adrenal cortex cortisol general increases glucose, protein, and fat metabolism; reduces
(outer portion) inflammation

aldosterone kidneys affects water and salt balance

Adrenal medulla epinephrine, general (nr..ny increases heart rate and blood pressure; activates "fight
(inner portion) norepinephrine regions and or flight" mechanism
organs)

Gonads
ovaries estrogen general development of secondary sex characteristics; bone
growth; sex drive

progesterone uterus (lining) maintenance of uterus during pregnancy

testes testosterone general development of secondary sex characteristics; bone

growth; sex drive

Heart atrial natriuretic factor blood vessels, regulates blood pressure and volume; excretion of water,
(ANF) kidneys, adrenal sodium, and potassium by the kidneys
glands, regulatory
areas of the brain

Hypothalamus (via antidiuretic hormone kidney controls water excretion

posterior lobe of (ADH, vasopressin)
pituitary)

oxytocin breasts, uterus stimulates release of milk; contraction o: smooth muscle

in childhirth

Pancreas (Islets of glucagon liver stimulates breakdown of glycogen to glucose

Langerhans)

insulin cell membranes lowers blood sugar level; increases storage of glycogen

Parathyroid parathyroid hormone intestine, bone stimulates release of calcium from bone; decreases
(parathormone) excretion of calcium by kidney and increases absorption
by intestine

Pineal melatonin unknown in regulation of circadian rhythms (day/night cycles)

humans perhaps
hypothalamus and
pituitary

Pituitary (anterior adrenocorticotropic adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones

lobe) hormone (ACTH)

growth hormone (GH) general stimulates bone and muscle growth, amino acid transport,
and breakdown of fatty acids
thyroid stimulating thyroid secretes thyroxin
hormone (TSH)

prolactin breasts stimulates milk production and secretion

follicle stimulating ovarian follicles, stimulates follicle; estrogen production; spermatogenesis
hormone (FSH) testes
luteinizing hormone (LH) mature ovarian stimulates ovulation in females, spew and testosterone
follicle, interstitial production in males
cells of testes

Thymus thymosin lymphatic system possibly stimulates development or lymphatic system

Thyroid thyroxin general stirnulate^ and maintains metabolic activities

calcitonin intestine, kidney, inhibits release of calcium from hone; decreases excretion
bone of calcium by kidney and increases absorption by intestine
628 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Investigation 17.3
4i:440410On HORMONES; AND= STRESS
HORMONES AND STRESS
Introduction
This investigation will require the student to During periods of stress humans rely on their enaocrine system to coun-
examine the role of hormones in regulating teract increased physiological demands that could result in serious health
energy production and should be introduced by problems. While some stress responses are relatively dramatic and fast,
rewewm actions 17 8-17 10 To supplement for example the fight or flight response, most develop over time and involve
the descriptive nature of sections 17.8-17 10, it subtle changes in cell chemistry that make them difficult to detect and study.
would be helpful to describe some of the Although stress conditions present unique sets of problems, they also
classical methods for determining hormone share a common response called the "stress syndrome." That involves
function such as gland removal and gland the chain reactions of many hormones in meeting stress conditions found
extract injections. Two good stress-hormone by an organism. In this investigation you will compare 2 types of stress
reference, are H A deVnes. 1986, Physiology conditions to determine their degree of similarity. You also will develop hy-
of Exercise, 4th ed. (Dubuque. Iowa. W C potheses to explain the physiological changes induced by stress.
Brown) and A. J. Vander, J H. Sherman, and
D. S. Luciano, 1986, Human Physiology, 4th ed.
Procedure
(New Yolk: McGraw-Hill Book Company)
Group size could range from 1 to 3 students. Part AEndocrine Interactions in Response
Discussion time should be allotted for all to Stress Due to Cold Temperature
questions in this investigation Individuals with normal adrenal and pituitary glands were found to sur-
vive much longer when exposed to prolonged cold temperatures than those
Procedure having abnormal adrenal or pituitary glands. Early mouse studies found that
Part A survival in cold temperatures also was reduced by tying off the connection
between the hypothalamus and pituitary. The mice with tied off connections
1 (a) Adrenal glands produce cortisol
did not have the hormones ACTH or cortisol, which are found in mice sur-
increased adrenal weight in exp I and IV is
viving cold stress. Table 17.3 summarizes a series of mouse experiments
accompanied by increased cortisol If the
to determine the relationship between the adrenal and pituitary glands as
pituitary was responsible, its absence in IV
well as which one produced the hormones ACTH and cortisol. Human
would not permit cortisol production.
studies later produced results similar to those in the mouse study. Use the
(b) Pituitary gland produces ACTHexp I
data to answer the questions below.
and II indicate that the pituitary inff.,,eii,es the
adrenal ;:and, and cortisol response in en. N 1. (a) Which hormone, ACTH or cortisol, was produced by the adrenal
shows that the pituitary influence is due to gland? Explain.
ACTH (b) Which hormone, ACTH or cortisol, was produced by the pituitary
2 Stress hypothalamus gland? Explain.
pituitary .adrenal cortisol survival (refer
ACTH 2 Outline the seq9ence of events resulting in cold stress survival in terms
to section 17 9) of the glands and hormones studied in the cold shock experiment.

Part B
Part 8 Cortisol Levels of Trained and Untrained
1. Workloads equal to or exceeding 60% of Humans During Graded Exercises
maximal level induce increased cortisol
Two groups of humans, a 10-member group of 22- to 27-year-old trained
production in trained and untrained individuals
cyclists and a 10-member group of 25- to 33-year-old nonathletes, were
2 Since trained ,ndividuals would be
first tested to determine their maximum work capacity. Work capacity is
expected to be less affected by exercise than
the amount of energy that the heart converts to work while pumping blood
untrained individuals, the higher cortisol levels
into the arteries. Both groups were then'studied during a 32-minute exer-
during exercise and the rapid dropoff during
cise period during which their workloads were increased from 30 to 45, to
recc could account for their better 60, and then to 75% of their predetermined maximum levels at 8-minute
performance 'evel during and quicker recovery
intervals. Figure 17.17 compares the cortisol changes in the groups. Use
after exercise the data to answer the questions below.
3. Answers may include the following:
(a) age grow tested, 1. Based on the data in figure 17.17, develop a hypothesis to explain the
(b) select different types of athletes to relationship between exercise and cortisol production.
represent trained groups, 2. HJW aoes this experiment indicate that the cortisol response may he
(c) use trained groups with different lengths beneficial?
of training prior to experiment 3. Prepare a list of experimental factors that could alter the results re-
ported for this experiment.

7
 \k`

Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 629

triibleAr..3:-pc)Oieolf 'frOtildiimfdtiririii stilitis

Exp. Stimulus Pituitary Hypothalamus Substance Adrenal Cortisol Stress
Injected Gland in Plasma Result
Weight (mg/ 100 ml)
(9)

cold normal normal none 7.5 30.5 survival

ll cold removed normal none 3.4 0.0 death

III cold normal injured none 3.5 0.0 death

IV none removes normal ACTH 7.4 30.6 survival

Figure 17.17 Effect of graded exercise on Figure 17.18 Effect of graded exercise on
plasma cortisol levels. blood glucose levels.

7.5
trained
20
Ni
trained
/ untrained
10
recovery 6.0

60% 75%
0 4596 1

I I t
0 8 16 24 32 37 4.5
time (min.) 75%
60%
From S. R. Bloom. R. H. Johnson, D. M Park. M. J. Rennie, and 45%
30%
W. R. Suleiman. "Differences in the metabolic and hormonal
response to exercise between racing cyclists and untrained
individuals" Journal of Physiology 258:1-18 (1976, p. 11). 16 24 32
8
time (min)
From S. R. Bloom. R. H. Johnson. D. M. Park, M. J. Rennie. and
W. R. Suleiman. "Differences in the metabolic and hormunal
response to exercise between racing tyclists and untrained
individuate" Journal of Physiology 258:1-18 (1976. p. 5).

Part CCortisol Function

Cortisol activity results in increased energy production. One indication Part C
of increased energy production is provided by blood glucose level. Figure 1Once exercise is initiated by trained
17.18 shows the results obtained when this was measured in the experi- individuals, the plasma glucose levels increase
ment described in part B. Use the data to answer the questions below. at a constant rate as the workload increases, In
1. What information does figure 17.18 provide about plasma glucose untrained individuals glucose levels do not
levels during graded exercise? increase until workloads reach 75% of
2. Do the results of the experiment shown in figures 17.17 and 17.18 maximum
reflect the role of cortisol? Erplain. 2 No Based on the information in figure
3. Based on the results shown in figures 17.17 and 17.18, what would 17 17, both groups should have shown marked
you conclude about the relationship between cortisol and glucose? increases in glucose levels after 16 minutes
3. The two most reasonable answers would
be
Discussion (a) Cortisol may increase energy production
1. What do the cold stress and graded exercise experiments have in by increasing both glucose levels and glucose
common? use,
2. Epinephrine and cortisol are both produced by the adrenal glands. (b) Cortisol may be increasing energy levels
Individuals with Addison's disease have considerable adrenal gland by increasing the use of energy molecules other
damage and adjust poorly to stress situations in general. However, than glucose (I e , fats or protein) (Refer to
they do have a near normal fight or flight response. How would you section 15 11 )
account for this?
3. Cortisol is now known to cause a marked increase in protein decom- continued on page 643
position. Why would this be beneficial during stress?

732
630 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

17.10 Several Hormones Act Together

Figure 17.19 Hormonal regulation of blood
glucose. When blood glucose levels are high,
to Control Blood Glucose Levels
the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin lowers Endocrine tissues embedded in the pancreas produce two hormones:
blood glucose by promoting its entry into cells
and its storage in the ver. When blood glucose
insulin (IN suh lin) and glucagon (GLOO kuh gahn). These alon6 with
levels are low, the pancreas releases glucagon, epinephrine are the primary regulators of glucose levels in the blood.
which stimulates the liver to release glucose. Insulin is secreted in response to a rise in blood glucose, as after a meal,
During stress conditions, the adrenal gland and facilitates entry of glucose into the cells. In the absence of insulin,
releases epinephrine and other hormones that cells are unable to absorb glucose, and glucose is excreted in the urine.
act to raise blood glucose.
Without glucose, the cells use fats and proteins in respiration to provide
energy. Some of the products of this process have undesirable side effects
when they appear in the blood. Very high levels of these products may
even cause coma and death.
from Glucagon and epinephrine both act to raise blood glucose levels and
liver brain,
(glucose stored nervous prevent hypoglycemia (hy poh gly SEE mee uh), or low blood sugar.
as glycogen) system Hypoglycemia is dangerous because brain cells must obtain a constant
supply of glucose from the blood. If the supply is cut off, an individual
may lose consciousness.
The disease diabetes (dy uh BEET eez) results from insufficient in-
sulin secretion. Because the cells then are unable to absorb glucose and
instead must use fats and proteins for energy, changes occur in many
body systems. Particularly critical are changes in the circulatory system
that can lead to heart disease or blindness if the disease is not controlled.

Self-Review

1. How are the endocrine glands controlled?

(blood glucose) 2. Why is the pituitary gland often called the master gland?
3. Describe the feedback loop that controls secretion of thyroxin by
the thyroid.
4. What are the functions of the adrenal hormones?
5. How do hormones interact to control blood glucose levels?
6. Why can the ovaries and testes be considered endocrine in function?

Guidepost: What is the relationship Human Behavior and the Nervous

between the mind, the
brain, and human System
behavior?
17.11 The Mind Is a Major Aspect
of Who We Are
At the moment a gymnast's brain is signaling the hypothalamus to
alert the body for action, the mind is controlling the brain. How does
the mind differ from the brain?

733
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 631

The brain is made of tissue that is organized into distinct parts with
specific functions. The brain's functions can be traced through its elec-
trical activities during life, and its structure determined by dissection
after death. No trace of a "mind," however, will be seen in either ob- Discussion of the mind brain relation may be
servation. What, then, is the mind? It seems to emanate from our brains found in Carl Sagan, 1979, Broca's Brain (New
and is a major aspect of who we are. Perhaps we can tentatively define 0 York Random House), and in Douglas
Hofstader. 1981, The Mind's I (New York, Basic
"mind" as the result of actions of one or more parts of the brain, both
Books).
conscious and unconscious.
The mind is often associated -with intelligence, the ability to learn.
Intelligence is sometimes linked with brain size, but studies have not
0
confirmed such a relationship. The average weight of the adult male brain
is about 1380 g and of the adult female about 1250. In that mass there
are on the order of 1011 (100 billion) neurons, give or take a factor of
10. The cerebrum, where all conscious thought, learning, and memory
take place, constitutes about seven-eighths of the total weight of the
0
human brain and occupies most of the area of the skull. Brain size in-
creases with body size and decreases as an adult ages or during long
periods of illness.

17.12 The Human Brain and Human

Behavior Evolved Together
Humans have the most intricate brain and exhibit the most complex A fascinating discussion of development of the
behavior patterns of any animal. We cannot trace the evolution of human human brain and mind may be found in Carl
behavcr, but we have evidence of a rapid (in evolutionary terms) in- Sagan, 1977, The Dragons of Eden (New York
crease in cranial capacity. This rapid development of the brain signifies Random House, Inc.).

to many researchers strong selection pressure for the survival of intel-

ligent human forms.
A factor that made more learning possible was the lengthening of
prenatal and postnatal dependent life. Longer prenatal life allowed time
0
for the brain to develop and enlarge. Longer postnatal dependency pro-
vided time for the offspring to learn the resources of their environment
from accumulated family knowledge. That, in turn, made necessary the
use of some form of communication.
At an early stage in our history, we added two immensely powerful 0 Differentiate between language and
communication Have the students list animals
tools to our other abilities. The first was language, which is a common
scheme of sounds for communicating with one another. The second was that communicate and consider whether any
writing, a technique for storing information in symbols so that it can be animals have a language

passed along from generation to generation. The verbal and written

transmission of information made possible the development of the learned
pattern of thought and behavior we call human culture.
Human language is the most complex animal communication system
known to us at present. Our minds, which govern the vast majority of
our actions, function through the use of language. Some psychologists,
people who study human behavior, believe that we cannot thlak what we
cannot say. Others believe that language is only one of the functions of
thought.

734
 632 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 17.20 How bees communicate.

a. A foraging honeybee returns to the hive after finding a nectar source.

Other bees soon leave the hive and fly to the same source. How does
the first bee inform other bees about the food source?
(14.2.-

pmb ,

Have students research "sociobiology" and the The development of culture is thought to be an outgrowth of the de-
controversy surrounding the work of Edward 0 velopment of at least a rudimentary language. The two ae mutually
Wilson of Harvard University in the mid-1970s.
dependent and probably evolved together. Development of language and
culture allowed for rapid changes in response to the environment, both
natural and human-made. Significant genetic change normally requires
millions of years. Cultural adaptation occurs much more rapidly. Fur-
thermore, such adaptation can be passed to the next generation.

17 3 5
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 633

17.13 Other Animals Communicate and May

Have Conscious Thoughts
Though human beings possess the most complex brain and language, 0
they are not alone in the ability to communicate and form societies. Bees
have a very complex communication signal known as the bee dance
(figure 17.20). Through this dance, a bee can communicate to other bees
in the hive the location of food (nectar) in the form of flowers. Therefore,
the bee dance describes an event distant in both time and space.
Evidences of conscious behavior exist in primates other than humans.
In an attempt to relieve a hunger problem in a macaque troop on the
Japanese island of Kashima, scientists threw wheat grains on a sandy
beach. The effort of separating wheat grains one by ont: from sand grains This and other studies indicate that behavioral
easily could use more energy than eating the collected grains would pro- changes are often initiated by the female of the
species and also spread most rapidly by them
vide. Perhaps accidentally, perhaps in anger, a female monkey named
Explain this in terms of adaptiveness
Imo threw handfuls of the mixture into the water. She noted that the
wheat floated and the sand sank, and she scoored up and ate the cleaned
wheat grains. The younger monkeys imitated her discovery, and the
practice spread. All macaques on Kashima are now competent at water
sifting.
The active passing of information, if not teaching as such, was ex-
hibited by Washoe, a chimp who was taught American Sign Language
as an infant. She has shown her own adopted infant the sign for chair Have students research the studies of Washoe
and has signed "food" to him and then molded his hands with hers into and Imo
the sign for food. Though not all researchers agree, some of the data
from these and other studies seem to suggest a mental and social con-
sciousness in apes as well as humans.

Figure 17.21 Chimp using sign language to communicate.

H. Torraes/Anthro Photo
634 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Biology Today

Bird Migration and Biological Clocks

The flight of birds migrating south in the fall or
north in the spring is familiar to everyone. What
ARCTIC CIRCLE

pit
guides these birds toward warmer climates in the
winter and back,to their breeding grounds in the
spring? There are two general answers to this
question. One is that migration is triggered by
external factors, such as changes in temperature
and photoperiod, the number of daylight hours,
from season to season. The other io that there
are genetically determined internal factors that
EQUATOR
control this seasonal behavior.
For the past 20 years, behavioral scientists in
southern Germany have been studying migration
of several species of warblers that migrate at
night and rest during the day. The scientists
observed that caged warblers were intensely
active at night during the fall or spring. This
behavior, called "migratory restlessness," could
be measured and used to determine the beginning
and end of migration.
The scientists first investigated three.groups of
warblers. One group was held in the laboratory at
constant temperature and a constant photoperiod GARDEN WARBLbrn
of 12 hours per day. A second group was (SYLVIA 80811)

tran3ported to the birds' normal wintering range. Reprinted with permission of W. N. Freeman and Company from
-Internal Rhythms in Bird Migration" by Eberhard Gwinner.
The third group was in the laboratory throughout SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. April 1986.
the winter at constant temperature but with
variations in photoperiod typical of temperate 12. Yet, in nature, seasonal activities such as
regions. molting and migration always occur at the same
All three groups exhibited behavior typical of time of year. What factor could synchronize the
warblers in the wild. In further experiments, the approximately annual internal rhythms with the
scientists exposed each of three groups of solar year?
warblers to different photoperiods of a constant Further experiments with warblers showed the
length for several years. Migratory restlessness synchronizer to be photoperiod. When the
continued in the typical yearly pattern for all the environment of the caged birds simulated that of
groups for the length of the experiments. In their natural breeding range, they underwent
addition, the scientists observed that molting migratory restlessness and molted on an exact
occurred as it would in the wild. annual schedule. In addition, if the photoperiod
These experiments showed clearly that internal was increased and decreased on a 6-month cycle
factors control the onset of migration in warblers. instead of a 12-month cycle, the internal rhythm
Such rhythmic internal timekeepers are known as was shortened to half its normal duration.
biological clocks. Many other organisms, exhibit Thus it seems clear that internal factors,
annual rhythms similar to those of birds. synchronized by external factors, particularly
Under constant environmental conditions, the photoperiod, control migration of birds. Evidence
period of such a biological clock usually is not continues to accumulate that this is true for annual
exactly a year. The caged warblers, for example, behaviors of other organisms as well.
molted about every 10 months rather than every

I.)

737
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 635

17.14 Our Slowly Ev iing Control Systems

Might Not Be Appropriate for Modern
Living
Human behavior, like other human characteristics, is the result of
evolution and adaptation, and thus has a genetic basis. It is strongly in-
fluenced by the environment, and scientists disagree about the relative
importance of heredity and environm:nt in the determination of human
behavioral traits.
For example, the problem of stress currently receives a great deal of
attention. Many blame stress on the rapid rate of technological advances
and the demand this places on the individual to keep pace with the re-
sulting changes. However, the way our glandular and nervous systems
function is also partly to blame. These systems have not changed sig-
nificantly from the earliest hunter-gatherer stages when the appropriate
response to any threat was fight or flight.
Today, when an individual perceives a threat, real or imagined, the
fight or flight response is activated. The autonomic nervous system and
the hypothalamus initiate a series of nervous and endocrine events that

Figure 17.22 The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

stimulates a number of organs in the "fight or flight" response.

hypothalamus

eye
dilation of pupil

trachea and lungs

increases respiration

heart
increases heart rate
and blood pressure

adrenal gland
epinephrine
increases blood
glucose to muscle
tissue

sympathetic nerve chain

738
I .1
636 Section Four Functionir Organisms in the Biosphere

enable the body to perform vigorous muscular activity. Specific re-

sponses to threat include increased breathing rate and heart rate, a rise
in blood pressure and blood clotting ability, and increased blood glucose
Stress triggers a set of body changes that are
levels, mental activity, and muscle strength. Because threats in today's
opposite to those of homeostasis What could
society do not often involve situations where either fight or flight is ap-
be the adaptive significance of those changes?
propriate, the net result to the body is like stepping on the accelerator
of a car while the brake is depressed. A lot of fuel is burned, but you do
not get anywhere. Some researchers believe that repeate ressful sit-
uations are related to the incidence of heart problems in relatively young
people. Psychological problems such as insomnia, anxiety, and depres-
sion also appear to be related to stress.
Habits acquired in your teen years set the patterns of behavior that
you are likely to follow as an adult. You are at a stage of life at which
you can evaluate your behavior and determine what type of adult you
would like to become. You may find it interesting to think about your
own life and the lives of relatives and friends you have known for several
years. Can you recognize any trends of behavior in your family and
friends? Compare the behavior of students in the lowest and highest
grades in your school. Can you see any changes that may be the result
of "growing up?" Are Or-re signs of increased stressful behavior in your
peer group? To what extent are those changes based on experience, ed-
ucation, or pressures from society?

17.15 Artificial Intelligence Is a Possibility

in the Future
Many investigators are trying to find the limits of the human brahl.
Some neurobiologists believe that its capabilities are infinite and are be-
yond our ability to duplicate in computers. Others, howa tr, feel that
the brain is like a machinea giant, complicated computer. If that is
true, it should be possible to construct a computer capable of creating
ideasan artificial intelligence. The responses of the brain are relatively
slow compared to the millionths of a second it takes for a computer to
react. At the present time, however, there is no known way of duplicating
in a computer the versatility of the 10", or 100 trillion, synapses of the
brain. Only the future will determine whether it is possible. Today we
are faced with the question of whether this is ever a desirable goal.
The gymnast's mind influences hcv behavior through determination
and practice. Her practice is often painful and always time-consuming,
time she could be spending in less painful and demanding activities
such as watching TV. Her rewards are in knowing she has performed to
the best of her ability.
For many people, the mental aod physical efforts necessary for that
feeling of accomplishment are too high a price to pay. They attempt to
gain satisfaction, confidence, or even escape through the use of various
chemical substances. In the next section we will look at some of the drugs
that influence human behavior.

73a
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 637

Self-Review

1. What kinds of activities take place in the cerebrum?

2. How can we define mind? intelligence?
3. How doe; a longer prenatal and postnatal life relate to greater human
intelligence?
4. What two tools enabled humans to develop their society and cul-
ture?
1 What evidence do we have that animals other than humans may
have minds?
6. How does stress result in a fight or flight response in the body?

Drugs and Behavior Guidepost: What are drugs and how do

they affect the functions of
the human body?
17.16 Drugs Can Be Helpful or Harmful
Drugs a' .e substances that change the way the body or mind func-
tions. Used properly, they are important in maintaining physical and
0
mental health. Drugs include medicinal substances, such as antibiotics
and aspirin, that are used to cure or treat diseases or to relieve minor
discomforts. Drugs also include mind-altering or psychoactive (sy koh
AK tiv) substances such as tranquilizers, opiates, barbiturates, alcohol, Have the students discuss their perception of
and t. ,4tcco. Some are prescribed to relieve severe pain, aid sleep, and the lack of limits on the number of prescriptions
ousness. Because these substances work on the mind and the written by doctors, and of the effect of
senses, they can change the way a person thinks, feels, or acts. Many of commercials on the use. abuse of over-the-
them are used illegally, without a prescription, for their pleasurable side counter irugs
',Teets.
Any drug can be abused, that is, used in a way that causes personal
or social problems. For example, overuse of aspirin can lead to severe
0
abdominal bleeding. Consumption of too much caffeine in coffee, tea,
cocoa, or cola drinks can lead to irritability and s!eeplessness. Abuse of
psychoactive drugs, in addition to causing a variety of physical effects,
can lead to physical or psychological dependence.
Psychoactive drugs can be described in three general groups: depres-
sants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. Many of the psychoactive drugs
Induce tolerance, so that larger and larger amounts are required to pro-
duce the same effect. Many also are addictive, producing physical or
psychological dependence. In physical dependence, the body becomes
unable to function normally without the drug. Withdrawal may produce
symptoms ranging from discomfort to convulsions, and they can be fatal.
In psychological depentlInce, the user exhibits an intense craving for the
drug and its effects. Table 17.4 summarizes information about the more
commonly used psychoactive drugs.

740
638 Section Four Functioning Organism in the Biosphere

4., eSs-,
Psychoactive drugs affect body and nervous functions and may change behavior. This table lists some of the drugs most commonly
abused in the United States today. Effects vary a great deal from person to person; only a few are described.
Name Source and Use Effects
Depressants

Alcohol (in wine, beer, ale, spirits, Synthesized or produced naturally by Affects brain in proportion to amount in
liquors, mixed drinks, and so on). fermentation of fruits, vegetables, or bloodstream. Small dose produces
grains. euphoria, drowsiness, dizziness, flushing,
and release of inhibitions and tensions.
Slurred speech, staggering, and double
vision may result from large dose.
Impairs driving in any dose and
exaggerates effects of other drugs. Liver
damage, vitamin deficiencies, and brain
damage can occur with excessive use.
Use of 3 oz or more during pregnancy
may result in underweight babies with
physical, mental and behavioral
abnormalities. May produce tolerance
and addiction. Most common of all forms
of drug abuse today.
Tranquilizersvalium, librium, and Produce calm without sleepiness. Used Produces mildly impaired coordination
miltown. to treat anxiety, nervousness, tension, and balance, reduced alertnes- and
and muscle spasm. emotional reactions, loss of inhibition.
May produce sleep disturbances or
depression. Use during pregnancy may
cause congenital malformations. Use
with alcohol or while driving is
dangerous. Tolerance- inducing and
addictive.
Opiatesopium, morphine, codeine, and Seed capsules of the opium poppy Injection produces surge of pleasure,
heroin; dope, horse, smack, and skag. (Papaver somniferum) produce a milky state of gratification and stupor.
juice. From this juice, many drugs can be Sensations of pain, hunger, and sexual
prepared, including morphine and desire are lost. Physical effects include
codeine. Heroin is formed by chemical nausea, vomiting, insensitivity to pain,
synthesis from morphine. Taken by constipation, sweating, slowed
smoking, by mouth, or by injection. Used breathing. Long-term effects include
as pain killers. severe constipation, moodiness,
menstrual irregularities, and liver and
brain damage. Use with alcohol very
dangerous. Tolerance- inducing and
highly addictive.
Barbituratespentobarbitai, Many compounds, developed to Effects similar to alcohol: release from
seconbarbital; also called goof-balls, suppress pain, treat sleeplessness, tension and inhibition, followed by
downers, yellow jackets, red devils, and anxiety, tension, high blood pressure, interference with mental function,
so on, convulsions, and to induce anesthesia. depression, and hostility. Overdoses
Taken by mouth or injected into muscles. cause unconsciousness, coma, and
death. Extre.nely dangerous in
combination with alcohol. Long-term
effects include liver damage and chronic
intoxication. Addictive.
Stimulants

Caffeine. White, bitter, crystalline substance, found Increases metabolic rate, blood
in coffee beans, tea leaves, cocoa pressure, urination, and body
leaves, and kola nuts. Ingredient in many temperature; shortens sleep, decreases
pain relievers, cold remedies, and aroetite, and impairs coordination of
stimulant mixtures. movement. Long-term or heavy use can
cause insomnia, anxiety, depression, or
birth problems. Regular consumption of
4 cups or coffee a day can produce a
form of physical dependence.

.1;.;
741
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 639

Name Source and Use Effects

Stimulants

Tobacco. Shredded, dried leaves of tobacco plant. Increased heart and breathing rates and
Contains tar and nicotine and cancer- blood pressure; decreased appetite.
causing substances. Smoke contains Nicotine enters bloodstream; tars
carbon monoxide. Generates 2000 accumulate in lungs. Carbon monoxide
different chemical compounds. Smoked interferes with ability of blood to
or chewed. transport oxygen. Long-term effects
induc'e narrowing or blockage of blood
vessels, respiratory disease, cancers of
lung, mouth, or throat, stomach ulcers,
and reduced immunity. Chewing tobacco
increases the risk of oral cancer by 40
times. Smoking during pregnancy
increases risk of miscarriage, low birth
rate. and developmental problems.
Causes psychological and physical
dependence.
m.nphetaminesBenzadrine, dexedrine, Human-made drugs taken by mouth or Increased alertness and energy, feeling
methedrine; speed, spiash, uppers, injected do veins. of well-being, rapid heart rate and
bennies, dexies, and crystal. breathing, and increased blood
pressure. Restlessness and feelings of
power, aggression, or hostility common.
Very large doses can produce irregular
heartbeat, hallucinations, or heart failure.
Long-term use can produce mental
illnes.s, kidney damage, or lung
problems. Produces powerful
psychological and physical dependence.

Cocainecoke, snow, nose candy, Comes from the leaves of the coca Effects similar to amphetamines but of
crack. plant. Sniffed, ingested, injected, or shorter duration. Toxic; large doses can
smoked as freebase. cause hallucinations, muscle spasms,
convulsions. and death. Long-term use
produces restlessness, insomnia,
hallucinations, delusions, and weight
loss. Produces powerful psychological
and physical dependence.
Hallucinogens

Cannabishashish and marijuana; also Flowers, leaves, oils, or resin of Impairs concentration, short-term
called pot, grass, weed, reefer, and joint. Cannabis saliva. Smoked in pipe or memory, coordination, and motor skills.
hand rolled cigarette, or ingested by Enhances sensory perception and
mouth. feelings of relaxation. Distorts space-
time sense and induces withdrawal,
feaKulness, anxiety, depression, or
hallucinations. Long-term effects include
loss of motivation, interest, memory, and
concentration. The smoke can cause
chronic lung disease and lung cancer.
Psycholccii Al dependence common.
LSDlysergic acid diethylamide or acid; LSD is an artificial chemical compound Vivid psychic effects, including
mescaline and psilocybin developed in the 1940s. Mescaline is a hallucinations. Sensations intensified and
expanding drugs. natural product of peyote (a cactus) long distorted. Extreme mood swings,
used by American Indians in religious including joy, inspiration, depression,
practices. Psilocybin is formed by a anxiety, terror, and aggression. Long-
mushroom. Usually taken by mouth. term effects of LSD include decreased
motivation and interest, prolonged
deprei ,n and anxiety. Fetal
abnorr s may result from use during
pregnans q.

742
640 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

17.17 Psychoactive Drugs Affect the Brain

in Three General Ways
O Depressants reduce the activity of the central nervous system, some
of them by blocking nerve transmission. Alcohol is the most widely used
and abused depressant. It releases inhibitions and produces feelings of
happiness. Tranquilizers dull the emotions and reduce anxiety by calming
and relaxing the individual. Overuse can lead to psychological or phys-
ical dependence. Opiates (opium, morphine, and heroin) are used to re-
Many drugs act synergistically, so that a lieve pain and in addition produce effects similar to tranquilizers. Opiates,
combination produces greater or different however, induce tolerance and are physically addictive. Barbiturates dull
effects than those of the drugs taken sepaiately the mind and are used to induce sleep and relax tensions. Like opiates,
they induce tolerance and are addictive. Barbiturates are especially dan-
gerous when used with alcohol, opiates, anesthetics, or tranquilizers.
To help students differentiate between habit and
O Stimulants increase activity of the central nervous system and gen-
dependence, have students list three favorites era Ily induce a feeling of well-being. Caffeine and the nicotine in tobacco
such as watching TV, eating candy, or drinking O are both stimulants. Amphetamines are used to increase alertness and
pop. Then have them avcid those for five days reduce hunger. They induce tolerance and produce powerful psycholog-
and record how they felt each day and then for lr..al dependence. Physical dependence also can develop. The effects of
three days after resuming their favorite activities c'. Caine are similar to those of amphetamines.
Hallucinogens are drug's that change sensation, thinking, self-
awareness, emotion, and space-time perception. Marijuana is the most
ID widely used of all illegal drugs. It contains substances that affect trans-
mission of nerve impulses in the brain. Long- term use may lead to loss
of motivation and interest in daily life. LSD blocks nerve impulses and
distorts sensory perceptions, producing hallucinations and mood swings.
Peyote and psilocybin are naturally occurring substances that have been
widely used in religious ceremonies. The effects of all hallucinogens are
related to the expectations of the user, the setting in which use takes
place, and the potency of the drug.

Figure 17.23 An opium poppy.

BSCS by Doug Solup14

74 3
Chapter 17 The Human Animal: Coordination 641

Figure 17.24 Many of the complex behavior patterns of animals can be

disturbed by chemical substances. A female spider builds webs in the
characteristic regular form shown on the left. Seve,al hours after feeding on
sugar water containing a small dose of an amphetamine, the spider built the
unusually small, irregular web.ohown on the right. Although we cannot compare
directly the behavior patterns of invertebrate animals and humans, experiments
such as this provide important evidence about the effects of chemical
substances on brain function.

Petar N. Witt. Raleigh. N C. Peter N. Witt. Raleigh. N C.

Self-Review

1. What are drugs and what effects can thy produce?

2. What is meant by drug abuse?
3. How do psychoactive drugs affect the brain?
4. Contrast physical and psychological derendence.
5. What are the general effects of depressants, stimulants, and hallu-
cinogens?

Summary
We have seen some of the ways in which internal homeostasis is main-
tained despite outward actions of the body. Muscle contractions are ini-
tiated by nerve impulses triggered by external signals, such as the noise
of an expectant audience, and by internal signals, such as thought about
the action to be performed. Muscles and bones work together to bring
about the desired movements. Practice reinforces certain nerve path-
ways, so that those movements become automatic. The nervous and en-
docrine systems interact to coordinate the specific movements required.

744
 642 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

The excitement of competition activate: the autonomic nervous system,

and the fight or flight response prepar .s. the body for intense physical
activity. Other hoimones, secreted in response to signals from the hy-
pothalamus-pituitary pathway, aid in preparation of the body.
Scholars, artists, scientists, and athletes all strive for excellence. Some
never attain the level of perfection they had hoped for, and some attempt
to enhance their performance by using psychoactive drugs. Those drugs
may eventually take their tollin performance or health. When the
gymnast begins a double twisting back flip, only a fully operational mind
and brain can coordinate all the systems to prevent injury and produce
a flawless performance.

,7,,M
Application Questions Problems
1. Describe how quickly the food you ate 24 hours 1. With the current emphasis on physical fitness,
before any exertion could affect the amount of research any one fad, such as jogging, racketball, or
energy available for the muscles. What would be aerobics, and determine its relative value for
the effect of food eaten 4 hours before? cardiovascular fitness.
2. Explain the action of the muscles of the neck as you 2. Biofeedback has been used to control functions such
bring your left ear to your left shoulder and then as blood pressure and pulse. Research the validity
move the right ear to the right shoulder. of claims to control autonomic or subconscious
3. Beginn;ng with a stimulus and ending with a functions.
movement, place the following in order: synapse, 3. In 1986, two young, strong, apparently well-
effector, receptor, sensory neuron, motor neuron, conditioned athletes died from heart attacks caused
associative neuron, and muscle. by cocaine. What might be the physiological
4. Describe how a pituitary tumor in a teenager could mechanism?
affect the onset of maturation/puberty.
5. Describe the effects of a pregame pep rally on fans
and players during the rally and as the game starts.
6. What would be the results of a drug that heightens
perception but depresses the function of the
hypothalamus? How would it affect the
performance of a high-wire walker, a musician, or a
basketball player?

Suggested Readings
B. Fellman, "A Clockwork Gland" Science 85 (May 1985). Scientific American (September 1979). This entire issue is
Examines the role the pineal gland plays in human devoted to the brain and nervous system.
biological clocks. S. H. Snyder, 1986, Drug:. and the Brain (New York:
A. J. Hudspeth, "The Hair Cells of the Inner Ear" Scientific Scientific American Rooks). Comprehensive discussion of
American (January 1983). Well-illustrated article dealing how drugs work and their uses and misuses.
with these very important structures of the inner ear. B. M. Sweeney, "Biological ClocksAn Introduction"
P. Knudtson, "Painter of Neurons" Science 85 (September BioScience (July/August 1983). Explains what biological
1985). Working in the unlikely environs of 19th-century clocks (circadian rhythms) are and what function they
Spain, a physician/artist revealed the fundamental might serve.
structure of the human brain. L. Torrey, "How Science Creates Winners" Science Digest
G. Kolata, "Scrutinizing Sleeping Sickness" Science (23 (August 1984). Describes how biomechanical evaluation
November 1984). Interesting discussion of this ancient can improve an athletes performance.
disease that, to date, defies vaccination.
J. H. Schwartz, "The Transport of Substances in Nerve Cells"
Scientific American (April 1980). The role of the axon in
regulating impulses between the cell body and the nerve
endings.

7 45
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1. Food must be digested and delivered to the cells. Normal 1 Answers will depend on student selection
digestion time ranges from 4 to 7 hours. However, the liver 2. At the Menn nger Foundation in Topeka, Kansas, scientists
stores glucose in the form of glycogen and under hormonal observed that a woman's migraine headaches disappeared
control releases glucose for muscle activity. when blood flow to her hands increased, In experiments,
9.. Muscles on the left side of the neck contract to bring the lett migraine sufferers were taught to increase tne blood flow to
ear to the left shoulder and relax while muscles on the right parts of the body other than the head. Eighty percent
side of the neck contract to straighten the head. The learned to COlitrol their headaches.
reverse occurs when the right ear is moved to the right 3 There are 2 possibilities. The most probable is that cocaine
shoulder. will cause the brain to send out mixed and random electrical
3. Stimulus, receptor, sensory neuron, synapse, associative impulses These signals going to the heart cause it to beat
neuron, synapse, motor neuron, effector (muscle), Irregularly and bring about ventricular fibrillation, a
movement. purposeless twitching, inducing cardiac arrest. A second
4. The pituitary secretes hormones that control reproductive possibility is that the upset of brain signals causes
cyues and development of secondary sex characteristics. A constriction of the coronary arteries, resulting in cardiac
pituitary tumor could either advance or delay the onset of arrest.
maturity.
5. These effects act through the brain-hypothalamus-
autonomic pathway.
6. The individual might sense colors, sounds, and sights more
intensely, but experience loss rf balance, acuity, or ability to
perform.

continued from page 629

Discussion
1. Both experiments suggest that increased
cortisol production is a common stress
adaptation,
2. The adrenal glands may be producing the
two hormwes in different parts of the gland. It
would be desirable to determine if damage
associated with Addison's disease is localized.
(Th.., answer assumes teacher has noted that
glands such as pituitary and adrenal do have
more than one structural region )
3 Prote,n decomposition would provide an
additional source of energy and materials to use
for cell repair and replacement. Both would be
needed to meet the excess physiological
demands required for an organism to survive
stress situations (Refer to section 15 11 )

746
 f,4

Ocui Sok* II
The Parry prirhrose, Primrose partyi, is a typical flowering Plani:

747
 Teaching strategies for this chapter, pages

CHAPTER 18 T43-44
Key ideas
the adaptations of plant parts for specific
functions,
plant control of water loss caused by
transpiration,
growth of a flowering plant from a seed:

The Flowering Plant: growth in menstematic tissues

Form and Function

Introduction
Moss plants live in two different environments at the same time: air and
soil. Leaves and stems generally live above ground, surrounded by air.
Light, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are readily available in that environ-
ment. Roots live in the soil, which supplies water and minerals. Each
part of the plant is adapted for its environment and for a specific func-
tion in the life of the entire plant. Leaves carry out photosynthesis, stems
support the leaves and transport materials to other plant parts, and roots
anchor the plant and absorb water and minerals.
The plant uses sugars produced during photosynthesis to build its
structure, beginning with the embryo inside a seed. How is that struc-
ture produced, and how are the parts of the plant adapted to their en-
vironments? How does each part function, and how are the activities of
all the parts coorciAaated in the plant as a whole? In this and ti.e next
chapter, we will begin to answer these questions. We NMI confine our
study to the floe: ering plants, which are the most familiar and also the
most important to humans.

Leaves and Photosynthesis Guidepost: How are the parts of a leaf

adapted for photosynthesis?

18.1 The Arrangement of Leaf Cells Allows

for Movement of Carbon Dioxide
The main function of a leaf is to produce food through photosyn- studt-r-,ts to name plants with i_ompound
thesis. How is leaf structure adapted for that function? The leaf of a leaves E carnples are dover, lowst, ash,
flowering plant consists of an enlarged flat portion, the blade, usually hickory
connected to the plant stem by a petiole (PET ee ohl). The blade may
be in one piece or divided into separate leaflets. A large surface allows
for maximum exposure to light.

645
748
646 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Bis)sphere

Figure 18.1 (a)'Simple leaves and (b) a compound leaf.

a BSCS by Carty* Calvin

Gordon EiGno

Figure 18.2 A portion of a leaf blade showing internal structures. Colors are
diagrammatic only.

2
waxy cuticle
upper epidermis
palisade layer
mesophyll
spongy layer
air space
vein

stomate

lower epidermis

guard cells

74j
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Faun and Function 647

The cellular structure of a leaf blade is shown in figure 18.2, and you Ask students to set up hypotheses about the
functions of the two kinds of mesophyll cells,
can observe it directly in investigation 18.2 (page 658). Several different
Remind them that their hypotheses should be
tissues can be distinguished. Covering both surfaces of the leaf is a trans-
based on the generalization that structures
parent layer of cells called the epidermis. Epidermal cells secrete a waxy
substance that forms a waterproof coating, the cuticle. Photosynthesis 0 reflect the function they perform That
generalization is related to the idea of
occurs mainly in the mesophyll (MEZ oh fil) cells, which contain many adaptation stressed in section three and
chloroplasts. There are two types of mesophyll cells. In the upper, pal- throughout this chapter.
isade layer, elongated cells are arranged side by side. This space-saving
plan exposes a maximum number of cells to the light in a minimum
amount of space. In the lower, spongy layer, the cells are loosely packed,
with many empty paces between them. Gases can move freely around
and into ali the mesophyll cells, as clearly shown in the scanning electron
micrograph in figure 18.3.
Substances enter and leave the leaf by two different routes: veins and
stomates. Water and minerals are supplied-co-the leafi,cells b3 veins,
vascular tissues that are continuous with those of the stem and root. Gases 0
move into and out of a leaf by diffusion through stomates, shtlike cpen-
ings in the epidermis (figure 18.4). Most stomates,are located on the
underside of a leaf, and there may be millions of them per leaf. The
stomates open into the air spaces of the spongy mesophyll. Thus, the
carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis and the oxygen used in respiration
canJeach all the photosynthetic cells of the leaf.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the air is relatively constant.
Within the leaf, however, the concentration varies. Respiration goes on
at all times in leaf cells, producing carbon dioxide as a waste product.

Figure 18.3 Scanning electron micrograph of a Figure 18.4 Scanning electron micrograph of
leaf cross section. Note that air can move freely the surface of a leaf showing stomates.
throughout the interior of the leaf.

J. H. Troughton J. H. Troughton

750
648 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

O During the day, mesophyll cells use up that carbon dioxide in photosyn-
thesis. As a result, the concentration of carbon dioxide becomes lower
in the leaf than in the air, and carbon dioxide diffuses in through the
stomates. At night, photosynthesis does not occur. As a result of respi-
ration, the level of carbon dioxide builds up in the leaf. Eventually, it
becomes higher than the level in air and diffuses out.

18.2 Guard Cells Control the Rate

of Transpiration
Ask students to consider the effects of Although water molecules are present in the air as water vapor, they
temperature, wind, and rain on the rate of are never as abundant in the air as they are in the leaf. Thus, Lie plant
transpiration
loses water that diffuses into the air through the stomates. This loss is
called transpiration (trans pih RAY shun).

Figure 18.5 Guard cells control the opening of stomates. Because they are
attached to each other at both ends and encircled by rigid cellulose fiber, the
guard cells elongate and bend outward when they take up water.
chioroplasts cellulose fibers

As water enters the guard

cells, they elongate and bend
outward, opening the stoma

top view

90
cross section
chioroplasts cellulose fibers

As water leaves the guard

cells, they resume their shape,
closing the stoma.
top view

cross section

75
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 649

When plant cells have adequate supplies of water, the water exerts a Plants, particularly those living in dry
environments, have many adaptations that
pressure, known as turgor (TER ger) pressure, against the cell walls.
reduce transpiration. Among them are
Turgor pressure provides support for the stem and leaves. If more water
(a) shedding leaves in dry seasons.
is lost from a plant by transpiration than is replaced by the roots, the (b) thickened cuticle, (c) gray color, which
cells lose turgor pressure andithe plant wilts. As a result, the stem and reduces heating by sunlight, and (d) hairs that
leaves are no longer held upright. If water is not replaced quickly, the reduce passage of air across the sxf ace.
plant cells and the plant will die. In investigation 18.1, you can see the
effects of turgor pressure on plant tissue. Bending of gLard cells is thought to be related
How can the plant conserve water, yet allow carbon dioxide to enter? to the concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved
Each stomate is surrounded by a pair of specialized cells called guard in the cell Respi,ation and photosynthesis both
cells. When the guard cells fill with water, they bend outward (figure play an important role in the carbon dioxide
18.5, top). As they bend, the stomate opens and carbon dioxide diffuses supply When carbon dioxide accumulates, pH
has a tendency to fall This favors the formation
into the leaf. When a plant loses more water than it can replace, the
of starch from soluble sugar. reducing turgor
-turgor pressure of the guard cells decreases. The guard cells no longer
pressure and resulting in narrowing of the
bend outward, and as a result, the stomates close (figure 18.5, bottom). stomate When a leaf is illuminated,
In that manner, the plant is able to reduce the loss of water under dry pnotosynthesis uses up carbon dioxide, the pH
conditions. During those times, however, little photosynthesis takes place. rises, and hydrolysia of starch is favored Water
then enters the guard cells, increasing turgor
pressure, and the stomata! apertures widen.

Self-Review Ask student:, to explain the low rate of

photosynthesis when stomates are closed

1. How is the arrangement of the two kinds of mesophyll cells in the

leaf important to photosynthesis?
2. What controls the direction of carbon dioxide diffusion through the
stomates?
3. How does turgor pressure provide support for a leaf?
4. How do guard cells function to prevent water loss through the sto-
mates?

18:1 'WATER::AND 'TURGOR PRESSURE Investigation 18.1

WATER AND TURGOR PRESSURE
Introduction
Some plants maintain a position above ground, resisting the forces of Most of your students have probably noticed
gravity, wind, rain, and snow, because of the rigidity (firmness) of the plant wilted plants with bent-over stems and drooping
body. This is true in woody plants in which much of the body consists of leaves This investigation has been designed to
nonliving thickened cell walls. enable students to investigate the role of water
In herbaceous plants many cell walls are thin and structurally weak. Their in maintaining the shape of nonwoody plant
support depends on the turgor pressure that the contents of individual cells structures It is related to investigation 5.2 to
exert against their walls. This turgor pressure varies as the volume of the which you may refer students either by way of
cell contents changes when water is taken in or lost. In such plants, main- introduction or during subsequent discussion
taining position is directly related to maintaining shape, which depends on Teams of 4 students should be able to work
turgor pressure. Turgor pressure, in turn, depends on the water relation- effectively.
ships of individual cells. Student hypotheses should relate the rigidity
of potato tissue to diffusion of water into and
out of cells in the tissue

752
 650 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Materials Materials (per team)

Select potatoes that are firm and large white potato, large
enough so that 4 cores approximately 7 cm in
sucrose solutions, 6.2 M, 0.4 M, 0.6 M, 75 ml of each
length can be obtcined from each. 4 petri dishes, 100 mm X 20 mm
Distilled water is preferable to tap water for beaker, 250 ml
the 0.0 M solution and for making the other balance
solutions. knife, with 12 cm blade
The sucrose solutions can be prepared by cork borer, 1 cm diameter, with rod
diluting a 1.0 M sucrose solution, which is made heavy cardboard, 15 cm square
by dissolving 342 g sucrose in enough water to glass-marking crayon
make 1000 ml. Add 1 part of this 1.0 M solution paper towels
to 4 parts water to make 0.2 M sucrose graph paper
solution. refrigerator
Mix 2 parts 1.0 M solution to 3 parts water metric ruler
for the 0.4 M, and 3 parts to M solution and 2 distilled water
parts water for the 0.6 M. If solutions are
prepared more than a day in advance, they
should )e stored in a refrigerator to limit growth Procedure
of microorganisms.
1. Read the procedure and then state a hypothesis appropriate to the
Balances with a sensitivity of 0.01 g are design of the experiment,
adequate'f or mass determinations.
2. Using the knife, cut off one end of a potato perpendicular to its long
axis. Then make a 2nd cut parallel to the 1st one about 7 cm from it.
Procedure Discard the end pieces.
You may want to have students label both 3. Place one cut surface on top c''t le cardboard square on the labo-
the tops and bottoms of the petri dishes. H only ratory table. Cut a core of tissue by forcing the cork borer down through
tops are labeled, replacement of a top on a the potato, with a twisting motion. Then, using the rod, force the core
different bottom half cap, easily occur, leading to out of the borer into the bottom half of a petri dish. Repeat this coring
confusion. procedure 3 more times.
Rigidity of the cores is a qualitative 4. Place the cores in petri dishes. Line up the dishes and label them
determination. One system for identifying and 0.0 M, 0.2 M, 0.4 M, and 0.6 M. (M = molar.) A molar solution
recording differences is to use + + ++ for (1.0 M) of sucrose contains 342 g of this sugar per liter.
greatest rigidity and + +, , and + for 5. Weigh and record the mass of each core. Measure and record the
decreasing degrees of rigidity, length of each core. Determine the rigidity of each core by holding it
4. There should not be any change, but at each end between your fingertips and gently bending it. Are there
some students may feel differences, Accept any marked differences in rigidity among the cores? If so, record them.
these observations. Replace each core in its dish.
6. Now add to dish 0.0 M enough water to cover the core. Add to each,
Discussion of the other 3 dishes enough of the appropriate sucrose solutions to
cover the cores.
1. In the cores that increased in rigidity, the
cells have taken in water from the sucrose 7. After 30 minutes remove the core from dish 0.0 M. Dry it gently by
solution; the volume of their cell contents has rolling it between 2 pieces ci paper towel and lightly pressing each
increased. ai.d the cell contents are exerting end on the paper. Repeat for each of the other cores.
greater pressure against the cell walls. 8. Determine whether there has been any change in rigidity among the
2. (a) The greatest change (decrease) in cores. If so, devise a system to describe the differences and record
them.
rigidity is usually observed in the cores placed in
the highest concentration of sucrose, 0,6 M.
9. Return each core to its dish. Then place the dishes in a refrigerator.
(b) The least change in rigidity, depending 10. Atter 24 hours remove the dishes from the refrigerator. Repeat the
on the condition of the potatoes used, is usually drying procedure for each core and immediately determine and record
observed in the cores placed in 0.2 M sucrose
rigidity, mass, and length.
solution.
11. Calculate the differences, if any, between initial and final mass and
3. (a) Increase in rigidity should be initial and final lengths of each core. Record these, using a -I- sign to
accompanied by increase in length. As water is
indicate increase and a - sign to indicate decrease.
12. Graph these differences, using a grid as shown in figure 18.6 below.
taken in, pressure on the cell walls results in an
increase in cell volume, leading to an increase in
volume of the core and correspondingly to an
increase in its length. Decrease in rigidity should
be accompanied by decrease in length of cores.

5 .,3
 Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Fomi and Function 651

(o) Increase in rigrlity, a resort of increase in

Figure 18.6 cell volume, should be accompanied by increase
In lore mass; and a decrease in rigidity, by
+9 decrease in core mass.
4. Depends on the hypotheses and da:At.
+8 collected.
5. Two factors determine whether water will
be taken in by a thin-walled plant cell from its
+7
surrounding environment or lost to it.
(a) The differences, if any, between the
+6
osmotic concentration of the cell content:, and
that of the external solution in contact with it,
+5 and
(b) The pressure exerted by the contents of
+4 the cell wall surrounding it.
If a freshly cut core is placed in distilled
+3 water (0.0 M), water diffuses into the cytoplasm
because the concentration of water molecules
+2 outside is greater than that inside it. and its
membranes are highly permeable to water. As
water is taken up, two changes occur: (a) the
difference concentration of water molecules
between outer and inner solutions decreases,
0 and (b) as the volume of the cytoplasm
increases, the,pressure exerted on the cell wall
Increases. As this pressure increases, the
,..7,esponding pressure exerted by the wall on
-2 the cNt!oplasm also increases. This forces water
molecules out of the cell into the external
-3 solution. On a net basis, the rate of water
molecules leaving the cell is initially less than the
-4 rate of water molecules entering it.
Over a period of time, however, increasing
wall pressure (turgor pressure) and decreasing
-5
differences in osmotic concentration of solutions
result in the rates of water uptake and water
-6 loss becoming equal. Equilibrium is established.
In distilled water, this occurs when pressure
-7 inside the cells is high: the core is rigid and its
cells are fully turgid. It the core is then
.8 transfered to a 0.2 M sucrose solution, the
0.7 0.8 0.9 decrease in difference in concentration of water
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.A 0.5 OA;
molecules, external v. internal, plus the high
r.

molarity sucrose soft. /ions pressure within the cells causes a net loss of
water until an equilibrium is again established.
As water is lost, cell volume decreases and
Discussion
turgor pressure is reduced. The rigidity of such
Review the discussion of diffusion in section 5.7, pages 144-145, and a core at equilibrium can be expected to
in investigation 5.2. Plasma membranes of potato are highly permeable to approximate that of a core immediately alter it
water and highly impermeable to sucrose molecules. The thin cell walls are has been cut from a potato.
highly permeable to both. The walls of these cells can be stretched or In sucrose solutions of higher molarity (0.4 M,
contracted only to a limited extent. Their shape when contracted, however, 0.6 M), equilibrium is established at
can be readily changed. corresponding lower turgor pressures, and
1. On what basis can you explain differences in rigidity, if any, among the cores decrease in rigidity As turgor pressures
cores placed in various concentrations of sucrose? decrease, cell walls contract and se,' volume
2. For each of the cores, compare the rigidity change, if any, after 30 decreases, resulting in a net loss of mass,
minutes. volume, and rigidity.
(a) Which core showed the greatest change in rigidity?
(b) Which showed the least change?

p64-
l04
 652 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

For Further Investigation 3. (a) Is there any relationship between your observations on rigidity and
I With 0,8 M sucrose solution, there should differences between initial and final lengths of the cores? If so,
be some further decrease in rigidity but tittle explain.
further change in mass or volume as compared (b) Between initial and final mass? If so, explain.
with data from cores placed in 0.6 M sucrose 4 Co your data supp.rt the hypothesis you stated at the beginning of
At that molanty, protoplasts are contracted to this investigation?
an extent where little or no pressure is being 5. What is the relationship between water content and rigidity of plant
exerted on cell walls, so further decrease in structures that have thin-walled ce1:3?
core length is small. In 1 0 M sucrose, changes
in rigidity and volume show little further change,
For Further Investigation
but some increase in mass may be expected as
core tissue becomes infiltrated with high-density 1. Using the same experimental approach, investigate the effects of su-
sucrose solution, crose solutions having concentrations of 0.8 M and 1.0 M. Compare
2 This enables students to actually see data obtained with those derived from your original experiment.
contraction of cytoplasm to a degree where it 2. Investigate the effects on elodea leaves of sucrose solutions of the
pulls away from cell walls plasmolysis) if leaves same range of concentrations as used in this investigation. Mount de-
with plasmolyzed cells are then immediately tached leaves on a microscope slide in the sugar solution, and add a
mounted in tap water, recovery from plasmolysis cover slip. Observe this first under low power and then under high power
can usually be obs, ved as the cells cytop'asm for 5 minutes.
takes in water and increases in volume

Guidepost: How are stems adapted for Stems and Conduction

conduction and support?

18.3 Stems Support the Leaves and

Conduct Water and Sugars
Scree plants are almost stemless The leaves of The plant stem connects the leaves and roots, and supports the leaves
dandelions, for example, spread out on the and reproductive organs in the light and air. It ca, ries water and min-
ground They appear to Tow directly from the
top of the root
erals from the roots to the leaves and sugars from the leaves to nonpho-
tosynthetic parts of the plant. Air diffuses into stems through lenticels
(LENT ;h seta), small openings on the surface. Some stems also store
food in their tissues. Stems may be either herbaceous or woody. Her-
baceous stems are rather soft and are supported primarily by turgor
pressure, as we explained in section 18.2. Woody stems have cells with
thick, stiff walls that provide support.

Figure 18.7 Structural adaptations of underground stems. What do you think is

the principal function of each type?

Corm Tuber Rhizome

.._......-.-...11111.11911111.~........-..--.. .
\\

N\ . .......'

5: k§, Xi /3' X3/5

:gladiolus M1 white potato quack grass

75 5
Chapter :18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 653

Stems differ greatly in_structure, but all have buds. A bud is a min- Food storage and reproduction are stem
iature shoot consisting of a short stem, tiny immature leaves, and some- !unctions represented here (Note The gladiolus
times flowers. The "eyes" of a white potato are really buds. The potato, corm is, shown in section )
therefore, is an underground stem. A sweet potato has no buds; it is a
root. Most stems, however, grow above ground.
If we examine a woody twig from a deciduous tree after the leaves Provide a number of specimens of dormant
have fallen, the buds are -111y conspicuous. Growth from a terminal woody stems for comparison with the illustration.
(tip) bud lengthens the twig. Growth from a lateial (side) bud starts a Collect the twigs before they begin developing
new branch. During the winter, a bud is usually covered with protective and store them in a refrigerator Bud packing
scales, which are modified leaves. Bud scales fall off when growth starts can be examined lAtithnut the a:d of a lens if the
end bud of horse chestnut is opened with a
in the spring, leaving scars where they were attached Because these bud
dissecting needle
scales are formed only in the fall, one can determine the age of a branch
by counting the number of scars. Each ring of bud scale scars indicates
where growth began for that year.

Figure 18.8 (a) A dormant woody twig, (b) a terminal bud and lateral buds, and
(c) a diagram of a longitudinal section of a terminal bud.

terminal bud

t.
lateral
bud

lenticel
leaf scar

scale scar

Apical meristem

From Johnson, Leland G. Biology, I" 1983 Wm. C.

C Brown PL 'fishers, Dubuque. Iowa, Alt Rights
one year's Reserved. Reprinted by permisso
growth V.

BSCS by Doug Sokol!

56
654 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

18.4 Water and Sugars Move through.

Different Kinds of Cells in the Stem
Figure 18.9 shows the microscopic structure of a young dicot stem in
three dimensions. At the very center of the young stem t1-ere. may be a
group of loosely collected cells called the pith. The pith stores food in
young stems and is =ally destroyed as the stem grows older.
The cot coding of phloem and xylem is as in The epidermis forms the outside "skin" of the yourg stem. It is a
figs. 18.2 and 18.14. but the cortex is green single, protective layer of cells that will be replaced by the bark as the
here because the stem cortex cells may contain young stem grows older. The cortex tissue is formed of thin-walled cells
chlorophyll and be photosynthetic
that can serve as either a storage area or a photosynthetic area, de-
pending on the stem.
0 Sugars produced by photosynthesizing leaf cells are transported
throughout the plant in the phloem. Sieve cells in the phloem form tubes.
As each sieve cell develops, many small holes form in both end walls.

-Figure 18.9 A young stem showing microscopic structures. Colors are

diagram tatic only.

epidermis
cortex
cambium
pith
411. 41,1b.
phloem
Jo, ,
`4,01
xylem yf
 Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 655

Figure 18.10 Stained cross section of a young dicot stem showing pith. cortex,
and fibrovascular bundles.

Ripon hRii-c?lides Inc.

Through these holes the cytoplasm of one cell connects with the cyto
plasm of adjacent cells, making a continuous cell-to-cell system. As a
sieve cell matures, its nucleus disintegrates. Located beside each-sieve-
tube cell is a smaller, companion cell that has a nucleus. Botanists think
that mmpanien cells regulate the activity of sieve-tube cells.
The vascular cambium (KAM bee thii) tissue lies between the phloem
and xylem. cells. It conAsts of cells 1:at undergo mitosis and divide,
forming other plant tissues. When a cambium cell divides into two new
cells, one of these cells eventually becomes Ei conducting or supporting
cell. The other cell remains a part of the cambium tissue and, divides
again. Phloem are formed continually at the. outer surface of the
cambium. Xylem cells are formed continually at the inner surface of the
cambium. Fiber cells also are formed by the cambium. They are in,,r-
spersed with the vascular xylem and'phloem, and they strengthen and
support the stem.
Mostof the stem eventually consists of xylem, which serves tvik im- 0 Flax, hemp, jute, and sisal are examples of
portant functions. Xylem transports water and minerals, ai:d its thick- fibers from plant stems that are commercially
walled cells are the major supporting structures of the stem. Wood, which important
is found only in older stems, is made completely out of xylem cells. Xylem 0
may be made of two kinds of cellstracheid3 and vessels. Tracheids are
thick-walled long cells that grow to their full size an then die. The walls
of these dead cells contain thin areas called Pits in adjacent tra-
cheids.' !e paired, so that water and dissolved substances can pass easily
from one tracheid to another. Vessels are made of long, thick-walled cells
joined end-to-enj to form tiny, elongated pipes that extend through the

753

,C>
656 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 18.11 (a) Cells from cond4cting tissues of flowering plants. (b) Scanning
electron micrograph of a stem cro:,s section showing xylem vessels.

sieve
plate

sieve
tube

companion
cell

f
r'

tracheid cells vessel cells

xylem cells phloem cells
,zas.
a b
John N. A. Lott/BPS /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

9 stem (figure 18.1Ib). The end walls of vessel cells disintegrate, and they,
like tracheids, die. Both tracheids and vessels Ore arranged to form a
continuous conducting system from the root, up through the stem, and
out into the veins of the leaf. You will be able to observe these structures
in investigation 18.2 on page 65S.

18.5 Transpiration Pulls Water Up through

the Xylem of a Plant
Water must travel more than 100 m to reach the top of the tallest
trees (see figure 13.2, page 438). Many experiments have shown that
water from roots rises through root xylem to stem xylem to the xylem
in the veins of leaves. This movement is against the force of gravity.
 Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 657

Imagine that you are standing with a long soda straw on top of a building
three stories tall. The straw extends down into a bottle of root beer on
the ground. No matter how hard you try, you cannot suck the root beer
up from the bottle. You could not do this even with a vacuum pump.
How then do water and dissolved materials in the water move up to the For a detailed physical consideration of this and
top of a tree? movement in phloem. see F B Salisbury and
Water is thought to move by a process known as cohesion- C W Ross, 1985. Plant Physiology, 3d ed.
transpiration. Under certain conditions, water can be pulled up a narrow (Belmo it. Calif Wadsworth Publishing
tube if the water is in a continuous column. One condition is that the Comoany)
tube must have a very small diameter. A second condition is that the
tube must be made of a material to which water molecules will adhere, To demonstrate cohesion, have students place
several drops of water on a gilss microscope
or stick. These conditions exist within the xylem cells of plants. In ad-
slide, place a second slide on top, and try to
dition, water molecules exhibit cohesion: they are attracted to adjoining pull the slides straight apart
water molecules. As a result of the cohesion of water molecules, an un-
broken column of water is maintained in each xylem tube. When water As water evaporates horn the 'eaves. the
molecules are lost by transpiration from the upper end of the column in concentration of dissolved materials in the
the leaves, a pull results. The pull is transmitted through the length of mesophyll cells increases Water molecules from
the column, and water is pulled from th? roots up the plant to the leaves. the xylem then diffuse into these cel's

18.6 Pressure within Phloem-Cells Helps

Move Sugars Down a Plant
Sugars move from the leaves to roots and other nonphotosynthetic
parts of the plant through the phloem cells. Phlum cells contain living
Figure 18.12 A hypothesis based on fluid
cytoplasm through which water and dissolved sugars must pass. The rate pressure, for the transport of food and water in
f- it which the fluid moves through phloem is thousands of times faster phloem.
than diffusion alone could account for. What is the mechanism of phloem
transport?
log: pressure area
The best explanation of movement of sugars through the phloem is in phloem
the pressure-flow hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, water and
dissolved sugars flow through the sieve tubes from an area of higher
0 food and water
used in growth

pressure to an area of lower pressure. Mesophyll cells in the leaf secrete

sugars by active transport into the phloem cells. The resultant high sugar
high pressure area
concentration causes water to diffuse into the phlosm cells, increasing in phloem
their turgor pressure. An area of higher pressure is thus formed, which food
and water
forces the sugar-water solution to move into the next phloem cell. In this supplied in
manner, sugars are moved from cell to cellfrom higher pressure area photosynthesis
to lower prcsure areauntil they reach a cell where they will be used
or stored. There, sugars are removed from the phloem, again by active
low presure area
transport. When this happens the water also leaves the phloem cell. Thus, in phloem
the flow of sugar water from the leaves to the root can continue. food and water
stored

Self-Review

1. What are the major differences between xylem and phloem?

low presure area
2. How do vessels and tracheids differ? in phloem
3. What rnles do cohesion and transpiration play in water movement? food store°
', water returned
4. How does the pressure-flow hypothesis explain the movement of to xylem
sugars in the phloem?
flow of food and water in phloem

760
658 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Investigation 8.2
'ZTEM6-;
. ,
.AND. ROOTS.
LEAVES. STEMS. AND ROOTS. STRUCTURAL:
STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS
Introduction
This investigation focuses cn st,L Aural The leaves, stems, and roots of flowering plants have structural ad-
adaptatiuns and on the complementarity of aptatioPis that enable them to perform efficiently their specific functions. In
structures and function Do not obscure the this investigation, you will examine those plant structures and attempt to
major rpose with detailed considerations of deduce the functions for which they are adapted.
structure
Time can be saved if you set up several
siations with the materials to be studied and
Materials
have students circulate among the stations complund microscope
Start the grass seeds about 10 days before ;:issecting microscope
you plan to do tlis investigation, and the radish variety, of mature plants
seeds about 6 day head of time prepared cross section of a leaf
young bean plant
prepared cross section of an herbaceous dicoi stem
radish seedlings germinating in a petri dish
grass seedlings germinating on water
bunch of carrots
prepared cross section of a root
colored pencils (red, blue, brown, green)

Procedure Procedure
Part A Part ALaaf Structure and Function
1 Greatest possible surface area exposed 1. Look at the various plants and the different kinds of leaves. What might
to the light be the advantage of a flat, thin leaf blade to the photosynthetic ca-
2 Different patterns on different plaiits Few pacity of a plant?
plants have leaves that Gluck the sun from other 2. How are theleaves arranged on the stems of different plants? Relate
leaves this arrangement to the photosynthetic capack of the plant.
4 (a) Disk shaped 3. Exwine a prepared cross section of a leaf under the high power of
(b) Palisade and spongy cells your microscope. Compare yon slide with figure 18.3 on page 647 to
(c) Chlorcplasts are generally more become familiar wish the variot.-. regions of the leaf. Consider its struc,
abundant in pal,sade cells tures in relation to the functions of light absorption, water supply, and
5 Because of their thick walls, they provide carbon dioxide absorption.
support for the leaf 4. Locate chloroplasts in the leaf cells.
6 Cuticle keeps the leaf horn drying out, (a) idhai shape are they?
ensuring enough water for photosynthesis (b) Whiatcleaf cells contain the chloroplasts?
7 C,-.:11s are arranged irregularly lith many (c) What difference in abundance of coloroplasts among those cells
are spaces between them can you see?
8 Because the stomates open into the 5. Locate a cross section of a small vein in the center tissues of the leaf.
spaces between the cells of the spongy iayer, The vein is surrounded by a sheath of cells that also are photosyn-
gases could circulate freely in this layer thetic. Notice sor,,e empty cells with thick walls in the upper part of
the sectioned vein. What might be the function of these cells?
6. Examine the covering layers of the leafthe upper epidermis and the
lower epidermis. These single layers of cells are covered,by cuticle,
which may have been rernrwed when the slide was made. How might
the cuticle affect the efficiency of photosynthesis?
7. Locate a stomate and its guard cells. Locate the spongy tissue just
above the lower epidermis. How does the structure of the spongy tissue
differ from that of the other leaf tissues?
8. Note how the stomates are located in relation to the spongy tissue.
What does that relationship suggest about the function of the spongy
tissue?

76 A.
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 659

Part BStem Structure and Function

1. Observe the stem of the bean plant. Notice how the leaves are at- Figure 18.13
tached to the stem. The site Nf. attachment is called the node (figure growing
18.13). point
(a) What color is the stem?
(b) Judging from its color, what do you think might be the function of
a herbaceous stem?
(c) Should ;his be listed as a function of all stems? Why or why not?
2. Using low power, study a cross section through the internode of a
stem. Compare your slide with figure 18.9 on page 654 to become
familiar with the general regions of the stem. Like a leaf, an herba-
ceous stem is covered by an epidermis. How. many cells thick is the
epidermis?
3. The most noticeable feature of toe cross section is a ring of vascular
bundles. Each bundle is usually wedge shaped with the narrow end of
the wedge directed toward the center of the stem. The center of the
stem is made up of large, thin-walled coils. This is the pith. Between
the outer edges of the vascular bundles and the epidermis is the cortex.
Draw a circle about 15 cm in diameter. In the circle, outline the vascular
bundles assthey appear in your slide. Do not draw in any cells.
4. Using high power, look in the cortex and vascular bundles for thick-
walled, empty cells. Show their location in red on your diagram. Sug-
Part
gest a possible function for these cells.
5. The leaves need water for photosynthesis. Water is absorbed by the 1 (a) Green
roots and is conducted through the xylem of the stem to the leaves. (b) Phdosothesis
Use a blue pencil to color the xylem in your drawing. (c) No, because mature woody stems lose
(a) In what structures of the stem did you look for xylem cells? their photosynthetic ability
(b) What other functions might these cells have? 2 One reli thick
(c) What relation do these cells have to those previously noted in 4 Because of their thick walls, they must be
your stem drawing? strong They would provide good support
6. Materials manufactured in the leaves are transported to other parts of 5 t9) In the vascular tx.ndles
the plant through the phloem. With a brown pencil, :olor the part of (b) Support
the diagram that represents the phloem. (c) They are the same Red covers
(a) Where in the stem is the phloem tissue? supporting tissue (xylem) covers upward
(b) Was phloem also present in the leaf you observed earlier? conducting tissue (xylem)
7. Food in the form of starch is stored in stems. Using high power, care- 6 (a) In the vascular bundle, iLst outside
fully examine the stem tissues to find cells that store food. Color the the xylem
storage cells in Ine diagram green. (b) Yes, in the vein
(a) How is the presence of stored food indicated in these tissues? 7 (a) Presence r 5, .rch grains
(b) What region of the stem is devoted primarily to storage? (b) Large cells in the cortex

Part CRoot Structure and Function Part C

1. What part of a plant absorbs water? 1 Roots
2. Recall your study of the absorbing surfaces of animal d;gestive tracts 2 A large amount of sulface area
(chapter 15). What would you expect one of the characteristics of 3 The carrot
water-absorbing structures o a plant to be? 4 (a) Cu the older part of the root away
3. Some roots store more food than others. Look at the root system of froi.i the tip
the grass plant and the carrot. Which probably contains more stored (W They are brok' off
food?
4. Examine the radish seedlings in the petri dish. (Do not remove the
cover from the dish.) Use the dissecting microscope and look through
the cover of the dish at the fuzzy mass of tiny structures around the
root. "These structures are called root hairs.
(a) On what part of the root are the root hairs longest?
(b) What probably happens to the root hairs if a plant is pulled out
of the soil?

762
360 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

5. (a) One cell 5. With forceps, pick up a young grass seedling. Mount the seedling in
(b) Extension of indivicoal cells in the a drop of water on a clea .1 glass slide without a cover glass. With the
epidermis. low power of your corr,,ound microscope, find the root tip. (You can
(c) see that the root differs from the young shoot, which is green.) Look
(d) Diffusion. along the root for root hairs.
6, Between the radia'ing arms of thk. xylem (a) Is a root hair made up of one or many cells?
7. (a) Cortex. (b) What relationship do root hairs have to the epidermis of the young
(b) Starch. mot? (To answer this question, you may have to put a cover glass
on thespecimen and examine it with high power.)
(c) Are root hair cells living or dead?
(d) What important process is involved in the absorption of water by
root hair cells?
6. Observe with low power the prepared slick of a cross section of a
mature root. Locate the epidermis, cortex, xylem, and phloem. Draw
a circle to represent the root cross section. Coior the location of the
xylem blue on your diagram. Color the location of the phloem brown.
Discussion Where is the phloem in relation to the xylem?
1. (a) Palisade cells. 7. Examine-the cells and tissues of ths root with high power, looking for
(b) It places them as close-ik, fhk. source-of stored food. Color the region of food storage on your diagram with a
light as possible. green pencil.
2. Flat leaf surface and location of (a) What region of the root contains the greatest amount of stored
chloroplasts in palisade layer adapts leaf for food?
maximum light absorption for photosynthesis. (b) In what form is the food cored in the root?
Thick-walled xylem cells are adapted for support
and transport. Loosely arranged spongy cells
Discussion
adjacent to stomates adapts the leaf for efficient
gas exchange 1. t3) On the basis of your observations of chloroplast location in the
3. Photosynthesis, support, transport of food leaf, which are the main photosynthetic cells?
and water, food storage (b) How might the location of chloroplasts in these cells be advan-
Chloropfast-containing cortex cells, thick- tageous in light absorption?
walled xylem cells, xylem and phloem cells, 2. How are the leaf strut res you observed adapted for leaf functions?
cortex cells 3. According to your observations, what are the major functions of the
5 Opposite function Stem and leaf stem?
epidermis have cuticle that prevents water loss 4. What stem structures are adapted for each of those functions?
Root epidermis has root hars that absorb water 5. How does the function of root epidermis compare with the function of
6. Xylem of root is a solid central strand: in stem and leaf epidermis?
stern it is divided into many strands 6. How does the position of xylem in the root compare with its positic n
t. Storage, in the stem?
8. Photosynthe_s 7. What function of stems and roots is lacking in most leaves?
9 Root hair, epidermal cell, root cortex, root 8. What function of leaves arid young stems is lacking in roots?
xylem. stem xylem, leaf xylem, space between 9. What structures would a molecule of water pass through from the soil
spongy cells, stomate to the air just outside a leaf? List them in order.

Guidepost: How are roots adapted for Roots and Absorption

absorption of water and
minerals?
18.7 Roots Anchor the Plant
Students may suggest that roots also function Anchorage and absorption are the two main functions of a root, but
as reproductive structures This is also true of roots also conduct materials and serve as storage organs. Figure 18.14
stems and leaves See section 6 2 shows the microscopic structure of the tip of a root. The vascular tissues
Some of the labeled structures are mentioned form a cylinder in the center. Surrounding the vascular tissues is the
briefly or not at all in the text These may raise cortex, which may form part of the bark around an older root. Some-
student questions that can be the basis for times food is stored in the cortex in the form of starch or sugars. Carrots,
reference to more advai iced books You may sugar beets, radj-'_:°s; and turnips are examples of storage roots.
want to employ pericycle and endodermis if you
undertake to explain the origin of secondary
roots.
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 661

Anyone who has pulled weeds from the ground knows that the roots O Ask students to what ecological conditions they
think each of these kinds of root systems is
of a plant anchor it firmly in the soil. In some species there are many
branching roots growing from the bottom of the plant. This is a fibrous- adapted Judge their resp,,ises on the basis of
reason, rather than correspondence to facts
root system. It is characteristic of plants such as corn, beans, and clover.
that may be unknown to the students '^
In other species, the plant is anchored by a long, tapering root with
general, taproots provide better access to water
slender, short, side branches. This is a tapr'ot system, found in such when surface layers of the soil dry out in
plants as dandelions, mesquite, and carrots. Fibrous root systems are temporary droughts. However, some desert
relatively close to `he soil surface. Therefore, rainwater does not have plants, such as cacti, have wide-spreading.
to penetrate the soil very deeply before it can be absorbed, Rainwater shallow, fibrous-root systt These quickly
must penetrate soil-farther to be absorbed by a taproot system becaus' absorb water from erratic rains that often fail to
the root hairs are ciceper in the ground. On the other hand, taproots can penetrate the soil The water then is stored in
use water sources that are deeper in the soil. the plant

Figure 18.14 The terminal portion of a root. Col, is are diagrammatic only.

endodermis
cambium
vascular phloem
cylinder
xylem

root hair

cortex

epidermis

root cap

764
662 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 18.15 When large quantities of food are stored, both taproots (Icit) and
f brous roots (rig't) may be thickened.

storage roots

--\.
r ..

ii.......

1 4
- t_._
'-----:
c
,
---7-
4,:,.. ..'
----z---n_N

'X1/7 X1/7
..,
carrot dahlia

Figure 18.16 Two kinds of root systems.

taproot system fibrous-root systwn

About six days before this cliscix,sion, place

radish seeds on moistened piaci, paper in a X 1/5 X 1/5
pets dish to use as a demonstration of root
hairs oak seedling grass

18.8 Root Hairs Greatly Increase the

Figure 18.17 A radish seedling showing root
hairs.
Surface Area of a Root System
9 Most water absorption occurs through root hairs, each of which is a
thin-walled extension of a single epidermal cell. The root hairs appear
in figure 18.17 as a fuzzy white zone just behind the tip of the seedling
root. Root hairs penetrate the spaces between soil particles and absorb
the water and minerals required by a plant through a huge surface area.
A single rye plant only 60 cm tall is estimated to have a rout system with
-a-total length of 480 k and a total surface area of more than 600 m2
tWice that of a tennis court. Much of its length and surface area is due
to root hairs.
If a plant is pulled up roughly out of the soil, most of its root system
remains behind. That is why some plants wilt after being transplanted
from one pot into another. Most of the root hairs have been pulled off
during the transplant operation, and without them the plant cannot ab-
sorb enough water to prevent wilting.

BSCS by Doug Sokol'

7
, Go
"Chapter 18 the Flowering Plant: Form and Function 663

Figure 18.18 Root hairs penetrating into soil. On the left are conducting tissues
of the root.

CIMEIMT"

100, - A OA

The cell walls of root hairs absorb water from the soil, much as paper
towels "drink up",liquid-spills. From the cell-walls, water diffuses into
the inner part of the root hair cell. On tlrir inner sides, root hair cells Have studeriis suggest how the structure of the
are in contact with other root cells. Diffusing from cell to cell, thy: water tt,nt hairs and the other cells of the root fits the
eventually makes its way to a xylem cell. Here, the water begins its up- function each performs, Refer to fig 18 18
ward journey to the leaves of the'plant, pulled by transpiration, as we
described in section 18.5.
Figure 18.19 Tomato plants showing
18.9 Minerals Move into a Plant symptoms of mineral nutrient deficiency. From
left: potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen
by Active Transport deficient plants. The plant on the right was
grown in medium supplying all mineral needs.
In addition to water, a plant requires mineral nutrients for growth
and maintenance. These elements enter roots in soil 'water as dissolved
ions. Roots take in nitrogen, for example, in the form of ammonium or
nitrate ions. Mineral nutrients such as nitrogen that a plant needs in
relatively large amounts arc called macronutrients. Other minerals such
as iron are required in extremely small amounts. These are called micro-
nutrients. Plant physiologists have been able to identify these essential
minerals by growing plants in solutions lacking a particular mineral
(figure 18.19). They have lzarned how'The minerals are absorbed and
used by :he plant, and what effect is produced when a particular nutrient
'is missing. Table 18.1 summarizes that information.
The mineral nutrients are generally more concentrated in root hairs
than in soil water. Absorption of minerals thus involves active transport,
the transport of dissolved substances against a concentration gradient,
or in a direction opposite to that of diffusion. Active transport, requires
energy. If root cells are deprived of oxygen and are thus unable to res-
pire, the absorption of minerals slows gre,Ply. Absorbed minerals move
-deeper into the root by active transport froth one layer of cells to another.
Eventually, minerals reach the xylem cells, through which they are con-
ducted to the stem and leaves.

Gordon E. Uno

786
664 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Tab tdiperal'alementkrequirVd by plants

,Element Function Deficiency
Macronutrients
7:alcium Component of cell walls; enzyme cofactor; involved Characterized by death of the growing points.
in cell membrane permeability; encourages root
development.

Magnesium Part of the chlorophyll molecule; activator of many Development of pale, sickly foliage, an unhealthy
enzymes. condition known as chlorosis.
Nitrogen Component of amino acids, chlorophyll, Early symptom is yellowing of leaves, followed by a
coenzymes, and proteins. An excess causes stunting in the growth of all parts of the pint.
vigorous vegetative growth and suppresses food
storage and fruit and seed development.
Phosphorus Promotes root growth and hastens maturity, Underdeveloped root system; all parts of plant
particularly of cereal grains. st rated.
Potassium Enzyme activator; production of chlorophyll. Pale, sickly folidge.
Sulfur Component of some amino acids. Chlorosis; poor root system.
Micronutrients
Boron Pollen germination; regulation of carbwydrate Darker color; abnormal growth; malformations.
metabolism.
Chlorine Evolution of oxygen during photosynthesis. Small leaves; slow growth.
Copper Component of some enzymes. Lowered protein synthesis.
Iron Needed for chlorophyll production. Chlorosis, appearing first in youngest leaves.
Manganese Activates Krebs cycle enzymes. Mottled chlorosis.
Molybdenum Part of enzymes for nitrate reduction. Severe stunting of older leaves.
Zinc Component of some enzymes; internode Small leaves; short internodes.
elongation.

Self-Review

1. How do fibrous-root and tap _..j.,,ems differ?

2. What role do root hairs play in water absorption?
3. What is the evidence that minerals move into and through the root
by active transport?

Guidepost: What are the Plant Growth

characteristics of growth
in plants?
18.10 A Seed Protects and Nourishes
the Embryo Inside
To begin our study of plant growth, let us examine the seed of a dicot.
Each seed contains one offspring of a parent plant, the embryo, and stored
food. The embryo is protected within the seed by a seed coat. Some seed
coats are extremely thick, making digestion difficult for seed predators.
Other seed coats contain chemicals that inhibit germination until ap-
propriate growing conditions occur.

767
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Forni and Function 665

Figure 18.20 M a bean seedling develops from a seed, it grows both above
and below the cotyledons.

4
SC
leaf

stem

cotyledon

primary root

secondary root

When most seeds germinate, the first structure to appear is the em-
bryonic root. The root turns downward into the soil, anchoring the seed-
ling and absorbing water and minerals. The stem appears next and, in
the case of many dicot seeds, carries...up two green cotyledons with it.
Each of those cotyledons contains energy and nutrients for the young, O
developing seedling. As the seedling grows, it uses those stored reserves.
After the seedling has grown true leaves that can produce food through
photosynthesis, the cotyledons shrink and fall off. The seedling continues
to grow and differentiate into all the tissues of a mature plant. You can
observe some of those events occurring in bean plants in investigation
18.3.

nveatietion .1;8.3 SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS Investigation 18.3

SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS
Introduction
A seed is a packaged plant. Within it is s complete set of instructions Procedure
for growing a maple tree or a geranium. The seed contains all the parts
Part A
and materials needed to establish the plant in the soil. How does that take
place? In this investigation you will have an opportunity to find out. Start soaking the beans 1 day before they
are dissected in class
666 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Part B Materials
Plant bean seeds on a schedule so that Parts A and B
2-. 3-. and 10-day-old seeolings will be available
soaked bean seeds
at the same time for student observation
bean seeds, germinated 1, 2, 3, and 10 days
Soaking the seeds in water 24 hours before
hand lens
planting will ensure seedling growth.
dilute iodine solution
sharp single-edge razor blade
Part C
Prepare materials 3 days before file
scheduled lab Starch agar is 15 g age' and 10 Part C
g starch per liter of medium, Pour a thin layer of soaked germinating corn grains
sterile medium ii.to the petn dishes If space or petri dish with starch agardish A
materials are limited, use 1 or 2 dishes of plain petri dish with plain agardish B
agar (15 g agar only per liter) as the control for petri dish with starch agar and germinating corn
the whole class. grainsdish C
At least 2 days before they are to be used. petri dish with starch agar and corn grains killed in FAAdish D
cut germinating corn grains lengthwise and iodine solution
parallel to the flat surfaces. Place the cut sharp single-edge razor blade
surfaces on the agar, To kill germinating corn
seeds, soak them in FAA solution for 24 hours.
To make FAA solution combine 50 ml 95% ethyl Part AThe Seed
alcohol, 2 ml glacial acetic acid, 10 ml 40% Procedure
formaldehyde. and 40 ml distilled water Cut
1. Examine some of the external features of a bean seed. Notice that
these grains,as you did the germinating grains
the seed is covered by a tough, leathery coat. Look along one edge
and put them on starch agar as controls
of the seed and find a scar. This scar marks the place where the seed
as attached to the parent plant.
Discussion
2. Remove the seed coat. Inside the seed coat you will find the embryo.
Part A Two fleshy halves called cotyledons make up part of the embryo.
1. Protects the embryo from injury and from 3. Cut a little sliver from one of the cotyledons. Test the sliver with iodine
drying out solution. Record the results in your data book.
2. Parent plant supplies nutrients to 4. Separate the two halves of the cotyledon and find the little plant at-
developing seed tached to one end of one of the cotyledons. Take a closer look at it
3 To supply food to the growing plant with a hand lens. You will see that this part of the embryo has two
during early development miniature leaves and a root The small leaves plus a tiny short tip make
4. The photosynthetic activity of the parent up the epicotyl of the embryo. The root portion is the hypocotyl.
plant.

Discussion
Part B
1. What do you think is the function of the seed coat?
1 The root
2. What would you guess to be the function of a connection between a
2. The hypocotyl.
parent plant and a developing seed?
3. Hidden between the two halves of the
3. What would you deduce is the primary function of the cotyledons?
cotyledon.
4. What was the original source of the substance of the cotyledons?
4, The epicotyl.
5 The cotyledons on most seedlings have
dropped oft or are shriveled. Part BThe Seedling
6. The seed coat was lost very early in
Procedure
development.
7. The epicotyl and the upper part of the 1. Look at bean seedlings that are 1, 2, and 3 days old.
hypocotyl, 2. Then compare the 10-day-old seedling with the 3-day-old seedling.
8. Opposite one another

Part C Discussion
1. Starch, 1. What part of the plant becomes established first?
2. Protein, sugar, and fats. 2. What part of the embryo gives rise to the root of a bean plant?
3. The starch agar gives a positive test 3. Where are the first leaves of the 3-day-old seedling?
(blue). The plain agar shows no color change
4. An enzyme, formed by the tissues of the
germinating corn grain, diffused into the agar

760
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 667

4. What part of the embryo produces the first leaves? and digested the starch Because there is not
5. What has happened to the cotyledons in the 10-day-old seedling? starch in this part of the agar. it remains clear
6. Where is the seed coat in this plant? after the iodine test There are other equally
7. Which part or parts of the embryo developed into the stem? defensible hypothesesas for example that the
8. How are the first 2 tiny leaves arranged on the stem? corn grains absorbed the starch
5 The result of starch digestion. a sugar
6 There are no clear areas because the
Part C starch digesting enzyme was inactivated
Procedure chemically, hence, the starch was not broken
down
1. Cut a soaked, germinated corn grain lengthwise with the razor blade.
2. Test the cut surfaces with iodine solution. Record the results in your
date book.
3. Test the starch agar and plain agar in petri dishes A and B with iodine
solution. Record the results in your data book. Figure 18.21 Diagram showing location of
4. On petri dish C, 2 or 3 corn grains have started to germinate on starch principal meristems.
agar. Each grain was cut lengthwise and the cut surfaces were placed
on the starch agar for about 2 days. Petri dish D also contains starch
agar and corn grains, but these have been killed. Remove the corn
grains from both petri dishes.
5. Cover the surface of the starch agar in each dish with iodine solution. tip
6. After a few seconds, pour off the excess. meristem

Discussion
1. When you tested the cut surface of corn grains what food was present?
2. What other foods might be present in corn that were not demonstrated
by the test?
3. What difference did you observe when you tested the agars in petri
dishes A and B?
4. Suggest hypotheses that might account for the appearance of the areas
in petri dish C that were covered by the germinating corn grains.
5. What kind of food would you expect to find in the dear areas?
6. What did you observe in petri dish D?

cambium
For Further Investigation (stem
meristem)
1. Devise an experiment that might give evidence for your hypotheses in
number 4.
bud

18.11 Primary Growth Increases

the Length of the Plant
Plants continue to increase in size throughout their lives. A plant grows
in length and in diameter, or girth. Growth in length is called primary
growth and produces primary tissues. Primary tissues are always her-
baceous, or nonwoody. Young plants contain only primary tissues. Growth
in girth is called secondary growth. Secondary tissues increase the di-
ameter of the plant and are often woody.
In plants, cells that have differentiated do not usually duplicate. In- 0
stead, new cells are formed by specialized tissues called meristems (MER
ih stemz) that are found throughout the plant. A meristem is a tissue
that undergoes mitosis and cell division to form other cells and tissues.
Cell division continues in the meristems as long as the plant lives. Mer-
istems are located at the tip, or apex, of stems and roots; in buds; and
between the xylem and phloem along the length of a stem.

r f Ir
k ,)
t. 770
 668 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

0 The meristem responsible for stem elongation is at the apex. Just be-
hind the meristem is a zone of elongation in which the newly formed
cells grow longer. Behind this is a zone in which the cells differentiate
into all the specialized tissues of the stem. Thus, the meristem gives rise
to all stem tissues, including the cambium that produces new xylem and
phloem cells.
The maistem responsible for root elongation is located just behind
the root cap, a layer of protective cells covering the root tip. Part of this
meristem forms the root cap cells, which are rubbed off as the root pushes
through the soil. The root meristem also forms cells that differentiate
into all the specialized root tissues. The meristems in the root and stem
tips increase the length, or primary growth, of the plant. Thus, a plant
grows from its top upward and from its bottom downward. You can ob-
serve growth of a root in investigation 18.4.
In most leaves all the cells differentiate into the leaf tissues (including
xylem, phloem, and mesophyll) at an early stage in leaf formation. In
late summer deciduous woody plants develop tiny, fully formed leaves
Enlargement of leaf cells is almost entirely by inside their buds. The next spring the buds open and the new leaves ex-
absorption of water, so the process is very
pand mostly by the enlargement of the small cells. Leaves of grasses and
rapid
some other plants are an exception: they grow continually from a mer-
istem at the base of the leaf. These plants evolved where they were con-
stantly grazed by large herbivores. The meristem at the leaf base is an
adaptation that allows the plant to survive repeated grazing: a leaf can
grow even after most of the blade has been bitten off.

Figure 18.22 (a) A longitudinal section of a stem tip. Notice the

correspondence between the zones here and in the root at the right. The
differentiation of vascular tissue appears to take place independently in the stem
and in the young leaves. (b) A longitudinal section of a root tip. How well do the
zones of growth and differentiation correlate with the changes in spacing of India
ink marks on the root in investigation 18.4?

vascular
tissue

root hair

young leaves zone of cell

zone of cell differentiation
division
(shoot apex)

zone of cell
young bud zone of cell elongation
elongation

zone of cell
division
(shoot apex)

zone of cell
differentiation
vascular tissue

root cap
a b
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 669

Wietjt:jtitiOi-46:4'RPOTGROVV7-1-J1 Investigation 18.4

Introduction ROOT GROWTH

In this investigation, you will observe the growth patterns of corn seed- This investigation takes only 3 days. but you
lings just a few days after they have germinated. Are all parts of the root can shorten the time to 2 days if you wish by
involved in growth? Do any parts of the root grow faster than others? shortening the growing time of the roots that
have been cut However, more dramatic results
Materials (per team) will be &gained if the suggested schedule is
followed In either case, be sure to leave plenty
2 petri dishes of time for analysis of data and for class
4 pieces filter paper (to fit petri dishes) discussion
12 germinated corn seeds
glass-marking crayon Materials
fingerprint ink or any waterproof ink
distilled water Seeds can be obtained easily at your local
single-edge razor blade garden shop Radish seeds may be substituted
8 cardboard tags for corn. You will need 12 seeds for each team.
metric ruler Begin germination 3 days before stuaents need
toothpick the seeds To germinate the seeds, soak them
for 6 to 12 hours in distilled water in a large
beaker Make sure that the water covers the
Day 1 seeds during this time. Place paper towels on
Procedure the bottom of a large pan or 63h (several may
be needed for all your seeds). Scatter the seeds
1. Place a piece of filter paper in the bottol of each of 2 petri dishes on the paper, cover with more towels, and
marked with your team's symbol and label them dish 1 and 2. Add dampen Cover each dish (a piece of plate
distilled water to dampen the paper. Pour off any excess water. glass or tin foil will dolight is not necessary for
2. Select 4 seedlings. Using a toothpick and ink, carefully mark the germination of these seeds) so that the paper
shortest root with a straight, very narrow line exactly 2 mm from the will not dry out rapidly
tip. (Yoe do not have to mark the entire circumference of the root.)
Be careful not to crush or damage the root. Draw as many lines as Procedure
possible, 2 mm apart, behind this 1st mark. Repeat for the other 3 Suggested team size is 2 students Have
roots. All roots should have the same number of marks. students ,heck their seedlings daily to make
3. Measure the distance from the tip to the last mark. This is the initial sure they are not drying out The 8 seedlings in
root length. step 5 include duplicate seedlings for each root
4. Carefully place your 4 marked seedlings on the moist filter paper in length Students may use 4 seedlings here (1 for
petri dish 1. Place them so that the markings are visible. each root length) instead of the suggested 8,
5. Mark the remaining 8 seedlings as follows: using a toothpick and ink, but make sure students pool their data
place a dot 5 mm from the tip of each roof. Be sure to handle the
roots carefully, and do not let them dry out. Discussion (Day 2)
6. Using a razor blade, cut off 1 mm of the tip of 2 corn seedling roots; 1 Depends on student data
cut off 3 mm of the roots of 2 others; cut off 5 mm of 2 others. Leave
2, 3 Measuring the increase in length of a
the remaining 2 seedlings untreated.
root atone does not give any clues as to where
7. Label each seedling as to the amount of root cut off. To do this, use
the growth is actually taking place Growth does
a small cardboard tag tied to each seedling. Place all of these seed-
not occur uniformly over the whole length of the
lings in petri dish 2.
root The greatest amount of growth occurs just
8. Cover the seedlings in both dishes with a piece of filter paper. Add back of the root tip Students will probably find
water to moisten them. Press down lightly to ensure that the paper is
that no detectable growth has occurred in their
firmly placed in the dishes. Then pour off any excess water. Place the
ioots 4 to 5 mm from the tip
dishes away from direct sunlight and heat. Do not let the paper dry
4 The wider marks at or near the tips of the
out during the experiment.
roots are due to growth of the root itself. The
difference in the width of the marks between the
Day 2 start and the end of the investigation indicates
the actual amount of growth that has occurred
Procedure at the mark
1. After 24 hours, uncover the seedlings you prepared in dish 1. Examine
each seedling. Measure the distance between the tip of the root and
the last mark. Measure the distances between each of the lines, in
order, from the tip to the base. Record your measurements.

77.2
670 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

5, Encourage your students to predict what 2. Note the appearance of all the lines. Are all the lines as clear as they
will happen, Any prediction is acceptable as were yesterday?
long as the students have some basis for their 3. Discard these seedlings, and clean or discard the dishes.
statement.

Discussion (Day 3)
Discussion

1, 2, Students may need some assistance in 1. Add together the lengths of all 4 roots, from tip to last mark. Divide
preparing a bar graph Have them place the by 4. Subtract from this length the initial root length in procedure 3
amount of growth on the vertical axis and the from Day 1. What is this average )mount of growth for each seedling?
four separate initial root lengths on the 2. In your roots, did growth occur at the tip, at the base, or all along the
horizontal axis, The following illustrate some root?
typical results 3. (a) How much growth occurred between the tip of the root and the
1st mark?
Roots Length (mm) (b) Between the last 2 marks?
beyond the 4. How do you explain the smears or wider marks at or near the tip of
5 mm mark the roots?
5. On the basis of these results, what do you predict will be the results
not cut (control) 42
of cutting off the root tips?
1 mm cut 20
3 mm cut 6 Day 3
5 mm cut 3 Procedure
1. After 2 days, examine the roots in petri dish 2. Measure and record
3. The results should indicate that the root the distance from the original 5 mm mark to the tip of the root for each
tip is extremely important to continued growth of seedling.
the root. 2. Discard the seedlings and clean or discard the dish.
4. From this experiment we can conclude
that the root tip is indispensable to growth of the
root, because the control roots grew so well Discussion
compared to the roots that were cut The fact 1. Add the measurements for the 2 seedlings that were not cut and de-
that the roots with excised tips continued to termine the average. Has there been any growth in these 2 seedlings?
grew is related to the first half of the 2 Prepare a bar graph of the class data showing the amount of growth
investigation. Although the greatest amount of of the roots cut at 1 mm, 3 mm, and 5 mm. Compare with the growth
growth in length occurs just behind the tip, some of the uncut roots.
does occur in parts of the root away from the 3. How important is the tip for growth of the root?
tip (although at decreasing rates) 4. What information do these observations give you that the earlier ob-
Some students may wish to plant the servations did not?
seedlings instead of discarding them If materials
are available, allow students to do this and to
observe the growth patterns of the shoot and For Further Investigation
leaves of the plant 1. Is the growth pattern of peas or beans the same as that of corn? Ger-
minate some of these seeds and conduct the same experiment that
you did on corn.
2. Design and carry out an experiment to measure the growth rate of a
leaf of a common houseplant.

18.12 Secondary Growth Increases

the Diameter of a Plant
Vascular cambium is the meristem responsible for secondary growth.
Located between the xylem and phloem in the stem and root, vascular
cambium continues to produce new xylem and phloem cells throughout
the life of a plant. Because these new cells increase the diameter of the
stems and roots, this process is known as secondary growth.
Ray cells, thin - walled living cells in the xylem and phloem, allow for
horizontal transport in large stems. Pits in the walls of ray cells com-
municate with pores in both xylem and phloem. Ray cells supply water
and minerals to the phloem and sugars to the cambium cells.

orny ,-,
4 /.0
 Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 671

Figure 18.23 Section of a woody stem. How old was this tree? What separates
bark from wood?

ray cells

..4....;-,
...
..e.-

--- 4'--,,iii.

_ ..,.........,_
--------____ ,, .,
,....,-
),/,,
147.1:*-:-.1\:,- - :,...,... --°^-.............,...,: *
-.
''-P
://
/
5(,

spring wood
(abundant water)

summer wood
(water not abundant) - "14-..
7:1111r."'.
.,:,:se.+_,...."'"?10.4:k.Tootik (14,1101,4"--
TOralroworp.04::1
s 411,44tilbWr

774
672 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

The trey was 12 yea, S. old and there are 4 rings Phloem cells, which are much more fragile than xylem cells, are
of heartwood From the enlarged section,
crushed each year as the stem increases in diameter. The tough xylem
students should be able to see that cambium
cells, on the other hand, remain in the stem, forming a ring of cells each
separates bark from wood Sample slices of
small tree trunks are not difficult to collect Pass
year. These annual rings can be used to determine the age of a tree
out a variety of them and ask students to report
() one year for each ring. Annual rings also can reveal the growing con-
what they can "read" from them Rings indicate ditions during a particular year. An extremely narrow ring could indi-
an alternation of weather favorable and cate bad growing conditions during the year the ring was formed. There
unfavorable for growth, and many tropical could have been a drought or an infestation of leaf-eating caterpillars.
climates have such seasonal alternations A lack In either case, the tree was unable to grow very much, and, therefore,
of rings indicates essentially no change in the ring was small. The annual rings of xylem cells are the wood of the
weather throughout the year, a characteristic of tree.
tropical rain forests.
In older stems, the cambium remains as a boundary between the cen-
tral core of wood (xylem) and the phloem and bark. Bark is made up of
The cells in the central core of the stem usually
fill with resins after a few years, forming
tough, dead cells that protect the thin layers of living phloem and cam-
heartwood. Heartwood is impermeable to water
bium underneath. The rest of the stem of a tree, except for ray cells, is,
and, thus, inactive in transport Water is composed of dead cells. Bark forms within the first few years of a tree's
transported in the outer regions of xylem that life, replacing the epidermis. Bark usually can be peeled easily from a
form sapwood tree trunk because the walls of cambium cells are thin and easily broken.

Cork cambium arises from outer cortical cells in

many woody stems and gives rise to cork cells,
forming a layer of cork beneath the epidermis Self-Review
Deposits of fatty subenn in the walls make the
cells almost impermeable to water and gases,
providing protection against water loss 1. What is the role of the cotyledons in a dicot seed?
2. What are the functions of cambium and other meristems?
3. How does primary growth differ from secondary growth?
4. What can annuaal rings tell about the life of a tree?

Guidepost: In what ways are roots, Morphological Adaptations

stems, and leaves adapted
to special environments?
to Different Environments

18.13 Spines Reduce Transpiration

Although the major function of a leaf is photosynthesis, there are
many leaves that photosynthesize little, if at all. They nave other func-
tions. Stems also may have functions other than support and conduction.
These modified leaves and stems are adapted to the environmental con-
ditions in which the plants live. For instance, photosynthesis in a cactus
takes place in the stem, and the spines on cacti are actually modified
leaves. These leaves are hard, nonphotosynthetic, and often dangerous
0 to touch. Because transpiration occurs mostly from leaves, plants with
small leaves lose less water than do plants 'vith large ones. In the dry
habitats in which cacti are found, spines reduce water loss. The spines,
also help protect the cactus from herbivores.
In some plants, spines are modified sterns. Examples are the spines
of the hawthorn (Crataegus) and honey locust trees (Gleditsia), seen in
figure 18.24b.
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 673

Figure 18.24 (a) Cactus spines, which are modified leaves. (b) Locust spines,
which are, modified stems.

ciorrdon F.: Uno BSCS by Doug Sokol'

Figure 1845 A sui;c:ulont of the genus Sedum.

BSCS by Faith Hickman

18.14 Some Leaves Are Involved in

Storage, Support, and Nutrient
Collection
Many plants in dry habitat.; have modified leaves or stems that store
water. Such succulent (SUK yoo lent) plants have juicy tissues, and water
actually can be squeezed from thcin. After a rainstorm The roots of suc-
culent4 quickly absorb more water than the plant can use immediately.
The water then is stored within the leaves of succulents such as the Sedum
in figure 18.25, and within the stems of cacti. The leaves e!so have a
waxy cuticle so thick it can be scraped off with a fingernail. Thy. cuticle
helps to hold in the stored water until the plant needs it.

sc
776
,674 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 18.26 This tendril is a modified stem.

Gorden E. Uno,

8 Although roots are important storage organs for many plants, in some
plants the stems and leaves are modified for storage. An onion bulb is a
small stem with modified leaves attached. The,upper part of each leaf
is green and produces sugars through photosynthesis. The bottom part
of the leaf is white (underground) and stores the sugars in the form of
starch. Another starch-containing modified stem is the white potato.
Tendrils can be either modified stems or leaves. A tendril is a whiplike
organ that supports a plant by, growing around an upright structure as
shown in figure 18.26. A grape has a stem tendril, and a sweet pea has
a leaf tendril. Without tendrils these plants could grow only along the
ground, shaded by other plants above. With tendrils they are able to
Figure 18.27 The leaves of the sundew are grow off the ground where more light is available.
adapted to capture and digest insects.
Bogs are watery habitats with soil that often lacks nitrogen. Yet most
bogs are populated with great numbers of plantsincluding insectivo-
rous plants. These plants have leaves adapted for their environment. The
Q Venus's-flytrap, the sundew, and the pitcher plant are all bog plants. Each
has different modified leaves that help attract and capture insects. The
insects are then digested within the leaf, and their nutrients, including
nitrogen-containing compounds, are absorbed by the plant. In this way,
insectivorous plants can live in the nitrogen-poor soils of the bogs.

Self-Review

1. What advantage do small leaves have over large leaves in a dry hab-
itat?
2. In what wl.y are the leaves of succulents and the leaves of onions
alike?
3. What advantage do plants with tendrils have over those that do not
have them?
4. How do leaves of insectivorous plants help them live in nitrogen-
poor soils?

John D. Cunningham !VISUALS UNLIMITED

777
Chapter 18 The Flowering Plant: Form and Function 675

Summary
Each part of a flowering plant is adapted for a specific function. The
leaf uses carbon dioxide, water, and light in photosynthesis. The meso-
phyll of the leaf is organized so that light and carbon dioxide can reach
all the cells. Water loss through transpiration is reduced by the action
of guard cell? surrounding the stomates. The arrangement of the vas-
cular tissues in stems provides support as well as transport of materials
to all parts of the plant. Roots anchor the plant in the soil, and their
thousands of root hairs are specialized to absorb water and minerals.
'Water moves through the root cells until it reaches the xylem, where it
is pulled up the root and stein by the force of transpiration. Pressure
created by the sugar-water solution in phloem cells moves sugar to non-
photosynthesizing parts of the plant. Leaves, stems, and roots may be
modified for a variety of other functions as well.
A flowering plant begins its life as an embryo within a seed. The
seed. germinates, and the seedling develops chara.ieristic plant struc-
tures. The plant grows in length and girth, forming new cells in mcris-
tems throughout its body. Growth depends on the production of sugars
in photosynthesis and is regulated by the coordination of external and
-internal factors. We will examine those processes in the next chapter.

Application Questions Problems

1. Water lily plants are rooted in mud at the bottom of I. Investigate how growth in plants differs from
ponds, but their leaves float on the water surface. growth in animals.
How might the cellular structure of the roots, 2. Ten years ago a farm:r built a fen,:e 1.5 m high
stems, and leaves of water lilies differ from that in and a:tachcd one end of it to a tree that was 7 m
terrestrial vascular plants? high. Now the tree has grown to a height of 14 m.
2. In what ways do the uFual environments of a plant How far above the ground is the attached end of
root and a plant shoot differ? the fence? Explain.
3. What are the principal substances that pass into 3. In a middle-latitude biome, a pine and an apple tree
and out of plants through the leaves? What are the are growing side by side. Compare amounts of
forces involved with this movement? water lost by these two trees and their growth rates
4. During the growing season farmers spend throughout the year.
considerable time cultivating their cropsloosening 4. The following questions concern lateral growth in
the soil between plants. What advantage does this woody stems:
have for the crop plants? (a) Within a given biome, how would the annual
5. How would you distinguish a root, a leaf, and a ring formed in a wet year differ from one
stem from each other? formed in a dry year?
6. Explain how root hairs illustrate the biological (b) Sometimes two rings are formed in one year.
principle of the complementarity of structure and How might that happen?
function. (c) What is the science of dcndrochronology and
how is it used?
(d) Would you expect to find annual rings in the
bark of the tree? Why, or why not?

778
676 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
Scc also the Suggested Readings for Chapter 19. R. Robinson, "Rings of Flowers" Bio Science (June 1986).
Uniquely Californian, vernal pools host a diversity of
B. H. Beard, "The Sunflower Crop" Scientific American (May endemic species often threatened by their habitat's
1981). Comprehensive article dealing with the plant_itself destruction.
and its importance in worldwide agriculture. T. E. Wcicr, C. R. Stocking, M. G. Barbour, and T. L. Rost,
R. E. Cook, "Long -lived Sccds" Natural History (February 1984 Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology (New
1979). Interesting, well-illustrated article dealing with York: John Wiley and Sons). Well-illustrated text deals
dormant seeds. cxtcnsivcly with flowering plants.

.7 9
Answers to Application Questions and Prot: 4ems
1 Leaves of water lilies float because of their highly developed I Marnmais, birds, and iriseds have 6- finite limits to growth
spongy tissue Their stems and long petioles are fragile and Many other animals arid all mullicellular plants continue to
soft, lacking the abundance of fibrous tissue characteristic grow throughout their livesrsuall.i at a decreasing rate
of terrestrial tracheophytes This correlates with the fact that Most kinds of animal cells retain the ability to duplicate even
the weight of the plant is largely supported by water Since alter they differentiate In vast. tar plants. however, cells that
water is directly available to all plant parts, the roots do nut have differentiated do not duplicate
extend as far or possess as many root hairs as the roots of 2 The attached end of the ice is the same height above the
land plants ground as it was 10 years ago The tree grew in height. but
2 The roots' environmentthe son is dense, of en moist, only the apical meristems moved upward: all tissues to
and little light penetrates it Suppoit for the plant is firm, and which the fence was attached remained where they were
water is usually absorbed rather than lost The shoot is when formed
surrounded by air, which provides almost no support against 3 Comparatively large amounts of water are lost through the
gravity. Wind, rain, sleet. or snow may batter it: the shoot apple leaves, but this occurs only during the season when
must withstand all types of weather Loss of water to the living le ,es are ON the tree Comparatively small amounts
atmosphere occurs continually. The shoot has an abundant of water are lost through the Pine needles. but to some
oxygen wooly and a steady supply cf carbon dioxide. and it extent this occurs throughout the year
may receive varying .ntensities of light 4 (a) A wet year causes an annual ring to be wide, a dry year
3 Carbon dioxide and oxygen either might be given off or results in a much narrower ring, (b) Drought or defoliation
taken in, water comes to the leaf from other parts of the by insects may temporarily slow the growth, producing a
plant by way of veins Water diffuses from the mesophyll band of small, thick - walled cells followed by a band of
cells into the air and the plant loses water Respiration and virge. thinwalled cells produced dunng latesummer rains or
transpiration are the forces involved with this movement after appearance of a new crop of leaves This pattern
4 Cultivation breaks soil particles apart, increasing the size of produces 'false growth rings, suggesting 2 growing
the air spaces and redwing the movement of water upward seasons (c) Especially in arid and semiarid climates. past
by capillarity. At the same time, it allows air and water to climatic patterns are reflected in the patterns of growth rings
penetrate into the soil However, in regions with well-spaced in tree By comparative study of the sequence of these
growing-season rains, cultivation is practiced mainly to rings in trees and aged wo . dates of environmental
reduce weeds With the use of chemical weed killers, events in former periods can be determined (d) Indistinct
though, even this may be unnecessary rings are produced in the bark by cork cambium and by
5 Botanists distinguish between a root and a stem by the growth of phloem from the principal cambium But these
arrangement of their tissues and by how they originate in rings are compressed by the outward growth of the wood
embryos within seeds The easiest way to make the Eventually outermost layers of dead cells, unable to
distinction is to look for buds Buds are found on stems. but increase in circumference. bteak, forming a scaly, ridged, or
not on roots A leaf is composed of diff6.ent tissues, each roughened bark
of tich performs some general function in the life of an
organism The leaf shape is usually distinct 1: and constant
enough to be useful in identification
6 Root hairs are thin-walled extensions of epidermal cells. and
they greatly increase the surface area of the root through
witch water can be absorbed

760
 BSCS
Sunlight absorbed by these willow leaves pinvides energy for photosynthesis.

7.6
 Teaching strategies for this chapter. pages

CHAPTER 19 T44-45
Key ideas
the conversion of light energ, to stored
chemical energy.
the related processes of photosynthesis and
respiration
the effects of environment& factors on

The Flowering Plant: photosynthesis and respiration

the control of plant growth and development

Maintenance and Coordination by hormones

Introduction
Although plants may seem to be fairly simple organisms, they are com-
plex systems made of millions of cells. Like all living and growing cells,
plant cells require energy to do their work and to maintain themselves.
Energy is made available for cellular work through the process of cel-
lular respiration, as we have seen in chapter 15. In that process, energy You may wish to have students review seL,tiori
stored in sugars is transferred to ATP. The energy is first stored in sugars 4 4 before beginning this chapter
during photosynthesis, the process by which green plants convert light
energy to chemical energy. In addition to sugars, photosynthesis-pro-
vides the oxygen gas necessary for cellular respiration. Thus, photosyn-
thesis maintains not only the plants themselves, but also all the consumers
of the biosphere.
Each plant cell has a function that contributes to the life of the entire
plant. Activities of all the individual plant cells must be coordinated in
order for the plant to grow, mature, flower, and form fruit. That coor-
dination is provided by a variety of plant growth substances called hor-
mones. In this chapter, we will study some of the internal activity or
functioning of plants, which is called plant physiology (fiz ee OL uh jee).

Photosynthesis Guidepost: How is the sun's energy

changed into chemical
energy in photosynthesis?
19.1 Photosynthesis Takes
Place in Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis is a series of reactions in which plants use the sun's Students may be struck by the similarity in
energy to synthesize complex, energy-rich molecules from smaller, sim- structure between chloroplasts and
pler molecules. In eukaryotic cells, all of these reactions take place in mitochondria Though the physiology is different.
the stepwise changing of one compound into
the structures known as chloroplasts. Even when removed from the cell
another equires an extensive and intimate
in a laboratory, chloroplasts can carry on the entire process of photo-
interaction of enzymes A layered construction
synthesis by themselves. appears to suit this purpose
679
 680 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 19.1 Electron micrograph of a chloroplast in a leaf of timothy grass.

X31,000. The drawing shows the structure of a granum enlarged still more.

granum

:... ".;,,7

thylakoids

W. P. Wergin dIPS/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

The internal structure of chloroplasts is revealed in electron micro-

graphs such as the one in figure 19.1. They show a highly organized
array of internal membranes composed of flattened sacs called thyla-
koids (THY luh koyds). Many of the thylakoids are arranged in stacks,
forming structures called grana (GRAY nuh) (singular: granum). Chlo-
rophyll, other pigments, and enzymes are embedded in the thylakoids.
Between the thylakoids is a colorless substance, the stroma (STROH
muh). Other enzymes, DNA, RNA, and ribosomes are present in the
stroma.

19.2 Light Is Used in Photosynthesis

Life on earth continues only because our sun constantly releases light
The meaning of visible may be different for energy. Some of that energy travels the 93 million miles to the earth. Of
different organisms, but the range of colored the sunlight that reaches our planet, only about one percent is actually
light from violet through blue, green, yellow, involved in photosynthesis. Some of the sunlight is absorbed or reflected
orange, and red is what is usually meant by by clouds or dust in the earth's atmosphere. Much of the light energy
visible Bees see ultraviolet light, invisible to that reaches the earth is absorbed and then radiated back into space.
humans Certain other differences of vision Nsf Visible light is only a small fraction of light energy, as can be seen in
for other animals figure 19.2. The visible light consists of a spectrum of colors, each with
a different wavelength and energy content. Red light has the longest
wavelength and the least energy; violet has the shortest wavelength and
the most energy of visible light.

783
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 681

Figure 19.2 Radiations from the sun form a continuous series, from those of Figure 19.3 The structure of chlorophyll.
very short wavelengths to those of very long wavelengths. Different parts of the
CH2
series have been given names. The range of radiations that organisms can
detect with their eyesvisible lightis roughly the same range used by plants. CH

H2CH3

,..' H3C
:--_-- , . N,.:':.----,----.... ----::2---..._:--. --...:-- __...
_.. , -- -
. -..

.'-soiar s'ectrumz,.-.--- -=""--- --- - CH2

Z
gamma 1
1
4 1 ultra -
x-ray 24-vioiet--
. . tt infrared ,_.. i' radio, radar,tv
::.
CH2 C=0
C=0 o
increasing wavolength:: =.;-.0increasing energy 0
1

CH3
CH2
CH
If
visible light 9CH3
6112
CH2
CH2
HCCH3
hydrophobic
CH2 tail region
&I2
When light strikes an object, it may be transmitted, absorbed, or re- CH2

flected. Light energy is absorbed by several different pigments in-plant

cells. Each pigment is a chemical compound that absorbs only certain CH2

wavelengths of light and reflects or transmits all others. Green plants, CH2

for example, appear green because chlorophyll absorbs most wave- CH2

lengths of visible light except green. Most of the green light is reflected.
Chlorophyll is the complex green pigment molecule found in all plants. H3C
/
CH
CH3
Five different kinds of chlorophylls are known, all of which appear green.
Scientists think that chlorophyll a, the most common and most impor- chlorophyll
tant, is present in all photosynthetic plants. The other four chlorophylls,
b, c, d, and e, may be present in different plants in different combina- Chlorophylls are produced inside chloroplasts.
tions. the presence of light Plants grown in the dark
An absorption spectrum (ab SORP shun SPEK trum). such as the 0 or grass under an object on the lawn. show the
lack of chlorophyll production without light
one in figure 19.4, is a simple graph that shows the percentage of light
absorbed by a pigment at each wavelength or As you can see,
The horizontal axis represents a segment of
all of the chlorophylls absorb much of the light in the blue-violet and figure 19 4 This graph gives a partial answer to
orange-red wavelengths, but very little or none in the green-yellow wave- the question of why plants are green
lengths. Plants can utilize only the energy from absorbed wavelengths. Chlorophylls absorb most light in the blue and
The action spectrum at the top of figure 19.4 shows this clearly. An ac- red ends of the spectrum. and the green (mixed
tion spectrum measures the rate of photosynthesis at certain wave- with some yellow) is reflected to our eyes The
lengths of light. In those wavelengths that are strongly absorbed, the figure does not give any clue to why chlorophyll
rate of photosynthesis is high. In green light the rate of photosynthesis does not absorb energy in the green portion of
is much lower, because chlorophyll reflects those wavelengths. the spectrum
In addition to chlorophylls, plants may contain other pigments. These
are called accessory pigments because they work with chlorophyll to trap
and absorb additional wavelengths of light. Their absorbed light energy
is transferred to chlorophyll for use in photosynthesis. Some of the ac-
cessory pigments are responsible for fall coloration of leaves and become
more visible as the chlorophyll content declines. In investigation 19.1,
you will be able to observe some of those pigments.

784
682 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 19.4 The upper curve shows the action spectrum for photosynthesis.
The lOwer curves show absorption spectra for chlorophylls a and b. It is clear
from the graph that both the chlorophylls absorb the wavelengths of light used in
photosynthvsis..What wavelengths (colors) do these chlorophylls absorb least?

Figure 19.5 these coleus leaves contain visible accessory pigments.

BSCS by Carly. Calvin

Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 683

Florist
Rick Rigg's hobby is also his life's work; he owns
a florist shop and greenhouse. Rick was studying
biology in college when he started working a+ a
florist shop. Rick received his master's degree in
biology, but he-became so interested in the
business of growing plants that he left the
university and bcught the shop before finishing
work on his Ph.D.
In his shop Rick has many young potted g ants.
He realizes, however, that it is often hard fc.
customer to imagine what the-voung plants will
look like when they mature. 1, 'ielp his
customers, he has placed full-grown plants next
to the young ones, all growing in the right light
conditions. People may come in and choose the
small inexpensive plants. They can see that, in
time and with proper care, their plants can be tall, BSCS by Car lye Calvin

healthy, and beautiful.

Rick offers plants in a variety of colors, shapes, For their shop Rick and Carol have built an
and sizes. He grows many of today's popular outdoor botanic garden with a beautiful pond and
houseplants in his greenhouse. Rick thinks one of walkways through an herb and vegetable garden,
the most rewarding and delightful aspects of his with 1-ranging baskets decorating the area. It just
job is to be able to produce a plant from a seed so happens that all this is the Riggses' backyard,
or cutting, watching with satisfaction as it grows too.
to full form. The job requires an understanding of The Riggs family have found that working
plant physiology, ecology, and horticulture. There together can be enjoyable and profitableas
is a lot of common sense involved, too. long as you have "green thumbs."
One area of the greenhouse is devoted entirely
to cactus plants. Another is devoted to exotic
flowering plants from the tropics. Rick also has
several very uncommon plants. Many of these are
only for display, such as the Dioscorea, which
looks like a large turtle shell, in the photo on the
right.
The Riggses' home is right behind the shop.
That makes it easy for Rick, his wife, Carol, and
their children to work at the shop. High school
students work there part-time, as do college
students who are majoring in plant biology. Some
students earn work-study credits through their
work in the greenhouse. They may help plant and
landscape the garden, arrange displays, or help
maintain displays by removing dead leaves and
blossoms. Their work provides experience that BSCS by Car lye Calvin
can lead to careers in related fields, such as
landscaping.

786
 684 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Investigation 19.1 Ipi,fistiaittiCiy ,SEPARATION'OF 'LEAF PIGMENTS.,

SEPARATION OF LEAF PIGMENTS
Introduction
Materials Chlorophyll is the most obvious pigment in leaves. Five different chlo-
silica gel H rophylls have been identified as a, b, c, d, and e. Chlorophyll a is believed
acetone to be present in all photosyr thetic plants. The other chlorophylls
may be
petroleum ether present in different plants in various combinations. Accessory pigments also
small jars with covers may be present, but are masked by chlorophyll. In this investigation you
stirring rod will use a process called thin layer chromatography (TLC) to separate the
dark colored jars with covers pigments of a leaf.

Procedure
Materials (pr team of 2)
Because of the hazards associated with the
2 prepared TLC plates
chemicals used in the investigation. you should
1 chromatojar containing chromatographic solution
prepare all mixtures
2 Pasteur pipets
1 dark-colored jar with cover containing leaf extract
To Prepare the TLC Plates
Mix 20 g of silica gel H with 70 ml of acetone
in a glass jar or bottle large enough to hold 2 Procedure
microscope slides. CAUTION: Acetone is toxic Part APlacing Extract on Slide
and extremely flammable Stir the mixture (slurry)
1. Place a Pasteur pipet into the leaf extract and allow the solution to
well with a glass stirring rod Place two glass
move into the pipet by capillary action.
slides back to back, one slightly higher than the
2. Place the pipet on the silica gel layer about 1 mm from the bottom of
other Dip the slides into the slurry and remove
the slide and allow the solution to run onto the gel.
slowly. touching the bottom of the slides to the
3. As soon as the spot of solution dries, add another drop of solution to
edge of the container to drain oft the excess
the spot.
slurry Carefully separate the slides and set them
4. Repeat this procedure until a dark green spot is obtained.
aside to dry (about 30 seconds)
A large-size baby food tar is ideal for
preparing the slurry These amounts will produce Part BDeveloping the Slide
enough slurry to coat at least 20 slides
1. Place the slide in the chromatojar containing the solution and quickly
cover. Separation of the pigments will occur in 3 to 4 minutes.
io Prepare Leaf Extract.
2. When the leading edge of the solvent nears the top of the silica gel,
Pulverize 2 5 g of dried spinach leaves with a remove the slide from the chromatojar and allow to dry.
mortar and pestle Mix the pulverized leaves with
19 ml of acetone Filter this mixture through filter
paper into a dark-colored, easily stoppered Discussion
bottle Pro,iide each team with a small jar of leaf 1. Is there any evidence that more than 1 pigment is present in the leaf
extract extract you placed on the gel slide?
Fresh or frozen spinach leaves work well if 2. Examine the chromatogram (separated pigments on the slide). How
diced 48 hours in an oven or incubator at 37° C many bands of color can you see?
Alternatively, commercially available dried 3. How many bands might be made up of chlorophylls?
parsley may be used if it is not possible to 4. What other colors can you see in the chromatogram?
obtain dried leaves, fresh leaves may be 5. Why were you unable to see these colors in the leaf?
macerated with a mortar and a pestle 6. Suggest a hypothesis to explain the change of color that often occurs
Maceration is more difficult with fresh leaves, but when a leaf dies.
the pigment separation occurs in a similar 7. From what point did all the pigments s'. art as the developing solution
manner began to rise?
8. When did the pigmei its start to move, and when did they stop?
Part B 9. In what characteristic, then, must the pigments have differed?
Chromatographic solution mix 4.5 parts
petroleum ether and 1 part acetone CAUTION:
This solution is toxic and very flammable
Provide each team of students with a covered
chromatojar (large size baby food jars work
well) containing 2 ml of chromatographic
solution.
The students then proceed with part B,..

conk 'ed on page 711

73
C"-

Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 685

19.3 Photosynthesis Involves Many

Interdependent Reactions
Three major events occur in photosynthesis: (1) absorption of light The terms I;ght reactions and dark rea..tions
energy, (2) conversion of light energy to chemical caergy, and (3) storage commonly used to dtsk.ribe the reactions of
of chemical energy in sugars. The reactions by which those events occur photosynthesis lead to misunderstandings in
may be considered in two distinct but intei dependent groups: the light- students and are deliberately avoided here
dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. Those reactions are summa- Calvin cycle is used in preferenk-e to dark
reactions
rized in figure 19.6.
In the light-dependent reactions light energy is absorbed and con-
verted to chemical energy in short-lived energy-rich molecules. These
0
molecules are then used to make 3-carbon sugars from carbon dioxide
in the series of reactions known as the Calvin cycle. In this cycle, chem-
ical energy is stored in the sugars, and new carbon is incorporated into
the plant for future growth.
The overall reactions of photosynthesis may be summarized as fol-
lows:
light energy The classic equation for photosynthesis showing
3 CO2 + 3 H2O C3H603 + 3 02 formation of glucose is not accurate and leads
( carbon I (water) (3-carbon (oxygen to misconceptions PGAL, not glucose. is the
k dioxide) k sugar k gas first stable product of photosynthesis Sucrose.
not glucose. is the form of sugar transported
This summary equation inr .ates only the major raw materials and some
within the plant
of the end products. It does not show the many chemical steps and other
substances involved. The next sections explain those steps in more detail.

Figure 19.6 Diagrammatic summary of the reactions of photosynthesis.

I
1 I
\\ NADPH
I 1 \
I 1 \

Calvin
cycle
P
(PGAL)

CO2

788
686 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

19.4 Oxygen Gas Is a By-Product of the

Light-Dependent Reactions
You many find students saying that animals use In the light-dependent reactions, light energy is absorbed by two
respiration to obtain energy but that green groups of pigments embedded in the thylakoid membranes. These pig-
plants use photosynthesis Plants, through
ment groups are called Photosystems (PS) I and II. They are connected
photosynthesis, build up food reserves These
by an electron transport system similar to the one in cellular respiration.
food reserves are then broken down by
Both photosystems absorb light, but of slightly different wavelengths.
respiration to release energy for the plant
When light energy is absorbed, chlorophyll molecules in both systems
lose energy-rich lectrons, which are captured by carrier molecules.
Water also is separated into oxygen, protons, and electrons. These re-
actions are summarized in figure 19.7.
The mechanisms of ATP formation is by means A flow of electrons is set up. Electrons from water replace the ones
of the proton gradient described in section lost by PS II. Electrons lost by PS II replace t'.-,e ones lost by PS I. As
15 11
electrons are passed from carrier to carrier along the electron transport
system, some of the energy they originally captured from the sun is used
to make ATP from ADP and phosphate. When that occurs, light energy
has been converted to chemical energy.

Figure 19.7 The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Electrons flow

from water to PS II to PS Ito NADP+. ATP is formed as electrons flow between
the two photosystems. The NADPH that is formed has a hydrogen ion and two
e!actrons originally derived from water.

Light-dependent
reactions

II
Chapter 113 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination

At the end of,the electron flow, the electrons, along with protons from You may wish io describe to your students the
water, combine with a nyd-ogen carrier called nicotinamide adenine di- classic experiments in which isotopes were used
'nucleotide phosphate (nik,uh TEE huh mid AD uh neen DY NO0 to determine that the oxygen given off in
klee oh tyd FOS fayt), NADP+. NADP+ is very similar to NAD+, photosynthesis comes from water, not from
which serves as a hydrogen carrier in cellular respiration. When elec- carbon dioxide
trons and protons combine with NADP+, NADPH is formed. The oxygen
from water is given off as oxygen gas, 02.
In the light-dependent reactions, the first two events of photosyn-
thesis occur: absorption of light energy and conversion of light energy
to chemical energy. Three products are formed. One is oxygen gas, which
is released to the atmosphere through the stomates of the leaf. The other
two are the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADPH, both of which arc
used in the Calvin cycle.

Figure 19.8 Structure of NADP+. Compare this to the structure of NAD+ in

figure 15.10, p. 547.

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

Figure 19.9 Algae giving off bubbles of oxygen.

John D. Conninahani /VISUALS UNLIMITED

790
688 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

19.5 Sugars Are Formed in the Calvin Cycle

The reactions of the Calvin cycle do not involve the absorption of light
energy. However, they do require the products of the light-dependent
reactions, ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle is a series of reactions
in which carbon dioxide is combined with the hydrogen split from water
in the light-dependent reactions. Energy for these reactions is provided
by the ATP formed in the light-dependent reactions.
The reactions of the Calvin cycle take place in the stroma of the chlo-
roplasts. To begin the cycle, a molecule of carbon dioxide combines with
a 5-carbon molecule, forming a 6-carbon molecule that immediately splits

Figure 19.10 A summary of tha reactions in the Calvin cycle, and of the ways
that PGAL can be used.

CO2

\I

(PGA)
Calvin
cycle

111P-P
HAMM ---
NADP+----
111-1)-P

NADPH
NADP+

1 regeneration of
starting compound

i (PGAL)
to cellular respiration .1,2 -P

glucosi phosphate
/ 4/15,_
3
- amino acids
proteins

starch
i
sucrose
lipids
chlorophyll
roots stems fruits

(ii
J

Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 689

into two 3 carbon molecules. Each of those accepts a hydrogen from

NADPH and a phosphate group from ATP to form a 3-carbon sugar
called pbosphoglyceraldehyde (fos fo glis uh RAL deh hyd), or PGAL
PGAL is the first stable, usable sugar formed from carbon dioxide in
the Calvin cycle. Those reactions are summarized in the diagram in figure
19.10.
Several things can happen to the PGAL. First, it can undergo many
transformations in the Calvin cycle to regenerate the original 5-carbon
,molecule with which the cycle began. Without that molecule, the cycle
would stop. Second, the PGAL can leave the chlotoplast and enter the
pathway of glycolysis and cellular respiration to provide energy for the
cell. Third, two molecules of PGAL can combine to form a molecule of
glucose-phosphate. Many molecules of glucose-phosphate are combined
to form starch, the major plant storage compound. Fourth; the PGAL
can be used to make the sugar sucrose, which is transported, via phloem,
to roots, stems, fruits, and growing regions of the plant. Last, PGAL can
be used to synthesize amino acids, proteins, lipids, chlorophyll, enzymes,
and other compounds used in the plant cell. Thus, in the Calvin cycle,
chemical energy is stored in sugars, as well as in other compounds syn-
thesized by the plant cells.
The Calvin cycle and the Krebs citric acid cycle are similar in in- The Importance of the Krebs and Calvin cycles
volving many rearrangements of carbon chains. Both provide carbon productIon of carbon skeletons for
skeletons for use in biosynthesis reactions. Carbon dioxide is used in the biosynthesis reactions is often overlooked and,
Calvin cycle and released in the Krebs cycle. ATP is used in the Calvin therefore, has been stressed here and in
cycle and formed in the Krebs cycle, and NADPH is used in the Calvin section 15 11
cycle while NADH is produced in the Krebs cycle. Relationships be-
tween photosynthesis and respiration are summarized in figure 19.11.

Figure 19.11 The relationships between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

chloroplast CO2

(pyruvic
acid)

mitochondrion

792
690 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Self-Review

1. Why is chlorophyll considered the most important plant pigment?

2. What are accessory pigments, and what role do they play in pho-
tosynthesis?
3. What is the difference between an absorption spectrum and an ac-
tion spectrum?
4. What major events occur in the light-dependent reactions? In the
Calvin cycle?
5. What are the major products of the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis?

Investigation 19.2
GAS EXCHANGE AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The work on this investigation must extend Introduction

over several days Procedure A and the original Following the principles of diffusion, carbon dioxide would normally flow
setting up of the plants for procedure B may be into a leaf during the day and oxygen would flow out as photosynthesis
done on a Friday. The 1st part of procedure B proceeds. 11, this investigation, you will disrupt the normal gas exchange
then can be done on the following Monday On process and observe the effects.
Thursday the final part of procedure B can be
done Of course, on Tuesday and Wednesday
work on other matters in chapter 19 can be Materials (per team)
continued For Part A

Materials
fresh leaves, several kinds
single-edge razor blade
Be sure leaves are kept from wilting microscope
You need small potted plants with abundant microscope slide
but not large leaves Coleus and geranium are coverslip
line but wellgrown bean plants may be used forceps
For the iodine solution, you may use iodine- dropping pipet
potassiumrodide (directions on p T75)
For Part B
Procedure
2 potted plants
You may need to assist some students in the alcohol (95%)
computation of heldofview areas (See iodine solution
Investigation A 2 for calculating fieldof-view xylene
diameter ) 3 beakers, 400 ml
Be sure students do not forget to water the beaker, 1000 ml
plants kept in the dark 4 petri dishes
A few beakers of boiling water at strategic forceps
places in your laboratory may suffice for all scissors
teams Note the caution on heating alcohol hot plate
water, at room temperature
petroleum jelly
paper towel
absorbent cotton
white paper

793
ti
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 691

Procedure
Part ANumber of Stomates
1. Tear a leaf at an angle while holding the lower surface upward. The
tearing action should peel off a portion of the lower epidermis. It will
appear as a narrow, colorless zone extending beyond the green part
of the leaf.
2. Using a razor blade, cut off a small piece of this epidermis. Immediately
place it in a drop of water on a slide. Add a cover slip. Do not allow
the fragment to dry out.
3. Using the low-power objective of your microscope, locate some sto-
mates. Then switch to the high-power objective. Make a sketch to
show the shape of a stomate, its guard cells, and a few adjacent cells
in the epidermis.
4. Count the number of stomates in 10 different fields of the microscope
under high power and average them. (Refer to appendix 2 to calculate
the diameter of the high-power field. Use this figure to calculate the
area of the leaf observed under the microscope.) Calculate the av-
erage number of stomates per mm2 of leaf surface.
5. In the same manner, count the stomates on the upper epidermis of
the same leaf. Examine as many other kinds of leaves as possible.
Compare the number of stomates per mm2 on the upp' :r and lower
surfaces of each kind of leaf.

Part BLight and Photosynthesis

1. Select 2 healthy plants of the same species. Place 1 plant where it will
receive no light. Place the other where it will be exposed to sunlight.
2. After 3 days remove a leaf from each plant. Place a small notch in the
margin of the illuminated plant.
3. Immediately drop the leaves into a beaker of boiling water.
4- When they are limp, transfer the leaves to a beaker half full of alcohol
Place this beaker in an electrically heated water bath. CAUTION: Neve'
heat alcohol over an open flame or permit its vapor to come into con-
tact with an open flame.
5. Heated alcohol extracts chlorophyll from leaves. It also makes them
brittle, because most of their water is removed. As soon as the leaves
are no longer green, use forceps to take them out of the alcohol. Then
drop the leaves into a beaker of water at room temperature. After a
minute or so, they will become quite soft.
6. Spread each leaf out in a petri dish and cover it with iodine solution.
7. Mow the iodine solution to act on the leaves for several minutes. Then
remove both leaves. Rinse them in water, and spread them out in water
in petri dishes placed on a piece of white paper. Record the color of
each leaf.
8. Select 4 similar leaves on the plant that has been kept in the dark. Do
not remove them from the plant. Thoroughly coat the upper surface
of 1 leaf with petroleum jelly. (A layer of petroleum jelly, though trans-
parent, is a highly effective barrier across which many gases cannot
pass.) Cut one notch in the leaf's margin.
9. Co it a 2nd leaf on its lower surface and cut 2 notches in its margin.
10. Coat a 3rd leaf on both upper and lower surfaces and cut 3 notches
in its margin.
11. Do not coat the 4th leaf, but cut 4 notches in its margin. Place the
plant where it will be exposed to sunlight.

)
794
692 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Discus Sion 12. After 3 days remove all 4 leaves and place them on paper towels.
1 This depends on the type of leaf used Remove the petroleum jelly by gently rubbing the leaves with ab-
and the student observation sorbent cotton saturated with xylene.
2. Explanations may be based on the 13. Following the procedure used before, perform the iodine test on each
discussion in sections 18 1 and 182. but all leaf Compare the color reactions of the 4 leaves, and record your
must be inconclusive observations.
3 Many counts must be made and the
counts averaged. Take care that counts are
made on comparable leaves of the 2 plants Discussion
age of plant and leaf, position of leaves with
respect to sun c.nd shade 1. How did the number of stomates per mm2 in different areas of the
4 This depends on the type of leaf used same side of a piece of leaf epidermis compare? On opposite sides?
and on student observation 2. Did the stomates vary in the amount they were open? How can you
5. The principal assumption is that the data explain this?
adequately represent stomate distribution in all 3. What would you do to assure a reliable comparison of the number of
leaves of all individuals of the species stomates per mm2 for 2 species of plants?
6 The 1st set of tests establishes a 4. What do your data suggest about the distribution of stomates in leaves
condition in plants exposed to tight- of your species of plant?
photosynthesizing plants 5. What assumption must you make in drawing this conclusion?
7 You assume that the presence of starch 6. What was the purpose of the 1st set of iodine tests?
is an indication of photosynthesis This is not 7. If you use this test as an indication of photosynthetic activity, what
necessarily true. Starch might be synthesized assumption are you making?
from glucose trarsported into a leaf from 8. What is the purpose of the leaf that is marked with 4 notches?
elsewhere in the plant On the other hand, the 9. In which of the leaves coated with petroleum jelly did photosynthetic
synthesis of multicarbon compounds need not
activity appear to have been greatest?
necessarily be carried as far as starch It might 10. In which of the leaves did photosynthetic activity appear to have been
stop with glucose or even smaller carbon least? Do your data support your hypothesis?
compounds Nevertheless, starch in leaves is
commonly regarded as an indication of
photosynthesis and lack of starch as an For Further Investigation
indication of lack of photosynthesis
8 This leat serves as a control Compare the number of stomates and their locations on leaves of 2
9, 10 The best support for the hypothesis different species. Select 1 species that usually grows in full sunlight and 1
that grows in shade.
comes from results that show starch in neither
the 2-notched nor the 3,1,,ched leaves and
much starch in both the 1-notched and
4-notched leaves.

Guidepost: How do plant cells obtain Respiration in Plants

energy for cellular
activities?
19.6 Fermentation Is Less Efficient
than Aerobic Respiration
Students may be interested to know that As we have seen, the sugars produced in photosynthesis can be used
glucose utilization increases as oxygen as a source of energy and of carbon building blocks for the plant. Cel-
decreases At zero oxygen, glucose is used at lular respiration in plant cells is essentially the same as in animal cells.
approximately seven times the rate it is used at
We saw in chapter 15 that in the presence of oxygen much of the energy
5 to 10'') oxygen
from sugars, as well as from fats and proteins, can be used to make ATP
molecules. When oxygen is lacking, however, the reactions of the Krebs
cycle and the electron transport system stop. Under such anaerobic con-
ditions, much less usable energy is made available.
In animals, aerobic respiration of 1 glucose molecule usually forms
36 ATP molecules. (In plants, slightly more ATP may be formed.) By
contrast, under anaerobic conditions only 2 ATP molecules are produced
per I glucose molecule. Under these conditions, both animal and plant

Chi)
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 693

cells carry out fermentation (fer men TAY shun), or anaerobic respi- 0
ration. Glycolysis continues, but the pyruvic acid is converted to lactic
acid or alcohol. Animal muscle cells form lactic acid. Plant cells usually
form alcohol, but can form lactic acid as well. A general equation for
fermentation is shown below.
ATP + CH3CH(OH)COOH
(lactic acid)
ADP + P + C3H603 enzymes
I 3-carbon \ ATP + CO2 + C2Hs0H
k sugar J ( carbon\ (alcohol)
dioxideJ
Wineries make use of this process. In anaerobic containers yeast cells
ferment grape sugar to alcohol in wine. The yeast in the wine eventually
0
are killed by their own waste product, alcohol, when kept in anaerobic
conditions. As soon as the yeast die, the alcohol content of the wine stops
increasing.
The cells of most organisms can survive only a short time on the lim-
ited amount of energy released by anaerobic respiration. Eventually the
0 Perhaps even more important than the low
energy availability is the toxi,ity of the alwhol or
lactic acid. or the lack of carbon skeletons
cells will die, unless oxygen becomes available for the more efficient aer-
when the Krebs cycle is inactivated
obic respiration to take place. Some organisms, however, exist entirely
by anaerobic respiration. Many of the bacteria described in chapter 11
are anaerobic. Organisms such as yeast can exist well anaerobically, but
if oxygen is available, they switch to the more efficient aerobic method.
Large organisms, such as humans and trees, require the large amounts
of energy made available in aerobic respiration.

Figure 19.12 Yeast cells produce a dustlike "bloom" or these grapes. When
the grapes are crushed, the yeast cells mix with the juice. Under anaerobic
conditions, the yeast break down the sugar in the grape juice to alcohol.

ri n (--,
..,
;
.. 1d0
 694 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

19.7 Many Environmental Factors Affect

Figure 19.13 The rate of photosynthesis
depends on the amount of CO2 available, the Photosynthesis and Respiration
intensity of light, and the temperature.
Many environmental factors affect the rates of respiration and pho-
tosynthesis. If any of those factors is present at less than optimum levels,
high that factor limits the rate of the reaction. For example, at optimal tem-
temperature perature and carbon dioxide concentration, the rate of photosynthesis is
limited by the light intensity. If temperature and light intensity are op-
high %CO2 timal, then carbon dioxide concentration becomes the limiting factor.
And if light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are adequate,
0 the temperature controls the overall rate of photosynthesis. You can ob-
low % CO2 serve how some of these factors affect the rate of photosynthesis in in-
0 low temperature
vestigation 19.3.
In general, higher temperatures speed up, and lower temperatures
slow down, the rate of chemical reactions. For instance, potatoes are
0
good crops for Idaho, but not for southern Florida, because of the tem-
perature during the growing season. Tlie rate of photosynthesis drops
sharply at temperatures above 20° C, whereas the rate of respiration
light intensity ../11111. continues to increase, as shown in the graph in figure 19.14. That means
that more sugars are used up by respiration than are being produced by
photosynthesis. Thus, the potato tuber can store little sugar as starch.
Figure 19.14 The comparative rates of In the cooler north, however, the rate of photosynthesis in potatoes is
photosynthesis and respiration in leaves of Irish higher than the rate of respiration, and potatoes grow very well. In ad-
potato. dition, low temperature stimulates a plant to store food in tubers or fruits.
Photosynthesis provides both the carbon compounds to build cells and
14.0
the chemical energy that cellular respiration uses to produce ATP mol-
3
s_ ecules. Those ATP molecules then are used for maintenance and growth
2 12.0 of cells within the plant. The growth of a plant is controlled by a variety
photosynthesis of growth regulators called plant hormones. In the next section we will
a.
g 10.0 discuss the most important plant hormones and some of the ways they
03
interact with environmental factors.

8.0
0
cs'E
0 6.0 Self-Review
0
i 1. Compare the amounts of energy trapped in ATP by aerobic respi-

Pr
0) 4.0
cs

3 ration and fermentation.

(0
0 2. How do wineries use the process of fermentation?
0) 2.0 3. Why can few organisms live using only fermentation?
respiration
4. What are some of the environmental factors that affect rates of res-
0.00 piration and photosynthesis?
10 20 30 40 50
temperature, °C

Investigation 19.3 164101900f. YNTIGRATE-

PHOTOSYNTHETIC RATE
Introduction
The time needed to set up the manometer There are several ways that the rate of photosynthesis can be mea-
apparatus might be long, but the results of this sured. This investigation calls for the use of a sprig of elodea, a common
investigation make it worthwhile Time can be aquatic plant. You may want to collect and use some other aquatic plant
saved if the tubing assemblies (steps 2-7) are found in your area. If you live near the coast, you may even want to try to
prepared ahead of time Then students should measure the photosynthetic rate of seaweed in seawater: After all, most
of the photosynthesis on earth takes place in the ocean.

797
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 695

Materials (per team) be able to collect data for part B in 1 period,

with a 2nd period for part C if time allows It is
2 rubber stoppers, 2-hole, no. 4
desirable to have all students perform part B
2 glass tubes, 8 cm long
and assign different teams to do the 10 cm and
4 pieces of new rubber tubing, 6 cm lengths
50 cm distances in part C Data can be pooled
2 screw-type pinch clamps
for the calculations Young, healthy elodea is
2 glass tubes, 20 cm long
essential to successful data gathering,
2 pipets, 1 ml
2 test tubes, 22 mm X 175 mm
21 beaker
250 ml flask
drinking straw
2 sprigs of young elodea, 15 cm
2 ring stands
2 ring stand clamps
syringe with fine needle
lamp with 150 watt light bulb

Procedure
Part AManometric Assembly
Prepare 2 manometers as shown in figure 19.15.
1. Fill a 2 I beaker with tap water and let stand while assembling the rest
of the apparatus.
2. Insert an 8 cm long glass tube into 1 of the holes of each rubber stopper.
3. To the outside end of each tube, attach a 6 cm length of rubber tubing
to serve as a mouthpiece.
4. Put a screw-type pinch clamp on each mouthpiece.
5. Into the other hole of each stopper, insert a 20 cm long glass tube so
that it reaches almost to the bottom of the test tube that will become
part of the manometer.
6. To the outside end of each tube, attach a 6 cm length of rubber tubing.
7. Connect a 1 ml pipet to each piece of tubing.
8. Put 125 ml of distilled water into a fiask and use a drinking straw to
blow your breath into the water for 2 minutes.
9. Place 2 sprigs of elodea, cut end up, into 1 of the test tubes (exper-
imental tube).
10. Fill both tubes with the water that you bubbled into earlier.

Figure 19.15 Manometer set-up.

793
 696 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

11. Press a 2-hole stopper assembly tightly into each test tube. Close the
screw clamps partway.
12. Stand the test tubes in the 2 I beaker you filled with water in step 1 of
these procedures so that the water just covers the outside surface of
the 2 -holy stopper.
13. Support the pipets in a horizontal position by means of the ring stands
and ring stand clamps, as shown in figure 19.16.
14. Blow gently through the mouthpiece until the water comes out the end
of the pipet. Close the screw clamp completely while blowing. (If the
water backs out of the pipet into the test tube, it means there is a leak
somewhere in the system. Check all fittings to be sure they are tight.)
15. Let the entire assembly stand for about 10 minutes to permit temper-
ature equilibration throughout the system.
16. During this time, introduce a small air bubble into each pipet at the end
a where it is attached to the test tube portion. To do this, gently force
the fine needle of an empty syringe into the rubber tubing, which con-
nects with the pipet, and inject a small bubble of air. Use the mouth-
piece to move the air bubble into the'pipet so it can be seen.

Part BBasic Photosynthetic Rate

1. Use the scale on the pipets to record the position of 1 end of the air
bubble in each manometer.
2. Place the lamp 30 cm from the beaker and illuminate the 2 manom-
eters.
3. Use the scale on the pipets to record the position of the air bubbles
in each pipet every 2 minutes over a period of 20 minutes.

Part CEffects of Light Intensity on Photosynthetic Rate

Repeat the procedures of part B with the light source 10 cm and 50 cm
away from the manometer assembly.

Discussion Discussion
1. Control, 1. What is the purpose of the 2nd manometer set-up?
2 CO2 + 1120 carbonic acid 2. What chemical change occurred in the water that was bubbled into
3. Oxygen, for 2 minutes?
4 Temperature and barometric pressure 3. What is produced in the test tubes that causes the air bubble to move
5. If the air bubble in the control pipet in the pipets?
moved toward the test tube, you add the volume 4. The test tube without the elodea is called a thermobarometer. What
that movement represents to the experimental 2 environmental factors are being controlled by this set-up?
volume If the movement in the control pipet is 5. How would you use the distance the thermobarometer air bubble moved
away from the test tube you subtract this volume to correct the distance the experimental air bubble moved?
from the experimental data. 6. Use the corrected distanu., the experimental air bubble moved and
6. Depends on student data calculate the volume of 02 produced during the 20-minute period. De-
7. The independent variable, time, goes on termine the rate of photosynthesis by calculating 02 produced per
the horizontal axis and the dependent variable, minute.
mi of 02 produced, goes on the vertical axis 7. Plot the data. What variable goes on the horizontal axis? What variable
8. Depends on student data, but generally goes on the vertical axis?
the 10 cm distance should produce a higher 8. Calculate the volume of 02 produced with the light source 10 cm and
rate, and the 50 cm distance a lower rate, than 50 cm away from the manometer assembly. Plot this data on the graph
the 30 cm distance you prepared in discussion number 7.

799
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 697

Biochemical and Environmental Guidepost: How are chemicals involved

in plant growth and
Control of Plant Growth development, and what role
does the environment play?
19.8 Plant Hormones Interact to
Regulate Plant Processes
As a plant grows, it increases in size, but it also differentiates, forming
a variety of cells, tissues, and organs. Although genes determine the basic
form of a plant, the environment can strongly modify its development.
Many of a plant's activities are coordinated with the changing seasons.
Regulatory substances (hormones) produced by the plant play critical
roles in these responses. Plant growth and development thus depend on
the interaction of many internal and external factors.

Figure 19.16 Some of the hormonal interrelationships among various portions

of a plant.

auxin and gibberellic auxin controls

acid synthesized in differentiation
young leaves and
buds - control stem
elongation

abscisic acid made in

leaf in response to
water stress - closes
stomates, reduces
water loss
cytokinins made in
young fruit, necessary
for growth

ethylene accumulates
in mature fruit to
induce ripening

cytokinins kerp root

and shoot growth in
balance

'factor made in root tip

/ controls gravItropism
of roots

800
 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Plant hormones have a number of characteristics in common. First,

they are produced in one place and transported to another place, where
they exert their effects. Second, they are produced and are effective in
extremely small amounts. Third, hormones may interact with other hor-
mones or chemical substances to bring about a particular response. Many
plant processes require interaction among several hormones. Finally, a
plant hormone may affect the responses of many plant parts, and each
part may respond differently to the hormone. In general, the response
to a particular hormone is influenced by a variety of factors, including
concentration and the presence of other hormones. These characteristics
have made it extremely difficult to determine the roles of the hormones
in the plant. Although physiologists have been experimenting for more
than 100 years, many questions remain unanswered.

19.9 Auxins Influence Many Aspects

of Plant Growth
Five groups of plant hormones are presently recognized. The first of
these to be discovered was the auxins (AWK sins), in particular one auxin,
that seemed to cause curvature of certain stems toward the light, as we
will explain in section 19.12. Today physiologists have identified one to
perhaps three naturally occurring auxins, and they have synthesized sev-
eral others.
Auxins are thought to be produced in actively growing regions such
as the tip ends of shoots. They are moved by active transport to other
parts of the plant. Auxins may cause cells in the growing region of the
shoot to elongate. In contrast, the same concentration of auxins applied
to root cells inhibits their elongation. Root cells elongate only in response
to extremely low concentrations of auxins. Thus, the effect of an auxin
appears to depend on its concentration as well as on the particular plant
part it acts on.
Auxins can be applied to cuttings to stimulate the formation of ad-
ventitious (ad yen TISH us) roots. An adventitious root is one that arises
from an unusual place, such as from a stem that has been cut off a plant
and placed in water. When such a cutting is placed in water containing
a natural or synthetic auxin, root production is stimulated, as in the holly
cuttings in figure 19.17.
Ask students how a growth substance might kill A synthetic auxin called 2,4-D is used to kill dicot weeds. At the con-
a plant when present in large quantities, Growth centrations generally used, 2,4-D does not affect members of the grass
requires energy, If a plant uses energy in growth family (monocots), so it can be used to control weeds such as dandelions
faster than it can acquire this energy in
in lawns and grain fields.
photosynthesis, it will eventually deplete its
Applied auxins also can promote fruit growth. A fruit develops after
reserves of stored food. The plant dies, one
might say, of exhaustion a flower has been pollinated and its ovules have been fertilized. Nor-
mally, if pollination or fertilization does not occur, the fruit will not de-
velop. However, scientists discovered that they could "fool" certain
flowers into developing fruit by spraying them with an auxin. The fruit
is produced without fertilization, so no seeds develop inside. Seedless
tomatoes and cucumbers have been produced this way.

801
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 699

The picture really illustrates the question Holly

Figure 19.17 The top row of holly cuttings was treated with an auxin. The cuttings were once extremely difficult to root,
bottom row was not treated. How might this growth substance be used and so varieties that would grow from seed
commercially?
were difficult to propagate Growth hormones
have changed this, greatly increased supplies of
horticultural varieties of hollies and many other
difficult-to-root plants have resulted.

USDA

Figure 19.18 Effect of gibberellic acid (GA3) on dwarf maize plants. Each dwarf
plant was treated with the indicated dosage of GA3 and allowed to continue
growing for seven days. Note the increase in height of the plant with increase in
dosage. Normal growth is exhibited by plants treated with 10 and 100 Atg GA3.

o Out .01 i 160

MICROGRAMS GA3 /PLANT

dwarf -6 mutant
B. 0. Phinney

19.10 Other Plant Hormones Also

Have Diverse Effects
A second group of plant hormones, gibberellins (jib uh REL ens), was 0 Gibberellins were named after the fungus in
discovered many years ago when Japanese rice farmers noticed that rice which they were first found, Gibberella full/carol,
plants sometimes grow gigantically tall and then fall over and die. Jap-
anese botanists studied this "foolish seedling" disease and found that the
rice plants were infected with a fungus. The fungus produced a chemical
that caused the strange growth of rice. Many plants are now known to

802
700 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

produce their own gibberellins. In fact, more than 60 gibberellins have

been identified. When treated with gibberellins, many kinds of plants
grow to double or triple their normal height. However, the stems are very
thin and the leaves are often pale.
Natural gibberellins may be involved in seed germination. tiller a
seed has absorbed water, the embryo begins to produce gibberellins. The
hormone appears to trigger the production of enzymes that digest the
stored food in the seed, converting it to sugars and amino acids. These
are then absorbed and used by the developing embryo. Gibberellins also
cause certain plants to bolt, or to produce flowers and seeds prematurely,
(figure 19.19). Bolting in garden plants such as spinach and cabbage is

Figure 19.19 Bolting caused by gibberellic acid. The cabbage plants at left are
untreated. Treatment with gibberellic acid caused bolting and flowering in the
plants at right.

Sylvan WIlfiVer
 Chapter 19 The Flowering Pant: Maintenance and Coordination 701

normally a response to temperature changes, but can be initiated by ap-

plications of a gibberellin. Application of gibberellins can cause some
0
flowers to develop seedless fruit. Gibberellins are used commercially to
produce larger fruits, as in the grapes seen in figure 19.20.
A third group of plant hormones, cytokinins (syt oh KY ninz), pro-
mote cell division and organ formation. They are found mostly in plant
parts with actively dividing cells, such as root tips, germinating seeds,
and fruits. Cytokinins appear to be necessary to promote stem and root
growth, as well as chloroplast development and chlorophyll synthesis.
Cytokinins and auxins interact closely to regulate the total growth pat-
tern of the plant.
A fourth kind of plant hormone, ethylene (ETH ih leen), promotes
fruit ripening and aging of tissues. It is different from other hormones
becauseit is a gas. Ethylene was used unknowingly hundreds of years
ago by Chinese farmers, who ripened their fruits in rooms in which they
were burning incense. The incense produced small amounts of ethylene
gas. Ripening fruits and other plant parts produce this hormone. Ba-
nanas, tomatoes, and other fruits often are picked while still green and
then treated with ethylene to ripen them when they are ready to be sold.
In addition to promoting fruit ripening, ethytt...- appears to inhibit elon-
gation of stems and roots, as well as flowering in most species.
A fifth kind of plant hormone is abscisic (ab STS ik) acid, which is
thought to be involved in the dormancy of buds and seeds. In the dor-
mant state, seeds are able to survive extremes of temperature and dry-
ness, thus ensuring survival of the embryo. Abscisic acid also affects
stomate closing and is sometimes called the stress hormone because it
helps protect the plant against unfavorable environmental conditions.

Figure 19.20 Grapes with and without gibberellic acid treatment.

Fred Jensen

804
702 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figur* 19.21 Mimosa plant before (a) and after (b) being touched.

a ases by CorlYs Calvin b nal by Cody* Calvin

19.11 Plants Respond to Environmental

Stimuli
Although we do not usually think about plants as moving objects,
plants do have movements. Plant movements are often the result of dif-
ferential growth, and most occur in response to stimuli such as changes
in the environment. The movements are generally very small and take
place over a period of time. It is usually necessary to use time-lapse pho-
tography in order to see the movements. Nevertheless, these movements
are particularly important to proper growth and development.
Consider some of the more dramatic movements of plants. The rapid
At the base of each petiole, on the underside, closing of a Venus's flytrap leaf is a response to the stimulus of an insect
are enlarged cells that ordinarily are turgid.
crawling over trigger hairs in the leaf. The insect is quickly trapped within
Stimuli of various kindssudden contact, rapid
the leaf and then slowly digested by enzymes secreted from the leaf. The
temperature change, and electricitycause
sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica, has compound leaves. When any part
release of some diffusible chemical that
stimulates these cells to lose liquid, which of the leaf is touched, the leaflets droop together suddenly, as shown in
reduces their turgor until the cell walls collapse figure 19.21. This movement is the result of a sudden loss of water from
The leaf folds. Although folding is almost certain cells at the base of the leaves and leaflets. The significance of
instanteous, recovery may take some minutes, this movement is not completely apparent, but it may help to make the
Mimosa pudica is fairly easy to grow; seeds may plant unattractive to herbivores or to help the leaves conserve water in
be obtained from biological supply companies. the droopy condition.

Plants also exhibit what are called nastic 19.12 Tropisms Are Plant Movements
movements, involving things such as opening of
flowers and drooping of leavesresponses that If you leave your houseplants next to a window they will bend toward
may be stimulated by light, temperature, and the outdoors. That is because the most intense light comes through the
other factors, but that are not directly related to window. For a long time biologists have observed that most green plants
directional stimuli, The prayer plant (Moran la), a grow toward light. Charles Darwin studied this response, which is called
common household ornamental, can be tif.:.d to phototropism (foh toh TROH piz um). Tropisms are movements of plant
demonstrate nastic movements, its leaves fold parts in response to a stimulus. In most plants, tropisms are closely as-
together at night Wild buttercup blossoms open
sociated with growth and vary according to the intensity of the stimulus.
during the day and close at night; white evening
primroses do just the opposite.

805
 Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 703

Figure 19.22 Seedlings bending toward light. Figure 19.23 Differential elongation of cells on
opposite sides of a shoot produces bending.

auxin produced here

, light
greater elongation , source
produced here

less eniongation here

Figure 19.24 One of the classic experiments in

coleoptile growth. A very small piece of mica
was inserted between the growing tips and the
rest of two coleoptiles, one on the left side, one
on the right side. One coleoptile was left
untouched. The tips of all three plants were
illuminated from the right side only. The normal
plant grew and curved to the right. The plant
with the mica on the right grew in a similar
manner. The plant with the mica on the left side
failed to groW.

light source

David Nevrment VISUALS UNLIMITED

Since Darwin's time, many experiments have been carried out in an

attempt to explain the mechanism of phototropism. That mechanism,
however, is still unclear. In the phototropic response, cells on the lighted
side of the shoot stop growing, while those on the shaded side continue
to elongate. That differential growth seems to cause the bending, but
what causes the differential growth?
Experiments designed to answer that question have been carried out
on grass coleoptiles (koh lee OP tilz). A coleoptile is a specialized leaf
that forms a sheath around the first true leaves of a monocot. The di
rection of coleoptile growth is influenced by gravity and light. In uniform
lighting or in the dark, grass secOings grow straight upward, or in the
direction opposite to gravity. With one-sided lighting, bending occurs.
Evidence from the experiments indicated that the tip of a growing
shoot produces a chemical that causes bending. Darwin's experiments The classical experiments on the interaction of
showed that if the tip was covered, the shoot would not bend. Other re- light and auxins are deliberately downplayed
searchers found that a substance produced in the tip could cause the here, because of the controversy surrounding
shoot to bend even in the dark, if placed on only one side of the shoot. their interpretation, See J. Weyers, "Do plants
Eventually the substance was isolated and found to be an auxin. It f eat:y have hormones?" The New Scientist (17
Vay 1984).
appeared that the auxin was synthesized in the tip and transported to
the shaded side, where it stimulated elongation of the cells. That hy-
pothesis is now being questioned, and at the present time it is not clear
how, or even whether, light and auxin interact to produce bending.

806
704 Section Four Functic ring Organisms in the Biosphere

You may be more familiar with the term Gravitropism (gray ih TROH piz um) is growth movement toward or
geotropism The response is to the acceleration away from the earth's gravitational pull. Stems and flower stalks are
force of gravity; therefore the term gravitropism
negatively gravitropic, that is, they grow in a dimction away from gravity.
is more accurate. For more information about
If stems are placed in a horizontal position, they bend upward. The re-
the mechanism see R Moore, "How Roots
Perceive and Respond to Gravity," ABT (May
sponse is variable, and auxins are thought to play a critical role, as are
1984).
calcium ions. Roots are positively gravitropic, and the evidence indicates
that perception of gravity occurs in the root cap. There, plastids filled
with starch grains migrate to the bottom of certain cells, and their move-
ment initiates a sequence of events that leads to downward growth or
curvature. Again, auxins appear to be involved, along with abscisic acid
and, perhaps, other chemicals. You can observe some of these tropisms
in investigation 19.4.
Figure 19.25 When an upright plant is turned
on its side, in time the roots bend down and the
stem bends up. Thus, roots demonstrate
positive gravitropism and sterns demonstrate
o sMs
negative gravitropism. Introduction
This investigation consists of 2 separate investigations. Each part will
be conducted by some teams in each class. Before you begin the part
your team will conduct, read through all the procedures for parts A and B
and form a hypothesis for each. All members of the class should observe
the results and participate in a discussion of the outcome of each part.

fosterials (per team)

For Part A
4 soaked corn grains
petri dish
cotton
scissors
heavy blotting paper
cellophane tape
glass-marking crayon
modeling clay

For Part B
4 flowerpots, about 8 cm in diameter
4 cardboard boxes, at least 5 cm higher 'har: the flowerpots
40 radish seeds
soil
red and blue cellophane
scissors
cellophane tape

Part AOrientation of Shoots and Roots in t lea:tinting Corn

Procedure
1. Place 4 soaked corn grains in the bottom half of a petri dish. Arrange
them cotyledon side down, as shown in figure 19.26.
2. Fill the spaces between the corn grains with wads of cotton to a depth
slightly greater than the thickness of the grains.

w8
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 705

.3. Cut a piece of blotting paper slightly larger than the bottom of the petri
dish. Fit it snugly over the grains and the cotton. Figure 19.26
4. Hold the dish on its edge and observe the grains through the bottom.
If the., do not stay in place, repack with more cotton.
5. When the grains are secure in the dish, wet the blotting paper thor- corn grain
oughly. Sea: the 2 halves of the petri dish together with cellophane
tape. -"x-r7-bottom of
petri dish
6. Place the dish on edge in dim light.
7. Rotate the dish until 1 grain is at the top. With the glass-marking crayon, place
111 i''scotch
J.1), tape
write an A on the dish beside the topmost grain. Then, proceeding books
clockwise, label the other grains B, C, and D. heren place
1. Use modeling clay to support the dish as shown in figure 19.26.
9. When the grains begin to germinate, make sketches daily for 5 days,
-41 ) 11:
books
,0,171. here

showing the direction in which the root and the shoot grow from each modeling clay
grain.

Discussion Investigation 19.4

1. From which end of the grains did the roots grow? TROPISMS
2. From which end did the shoots grow?
3. Did the roots of all grains eventually turn in 1 direction? If so, what was Appropriate hyoothesi.s might be statements
the direction? concerning expected effects of gravity (part A).
4. Did the shoots of all 4 grains eventually turn in 1 direction? or color of light (part B)
5. To what stimulus did the roots and shoots seem to be responding?
6. Were the responses positive (toward the stimulus) or negative (away Materials
from the stimulus)? Soak corn grains for 2 days Use the largest
peln dishes possible Use nonabsorbent cotton
to pack the grains
Pert BOrientation of Radish Seedlings Paper towels can be used instead of blotting
Procedure Paper, but desk blotter paper forms a better
1. Turn the 4 cardboard boxes upside down. Number them 1 to 4. Label support for seeds and cotton (Colored blotters
each with your team symbol. may contain dyes that are harmful to corn
grains )
2. Cut a rectangular hole in 1 side of each of 3 boxes. (Use the dimen-
sions shown in figure 19.27.) Various substitutes can be used for
flowerpots Milk cartons with drainage holes in
3. Tape a strip of red cellophane over the hole in box 1. Tape a strip of
the bottoms are good
blue cellophane over the hole in box 2. Leave the hole in box 3 un-
covered. Do not cut a hole in box 4. Sail may be plain sand or fine vermicuhtc
unle.*:, you plan to grow the seedlings for some
4. Using a pencil, number 4 flowerpots 1 to 4. Label each with your team
other purpose Avoid Clay
symbol. Fill the pots to 1 cm below the top with soil.
5. In each pot, plant 10 radish seeds about 0.5 cm deep and 2 cm apart.
Press the soil down firmly over the seeds and water the pots. Place
them in a location that receives strong light but not direct sunlight. Figure 19.27
6. Cover each pot with the box bearing its number. Turn the boxes s.
tie sides with holes face the light.
7. Once each day remove the boxes and water the pots. (Do not move
the pots; replace the boxes in the same position.)
8. When most of the radish seedlings have been above ground for 2 or
3 days, record the direction of stem growth in each potupright,
curved slightly, or curved greatly. If curved, record in what direction
with respect to the hole in the box.

iue,808
706 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Procedure Discussion
Because radish seeds germinate quickly, no 1. In which pot were the stems most nearly perpendicular?
more than a week is needed to obtain results 2. Were all the sterns curved in one direction in any pot?
The radish seedlings need to grow for only 2 to 3. If so, in which pot and in what direction? If not, in what direction did
3 days after they break through the soil most of the stems curve?
4. To what stimulus do you think the stems responded?
Discussion 5. What effect, if any, did the red and blue cellophane have on the-di-
It is very important that the data obtained be rection of the stem growth?
the basis for discussion A corollary of this
principle is that students should not generalize
For Further Investigation
on the basis of 1 experiment If, in part B, radish
seedlings turn away from the light and if reports Will centrifugal force overcome the response f plant parts to gravity?
are found of other experiments in which the To test this idea, mount the setup used in part A on the turntable of a
converse was observed, students should phonograph.
entertain doubts concerning the validity of their
own results.
19.13 Many Plants Respond to the Length
Part A
of Day and Night
1, The narrow end
2 The narrow end The changing seasons are an important environmental cue for all ter-
3, Yes, downward restrial organisms. Birds migrate, insects produce dormant eggs, ani-
4 Yes, upward, mals hibernate, and deciduous trees lose their leaves as winter approaches.
5 Light may affect the shoots to some Those activi.:es are triggered by changes in day length, and organisms
extent, and under the conditions of this have mechanisms that allow them to respond to t1 relative amount of
experiment, its effects cannot be separated light and dark in a 24-hour period. This response is called photoperi-
from negative gravitropism odism (foh toh PIH ree ud iz um).
Many plants show the effects of photoperiodism in flowering. There
Part B
is no single "best" time for all plants to flower: it depends on the indi-
1. Box 4. vidual species of plant. Spring-flowering plants can reproduce before other
2, Box 3, one-sided illumination with white plants dc Fall-flowering plants can reproduce after they have grown and
light should cause the most obvious change in
stored energy all summer long. Then they can use this energy in the fall
growth direction: box 1, red light, show little or
no bending: box 2. blue fight, show bending
toward the source of light
3 Among seedlings individual differences Figure 19.28 Graph illustrating the response of plants sensitive to the seasonal
change in day and night length.
may occur. On the whole, however, cultivated
plants show more uniformity than wild ones, as 16
breeders have artificially selected them for
uniformity,
4 Light.
5 See answer 2 14

Ol
-
.._ 12

1
O 4
4

O
-Sr

10
111
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

8O
 Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 707

to quickly form flowers, fruits, and seeds before winter comes. Spring-
flowering plants flower as the days are getting longer. They are called
long-day plants. Fall-flowering plants flower when the days are shorter
and are called short-day plants. Most plants flower whenever they be-
come-mature, regardless of the day length. They are day-neutral, al-
though temperature may play an important role in their flowering.
A plant pigment called phytochrome (FYT oh krohm) is involved in
photoperiodism. Phytochrome changes from one form to another when
0
it absorbs certain wavelengths of light. In the dark, it changes back to
the original form. Depending on the plant, one form or the other will
trigger certain responses. In long-day and short-day plants, phyto-
chrome is sensitive to the changing day length and, at the appropriate
time, triggers internal changes that bring about flowering.

Figure 19.29 Flowering of some plants is controlled by day length. The

columbine (a) is a long day plant, the rose (b) is day neutral, and the aster (c) is
a short day plant.

'bap Sokol! b klarOuet Drucker C Staley Studio

Figure 19.30 An experiment illustrating the effect of different photoperiods on

-the flowering of Maryland mammoth tobacco.

no flowers with flowers

151/2 hrs 81/2 hr.:. excess of 9 hrs
708 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Figure 19.31 Diagram of the effects and interaction of auxin and cytokinin.
Pieces of tobacco pith tissues were grown in cultures supplemented with various
levels of the two hormones.

cytokinin
control high
auxin
ratio low cytokinin ratio intermediate cytokinin ratio intermediSte
auxin auxin cytokinin, low auxin

continued
growth as callus

19.14 Knowledge of Plant Hormones

Is Important in Research
Use of plant hormones has enabled plant physiologists to devise new
methods of growing plants. In the technique known as tissue culture,
single cells or groups of cells are placed in sterile containers with min-
erals, water, and hormones to stimulate growth and development. At
equal concentrations of auxins and cytokinins, many cells in culture con-
tinue to divide, forming an undifferentiated tissue called a callus
(KAL us). By adjusting the relative concentrations of auxins, cytoki-
nins, and other growth substances, the callus cells can be induced to form
roots or buds and, in some cases, to grow into a complete plant (see figure
19.31). Because one plant can contribute many cells, it is possible to
develop many identical plants. These plants are clones of each other
genetically identical individuals. Tissue culture has been used to clone
many different plants, but few have developed into adult plants. The
cloning of animal cells, including those of humans, is not a reality at the
present time.
Cloning has an important advantage in the development of new plant
varieties. Because there is much variation in most plant populations, there
may be just one plant out of thousands that has a particular combination
of desirable characteristics. An example might be a new variety of rose
or an unusually tasty carrot. If that one plant is crossed with another to
get seeds, there is no guarantee that the offspring would have the same
characteristics as those of the desired parent. Cloning, however. could
produce duplicate copies of the desired plant. Cloned plants -then can
contribute to the culturing of many more clones. In this way an entire
field of identical plants could be developed.
Tissue culture is just one of many ways that scientists develop new
and better crops. In selective breeding, plant and animal breeders allow
only those individuals with the "best" characteristics to breed. Most of
the offspring of the individuals allowed to breed are expected to have
some of the characteristics of the two parents.

811
Chapter 19 The Flowering Plant: Maintenance and Coordination 709

Figure 19.32 These protoplasts have been removed from their cell walls in
preparation for fusion.

DNA /Plant Technology Corporation

A new technique for crop development is protoplast fusion (PROH

toh plast FY00 zhun). In this technique cells from two different plants
are placed in a special liquid in the same container. Enzymes are used
to digest the cell walls away, leaving intact the living contents, or pro-
toplasts. In the liquid some of the protoplasts can be induced to fuse.
The fused protoplast may then develop a cell wall and begin to grow,
forming a hybrid cell.
A hybrid is the offspring of two different organisms, as you learned
in section 8.4. You, for example, are a hybrid of your two parents. In
many cases the formation of a hybrid is impossible. Individuals of-two
different species cannot form viable offspring, or hybrids. For example,
it has not been possible to produce a hybrid offspring by placing pollen
grains of a potato on the pistil of a tomato. However, a hybrid cell be-
tween these two plants can be formed using protoplast fusion. This has
raised hopes that extremely different plants might be combined into "su-
perplants" or "supercrops." For instance, a supercrop of the future might
be a corn plant with greater drought resistance or lower nitrogen re-
quirements than the present varieties. Unfortunately, protoplast fusion
has not been entirely successful.

Self-Review

1. In what way are gibberellins and auxins similar?

2. How do phototropism and gravitropism affect plant growth?
3. What role does phytochrome play in plant photoperiodism?
4. What is the advantage of using cloning in the production of a crop?
710 Section Four Functioning Organisms in the Biosphere

Summary
In the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, light energy is ab-
sorbed by, a variety of plant pigments, primarily chlorophyll. A series of
reactions follows in which energy-rich molecules are formed as the light
energy is converted to chemical energy. In addition to these molecules,
oxygen gas is released into the atmosphere as a by-product. In the Calvin
cycle, the energy-rich molecules are used to make 3-carbon sugars from
carbon dioxide. During cellular respiration the energy from these sugars
is released. Environmental factors such as temperature, oxygen and
carbon dioxide concentration, and light intensity interact to affect the
rates of both photosynthesis and respiration.
Growth and development of plants result from the interaction of plant
hormones and environmental factors, such as light and gravity. Auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid are the groups of
natural plant hormones. Some of these have been produced synthetically
by humans and are used in research and agriculture.

Application Questions Problems

1. In what ways are photosynthesis and respiration 1. Investigate some of the practical uses of auxins and
essentially opposite sets of reactions? synthetic growth substances as they apply to
2. Trace the production of ATP molecules in both farming and the raising of fruits and vegetables.
respiration and photosynthesis. 2. Many botanists are searching for plants that
3. What roles do photosynthesis and respiration play synthesize fuel-related carbon compounds. Part of
in the cycling of carbon? our energy needs could be met by growing these
4. How are plant hormones used to bring about plants commercially. What other types of useful
differentiation and growth of a new plant from a compounds are produced by plants? Report your
callus? findings to the class.
5. Deciduous trees lose their leaves iii the fall. 3. Experiments with photosynthesizing vascular plants
Describe possible hormonal and environmental have shown that when they are grown in an
stimuli that might bring about this response. atmosphere without oxygen they take up carbon
dioxide at 1.5 times the rate at which they do so in
natural atmosphere, which is about 20 percent
oxygen.
(a) What does this indicate about the relationship
between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration?
(b) How might this relationship affect the
composition of the earth's atmosphere?

Suggested Readings
Refer also to the Suggested Readings for Chapter 18. T. Bodde, "Genetic Engineering in Agriculture: Another
Green Revolution?" BioScience (July/August 1982). The
D. Bardell, "Bacterial Photosynthesis Without Chlorophyll" present impact and the future of genetic manipulation on
The American Biology Teacher (May 1982). Short article agriculture is discussed.
dealing with this little-known process. R. Robinson, "Rings of Flowers" BioScience (June 19L6).
Uniquely Californian, vernal pools host a diversity of
endemic species often threatened by their habitat's
destruction.

813
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1. Photosynthesis is an energy-storing reaction, respiration is 1 IAA and NAA are used to stimulate the seeding of fruit, NAA
an energy-releasing reaction The products of also is used to prevent fruit from falling prematurely, and to
photosynthesis are the raw materials for respiration, and accelerate production of flowers and fruits Gibberellins
vice versa, Figure 1914 compare .nese processes stimulate stem elongation, and 2,4-D kills unwanted plants.
2. In both cases ATP is formed primarily by means of an 2 This is a rapidly expanding field. Sources for information
electron transport system In respiration, ATP also is formed include, but are not limited to, botany and organic chemistry
as glucose is degraded to carbon dioxide in glycolysis and departments of universities, the U S. Department of Labor,
the Krebs cycle. the American Institute of Biological Sciences, and research
3. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide from the atmosphere divisions of oil companies
and stores the carbon in the plant structure Respiration 3 More rapid photosynthesis could indicate either a richer
releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, replenishing supply of CO, or a homeostatic adjustment to supply the
the supply, plants' needs of 02 for cell respiration. That relationship
4. The concentrations of auxins and cytokinins are adjusted to would not affect the composition of the earth's atmosphere,
stimulate cell division and differentiation. See figure 19,30 to which the plants are well adapted.
5. Diminishing supplies of auxing,',cylokinins, and gibberellins in
the mature leaf lead to development of an abscission zone
at the base of the petiole. Ethylene is produced in the
abscission zone and promotes leaf drop, Environmental
stimuli might include falling temperatures, decreasing day
length, and water thortage.

continued from page 684

Discussion
1. There is no evidence, but some students
may try to report what they later discovered
instead of what they observed in the leaf
extract.
2-4, If good separation has been obtained,
a band of pale yellow (carotenes) is close to the
leading edge of the solvent Another yellow
band (sometimes two separate bands)
contains xanthophylls. A band of bluish-green
chlorophyll a and a band of yellowish-green
chlorophyll b also should be present A gray
band that sometimes occurs above the
xanthophylls is phenophytin, a decomposition
product of chlorophylls.
5. The high concentration of chlorophylls
masks all other pigments
6. Chlorophylls are rather unstable pigments
As they decompose, other pigments are
unmasked. In addition, glucose may be
converted to anthocyanins.
7. They all started from the same point
8. Most of them started when the developer
reached the pigment spot, but the xanthophylls
lagged greatly. They all stopped when the slide
was removed and dried,
9. The_pigments moved at different speeds,
depending on differences in adsorption to the
molecules in the silica gel.

814
 Section Five

Patterns in the
Biosphere

Chapter 20 Selection and Survival

Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past,
Chapter .22 Biomes Around the World
4Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems
Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future

An ecologist must study living things not

asisolated objects and events, but as
interrelated.patterns. Individuals are
members of populations, and populations
,aremembers of cominunities and
.ecoSystems.
An ecosystem Makes more sense if it is
seen-across time as well as space. The
patterns of the present arc the result of
'interacting patterns of the past.
Furthermore, ecosy0ems.changii
continuously, and ecology often includes
.predictions abourfuture environments.
Our study of biology began with broad
OWerns-iii the web of life. Then we
examinetthe organisms in 'the web as
individuals and is cell-based Systems.
Now it-is time to close the circle by
'returning,to patterns of populationsof
the past, present,tand future.

713
,,16% $16
 Ed Re.r:hke

What adaptations enable the Joshua tree, c'uc':;a brevifolia, to survive in the harsh desert environment?

81
 Teaching strategies for this chapter pages
T46-47
Key ideas:
CHAPTER 21111) selection of individuals by environmental
factors;
control of population growth by limiting
factors in the environment;
distinction between open and closed
Selection and Survival populations;
characteristics of climax plant communities;
historical foundations of ecology:

Introduction
Organisms are what they are because the genes they share with their
ancestors allowed those ancestors to survive and reproduce. Environ-
mental selection may act in favor of some f, but it removes others
from the gene pool. If the surviving genes in a population make individ-
uals fit for the environment, the genes will be retained. If the environ-
ment changes, however, the genes may be removed.
Because each population is part of the biotic environment of other
populatiwis, a change in one population's gene pool may cause selection
for (,r against genes iv; other populations. Selection and survival in in-
teractine, populations help to form the dynamic pattern in any eco-
system.

Populations and Environments Guidepost: What is the relationship

between limiting factors
and orga al tolerance?
20.1 Organisms Must Be Able to Tolerate
Conditions in Their Environments
How do environmental factors result in the selection of certain or-
ganisms and populations for survival? Selection results fron. the action
of specific environmental factors that set limits for growth. As you will
0
recall from chapter 2, these limiting factors affect mortality, natality,
emigration, and immigration.
One important limiting factor is temperature. If a household gera- Household geraniums (Pelargonium) are native
nium is left outdoors during a Minnesota winter, it will die. If a black- to South Africa:
snake in a shadeless cage is exposed to the July sun of Georgia, it will
die. Household geraniums cannot tolerate long periods of freezing tem-
peratures Blacksnakes cannot tolerate long periods of high tempera-
tures. If an organism cannot tolerate the highest or lowest temperature

715
81.8
716 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 20.1 A typical bellshaped curve showing the tolerance range of a given
organism, in this case, a geranium,

lower limit of tolerance upper limit of tolerance

pysiological physiological
I
intoleran+ ce stress
optimum
stress intolerance

c
0
ro

0.
0
a.

greatest abundance
of organisms

ow 44---- temperature gradient -*high

in an area, it will die or move elsewhere. Thus, tolerance is the ability
of an individual or a species to withstand particular environmental con-
ditions.
0 Working with any one measurable environmental factor, we can de-
termine by experiment the tolerance limits of a species. To do this, we
must find the upper limit (maximum) and the lower limit (minimum)
of tolerance. Those values and any values between them make up the
range of tolerance of the species for that environmental factor. Likewise,
we can determine the range of conditions most favorable for growth and
reproduction for that species. These are called the optimum conditions
for the species. This seems clear-cut, but several complications arise.
The duration of the condition is important. Duration is especially im-
portant in determining maximum and minimum limits. For instance, ge-
raniums can withstand short periods of freezing temperature, but not
long ones. The limiting factor of temperature selects for geraniums that
can grow in moderate climates.

20.2 Organisms Vary in Their Tolerance

Within any population, individuals vary (differ) genetically for some
characteristics, including tolerance. Within a species, also, populations
of organisms vary in their tolerance for conditions. Populations that come
from different parts of a species' geographic range vary in their tolerance
as well. A population of the jellyfish Aurelia aurita (figure 20.2), which
lives, off the coast of Maine, can tolerate temperatures between 5° C and
18° C. For the Aurelia population off the southern coast of Florida,
however, the optimum varies between 28° C and 30° C. Both the
northern and the southern jellyfish have been selected for survival in
their particular environments.

619
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 717

Figure 20.2 Aurelia mita.

NP 0. McDaniel TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Figure 20.3 The tolerance ranges for 2 populations of Aurelia aurita, one in
Florida, and one in Maine. Even though they are the same species, they no
longer can live in water that is the same temperature.

Maine Florida
population population

0
O

0 10 20 30 40 50
temperature °C
Figure 20.4 Field sparrow.

Such variation in a population, of course, arises by mutation or ge-

netic. recombination in some individuals. Jellyfish that can tolerate tem-
peratures of about 18° C are already adapted to a southern environment,
whethor or not the water is ever that w :m.

20.3 Organisms Meet the Environment as a

Whole, Not as Separate Factors
Now consider the interrelationship of tolerances in determining geo-
graphic range. Field sparrows (Spizella pusilla) can survive northern
winter temperatures in the United States if they have enough food for
energy. Sparrows need more food in the winter because trtorc heat is lost
from their bodies than in summer. Sparrows can hunt 'ood only during
the day, ,:nd winter days are short. Is it the temperature, the food supply, This question has no single answer because of
or the length of day that sets the northern winter boundaries of field the interaction among factors that are
sparrows? It could be any one or any combination of those factors. ni..cessary for survival (all of those listed).

620
718 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Abiotic conditions within a species' tolerance limits may allow it to

Figure 20.5 He siari fly. survive in a particular ecosystem. But those conditions do not guarantee
that the species can survive there. The species may fail because of the
selection by the biotic environment. It may have to compete with other
organisms, or be affected by them in other ways. For example, white
bald wheat was grown in New England before the Revolutionary War,
and it did well in the abiotic conditions there. But when the Hessian fly
(figure 20.5) was inadvntently brought in by Europeans during the war,
the flies attacked the wheat fields. By 1800, wheat farming in New
England had ended. Later, different varieties of wheat were introduced,
and they were planted just before the first frost. Because the frost killed
adult flies, the wheat could survive. By that time, however, wheat farming
had moved westward.
Examples like this remind us that the whole organism encounters the
Matins/MO nosoareh Sof**, USDA
whole environment. Individuals respond in certain ways when a partic-
ular environmental factor is changed. Ecologists can begin to understand
the entire situation of an organism by studying those factors one at a
time. One major aspect of ecology is the study of the tolerance limits of
different species. You will be able to observe the tolerance of four kinds
of seeds for different combinations of environmental factors in investi-
gation 20.1.

Investigation 20.1 ..,41-APPARONMENT illOPERANCE.,

ENVIRONMENTAL TOLERANCE
Introduction
There is evidence that the distribution of bald The seeds of some desert plants will not germinate (sprout) until suffi-
cypress trees, a tree common to the swamps of cient rainfall washes out chemicals in the seeds that inhibit germination.
the southeastern United States. is at least partly Other seeds must pass througn the digestive tracts of animals before they
a result of the intolerance 01 its seeds for dry will germinate. Some wheat seeds will not germinate until they have been
soil. The absence of most other tree species expos6d to low temperatures for a certain period of time. In this investi-
from the swamps may be a result of the gation you will examine the tolerance that some seeds have to some en-
;5;c,;erance of their seeds for flooded soils, vironmental abiotic factors.
Moisture, a basic distributional factor, is difficult Before beginning work, read through the procedure and then set up
to maintain and measure in experiments, Effects several hypotheses on the basis of the experimental design.
of light and temperature are investigated more
easily and are also important factors in the
distribution of organisms. Materials (per team)
Teams of 5 or 6 students each are suitable. 4 beakers, 50 ml
These are not too large to provide each student seeds of radish, vetch, tomato and lettuce (50 each)
with a task. 150 ml fungicide
5 petri dishes
Materials 5 clear plastic bags
The plant species selected for this 5 pieces of string (20 cm each)
investigation provide a variety of responses to 2 shallow cardboard boxes with covers
the conditions of the experiment. Other seeds 20 pieces of paper towel, cut to fit petri dishes
may be substituted as follows: For radish 20 cardboard strips, cut to fit the diameter of petri dishes
tobacco, corn, bindweed, flax; for vetch
forceps
celery, larkspur, columbine, plantain, shepherd's glass-marking crayon
purse; for tomatobeet, pepper, carrot, refrigerator
sunflower, cotton; for lettuceAfrican violet,
incubator
evening primrose, mullein. onion, fireweed,
2 thermometers (-10° to + 110° C)
phacelia.
You can get commercial fungicides from Procedure
most plant and seed stores or biological supply
houses. Soaking for 5 to 10 minutes should be 1. Label the beakers tomato, radish, vetch, and lettuce. In each beaker,
sufficient. place 50 seeds of the species named. Add enough fungicide to cover
the seeds. Soak them for the period of time recommended by your
teacher.

82
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 719

2. Place 4 disks of paper towel in each petri dish. Moisten the paper Satisfactory substitutes for petn dishes
thoroughly with distilled water. Divide each dish into 4 sections by in- include ler lids, aluminum potpie dishes,
serting cardboard dividers, as shown in figure 20.6. cardboard milk cartons cut down to a depth of
3. Pour the fungicide solution from the beakers and rinse the seeds with about 1.5 cm Or, dishes and covers may be
water. made by molding circles of heavy aluminum foil
4. Using forceps, Mace 10 tomato seeds in 1 section of each dish. Re- around glass petn dishes.
peat with the other 3 kinds of seeds in the remaining 3 sections of The strips of cardboard used as dividers
each dish. should be as wide as the containers are deep
5. Label the dishes with your team symbol and number them from 1 to Plastic petn dishes with 4 sections can oe
5. Place each dish in a clear plastic bag. Tie the bag closed with a bought from biological supply houses
piece of string. The bags should be of thin plastic (1 or 2
6. Place each dish in a different environment, as follows: mils) to allow (fee diffusion of gases. The plastic
Dish 1continuous light and colda refrigerator that has the light bags used Ly laundries to protect clothing are
adjusted to remain on when the door is closed. (Maintain a tem- satisfactory.
perature of 10' to 12' C.) Coffee cans or cardboard boxes may be
Dish 2continuous dark and colda light-tight box in a refrigerator used to cover the seeds grown in darkness, oi
(10° to 12° C). the dishes can be wrapped in aluminum foil.
Dish 3continuous light and warman incubator with a light (30° to Use a refrigerator for the cold environment,
32° C). but modify it to ensure continuous light, Use a
Dish 4continuous dark .__Ad warma light-tight box in an incubator small fluorescent lamp (8 to 15 watts) with a
(30' to 32° C). long extension cord. (An incandescent lamp
Dish 5variable temperature and light -pn a windowsill. generates heat.) Even fluorescent lamps
7. Each day, count the number of seeds that have germinated. Record generate small amounts of heat, so check the
the counts in your data book. A suggested form: refrigerator a few days before hie experiment to
make sure a temperature of 10° to 12° C is
Dish No Environment maintained.
If you have a commercial incubator, provide
Number G erminated a continuous source of light on an extension
Kind of Seed
Day 1 Day 2 Day 10 cord, as in the refrigerator, 11 the incubator door
will not close when the cord is in place, remove
tomato the thermometer and run the extension cord
radish through the thermometer hole. As a safety
measure, wrap electrical tape around the coru
vetch at the point where it enters the incubator.
lettuce Have the students discuss their hypotheses
before performing the investigation It is
important that they consc.....sly try to test their
8. After 10 days, combine the data of all teams. hypotheses.

Discussion
Figure 20.6 Experimental setup, Tomato seeds germinate most rapidly in
complete darkness at about 26° C. Lettuce
seeds (especially the Great Lakes variety)
germinate best in light. Vetch seeds require a
paper toweling cool environment, and radish seeds germinate
well under a wide range of conditions.
plastic bag 1 Refer students to investigation 2.3,
especially "Discussion."
4, 5, Students may have difficulty separating
the influence of individual factors from
combinations of factors. Lend assistance w, on
necessary.
7 Insist that the answer be consistent with
the data.
8, 9. Both of these questions are
cardboard dividers speculative Emphasize the necessity that, in
scientific reasoning, the evidence must support
the conclusion. 0! course, in some cases there
may be reason to believe that the evidence itself
is mi,;leading or unreliaole.

822
720 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Discussion
1. Why should the data from all the teams be combined?
2. In which environment did the greatest percentage of the following seeds
germinate?
(a) tomato seeds?
(b) radish seeds?
(c) vetch seeds?
(d) lettuce seeds?
3. (a) Did any seeds of one species germinate fastest in one environ-
ment, but have the greatest number- of germinated seeds in an-
other environment?
(b) If so, which species and environment are involved?
4. Which species has the greatest tolerance for continuous light?
5. Which species has the greatest tolerance for low temperature?
6. (a) Did any species germinate simitarly in all the experimental envi-
ronments?
(b) so, which?
7. Compare your results with your hypotheses. Recall that the establish-
ment of a species in an ecosystem depends on both its tolerances
and its competition with other species.
8. (a) Which factor do you think would give a species a greater advan-
tagerapid germination or germination of a large percentage of
seeds?
(b) Why?
9. On the basis of your experimental results, describe ecosystems in which
each species you studied in this investigation might have an advan-
tage.

For Further Investigation

From a grocery store, obtain seeds of plants that grow in a variety of
climates, such as avocados, dates, grapefruits, oranges, pomegranates,
lentils, and many kinds of beans. Test these for germination in experimental
environments. In some cases you may have to lengthen the time allowed
for germination.

20.4 Hun Ion Populations Are Limited

by Environmental Factors
Like other organisms, humans are affected by limiting factors in the
environment, such as food and water. Some limiting factors have even
worked together over long periods to select for certain human charac-
teristics. Modern African populations, for example, have a high per-
Renewable sources of energy are being used on centage of alleles for " sickling" of red blood cells. That is true even though
a limited scale Geothermal energy has long
persons homozygous for the sickling allele usually develop sickle-cell
been used in Iceland, and there are now
anemia and die before they reproduce. A single sickling allele, however,
geothermal power plants in California Direct
conversion of solar radiation has been used on
protects against malaria and, thus, is of value to the individual. Because
a small scale on the earth as well as in satellites heterozygous individuals do not breed true, a quarter of their offspring
and space vehicles The heat differential in is susceptible to malaria, and a quarter suffers from sickle-cell anemia.
ocean currents and the power of waves are For humans, even more than for other organisms, energy is an im-
other possibilities All of these sources of portant limiting factor. Our usual energy sourcescoal, oil, and natural
energy and othersare currently subjects of gasare finite. Many scientists think that depletion of these resources
much research will limit the amount of food that can be raised in the future.
 Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 721

Figure 20.7 (a) Red blood cells of a person who does not have the sickling
allele. (b) Cells of a person who has a tingle sickling allele. Such heterozygous
persons are protected against malaria. (c) Cells of a person who has sickle-cell
anemia. These individuals are homozygous for the sickling allele.

Figure 20.8 Energy use in the United States. The sources of energy used have
become increasingly varied. The use of synthetic and nuclear fuel is expected to
increase in the future while both domestic and foreign oil and gas consumption is
expected to decrease.

oil and gas

__ imports
synthetics
oil
gas

--- coal
hydro and
other
6 11% nuclear
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
decade
United States energy demand and sources of supply

Space is another important requirement. Humans tend to congregate, 0

to prefer living near others. Some "standing room" is necessary, how-
ever. Some scientists see severe overcrowding as the limiting factor for
The growth of a population through greater
human populations.
The earth's carrying capacity is finite. Biologists do not know whether
food, energy, space, or a combination of these, will limit the number of
0 survival of old (postreproductive) individuals will
reduce calculated birthrate even though the
actual number of births increases Nevertheless,
persons on earth. Already, food is a limiting factor in many African the relative sizes of birthrates/ deathrates per
countries. The Chinese may be limited by space: on the average, there 1000 individuals determine whether a population
are 461-persons for every square kilometer in China, as compared with increases or decreases.

824
722 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 20.9 Population graph showing birth rate and death rate for developed
and developing countries.

50

birth rate
40
birth race
death rate
c death rate
0
=
IIc 30
a
0
a
0
0
o
vz 20
ti
a

10
x

0
1750 1775 1800 1850 1900 1950 1980
2000
developing countries
developed countries

CI 25 in the United States. Everything known about populations indicates

that the number of Earth's human residents will be limited. The only
question that seems unanswered is "How?" Will mortality, through
starvation, disease, and war, rise to equal present-day natality? Or will
natality be lowered to match today's low death rates?

20.5 Limiting Factors May Act at Different

Points in the Life Cycle
These survivorship curves, as they are generally Some limiting factors act only in certain parts of a population's life
termed, are always based on an initial cycle. For example, predation by coyotes on prairie dog populations af-
population of 1000. Usually, they are plotted on
fects mainly young prairie do::-. Thus, the individuals that survive to
a logarithmic scale, but this has not been done
adulthood were probably adapted at a young age to react promptly to
here. The horizontal axis ends at a more or less
arbitrary maximum age. If you make
parental warning cries and take cover quickly.
transparencies for overhead pro3eL.fion, the Early in their lives some organisms tolerate environmental conditions
curves may be superposed for better well; others are unlikely to survive that period. Figure 20.10(ac) shows
comparison. The figure represents an important three different patterns of mortality. Figure 20.10a is a pattern typical
elementary demographic idea with applicat.ons of humans in Western nations. A large proportion of the population sur-
to matters such as life Insurance vives childhood and middle age, but relatively few live beyond 65.
Just the opposite is the situation shown in figure 20.10c, which is
characteristic of populations of organisms such as oysters and redwood
trees. Many fail to survive the early years, but those that do survive are
likely to live a long life. For redwoods, that may be 2500 years.
Still a third sort of mortality pattern is that in figure 20.10b. A pop-
ulation of organisms with this sort of pattern loses individuals at a con-
stant rate. A chickadee, for example, is just as likely to die between the
ages of 5 and 6 years as it is between the ages of 1 and 2 years.
 Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 723

Figure 20.10 Mortality graphs for three kinds of organisms.

1000 1000 1000

0 0 0
0 108 0 10 0 2500
years
a b

Many persons use such patterns of mortality to make predictions about

populations. For example, knowing the pattern of human mortality and
the numbers of humans in various age groups in a population, you can
predict how many persons will be in each age group in 10 years' time.
Such predictions are made routinely by persons who build schools or
write textbooks.
Using the mortality pattern and related information for an insect spe-
cies, a person who wants to use an insecticide at the most efficient time
can do so. If most of the insects survive the larval stage (when some
insects do their greatest damage), then applying the insecticide before
the larvae are expected to hatch would be more effective than waiting
until hatching has occurred.

Self-Review

1. What is a limiting factor?

2. What is meant by an organism's range of tolerance?
3. What are some limiting factors for human populations?
4. How might limiting factors interact to affect a population?

1d8710101.-:1ANGE$1;A_:MOPEI::: Investigation 20.2

Introduction POPULATION CHANGES: A MODEL

Just as we need physical tools such as microscopes to extend our This investigation of a hypothetical
powers of observation, we also need mental tools to extend our thinking. population provides a basis for comparing the
One such mental tool is called a model. Here the word does not mean an real populations encountered in investigation 2 3
object. Instead, it means something we construct in our minds. A mental (a closed population with a fixed food supply
model simplifies a complex real situation, so that we can understand it more and no provision for elimination of wastes) and
easily. For example, the board game Monopoly is a very simple model of investigation 20 3 (open. natural populations). It
real estate investment. Because a model is a simplification, it differs in some also continues an important aspect of biology
respects from the real situation. To simplify a situation, we make assump- begun in chapter 1acquak 'ling students with
tions. That is, for the model we assume certain things that might not be scientific methodology.

S= 1:7- .826
724 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

The computer program (written in Applesoft entirely true in the real situation. (In Monopoly, for example, we assume
BASIC) demonstrates a possible use of that the cost of putting a house on Boardwalk is always the same.) In using
computers in biology. It provides a way to check a model, we must keep our assumptions in mind.
answers, even for students who have no interest If a specific model gives results similar to the observations we make in
in writing programs themselves. Those who some real situation, we assume tentatively that the real situvion works in
enjoy programming might want to alter the the same way the model does. We must keep in mind, however, that a
program given here, to print out the answer in different model might give the same results.
each generation or to change the assumptions
Do not be concerned about the computer
Materials (per student)
"doing the work" in such cases: a student who
writes even a simple program like this one must 4 sheets arithmetic graph paper
think through the problem carefully and saves 1 sheet semilogarithmic graph paper
only the drudgery of calculating the answer for
each generation,
Procedure
Materials 1. Let us begin with real organismshouse sparrows. For our model we
will start with a hypothetical (imaginary) population of house sparrows.
Semi log graph paper is logarithmic on one
In the spring of 1987, there were 10 sparrows (5 males and 5 females)
lxis and is regularly spaced on the other
living on an isolated island. Our assumptions are:
Because the population in the spring of 1992 is
(a) All the sparrows form permanent pairs, and all pairs have off-
31,250 birds, 5-cycle paper is sufficient Paper
spring.
satisfactory for this exercise can be produced
(b) Every breeding season (spring), each pair produces 10 offspring
on school duplicators, though the finer
(5 males and 5 females).
subdivisions shown on commercial paper must
(c) Each year, before the next breeding season, all the breeding
be omitted.
(parent) birds die.
(d) Each year all offspring live through the next breeding season. (In
most real situations some parents would live and some offspring
Figure 20.11 House sparrow. would die. But taken together, assumptions c and d balance each
other to imitate the real situation.)
(e) During the study, no other sparrows arrive on the island, and none
leave it.
2. Now let us use this model. Calculate the size of the hypothetical pop-
ulation at the beginning of each breeding season. According to as-
sumption b, in the spring of 1987 there are 5 pairs of birds. Each of
the 5 pairs produces 10 offspring, a total of 50 (25 males and 25 fe-
males). According to assumption c, the 10 breeding birds of 1987 die
before the next spring. According to assumption d, all 50 offspring five
to the spring of 1988. Thus, at the start of the 1988 breeding season,
there are 25 pairs of house sparrows on the island. Using these as-
sumptions, calc: late the island's sparrow population at the beginning
of the breeding season in 1989, 1990, 1991, and 1992.
3. To check your figures, type the following program into a computer:
10 REM POPMODEL
20 N = 10
Procedure 30 PRINT "First year?"
35 INPUT YF
The computations and the construction of a
graph on the ordinary grid can be done at
40 PRINT "Last Year?"
home. However, some previous groundwork 45 INPUT YL
must be laid in cii,s. This should include some
50 FOR YR = YF TO YL
discussion of assumption::
60 0 = N / 2 ' 10
Some students may need help beginning.
62 N=0
Suggest that they make a flow chart or diagram
65 PRINT "How many"
of each generation. Other students with a flair
70 PRINT "offspring are"
75 PRINT "produced by the"
for math may see that a generation can be
represented as 5" breeding pairs with n being
80 PRINT 'beginning of "YR +
90 INPUT NH
the generation number. By this logic the first
generation is 5' pairs, or 10 sparro- s: the
100 IF NH = 0 THEN PRINT "Good!"
105 IF NH = 0 THEN GOTO 170
110 IF NH < > 0 THEN GOTO 65
115 N=0
170 NEXT YR
180 END

827
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 725

4. You now have a series of numbers. To get a clearer idea of the pop- second generation is 52 pairs, oh 50 sparrows,
ulation change, plot the numbers on a line graph. Show the years along and so on Try to help each student find an
the horizontal axis (x), and the number of birds along the vertical axis appropriate way of extras olating data from the
(y). Be sure to make the vertical scale large enough to show the 1992 assumptions
pcoulation. Plot the 6 generations. (This is an arithmetic graph.) Whatever scales students choose for the
5. Now plot your data using another toolsemilogarithmic (usually called vertical axis, the values of the intervals must be
semilog) graph paper. You do not need to understand fully the math- equal It is, not necessary to become deeply
ematics of logarithms to use this tool. Your teacher will explain what involved in mathematics Briefly 1Qvelop the
you need to know to plot the data. series 10', 102, 103, 104, etc Note that
exponents correspond to the number of zeros in
the series 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, etc Direct
Discussion students to label the cycles on the semilog
1. Look first at the arithmetic graph. How does the slope of the line change graph paper as units, tens, hundreds, and so
as you read from left to right (from year to year)? on Point out that each succeeding cycle
2. What does this mean in terms of rate of population change? represents a number 10 times greater than that
3. Now compare the graphs. What advantage(s` does the semilog graph represented by the preceding cycle Link this
have over the arithmetic graph for plotting population growth data? idea with the fact that within each cycle the
4. What kind of line shows the same thing on the semilog graph? system of second-order subdivisions separates
5. If you continued using the same assumptions to calculate pooulaticns spaces of decreasing width. Then illustrate the
for an indefinite number of years and plotted them on a graph, what plotting of points, using numbers different from
would happen to the slope of the line on the arithmetic graph? those used in the investigation,
6. On the semilog graph? The model is the whole construct. It involves
7. In a sentence or two, summarize the change that is supported by the a hypothetical population This term is used
assumptions stated in the model. because the population concerns an "If . . ,

8. Do you think any real population might change in this way? Why or then ." situation
why not? (TEST RUN:
(Run

For Further Investigation First year?

?1990
Sometimes a model gives results that are very different from any ob- Last year?
served situation. To make the model more useful, you can change one or ?1955
two of the assumptions and compare the new results with reality. The closer How many
the results of a model are to the observed situation, the more useful the offspring are
model is. Some suggestions for changing assumptions follow. In each case, produced by the
calculate the populations, plot the data on arithmetic and semilog graph beginning of 1991?
paper, and compare these results with your original graphs. (To check your ?50
data, you must modify your computer program. Work together to deter- Good!
mine what modifications are necessary.) Describe how the change of as- How many
sumption has affected the hypothetical population. offspring are
1. Change assumption c as follows: Each year 2/5 of the breeding birds produced by the
(equally males and females) live to breed again a second year and beginning of 1992?
then die. All other assumptions remain unchanged. ?250
2. Change assumption d as follows: Each year 2/5 of the offspring Good!
(equally males and females) die before the beginning of the next How many
breeding season. All other assumptions remain unchanged. offspring are
3. Change assumption e as follows: Each year 20 new house sparrows produced by the
(equally males and females) migrate to 'he island. None leave. All other beginning of 1993?
assumptions remain unchanged. ?1250
4. Change assumption e as follows: Each year 40 house sparrows (equally Good!
males and females) emigrate from the island. None arrive. All other How many
assumptions remain unchanged. offspring are
5. You can devise more complex problems by changing 2 or more as- produced by the
sumptions simultaneously. If you are testing your calculations with a beginning of 1994?
computer program, you should be able to modify the program also. 96250
Good!

continued on page 751

828
T26 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Guidepost: How do limiting factors Changes in Populations

determine the size and
geographic range of
populations? 20.6 Populations May Be Open or Closed
Any population of organisms has a built-in, characteristic growth rate.
However, that rate is limited by environmental factors. The interaction
of the population's natural growth rate and selection by the environment
determines the density of the surviving population.
If you measure the density of a population at intervals over a period
of time, you seldom find that any two consecutive measurements are the
same. Density increases or decreases continually. Biologists have made
many such studies of population densities, and they have been able to
make some generalizations about how populations change. That is, they
have summarized many specific observations in a few general statements
that hold true for most of the data.
O Under the original assumptions, the hypothetical house sparrows in
investigation 20.2 were a closed population. That is, they could not em-
igrate, nor could others immigrate.
Many closed populations of small organisms have been set up in lab-
oratories to test hypotheses about population changes. Figure 20.12 is
based on data from an experiment involving diatoms (small photosyn-
thetic organisms). A few diatoms were placed in a favorable medium,
and samples from the population were counted on succeeding days. Ex-
periments with closed populations of other small organisms have pro-
duced similar data. Notice that the growth of the diatom population
during the first eight days was similar to the growth of the hypothetical
house sparrow population. The model used in your investigation agrees,
then, with a real situationup to a point. Unlike the model, a real pop-
Except for input and outgo of energy, the earth ulation does not continue to grow indefinitely.
is biologically a closed container Even when Closed populations are not typical; they are found chiefly in labora-
people are on the moon, they are ecologically a O tories or on islands. Most natural populations are open populations. In-
part of the earth's biosphereand immigration dividuals are free to enter or leave. Therefore, we cannot assume that
of humanoids is still science fiction patterns represented by the diatom graph apply to natural populations.

Figure 20.12 Changes in a laboratory population of a type of diatom.

82
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 727

20.7 Population Sizes Fluctuate

The graph in figure 20.13 is based on data collected during population This discussion should be related to
studies of Norway rats in Baltimore, Maryland. In 1942, the city health investigations 20 2 and 20.3
department conducted a poisoning campaign that apparently wiped out
the rat population in the city block from which the data were collected.
The investigators estimate that their counting
Because it is difficult to count individuals in natural populations, a few
methods involved about 10% error Of course.
rats may have survived, or a few may have immigrated later from else- rats may have immigrated from surrounding
where. In either case, a "new" rat population was increasing by early in blocks, but the investigators found that rats
1945. Compare the graph of figure 20.13 from early 1945 to 1946 with seldom crossed streets unless the population
your graphs from investigation 20.2 and figure 20.12. we.c quite sense.
In the rat population graph the line from mid-1945 to the end of 1946
is somewhat similar to the first part of the graph line of the diatom pop-
ulation. Look at the line for the later years of the rat study, though. As
with the closed population of diatoms in the laboratory, the population
decreased after a peak density was reached. The decrease in the rat pop-
ulation, however, did not continue. Open populations usually increase
againas the rat population did. After such a population peaks, it again
decreases, and then it may stabilize. Natural populations show such
fluctuations (fluk shoo AY shunz)ups and downson graphs of pop-
ulation counts. These fluctuations are caused by variables in the envi-
ronmentoften in climate, available food, or the activities of natural
enemies.
In the past, human populations undoubtedly have fluctuated like open
populations of other organisms. During the Middle Ages the population
of western Europe decreased sharply as a result of plagues such as the

Figure 20.13 Changes in the Norway rat population of a city block.

175

150

125

100

75

50

25

0
1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

year

630
728 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 20.14 World and U.S. population growth.

6-

5-

4-

3-

2-

10,000 B.C.

1,000,000 B.C. 600,000 B.C. 200,000 B.C`

800,000 B-C. 400,000 B C. 2000 AD.
years

6-

The approximate beginning of accelerated

human growth began about 10,000 B.C. Among
other reasons for this increase is that agriculture
probably began about this time. it is important to 1

help students understand that world population

growth is a complex situation, affected by
0
economic, and political factors, as well as 1780 1830 1330 1930 1980 2000
biological ones. Later chapters will provide much years
more information bearing on the problem. The
U.S. population curve is not as dramatic as that
for the world. However, ask students to relate
Black Death, and then rose again. Within the last few centuries, how
the populations to per capita resource use ever, such fluctuations have disappeared in many countries. For the world
They will see the tremendous effect the U.S. as a whole, we have a human population that looks rather like your graph
population has on the world's resources. You of the hypothetical population in investigation 20.2.
might want to use The Tragedy of the As cooperative animals, humans have been able to tolerate a high
Commons, a BSCS inquiry film, as a stimulus for level of crowding. It is usually only when we are limited by food or other
further discussion. resources that we become concerned about population density.

20.8 Some Population Changes

Occur in Cycles
The word cycle should be given special Sometimes population fluctuations are very regular, and the peaks on
attention because its sense here is different a graph are at approximately equal distances. Data gathered in Canada
from its sense in chapters 4 and 11 show that populations of snowshoe hares peak about every 10 years
particularly when figures 4 14 and 11 17 are (figure 20.15). Similarly, populations of lemmings reach peaks every 3
compared with figure 20 15 or 4 years. A number of other organisms also have such population cycles.
Most of them are animals that live in the northern parts of Europe, Asia,
and North America. These observations, however, do not explain why

831
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 729

Figure 20.15 Changes in the snowshoe-hare population (Canada) based on

the number of skins traded at Hudson's Bay Company pests.

180

160

140
11 - it

1
120

ME I
11'4 ' .44

100

80

60
MEX1/12
Will11111 MIIII1111/1
M. Students may appreciate the "slumps" many
baseball players havetimes when they fail to
hit. A scientist analyzed data on some players

"6 40
11111111Ii NININEIN I and found that such slumps could be explained

1111111 II IIIIIMIV
as chance events.
I
-0 20

0
1
kingLiwi El
45 1855 1865 1875 1885 1895 1905
pm
1915 1925 1935 19 5
Figure 20.16 Lemming. These mouselike
year animals live in the northern parts of North
America and Eurasia.
such cycles occur. Although the data show very regular cycles when
plotted on a graph, some biologists think that this regularity is mis-
leading. They point out that a combination of purely chance events can
produce apparently regular cycles.
As you have seen, many populations change cyclically. You can study
several examples in investigation 20.3. Some population changes are
permanentif a population becomes a new species or becomes extinct,
for example. And any permanent change in a population is a change in N
the ecosystem to which the population belongs.

Investigation 20.3
POPULATION CHANGES: FIELD DATA

Introduction Students can prepare the graphs for this

Gathering data on natural populations requires a lot of time and pa- investigation at home any time after investigation
tience. You can observe some of the characteristics of population changes 20.2 has been completed 'n considering the
by using data that have already been obtained by biologists. Then you can questions, students should review their work on
compare these poPulation data with the data from your hypothetical sparrow investigation 2.3 The conclusions to
populations and from the laboratory yeast population that you investigated investigation 20 3 constitute a summary of all 3
in chapter 2. investigations.

Materials (per student)

2 sheets graph paper (arithmetic)
red pencil Figure 20.17 Cotton mouse.

Procedure
Part ACotton Mouse
The data in table 20.1 came from a study of cotton mice. The density
is given as the number of mice caught per 100 traps per night. As is often
the case in studying natural populations, the actual number of animals
present in the area is not known. Thus, even in this real situation, we have
to make an assumption. We assume that the number of mice caught was
always in proportion to the actual density of the population.

832.
$.,
 730 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

The data on the Florida cotton mouse are

1. Plot the data on a sheet of graph paper, using a vertical scale that will
from Ecology (1953), 34:199-207; on the
place the highest density figure near the top of the graph.
pheasants, from the Murrelet (1945), 26:39-44,
2. Compare the graph of the cotton mouse population with the arithmetic
on the heath hen, from Memoirs of the Boston
graphs you made in investigations 2.3 and 20.2.
Society of Natural History (1928), 6:491-588.
(a) What part of this mouse graph is similar to the other graphs?
(b) How does the mouse graph differ from your graph in investigation
trokillkottiittoriinice 20.2?
(c) What could account for the differences?
Date Number of Mice
(d) How does the mouse graph differ from your graph of the yeast
population?
Caught per 100
Traps per Night (e) What could cause the difference?
(f) Which, if any, of the 3 populations was an open population?
September 24, 1949 25 (g) In which season of the year do you think natality was the highest?
October 9 45 (h) When do you think mortality and emigration were greatest?
October 30 38
Part BRing-necked Pheasant
December 4 30
A few ring-necked pheasants (native to Eurasia) were introduced on
January 7, 1950 20 Protection Island, off the coast of Washington, in 1937. They were brought
February 26 14 in as game birds for hunters. Counts of the population each spring and fall
for the five years following introduction are presented in table 20.2.
March 12 13
1. Plot the data on a sheet of graph paper and connect the points with
April 16 8 a lead pencil. How do you explain the regular fluctuations shown on
the graph?
May 8 7
2. Using a red pencil, connect all the points representing spring counts,
June 16 11 skipping the fall counts.
(a) What does this line tell you about the population?
July 16 4
(b) Remembering that this is a natural population, if spring counts had
August 16 13 been made after 1942, what do you think they might have shown?

Figure 20.18 Heath hen (left) and ring-necked pheasant (right).

fr#1,i49444.00,6,*
O.6090.0ii
Year Season Population Size
1937 spring 8

fall 40

1938 spring 30

fall 100

1939 spring 90
fall 425
1940 spring 300
fall 825
1941 spring 600
fall 1520

1942 spring 1325

fall 1900

833
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 731

Part CHeath Hen Procedure

Heath hens were once common birds along the Atlantic coast from New Part A
England to Virginia. By 1380 they had disappeared from all locations ex- 2 (a) The September-October portion of
cept Martha's Vineyard, an island off Cape Cod. Figure 20.19 shows the the curve resembles the growth of the
result of a careful study of this population. Biologists believe several factors hypothetical sparrow population. while the
account for changes in the heath hen population: pressure of hunting by October-April portion resembles the declining
humans (followed by extreme efforts at preservation), disease, effects of phase that may have been obtained in your
forest fires, and an excessive number of males. yeast population.
1. What caused the heath hen population to increase beginning about (b) The mouse curve stabilized from April
1907? through August.
2. How might an excess of males affect the limitinl factors of a popu- (c) This is a result of limiting factors, which
lation? were ignored in investigation 20.2.
3. What might have happened to this population if there had been an (d), (e) There may be little apparent
excess of females? difference between the mouse and yeast curves.
4. What happened to this species of bird about 1932? (f) The mouse population is an example of
an open population and, as such, illustrates
seasonal increases and decreases.
(g) Natality ':, highest in the late summer and
Figure 20.19 Numbers of heath hens (Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts).
autumn.
2200 (h) The effect of mortality is most apparent
in tate winter and eariy spring.

Part B
2000
1. The seasonal fluctuation of pheasants
results from the addition of young in summer
1800 and early fall. This is a good example of a
"new" population that has not yet reached the
carrying capacity of the habitat.
1600 2 (b) Counts at some time after 1942
would undoubtedly have shown a decrease in
the rate of population growth, but it is not
possible with these data to predict when this
1400
would have occurred

Part C
1200
1. The increase of heath hens in 1915 was
the result of preservation efforts. The rise in
1000 numbers makes the curve similar to the
pheasant curve.
2. An excessive number of males not only
reduces natality but also increases aggression.
800
3. Had there been an excess of females
rather than males, extinction may have been
postponed, What is important here is that
600
students begin thinking about the effects of sex
ratios on the continueon of a population,
4. The population biscarne extinct in 1932.
400

200

1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935

'34
 732 Section Five Patterns in the Biospher::

Discussion Discussion
1. The characteristic curve of "new" You should now be able to draw some general conclusions from your
populations shows an exponential increase investigations of population change.
2, 3, The chief difference between the graph 1. Does the growth of a population tend to follow a basic pattern? If so,
of the hypothetical population and graphs of the what are the characteristics of this pattern?
real populations is that the former shows none 2. What is the chief difference between the graph for the hypothetical
of the variability inherent in real data. Also, given population (investigation 20.2) and the graphs for the real populations
the assumptions, it can never show a decrease. (investigations 2.3 and 20.3)?
4. The web of life affects populations 3. How 10 you account for the difference?
through food supply, variation in numbers of 4. How noes the web of life (chapter 1) affect populations?
natural enemies, seasonal fluctuations in
numbers with an increase from reproduction
(usually in the spring) and a decrease from For Further Investigation
weather-related mortality (drought or winter- Table 20.3 presents data on a population of Italian bees. Plot the data
caused), and so on. on arithmetic graph paper.

For Further Investigation

3 The hive would "swa,"i" Many workers ITAWO.:20.31:40(1)ber*--Ot ftikarl 15.00 ki!)::lifi:eic*irMinterPOION7::
would join a queen and emigrate. Days
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 542 70 77 84 91 93 105 112 119

1 1.5 2.5 4 8 16 22 32 40.5150.3 55 62.5 72 72.5 71 62 78 81

Population of Colony
(in Thousands)

1. Does this graph most closely resemble the graph for the house sparrow,
the yeast, or the cotton mouse population?
2. On the bee graph, what is beginning to happen toward the end of the
graph line?
3. Can you predict what probably happened soon after the collection of
data was discontinued?
4. Which of the population determiners mentioned in the text is involved
in your prediction?

20.1 Geographic Ranges Depend

on Several Factors
In the Arctic and Antarctic, climate and other abiotic factors are sim-
ilar, yet the organisms differ. Only in the Arctic do polar bears roam the
ice floes. In the Antarctic they are absent. Only in the Antarctic do pen-
guins waddle about. In the Arctic there are none. Why are no polar bears
near the South Pole, and no penguins near the North Pole?
Penguins do cross the equator, but only in the From observations such as these, we must conclude that tolerance to
cold waters of the Humboldt Current on the west
environmental factors does not entirely explain geographic ranges of or-
coast of South America.
gani3ms. Because an organism can live in a particular place does not
necessarily mean that it does live there. To understand the geographic
Observation ol present-day dispersal and ranges of polar bears, penguins, and other organisms, we need additional
evidence that organisms dispersed in the past facts.
make the first hypothesis unnecessary. The
We can start our search with two hypotheses. First, perhaps all spe-
inevitable incompleteness of the fossil record,
cies once occurred everywhere and later disappeared from some places.
however, makes it impossible to prove the
second hypothesis.
Or, second, each species may have originated in a particular place and
 Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 733

Figure 20.20 Polar bears. Figure 20.21 Emperor penguin.

Paul Hewlett Of. James 8.14cClinlock. Institute of Marine Sciences. University of

Calefornle. Santa Cruz. CA 45084.

then spread into other places. Biologists have little evidence for the first
hypothesis. For the second, the evidence is strong. Scientists have studied Figure 20.22 The dispersal of milkweed seeds,
fossils from all pa "s of the world. The evidence indicates that popula- a type of emigration.
tions of species of 'need in small areas and then spread.

20.10 Populations Disperse to New Areas

Early in U.S. history, Europeans settled on the east and west coasts.
The central areas of the country, with tens of thousands of Native Amer-
icans, had almost no people of European origin. By 1890, however, the
national census showed that all parts of the country were inhabited by
Europeans to a considerable extent. In all populations it is easy to ob-
serve this tendency of living things to spread from places where they are
to places where they are not. This spreading of organisms is called dis-
persal.
In the case of motile organisms, dispersal may be accomplished by
flying, swimming, walking, running, crawling, or burrowing. Is, the case
of nonmotile organisms, dispersal is passive. Seeds, spores, and eggs can
remain in a dormant state for long periods. During this time they may
be carried great distances by currents of air or water, or they may travel
in the mud on a bird's foot. Even motile organisms may be carried much
farther than they could travel themselves. A polar bear may be carried
hundreds of kilometers on fluting ice. A spider may be blown long dis- Russell C. Pohrrnann

tances on the wind. Even macroscopic objects, such as dormant

Dispersal alone, of course, does not change a species' geographic range. 0 snails and seeds of actuati, plants, have been
Unless the organisms survive and reproduce in the new location, the range found in dried mud on `9,t qf wide-ranging
has not changed. In other words, viability of individuals is not enough. waterfowl. so the wide .,' .' on of
It must be followed by fertility. microorganisms that do A. A'. A reouire dried
mud for su,:h rapid transit s ..ly explained

L Again refer students to .Irst part of the

chapter.

>rt%;
836
734 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

20.11 Many Kinds of Barriers

Can Prevent Dispersal
Ask students which species has such a wide
distribution. Homo sapiens, of course. We now Each kind of organism has some means of dispersal. It seems reason-
range even beyond earth. Many of our internal able, therefore, to expect that eventually all species might be found
parasites have a range coterminous with ours wherever environmental conditions are suitable. Actually, such a broad
Our hangers-onmice, for exampleare also geographic range is the exception rather than the rule. What, then, limits
found almost everywhere we have gone on the dispersal of organisms? In the case of early Americans, it was often
earth. a mountain rangea bather. For other animals, too, barriers prevent
Any ideas that your students have about this dispersal.
situation must be judged entirely on the basis of For most terrestrial animals large areas of water are effective bar-
logic, because there is no accepted explanation riers. For aquatic animals the land may be a barrier. Mountains and
rivers are barriers to many organisms. Besides such physical barriers

Figure 20.23 Kirtland's warblers can fly very well yet they are found only in the
small areas shown on the map. How might you explain this situation?

an

Atlantic Ocean

Gulf of Mexico

x3/5

wintering range

.83
 Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 735

-there also are ecological barriers. For organisms adapted to forest life,
grassland or desert areas may be barriers. For grassland species, a forest Figure 20.24 The distribution of tree and
region may limit dispersal. meadow pipits is limited by behavioral barriers.
Some barriers are behavioral. It seems reasonable to suppose, for in-
stance, that flying birds would be found almost everywhere. However,
many birds that can fly great distances remain in very restricted regions.
Their distribution apparently is limited by the behavior of individuals
in selecting their habitat. For example, the tree pipit (Anthus trivialis)
and the meadow pipit (A. pratensis) have similar requirements, except
that the tree pipit breeds only in areas having at least one tall tree. Both
pipits nest on the ground, and they feed on the same kinds of organisms.
Both have similar aerial songs. However, the tree pipit enus its song by
perching on a tree, whereas the meadow pipit lands on the ground as
shown in figure 20.24. This difference in behavior, therefore, limits the
dispersal of the two species.
An increase in the population of a motile species encourages emigra-
tion to less populated areas, where there may be more resources avail-
0
able. Dispersal may take place rapidly as the population grows. However,
when barriers are great, dispersal may be slow even though the popu-
lation is increasing rapidly. In passive dispersal the means of transpor-
tation may be the most important factor in determining rate of spread.
Species of trees whose seeds are carried away and buried by squirrels
have been estimated to spread only about 1.6 km in 1000 years. By con-
trast, organisms swept up in a tornado may be carried 30 km in a few
hours.
If our reasoning about dispersal and barriers is correct, we can now
explain the absence of polar bears from the Antarctic. We first assume
that polar bears originated in the Arctic and tended to disperse. But
polar bears would find a tropical environment much too hot, so the tropics
would act as a barrier to their dispersal. This wide barrier has existed
throughout the existence of the polar bear species. Thus far no part of
the population has been able to move across the barrier. Therefore, no
polar bears are found in the Antarctic. Similar reasoning can be applied
to the lack of dispersal by penguins.
Thus, we see that limiting factors shape not only whether populations
survive, but also in what areas they can live. If a population has char-
Ask students to name tree species whose
acteristics needed for survival in an area, environmental selection op- seeds are easily carried by wind. Examples
erates in favor of the population. If not, selection removes the population include ashes. maples, pines, and cottonwoods.
from that area.
See the note about penguins on page 732. The
conclusion stated here excludes barriers on a
geological time scale The matter is discussed in
Self-Review chapter 21

1. What is the difference betwem an open population and a closed pop-

ulation?
2. How is a species' geographic range affected by dispersal?
3. When does a limiting facto: become a barrier?
4. How is the likelihood of dispersal affected by an increase in popu-
lation size?
5. What is an example of a behavioral barrier?

838
736 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 20.25 Mount St. Helens before and after eruption.

kirileY-Petkins VISUALS UP1Li/.11TED USDA. Forest Service

Guidepost: How does selection produce Succession and Evolution

changing patterns in
ecosystems over years and
in Ecosystems
over geologic eras?
20.12 Ecosystems Are Not Permanent
Have students ty to find successional Landscapes, mountains, and seascapes may seem like eternal ecosys-
ecosystems in your biome. Even in urban areas tems, but they are not. The great sheets of ice that once covered the
some stages of secondary succession can be northern parts of North America and Eurasia have melted. In many spots
ooserved on recently baled patches of
they left bare rock and soil. In all regions of the world, erosion constantly
groundespecially those resulting from the
exposes bare rock. In many areas, fire is a natural factor. Floods, blowing
often slow pace of urban renewal
sand, and volcanic eruptions also may destroy the vegetation of an area
and leave bare ground or create new land.
Tests of nuclear explosives also can destroy much life. In the 1950s,
some biologists began a five-year study of the effects of earlier nuclear
e) plosions at the Nevada test site. (Atmospheric nuclear tests were
s appal in 1958.) The explosions had removed the topsoil at ground zero
aigi destroyed all the desert vegetation within a 1-km radius, as seen in
figure 20.26b. Farther out from ground zero, only a few hardy species
(such as the creosote bush and the ground thorn) survived.
A year after the last explosion, some spring annuals (stickleaf, stork's-
bill, and desert pincushion) appeared. These grew from seeds carried in
by wind or birds. Small plants began covering the area, as shown in figure
20.26c.
As the plants died, their remains were added to the sandy soil. The
plants changed the abiotic environment in other ways, too. roots
held more moisture in the soil. The soil temperature became suitable for
the germination of seeds of other plant species. By 1961, there was a
community of plants, including foxtail chess, wild buckwheat, and others.
This community was not the pre-explosion community, however. It was
similar to the community that eventually appears in a grassland area
previously swept by t. T.
 Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 737

Figure 20.26 The aftereffects of atomic testing. (a) Before testing at ground
zero, showing typical vegetation. (b) After testing, The exposed rocks indicate
extensive soil removal. (c) Russian thistle was the only species that grew within
1/2 km of ground zero in the first year. Its presence indicates ,tie start of recovery.

a Lora Mangum Shields. New Mexico Highlands University. Las -Lora Mangum Shields. New Mexico Htghlanc: 'Univc'sdy. Las
Vegas; New Mexico 87701. Vegas. New Mexico 87701.

-;

1'147 6. 6.

f ; ,
':7-:;" s

".t,`" ,;
Lora Mangum Shields. New Mexico Highlands University. Las
Vegas. New Mexico 87701. You can Observe succession in your own region
in a fairly short time by comparing pieces of
20.13 Communities Succeed Each Other land that have been abandoned for varying
over Long Periods of Time numbers of years

The process by which one community replaces another is called 0 The reality of sucLesston ,,ari be yvb.rrived ,n a
succession. Primary succession b-qins with bare soil or rock and ends fi-iw weeks in a iaboratory culture of
with a community that is determi..-d by the climate. Secondary succes- ,r iorgdcbsrris d rid in a few years in any
sion begins in a disturbed area, such as the Nevada test site described abandoned agn:ulturat area but there is much
on page 736. The community that ends a succession, at least for a long 0 ,-,untrovLrsy among ecologists about h.:04 it
period of time, is called the climax community. It differs from the other occurs Ecology texts can proylie y ou with a
vari e ty of viewpoints ic an excellent
communities in the succession process because it is not replaced by any
demonstration of su,:e_ession that can be easily
other community unless a disturbance or a change climate occurs. If set up in the, horatory shi H K Pigage Tne
a single spruce dies of old age, the space that it occupied is too shaded Winogradsky Cc.iumn A Miniature Pond
by ....;ighboring spruces for aspen to grow. A young spruce, tolerant of Boston) ABT (April 1985±
shade, will probably take its place. Thus, once established, the climax 0
community is relatively permanent.

840
738 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 20.27 Successional stages and animals of a coniferous forest.

whitetail
deer
M-1
X1/6

-
.41.,

bare rock --10. lichen meadow -to. aspens Sp

succession from rock cli

S4i
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 739

myrtle
warbler

elfoose

era,.

s
.4"
A
.7.5.e.r.
; '42
Lj 's7; ,t v."t ,

succession from fire

41111601t burned ground

annuals

- -s1P+2

aspens meadow 4 marsh 4 pond

succession from water

.842
740 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Although other factors ,(such as soil) may play important roles, the
climax community is determined mainly by the climate of the region.
In some areas, for instance, the climate is unsuitable for trees and the
climax community is dominated by grasses. We will examine major
climax communities of the uor:d in chapter 22.

20.14 The Animals in a Community

Depend on the Plants
O Animals depend on plants for food and for shelter. Thus, in any climax
community, the plants and the abiotic environment determine which an-
imals can live there. For example, moose live in northern evergreen for-
ests, and manatees live in brackish southern wafers. When the former
Nevada test site was invaded by plants again, alltmals soon followed. No
forest animals or tropical animals appearedthe animals were the pocket
mice (figure 20.28), kangaroo rats (figure 22.35a), and others feeding
on desert plants.
Over hundreds or thousands of years, the climate in an area may
change. If it grows colder or drier, some animals may die or move else-
where. Other animals may find the area more hospitable than it was
earlier. The selective effect on the animals depends on what adaptations
the animals possess. The adaptations may be to climatic factors. Or, an-
imals may be adapted to certain plants that are, in turn, adapted to a
certain climate. In that case, a change in climate may affect animals
indirectly through changes in the plant life.
The genetic variation present in a natural population means that some
individuals will, by chalice, prove to be well suited to a change in the
environment. Such individuals are, in effect, preadapted to the new en-
vironment.
Two species may co-evolve if each is important in the biotic environ-
ment of the other. For example, for more than 100 million years flow-
ering plants and flower-pollinating insects have evolved together. The
new plants provided more food for the insects, and the new insects pol-
linated the plants. Each group was a selective force for the other group
(see figure 20.29).in the next chapter, you will see more examples of
ancient communities in changing environments. In investigation 20.4,
you can study the effects of climatic change on a model ecosystem.

Figure 20.28 Pocket mouse.

843
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 741

Figure 20.29 (a) An elk thistle (Cirsium foliosum) and (b) its pollinator the
bumble bee (Bombus). The elk thistle flower is formed of a large head of
complex tube flowers. The feeding bee lands on the flowerhead and inserts its
tongue into an individual flower to extract the nectar from the base of the tube.
Pollen collects all over the bee while it is sucking nectar, and dusts the next
flower the bee visits.

Bumble Bee

r style
pistil

simple eye

compound eye
stamen

filament

antennae
petals

corolla

nectar gland

pappus

Functional female flower

ovary

a Alexandra Vargo b

Self-Review

1. What is succession?
2. What kinds of conditions start natural ecological succession?
3. What is meant by a climax community?
4. How does geography help determine the members of climax plant
communities?
5. How does geography influence the animals associated with a plant
community?

id
844
742 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Investigation 20.4
LONG-TERM CHANGES
IN AN ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
Discussion Over many years, one biotic or abiotic factor in an ecosystem may
1. After 6600 years, the precipitation falls to
change. That causes a second'.; ictor to change, which, in turn, chanoe
51 cm Oaks gone, duckweed disappearing. a third factor. Eventually the entire ecosystem may be quite different from
what it was earlier.
2 After 9200 years, the precipitation falls to
38 cm Duckweed, ducks, and wolves gone,
In this investigation, you will trace the effects of a gradual climatic change
grass disappearing. After 10,000 years, the
on a model ecosystem. The model is much simplified from a real situation.
precipitation falls to 34 cm Grass replaced by
mesquite; mice and snakes move in Procedure
3 The grasshoppers and jackrabbits are the
only organisms common to both the initial and 1. Read the following information and diagram the food web in the eco-
final food webs.
system that is described.
4 Lack of mesquite An oak grows next to a shallow stream in a grassy area. There are no
5. Number of ducks shrubs here. Grasshoppers and blacktail jackrabbits feed on the little bluestem
5 A decrease in precipitation was solely grass. Duckweed grows in the water, providing some of the food for wood
responsible for the other changes ducks These birds also feed on grasshoppers, acorns, and grass. The ducks
are a major food source for red wolves.
7 Maximum and minimum levels would be
The average annual precipitation is 84 cm. The average annual tempera-
much more realistic Students will learn more ture is 10° C.
about this in later chapters,
If some students want to create a computer 2. Working as a team, set up a chart like the following:
program to find out when the critical points are
reached and what the outcom s are, encourage Round Years Average Annual Average Annual Changes in
them Creating the program IF A course, more Precipitation Temperature Organisms
difficult and instructive than following the 1 200
instructions given.
2 400
(etc.
to 50
rounds)

3. Now fill out the chart, using the following additional information:
To the west of the grassy area is a desert. There glossy snakes eat Mer-
riam pocket mice. These mice must burrow under shrubs or cacti to hide from
the snakes; so the mice cannot live in a grassy area. In the desert they burrow
under mesquite shrubs and eat the seeds. Grasshoppers and blacktail jack-
rabbits eat the me. ,_cite leaves.
The climate is crianging in the grassy area. For the next 10,000 years (50
rounds in your chart), the average annual precipitation will decrease by 1.25
cm every 200 years, and the average annual temperature will inc_ rease by 0.3° C
every 200 years.
An average annual temperature of more than 22° C or an average annual
precipitation of less than 51 cm will cause the stream to begin drying up and
the oak trees to die.
If the average annual temperature reaches 31° C, or the average annual
precipitation is less than 34 cm, the water table will be too low for the grass.

84
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival

In filling out tne chart, assume that organisms in the desert area are
trying to disperse to the grassy area at all times, and that they will
invade it whenever conditions allow it.
4. After filling out the chart, diagram the food web for the same area at
the end of 10,000 years.

Discussion
1. When did the first changes in the ecosystem take place? What changes
occurred?
2. What subsequent changes occurred, and in which years?
3. What similarities or differences are there between the initial and final
food webs?
4. What is a barrier to dispersal for Merriam pocket mice?
5. What limited the red wolves' population size?
6. What climatic factor was responsible for the other changes?
7. Why does the use of average annual values for temperature and pre-
cipitation make this model very artificial?

The Study of Populations Guidepost: Why do ecologists use a

wide variety of techniques
and borrow the methods of
20.15 Early Humans Studied
other scientists?
Their Environment
The earliest humans must have had a keen interest in what we now
call ecology. By studying the interactions of predators and prey, they
s
learned where to look for freshly killed meat and what areas might hold
dangerous carnivores. By seeing the effects of poisonous plants on other
animals, they learned which plants to avoid. Although early humans had
no "scientific method," their observations were tests of their hypotheses
about food organisms. Such observations of interacting organisms and
environments may have been the earliest scientific studies.
Throughout human history, an interest in the communities and eco- G A Bartholomew, The Role of Natural 1-History
systems around us has been necessary for our survival. Eventually, we in Contemporary Biology, Bosoence (May
also learned to appreciate our environment as a focus of art and science. 1986), presents a thought-provuking disL.ussion
Late in the nineteenth century, the general description of animals and of the importance of natural history today
plants called natural history evolved into the science of ecology. While
natural history emphasized description for its own sake, and sometimes
became sentimental or religious, ecology emphasizes experimentation.
Though description is often used in ecology, observations are made pri-
marily to test hypotheses.

846
744 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 20.30 Early humans were the first ecologists.

t.

I.

20.16 Ecologists Study Interactions arf.n.ng

Organisms and Environments
Ecologists use many biological techniques. They emphasize experi-
mental studies of interactions among organisms, as well as between the
organisms and their environmtnts. To test their hypotheses, they ask
questions such as: How many and what kinds of organisms are in this
area? What are they doing? What food chains can be found here? How
is the community changing over time? How did the organisms come to
ba like they are now? An ecologist might hypothesize that on any one
island of Hawaii, the many niches and the variation in climate would
lead to the formation of many species of Drosophila, rather than to one
population with varying characteristics. To test the hypothesis, it would
be necessary to collect drosophilas from many areas, to test their fer-
tility, to do microscopic comparisons of their anatomy, and so on.

847
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 745

Figure 20.31 Two of the many species of Drosophila that have evolved in
Hawaii. (a) Drosophila heteroneura; (b) Drosophila silvestris.

Peter Dryint /BPS/TOM SUCK 11 ASS= TES K: V. Konothiroi VISUALS UNLIMITED

Such studies have been aided by the development of new scientific

instruments such as modern microscopes and cameras, new techniques
for staining organisms and tissues, and by the ability to study variations
in DNA. Thus, it has become possible to carry out studies over long
periods of time on organisms of all sizes.

20.17 Population Studies Require

Special Techniques
Every 10 years, the U.S. Bureau of the Census asks questions of each
householder. How many people are in the household? How old are they?
How are tuey employed? The data from all the households in the country
are combined. From the results we can describe the population's char-
acteristics and note how they have changed during the 10 years since
the previous census.
Taking a human census is difficult enough, even with the help of com-
puters. There are greater problems with taking the census of animal pop-
ulations, however. Yet such information is essential for population
biologists, who need to determine the characteristics of a population. Fcr
example, they may want to see if a population is evolving in its adap-
tations for living in a cold environment. One of the things they would
need to do is to count the number of organisms in various temperature
ranges in that environment.
Many ecological questions are concerned with changes in population
size and composition. Some populations, however, may contain thou-
0
sands of moving organisms. For that reason, ecologists needed to devise
reliable ways to estimate the total population size for an area without
actually counting every organism. One technique is called sampling, be-
cause only a typical sample of the population is counted. For example,
if a population is scattered through an area of 10,000 knil, then a sample
of organisms in 1 km2 should number 1/10,000 of the total population.
Of course, many parts of the area would contain atypical numbers.
Choosing a sample that is typical of the entire population 's difficult, but
very important.

843
c:.
746 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Now, suppose a biologist wanted to test the effect of thermal (heat)

pollution on the trout in a lake. Ore thing the biologist would need to
know is how many trout were in the lake before and after the temper-
ature rose. Because it would be hard to find a typical part of the lake to
um for a sample, even if the fish did not move around, biologists tag some
fish and release them after recording their count. This is the tagged pop-
ulation. Later, they collect a sample of fish and count the number having
tags. Using the equation
tagged fish in sample tagged population
total sample total population
they can estimate the total trout population.
Students should be familiar with several of these
To measure environmental factors affecting a population, the biolo-
techniques from their laboratory work
gist needs techniques that might be borrowed from chemistry or, geology.
It might be necessary, for instance, to test the pH of soil or water, to
measure wet-bulb And dry-bulb temperatures, or to determine how much
oxygen is dissolved in water.
In some cases, individual organisms of the past are cues about pop-
ulations of the present. Fossils tell ecologists what kinds of organisms
lived in certain places. Rock layers and their fossils indicate what the
organisms' environments were like. Sometimes there is also evidence of
what the organisms ate, how old they were, and z) on. Studies of those
organisms and their environments are called paleoecology (pay lee oh ee
KOL uh jee).
Once the relevant data about a population and its environment Lire
gathered, the ecologist must process the results. Often the average is
determined for a characteristic of an organism or an environmental factor.
The data are recorded in tables and examined in various ways. For ex-
ample, in the thermal pollution study, the ecologist might look at the

Figure 20.32 Tagging a brown trout.

(kw. p. Rounlund. U.S. Fish & Waddle Sir*,

843
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival

total number of living trout bcforc and aftcr thc polluting cvent. Or, thc
total number could be brokcn down into largc trout and small trmit. For
any experiment, an enormous numbcr of variablcs is possiblc. Thcse car
be shown in the form of graphs or charts.

20.18 Human Ecology Reaches

into Many Areas
The pressures on thc environment from thc growing human popt:a-
tio,i have made ecologists very conscious of human ccological questit,ps.
0
Today, many ecologists must study cconomics, cnginecring, encrgy rc-
lationships, psychology, sociology, and other areas that may sound dis-
tant from ecology. By studying tl:c details of what humans do, what we
build, and how we interact with each other, ccologists can :earn more
about how humans affect the world ecosystcm.
By definition, ecology has no limits. It integrates all of scicncc and
all of lice itself. Thus, ecologists use knowlcdge and techniques from other
scientific areasgeology, anthropology, population biology, paleon-
tology, botany, zoology, animal behavior, taxonomy, computer scicncc,
and genetics, among others. As knowledgc in thosc scicnces ha3 grown,
and as their methods havc become morc mathematical, ecology also has
changed in character. Many studics arc mathcmatical, bascd on calculus
and statistics.

20.19 Ecology Is Still Changing

Changes in technology helped changc ninctccnth-ccntury natural his-
tory to modcrn ccology, and to makc ccology morc mathcmatical. Today,
technology is again contributing to thc character of ccology. The grow;ng

Figure 20.33 Ecologist using a computer to analyze land use data.

Wildlife Resource Information SySfom /Colorado Division of Wildlife

830
748 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 20.34 Computerized LANDSAT photo of Great Salt Lake. Note the
change in color-tone from north to south. The line is caused by a change in
salinity in the lake and is directly related to the construction of the Southern
Pacific Railroad causeway which obstructed the circulation in the lake.

"4'7 r10,4;
tti ro

NASA

use of powerful computers has helped ecologists greatly. Elaborate cal-

culations can br done quickly now, freeing scientists to formulate the
questions and to interpret the results. Space satellites provide photo-
graphs, revealing patterns that were previously difficult or impossible to
obtain, as shown in figure 20.34.
The ecological questions themselves have grown. They now include
questions such as: How has humankind changed the planet? What will
our current activities do to the world in the future? How can we best
use current technology to solve problems of human ecology?
In studying selection and survival of populations, ecologists look ob-
jectively at patterns of life. The ecologists themselves are part of that
pattern, however. What they discover and recommend may help to de-
termine the characteristics of future ecosystems.

Seif-Review

1. Why did early humans need to study their environments?

2. What is the purpose of sampling?
3. Why are most ecologists increasingly concerned about questions of
human ecology?

S ;mmary
Populations grow in accordance with built-in growth rates, but their
growth is usually limited by environmental factors. Such limiting factors
result in the selection of individuals for survival or death. Thus, limiting
factors determine what the organisms' characteristics are and what the

851
Chapter 20 Selection and Survival 749

population size can be. Selection is most dramatic when a population is

closed, when there is no immigration or emigration. Selection also op-
erates on open populations, as individuals move into new environments.
Then limiting factors act as barriers to dispersal, and only organisms
with the necessary adaptations to tolerate the new limiting factors are
atie to survive and migrate to the new area. Over a long period, the
interacting populations in an area are shaped by their biotic and abiotic
environments. In the absence of dionrbance, a climax community of
plants appears. That community depends on the climate and geography
of the region; typical animals, in turn, depend on the climax community.
Dependence of early humans on the plants and animals surrounding them
led to practical natural history as a means of survival, and natural his-
tory led to modern ecology. As our power to shapc the environment in-
creases, so, too, does the strength of ecological methods.

Application Questions Problems

1. Suppose a farmer knows that an insect feeds on 1. Make a list of terrestrial organisms that human
apples during its larval stage. A potent insecticide beings have brought into your area. Divide the list
applied to green apples will destroy the insect eggs into two parts: organisms that (in your opinion)
before they hatch. Or, a safe oil can be sprayed on survive because of human activities, and organisms
the trees in the late winter, destroying the insect that would survive without human help. Give
pupae. Which method would be more effective in reasons for your decision on each organism.
controlling the insect population size? WhiCh would 2. Explanations of the present geographic ranges of
probably be safer for people eating the apples? organisms may depend not only on expansion from
2. Suppose two populations of a protozoan are grown former ranges but also on reduction of former
in an aquarium but are separated by a barrier. ranges. What are some factors that might decrease
Each population reaches 1000, the maximum that a species' range?
can be supported. Then the barrier is removed. If 3. Consider the factors that bring about death among
;population A is a killer species that attacks humans in modern urban and suburban
population B, what will happen to the two environments. Include factors that kill individuals
populations in terms of dispersal and mntual before, during, and after the age of reproduction.
population size? Consider also factors that reduce health or impair
3. Suppose human beings transported, living polar development, and factors that reduce fertility or the
bears to Antarctic regions. What do you think survival rate of offspring. Speculate on the
would happen? Would you regard the action as a possibility that these factors could cause changes in
desirabie one? Explain. characteristics of future human populations.
4. At about the same time as the disappearance of
dinosaurs in the fossil record, the earth may have
grown colder, and the large primitive forests may
have been replaced by flowering plants. What
adaptations would the dinosaurs have needed to
survive those environmental changes?
5. An ecologist wanted to determine whether adding
scarecrows to a golf course would discourage coots
(small waterfowl) from landing on the ponds and
irritating the golfers. What steps would be
necessary to test the hypothesis?

Jti
750 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
J. Arehart-Treichel, "Life Expectancy: The Gieat 20th- R. A. Kerr, "Periodic Impacts and Extinctions Reported"
Century Leap" Science hews (13 March 1982). Examines Science (23 March 1984). Investigates one possible
one morc facet of a growing human population. explanation for the large-scale extinctions that have
A. T. Bergerud,"Prey Switching in a Simple Ecosystem" occurred periodically throughout Earth's hiztory.
Scientific American (December 19811. The decline of the "State of the Species" Science 86 (January 1986). Three
caribou in Newfoundland was a du, '3 a complex t.vcle of articles relate to current issues in population of the human
predators and prey. species.
D. R. Gwatkin and S. K. Brandel, "Life Expectancy and
Population Growth in the Third World" Scientific
American (May 1982). Examines how life expectancy
affects population size.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1. By destroying pupae before they became egg-laying adults. 1 Some organisms that might be Iisttd are these. apples,
the oil would be more effective Because it would not be grapes, oranges, plums, cherries, melons, potatoes.
applied to the fruit. it would aiso be safer tomatoes. beans. squashes, corn, barley, wheat, rice,
2. Both populations will begin to disperse throughout the sorghum. house mice, Norway rats, cockroaches, bedbugs.
aquarium Eventually, population A will destroy population B. house sparrows, starlings, pheasants. Whether each could
and the final population sizes will be A. 2000. B. 0. survive in your area without human help depends in part on
3. It is difficult to predict what might happen, which is the major he climate there However, some, such as corn and
argument against such an action Polar bears feed on some perhaps bedbugs. could probably not fl( ish anywhere
of the same organisms as penguins and, therefore. might without humans.
compete for food, they also might feed on penguins 2 Contraction of geographic ranges might be caused by
4 They would have needed to regulate their body (a) climatic changes. (b) evolution of tolerances toward a
temperatures. as birds do and as reptiles cannot, and the more specific or limited range, or (c) results of species
herbivorous dinosaurs would have needed to substitute interactions (e.g., predation, parasitism, and competition).
flowering plants for the coarser primitive plants in their diet 3 This problem often evokes much student interest. If the
Some scientists have nypothesized that the surviving points made in its statement are considered carefully. it can
dinosaurs were already temperature-regulators and that result in some disciplined thought that effectively reviews
dinosaurs dependent on the fiber of nonflowering plants many of the themes of this book.
died of constipation,
5 The study would be like that involving thermal pollution and
trout (pp. 746-747). Lest this seem like a trivial ecological
problem, consider the fact that coots have been poisoned
or otherwise killed by golfers who feel the birds are a
nuisance,
 continued from page 725

How many generations. The straight line obtained on the

offspring are semilog paper indicates a continuously
produced by the accelerating growth rate. If it is known that a
beginning of 1995? rate is of this kind, the plotting or only 2 points
?31250 establishes the slope. Extrapolation is then easy.
Good! With most classes, only the principal advantage
How many need be stressed.
offspring are 4. See annotation for 1. 2.
produced hv the 5. With a continuance of the assumptions.
beginning of 1996? the line of the ordinary graph would approach
?156250 the vertical
Good! 6. On the semilog graph, the line would
continue on the same slope,
Discussion 7 The main point is that growth is occurring
1. 2, Unhappily, many students with at an accelerating rate.
competence in making graphs do not know how 8. This should be left completely open to
to interpret them. Discuss the concept of slope argument. The ideas of limiting factors and the
The relation of slops to rate is basic in the impossibility of an infinitely large population may
interpretation of graphs. Here, it is treated occur to students. If not now, they will occur to
simply, since ali slopes in the graphs are them later.
positive. But if there seems to be no danger of
confusing lie students, you also may discuss For Further Investigation
the significance of zero siopes and negative These modifications are mich closer tO a
slopes. real situation than is the o::ginal model They
3. The principal advantage of semilog paper show that a model is oriy as good as its
is that it permits the plotting of very large assumptions are valid. They also show the
numbers in later generations whole showing effects of mobility on a population
clearly the small ;ncrements in earlier

854
 a

ff

.
Smithsonian institut; on Photo No.62.1446

This mural, painted by,JaY H. Matterries,,,depicts some of the better-known mammals of Wyoming it the middle Eocene.

8ct:'
 Thactilng 5tratt;trofs for etas haptt r

21
147 -49
kr:yit.ttias
CHAPTER rts-ionstmcton of rtait_ioti,Tosysterni, t",
paleontologists
continmtat drift and its etttcts nn d,strbut,,m
of organisms
--radiation and oonvergencti tivng things,

Ecosystems of the Past --tvo'utton cf homino,ds riziminids and Homo

icttiristics of humans

Introduction
Ecologists study the size, shape, and other characteristics or organisms
in the present. These characteristics may change quickly or may persist
for hundreds of years. Selection by the environment may promote one
population's survival but extinguish another. And, if the same area were
seen once every million years, few populations would have remained just
like their ancestors of a million years before. The entire pattern of the
ecosysnm would have changed greatly, or have evolved. In this chapter
we will learn how scientists study the earth's history and what their study
has revealed about past ecosystems.

Reconstructing the Past Guideposts: What evide.dce do

paleontologots stutly,
and how do they
21.1 Fossils Are Evidence of Organisms reach conclusions?
in the Past
When organisms of the distant past died, most of them decayed and Prat oti,r; int) r Oro >INS dU frLnn
tht. t-Artri Are 'Actritt
disappeared forever. Here and there, however, skeletons, teeth, and other 0
rei,trribtati, Ott( n it tat.- an rf to
decay-resistant structures remained. Sometimes parts of organisms were
distingurish true fossils, an taxptrtr, m ay
replaced by minerals, or petrified (PFH trih fyd). Sometimes a mold, or disagr, t
cast, of an organism was formed in mad that hardened. Any such
h.tpression or remains of an organism that lived in a past age is called
a fossil (see figure 21.1).

856 753

LI
 754 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 21.1 A variety of fossils. (a) Archaeopteryx, generally accepted as the

oldest known b:rd, (b) petrified wood, (c) seed fern leaf, (d) frozen remains of a
baby woolty mammoth, found at Cripple Creek, Alaska, (e) starfish.

1
4
st
'1'1" 41:*
.4-
7

Neg. No. 319836. Courtesy Difiairtrnent of Library Safe 3r,

American Museum of Natural listory.

.
, dia

d Neg No, 320539 (Photo Th L Sierwert). Courtesy Department

Library Services. American eum of Natural History.

ir

b American Airlines

e Smithsonian Institution Photo No. clapartmental Negative

C
 Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 755

Figure 21.2 Fossil formation. Top, underwater sediments are oxygen-poor.

Thus, there may be few of the oxygen-requiring microorganisms that decay plant
and animal remains. Dead fish, or their skeletons, 'Ay remain intact in those
sediments over long periods of time. Eventually mistrals circulating in
underground water replace the bone substance of the fish's skeletons. The
mineralized skeletal replacements are fossils. Bottom, buried fossils may be
exposed by any of the forces that uplift segments of the earth's crust and
expose those segments to erosion.

o'S

. 858
 756 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Ask students what conditions they think would

Even as fossils were forming they were covered with sand or mud that
favor the preservation of organ' ns as fc-isils
hid them from view. In some cases millions of years passed, with many
Conditions that retard decay are a principal
requirement for fossilization Among the a, ci layers of sediment being added. The layers, or strata (STRAYT uh),
coolness. acidity and an anderoLT, t.nvir)nment turned to rock. Finally, some event, such as the erosion of the Grand
such as may occur deep in inud .t t iiottoni Canyon or the building of a highway (figure 21.3), exposed some of the
of a lake or sea fossils to view. There we can study them as evidence of the past.
Layers of rock are ail that is left from ecosystems of past ages. They
are studied by paleontologists (pay lee un TOL uh jists)scientists who
study fossil remains to reconstruct the long drama of life. Ecologists,
geologists, and geographers whose fields overlap paleontology also may
study fossil evidence.

Figure 21.3 The stratification o rock layers in th.s mountainside was exposed
whena highway was built.

BSCS Carlye Calvin

Figure 21.4 Excavating dinosaur bones at Dinosaur National Monument on the

Colorado-Utah border. What information do you think is important enough to be
recorded?
lie ;JILt buggt'i, (fiat int positiurt ut each
bone in relat.on to the riOsifiori> of all Others
must be pres?sved or rt,or,jed !ktss obvic is as
the need for records d..--isaibirig the rock
formation In which the occur

C. Allan Morgan

8 5" 9
 Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 757

Paleontologists and geologists have pieced together information from

many parts of the world. In this way they have been able to put most of
0 st ton.,
vanou., deptr_, al ,n1
rutrt ,e0re trim
,IJv be obtalt Led from
oil Nell dnllmy u t tpan E Ash f 1r depth and
the known rock strata in sequence. But how old are the strata?
identity data with the Sp, miens The g,cat
The most reliable method for dating rocks depends on the presence depths from wht h some of these cores are
of radioactive (ray dee oh AK tiv) chemical elements such as uranium. retne,.ed impres,Ne to students
The atomic nuclei of radioactive elements are unstable and emit radia-
tion. They break down to stable elements at a constant -ate known as f-or backgrounn on methods of dating, see
the half-life, the time it takes for half of the element to break down. Brology Teat- hfrr s tic:n(11100j,
Uranium breaks down to lead; its haltAife is 4:5 billion years. Paleon-
tologists can use the half-life of uranium to calculate the age of a rock.
To do`that, they remove a sample of rock from a stratum and measure
the amount of urarjum and lead in it. For example, if they find equal
.parts of lead and uranium, the rock is 4.5 billion years old. Half of the
uf:Rnium that was present when the rock was formed has had time to
break down to lead.
By measuring the ratios between uranium and lead, we can estimate
the ages of rocks that are millions of years old. The measurements are
not perfect, but they have provided a time scale (table 21.1) that is more
accurate than py.previous one. Similar calculations have been made
using radioactive potassium and rubidium. Radioactive carbon (14C) has
been used to determine the age of plant and animal remains. New tech-
niqt,es measure directly the I4C atoms in the sample and allow the dating
of materials up to 70,000 years old.

Figure 21.5 Strata of sedimentary rock are usually piled on each other like
pages in a book:In general the oldest strata are at the bottom and the newest
on top.tGeologists fit together strata from different places to construct the "book
of the earth."

so

100

150

200

RI

,>, 250

co
c 300
0
E 350

400

450

vvA ; '6:Z
500

IC, 860
 758 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

This geologic time scale uses figures based on

the best estimates now available Precambrian Dikit.?;1::. get.40.410,3#10-0:4 ''.2.::".47;e
:: Tr
''''''' :'
times inaicate only the oldest known rocks Eras Periods Epochs Years in Millions
discovered and studied, not the total age of the Since Beginning of
earth. The figures have been widely published, Period or Epoch (MYA)
but are not necessarily generally accepted. Quaternary Recent .1
Students can no doubt find others in other Pleistocene 1.6
references. And, as more dating is done by
means of radioactive isotopes, still other figures Pliocene 5
Cenozoic Miocene 22
may come into use.
Tertiary Oligocene 36
Eocene 55
Paleocene 65

Cretaceous 144
Mesozoic Jurassic 192
Triassic 245

Permian 290
Carbonifera.:s 360
Devonian 408
Paleozoic
Silurian 435
Ordovician 485
Cambrian 570
Precambrian 4600

21.2 Paleontologists Study the Evidence

Inferences about ancient ecosystems are based on studies of ancient
rock layers and the fossils within them. Early paleontologists were puz-
zled by fossils that did not resemble any living forms until the thecry of
evolution made it possible to link fossils with living forms. Then fossils
could be seen as clues to the history of life.
Soft parts of an organism usually decay, and even when all the hard
parts are preserved, they are seldom found in perfect condition. They
usually must be reassembled and placed in proper relation to each Other.
To do this well, paleontologists must know modern organisms and how
the parts are arranged. Then, to picture fossil organisms as they were in
life, paleontologists must determine the placement of structures that have
disappeared, such as muscles or leaves. Finally, p leontologists may paint
a reconstruction of the animala life-size model based on fossils. The
choice of colors is guesswork: guesses are based on our knowledge of
color in modern organisms.
In all this work it is possible for different paleontologists to interpret
the evidence differently. The farther we go from the basic evidence
the fossils themselvesthe greater is the possibility of differing inter-
pretations, as you can see in figure 21.6.
0 In reconstructing the evolution of .yecies, paleontologists need to de-
termine relationships among modern organisms and fossils. Today they
Provide artistic students with the skull of a even can study the DNA and protein in some fossils preserved in ice and
modern animal and ask them to visualize and mud and can calculate the amount of similarity to those compounds in
sketch the whole animal, Compare the drawings other organisms. Biochemical studies, however, are a recent develop-
produced and then show a pictuf e of the kind of ment. Morphological characteristics are still widely used for determi-
animal from which the skull came. nation of relationships and for classification.
Consider the problem posed by a fossil from the early Mesozoic era,
about 225 million years ago. It looks like.a reptilian jaw, but can we be
sure? Mammals were beginning to appear then. Many characteristics

' A'

861
h717";..MI

Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past

Figure 21.6 Stegosaurus, a late Mesozoic reptile. X1/50 (a) Fossil bones
mounted in a museum, (b) an artist's reconstruction, (c) another artist's
reconstruction.

46.-
AI". :1077:ove,
411111111hatiLi'ZIqZ 1111:"ILIW;
;or,.

Inglison lan Methution Negative No. liagut Smithsonian Institution Negative No. 28531
a

This figure is intended to emphasize the need

for caution in accepting restorations. The
evidence found in the rocks clearly requires a
great deal of interpretation before it undergoes
transformation to the mounted skeleton (a). Still
further interpretation is required before it arrives
at a three-dimensional modeland
interpretations may differ (b and c). When only a
few fragments are preserved, how much greater
must be the distinction between fossil and
restoration. Incidentally, according to a recent
suggestion, the triangular plates on the reptile's
back might have served as temperature
Peabody Museum. Yale University regulators.
C

are used to distinguish present-day mammals from reptiles. Mammals 0

have simple jawbones, incisors and molars, hair, and mammary (milk)
glands. Reptiles have none of these characteristics. But if mammals
evolved from reptiles, there once must have been animals with a com-
bination of mammalian and reptilian characteristics. Such problems As, indeed, there were. the therapsids of the
make the work of paleontologists and taxonomists difficult but inter- Triassic and, even more so, the icteridosaurians
of the Jurassic.
esting.

21.3 The Evidence Must Be Interpreted

No one can examine a large collection of fossils without being im-
pressed by change. That is especially true if the fossils of one general
type are arranged in chronological order.

$62
760 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 21.7 Artist's conception of the animals along the main line cf
evolutionary descent from primitive bony fishes to mammals: Eusthenopteron, a
primitive lobe-finned fish; Ichthyostega, a large primitive amphibian; Varanops, a
primitive mammal-like reptile; Probelesodon, a more advanced mammal-like
reptile showing distinct mammalian characteristics; and Megazostrodon, the
small, shrew-like first mammal.

Megazostrodon

Upper Triassic (190 m.y.a.)

Probelesodon
Middle Triassic (200 m.y.a.)

9IVP"4.9

..1"N, Varanops

Carboniferous (300 m.y.a.)

0.1
- .I

lchthyostega

Upper Devonian (345 m.y.a.)

Eusthenopteron

Devonian (400 m.y.a.)

Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 761

Many species have died out and left no descendants. Others seem to
have changed so much thriugh many generations that the successive Figure 21.8 A fossil trilobite. Its actual size was
forms are given different species names. about that of a paperclip.
The fossil record shows that advanced forms in one geological period
have descended from primitive ancestral forms in preceding periods. For
example, mammals are considered more advanced than reptiles. How-
ever, the advanced reptiles of the Mesozoic did not give rise to mammals
in the Cenozoic. On the contrary, the ancestors of those reptiles were
apparently also the ancestors of the mammals.
At lef.,t 130,000 species of animals are known only indirectly from
their fossil remains. DiAosaurs and many other groups have become ex-
tinct, that is, the entire group died out. In the Cambrian, trilobites (figure
21.8) were varied and very numerous, according to their fossils. I :y
disappeared suddenly from the geological record.
There have been many large-scale extinctions on earth. The trilobites
perished in one of those catastrophes. Other groups, including le di-
0 I

nosaurs, died out in other extinctions. Vv hat caused such extinctions?

Paleontologists have puzzled over this prou!Im for a long time. There
have been many hypotheses, but testing paleontologic hypotheses is es-
pecially difficult. Although we may never learn what caused the e;Ainc- *

don of dinosaurs and other organisms, new evidence continues to be

f ;und. `s Is 40
8SCS by lichard D. Tolman

21.4 Interpretations Are Based on Principles Have your students research geoecological
changes in your region Most states have
Whole ecosystems also have changed, another example of ecologica. governmental bureaus or departments
succession. Change in ecosystems depends on the changes in a particular concerned with geological matters, these ustrasy
environment. It also depends on the adaptability of the organisms living issue publications on historical geolog7
in it. A structure that adapts an organism to one environment might be
a hindrance in a different environment. Marine organisms have probably changed less
Though the fossil record shows abundant evidence of change, it also than land or freshwater ones Ask students o
provides evidence of great stability. Brachiopods much like those of the speculate why .his might be so Marine
Paleozoic seas (figure 21.9) are found in twentieth-century oceans, for envirol Intents hive greater stability, both shor,
example. Ocean environments are generally more constant than land en- and long term, thar dc terrestrial or freshwater
vironments Thus, many of the adaptations that allowed the early forms environments Since changes in organisms can
be linked to environmental changes, they could
to survive apparently are still useful.
be expected less frequently in marine
environments

Figure .1.9 (a) A present day brachiopod. (b) Fossil casts of brachiopods.

Frank T. Autrey/MALE UNLIMITED Smithsonian Institution Dapartmantal Nagativit

a b

6G4
i Cl (-1
762 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Note that (like change and stability) adaptive

Q Throughout the history of life on Earth, the descendants of small
radiation and convergence are two sides of the
groups of organisms have dispersed into a great variety of ecosystems.
same coin: in this case, the adaptation of
organisms to their ecological niches. Adaptive
That process is known as adaptive radiation, because it involve(' adap-
radiation occurs as the result of specialization,
tation of the organisms as well as dispersal into many environments. Each
the process by whicn niches come to differ. original small group may have been adapted to a narrow range of eco-
Investigation 2t1 illustrates the onset of logical conditions. Their descendants in new ecosystems, however, must
adaptive radiation; the different fossil horses have had slightly different adaptations. Adaptive radiation is well dem-
subdivided the food source by adapting to onstrated by mammals, as shown in figure 21.10.
different sorts of plants (reflected in part by The fossil record also shows examples of adaptive convergence (kun
different spans of cheek teeth). convergence, VER jents). In such cases, descendants of quite different ancestors have
on the other hand, reflects the adaptation of converged (developed similar structures) as they adapted to similar ways
different forms to a common element in their
of life. Compare (figure 21.11) the spiny, leafless euphorbia of the Af-
respective niches: water-loss resistance.
rican desert with a cactus of the Mexican desert_ Their body forms are
similar, yet flower structure shows that they are members of two dif-
ferent families.

Figure 21.10 Adaptive radiation in the class Mainmalia. Representative animals

from the orders included are (1) pangolin, (2) squirrel, (3) bat, (4) lion,
(5) buffalo, (6) horse. (7) elephant, (8) armadillo, (9) rabbit, (10) monkey,
(11) mole, (12) whale, (13) aardvark, (14) manatee, (15) kangaroo,
(16) mastodon, (17) litoptern, (18) creodont, (19) Brontotherium,
(20) Uintatherium.

4,. ,,.

i,
a) 14 2
a) .

Q.

A 4) 4,. 4

8 I 10 11 1 12 13 14 .,_-A 15

a)
c fgah
a) f i tin
YJI l
5 ,

ET.

17
SS
.
..
a) --c.)
'0 o I
'0 0
Iv ,1
A
op
l`lk,--

(.)

N
'I

" vjf Id
, ..,
.
3t,

C li
0 X
19
>. .
= 20
ur

7 ....,4 0..

I ..
..,

-cp`h.' "r - 65
Cretaceous

Jurassic
.
/
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 763

Figure 21.11 Adaptive convergence in plants. Cactus is on the left, euphorbia

on the right. Note the similarities in general appearance and M the spines, and
the differences in the flowers.

a 7-40111 D.; DII,VMdronli VISUALS UNLIMITED Gordon E. Uno

Gordon E. Uno
d Gordon E. Uno

FMCS by Carly Colvin Gordon E. Uno

f
866
764 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

On the whole, fossil evidence favors the hypothesis that each species
originated in one place and spread into others. But some species un-
doubtedly were more widespread at one time than they are today. As a
result, there are discontinuous (dis kun TIN yoo us) distributions: mem-
bers of the same species are found today in widely separated regions (see
figure 21.15 on page 769).

Self-Review

1. What are fossils and how are they formed?

2. Why is collecting fossils only the beginning of a paleontologist's
work?
3. How can the age of a fossil be determined?
4. How would a paleontologist decide whether a particular fossil rep-
resented a reptile or a mammal?
5. How does the fossil record support both the idea of change and the
idea of stability in living things?
6. What problem does the extinction of large groups of organisms
such as the dinosaurs--present to paleontologists?
7. How do adaptive radiation and adaptive convergence differ?

lnyestication 21.1
Investigation 21.1 PALEONTOLOGIC COMPARISON
PALEONTOLOGIC COMPARISON
Introduction
This investigation gives Auderits an The first laboratory task of paleontologists is to remove specimens
opportunity to see how a paleontologist carefully from surrounding rock. The next task is to describe the cleaned
organize, and analyzes data specimens, which includes accurately measuring them. This investigation
tt possibte. have d yoi r Jaoadoill the skull shows one of the ways that measurements are useful in the interpretation
or lawbone of a modern horse and pictures of of fossils.
restoratior6 of the ektinet eqUit6 Sample Members of the early Eocene genus Hyracotherium are the oldest known
skeletal material prove,' quite iseful f )r animals of the horse family, Equidae. Numerous fossil remains of this family
!frustrating some charat..teristri,sin addition to have been found in rocks of the late Eocene and of succeeding Cenozoic
span of cheek teeththat have been used in epochs. Paleontologists have classified the animals represented by these
reconstru,ting the phylogeny of the Eouidae fossils into 17 genera (figure 21.12). Classification is based on the com-
Whether illuArative niaterials are avaliable or parison of many kinds of structural evidence. In this investigation you will
net you should yo throiliiti the introduetion and study only one of the many anatomical characteristics that Paleontologists
prex,idure rather carefully with your students have used, and determine whether this characteristic is useful in deve-
After .ths, the actual construction of the chart loping an evolutionary scheme for this family.
can be done oukide of class kNote the name In horses the grinding teeth are in the back of the mouth, separated
racolbenum Div ruh koh THIR ee urn{ has from the front teeth by a toothless space. On each side of each jaw, the
priority over the more lamiliar Eohippus It grinding teeth (cheek teeth) consist of 3 premolars and 3 molars (figure
however, perfedly permissible to use eohipbus 21,13). The span of the cheek teeth has been measured in many horse
as a common name ) fossils. Averages of the data are presented in table 21.2

Procedure
Emphasize the following Materials (per student)
(a) Plot the points just as on an ordinary line 1 sheet graph paper
graph And, of cOase the line connecting the pencil
points will branch

86 7
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 765

ib) F ?ht 1 .1,11 If':

Figure 21.12 stt ps yen; Cif ful'y Th. a..i,
dato on a wigit, h ,t1 hi ,
phyln4nv rirsvcil from the study
characteristv...ii
MIOPIVOIS 1;kr t,_ ii ,,tht r tlt nte is
rt-r,r+ ,,,enkd by 2 dote, .:ht h th-
existerh-e of the nemr.., at 2 Sim- t, It
probabh, wdl not b oby:ou t 4uLl. nt: Mat tn.
genera Inbthnum ar,:)P3rat?icv.4;;,..
very well have evolvi-.1 from sp-. 1-; that .0,1,(1
contemporaneously with them learip,
17. Equus
Fxplain that these 2 Genera probah% trnm
spe,c,es of cit-pr.pris f,vine3 ,n lb. ht. 01,q0-

/
15. Neohipparion The names of the genera an kir .mportant
and it is not worthwhite to stump . throuqb
12. Piiohippus 16. Astrohippus
14. Calippuc pronunciations fn dis,u,st an r to ttl,
Genera by number
13. Nannippus t 1 You may wish to pro:11 -- tu irt- with
cop:...> of a form similar to that shown 0. t,s;ure
21 14 ft a uniform h-gizcntat s:ak; 4 rpm p-r
rfAion years lb's form may he
cor4entently dapt;;;ater'
8 X 11" paper
2 The trend was an ir_rease in the Span a'
shown by the upward slope of the Graph
9. Merychippus 3 (a) It is stilt m -reaf.,inu
(b) Nc because 2 or more poTlf -3 0, ^rjr at
11. Megahippus the same oistan- es ahr q the rinnIonta!
1'
k
6. Parahippus
10. Hypohippus

7. Anchitherium 8. Archaeohippus
5. Miohippus'ir

4. Mesohippus

3. Epihippus

2. Orohippus

1. Hyracotherium

868
tI
766 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 21.13

,
z //:7. r-rq2:70

7-

span of
cheek teeth

premolars molars

.1..,
''''''''''77 r----"'N't
A..:.o...ri..- , ''.e,41:NIttkoliZ..4-1kVA ' ...,..:.--,
. vz,

Genera of Eq'uidae Time of Existence Span of Cheek Teeth

(in cm)
1. Hyracotherium Early Eocene 4.3

2. Orohippus Middle Eocene 4.3

3. Epihippus Late Eocene 4.7

Early Oligocene 7.2

4. Mesohippus
Middle Oligocene 7.3

Late Oligocene 8,4

5. Miohippus
Early Miocene 8.3

6. Parahippus Early Miocene 10.0

7. Anchitherium Early Miocene 11.3

8. Archaeohippus Middle Miocene 6.5

Middle Miocene 10.2

9. Merychippus
Late Miocene 12.5

10. Hypohippus Late Miocene 14.2

11. Megahippus Early Pliocene 21.5

Early Pliocene 15.5

12. Pliohippus
Middle Pliocene 15.6

Early Pliocene 11.0

13. Nannippus
Late Pliocene 10.7

14. CahPpus Ear:v Pliocene 9.3

15. Neohipparian Middle Pliocene 13.1

Middle Pliocene 11.8

16. Astrohippus
Late Pliocene 11.8

Late Pliocene 188

17 Equus
Pleistocene 17.6

86
 Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 767

Procedure
1. When plotted on a graph, the data in table 21.2 suggest certain re-
lationships. Figure 21.14 shows a convenient type of grid to use. Con-
struct a grid twice this size on a full sheet of paper, so that the plotted
points will not be crowded. On the grid, plot the cheek-teeth span
measurements of the 17 Equidae genera. As each point is plotted on
the graph, place beside it the number of the genus it represents.
2. Connect the points representing the genera Hyracotherium, Oro-
hippus, Epihippus, Mesohippus, and Miohippus (genus 1 through genus
5). What seems to have been the trend of evolution in the span of
cheek teeth during Eocene and Oligocene times?
3. (a) Without drawing any lines, describe the general trend of evolution
in cheek-teeth span during the Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleisto-
cene.
(b) Is it possible to connect all of these points with a single line? Why?
4. Now you can find out whether the data on this span of the cheek teeth
fit other relationships among The equid genera. To do this, draw lines
between the plotted points, so that they correspond to the arrows in
figure 21.12. For example, draw a line from the dot for Miohippus to
that for Megahippus, connecting genera 5, 7, 10, and 11. Draw an-
other line from the dot -for Miohippus to that for Archaeohippus, con-
necting genera 5 and 8. Draw a 3rd line from Miohippus to Equus,
connecting genera 5, 6, 9, 12, and 17. Then draw in the remaining
four branches from Merychippus, genus 9 (late Miocene) as indicated.

Discussion Discussion
If data on a single characteristic conflict with relationships worked out 1. Support.
from other characteristics, the data will produce a set of crossing lines 2. Approximately 0.14 cm / million years.
when graphed.
Expect some variation in answers to this and the
1. Do the data on the span of the cheek teeth support the relationships following 2 items The difference in the span of
shown in figure 21.12, or do they conflict with those relationships? cheek teeth between Hyracothenum and the first
2. What was the average change in the span of the cneek teeth per mil- Miohippus is 8 4 4.3 = 4.1 cm The time
lion years from Hyracotherium (genus 1) to Miohippus (genus 5)? difference from the beginning of the Eocene to
3. What was the average change per million years from Miohippus to the beginning of the late Oligocene is about 29
Megahippus (genus 11)? million years: 4.1 4. 29 = 0.14 cm/million
years,
3. 0.82 cm/million years.
Figure 21.14 4. 0.45 cm/million years, using the earliest
Mioh,ppus and earliest Equus.
24 5.The principal generalization from these
ngures is that the rate of change in cheek-teeth
20 span varied during the evolutionary history of the
E Equidae.
X16 6, Although the general trend through the
history of the Equidae was toward the
a)
(1)12 lengthening of the cheek-teeth span, the change
from Mtirychippus to Calippus was a shortening
of the span, and in a tow other instances
.c 8 (shown by the negative slope of the graph line)
0 a similar reversal of the general trend occurred.
c4 7. Increase in body size.
a
co

em em_....
8. 52 to 53 million years.
0 9 10 to 11 million generations of horses.
m ___.em 10. The rate of evolution is very slow.
aMa7,:lE.§0.,Pii.gri:,.....,4-119.40,0.8t 17MIQqailea2., Lle. tomiiii3i ' P
58 36 25 13 2
millions of years ago

870
768 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

4. From Miohippus to Equus (genus 17)?

5. From these results, what generalization can you make about the rate
of evolutionary change within the Equidae?
6. What evidence do you have that the direction of an evolutionary change
may be reversed?
7. From figure 21.12, what would you say was the general trend in the
evolution of body size from Hyracotherium to Equus?
8. How many years passed between the time of the Hyracotherium and
the early Equus horses?
9. If each horse lived 5 years before it reproduced, how many genera-
tions of horses were there between Hyracotherium and Equus?
10. What does this tell you about the rate of evolution?

Guidepost What steps led to the broad The "Entangled Bank"

array of organisms found
on earth today?
of Life Today

21.5 All Life Has Come from

a Simple Beginning
At the end of his famous book on the origin of species, Charles Darwin
provided his readers with a poetic summary of how evolution by natural
selection has resulted in the many organisms surrounding us:
It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many
plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various
insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth,
and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different
from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner,
have all been produced by laws acing around us. . . . There is gran-
deur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally
breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has
gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple
a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have
been, and are being evolved
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection

Darwin, of course, wrote about evolution before the heterotroph hy-

pothesis described in section 10.12 was foimed and long before scientists
duplicated the conditions in which life is thought to have originated. But
his comments apply to the evolution of all living forms, starting with
those first simple tide-pool heterotrophs and ending with the varied forms
about us today.

871
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 769

21.6 Evolution Has Occurred

on Moving Plates
The paleontologist's work is complicated by certain geological events.
Those events have been involved in cases like the ones shown in figure
0
21.15. Nothofagus (noth oh FAYG us) is a flowering plant sometimes
called southern beech. It is, and apparently always has been, absent from
the northern hemisphere. A similar pattern of distribution is shown by
fossils of Glossopteris (glah SOP ter is), a genus of Paleozoic seed ferns,
except that they occur also in India and South Africa. Other Paleozoic
and early Mesozoic terrestrial organisms have similar patterns of dis-
tribution.
The areas are separated by thousands of miles of ocean. The seeds of
the plants are not adapted to such long-distance travel over the ocean.
Th:n how did the plants and their fossils get where they are now?

Figure 21.15 Distribution map of extinct

Glossopteris ferns and living Nothofagus trees.

distribution of Glossopteris flora fossils

distribution of tie living plant Nothofagus

i 14.4
1)
770 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

For a description of that scientist and his work, The answer to that and similar puzzling questions was provided by
see A Hallam, "Alfred Wegener and the
Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, who in 1912 suggested that the
Hypothesis of Continental Drift," Scientific
continents have not always been where they are now. His idea was that
American (February 1975)
these big land masses might be slowly "floating" over the earth's hot
According to the theory of plate tectonics, new
liquid interior. Few accepted his idea at that time. More than 40 years
material from the mantle is added to the plates
later, though, geologists found great cracks in the middle of the ocean
along ridges of the ocean bottom The Mid- floors. The cracks seemed to have tesultec: from the rock separating and
Atlantic Ridge is one example, other ridges exist moving in opposite directions. To the geologists that also indicated that
in the Pacific Ocean The addition of new some continents were moving away from each other. Many other obser-
material to the earth's crust fc-ces the plates to vations supported a theory of continental drift, illustrated in figure 21.16.
move slowly away from the ridges O The world's continents were probably joined together at one time in
At other locations, the plates are grinding a giant continent geologists call Pangaea (pan JEE uh). Figure 21.17
into each other and forcing crustal materials into shows how Pangaea was formed and then broke up, and how that helped
the mantle through deep ocean trenches Areas affect the distribution and evolution of organisms. The continental drift
all around the grinding plate edges and trenches
theory is now part of a broader theory of plate tectonics (tek TON iks).
are sites of many active volcanoes and of
earthquake activity.
According to the broader theory, land masses are the highest parts of
Two good references on plate tectonics are
huge plates that make up the earth's crust.
F Press and R Stever, 1974, Earth, and H W
Menard. 1974. Geology, Resources, and Society
21.7 Continental Drift Helps Explain
(San Francisco W. H Freeman)
Ancient Ecosystems
If the theory is correct, then the discontinuous distribution of organ-
() isms such as Nothofagus and Glossopteris can be explained. They lived
and dispersed when the southern continents still were joined as Gond-
wanaland. When that ancient continent began to break up, the plants
and their fossils were carried toward their present positions,
O A general principle of paleontology is "The present is the key to the
past:' In the study of discontinuous distribution, we can see that some-
times the past sheds light on the present. The patterns in today's eco-
systems result &ern events in past ecosystems, In the next section, we
present a broad overview of some of those paleoecosystems (pay lee oh
EE koh sis tumz) (ecosystems of the past).

Self-Review

I. How does continental drift explain some cases of discontinuous dis-

tribution of organisms?
2. What was Pangaea?
3. Where is Gondwanaland today?
4. What principle guides the interpretation of paleontologic evidence?

8I
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 771

Figure 21.16 Diagram illustrating the

mechanism of continental drift. Magma, or
molten rock from the earth's interior, forces its
way through the thin oceanic crust and forms
new crust. This new crust moves away from the
mid-oceanic ridge as the process continues.
Where the heavy oceanic crust meets the lighter
continental coast it is subducted, or forced to
slide beneath the continental crust, resulting in
volcanoes and island arcs.

Divergence Convergence Convergence

Convergence

Oceanic CruS.

plate plate plate plate

Oceanic-Oceanic MidOceanic Ridge Oceanic-Continental Continental-

Continental

874
Figure 21.17 The formation and breakup of
Pangaea correlated with events in evolution.
CAMBRIAN EARTH DEVONIAN EARTH CARBONIFEROUS EARTH

Four large (and two small) continents Laurentia and Baltica had collided to Because of high humidity, sv, reps
had been formed and were moving form one continent. Sea levels were and forests covered much of the land.
toward each other. Sea levels were low. In some regions there were peri-
high. Vermont mountains were formed. ods of drought.

Siberia Laurentia

Kazakstanla Gondwana

Baltica (:%) China

. 2 re...4.r.
570 mya 485 435 408 360
8 75
 TRIASSIC EARTH CRETACEOUS EARTH PLEISTOCENE EARTH

Iiingaea had been formed by the tour North America and Europe began split- Durirg each of four "ice ages" the sea
major continents. Sea levels were low ting apart and South America and wai very low. Warm periods followed
t'and there were many deserts. Appala Africa separated. The sea level was periods of glaciation. The continents
chian mountains were formed. high. Formation of the Rocky Mountains had drifted almost to their positions of
began. today.

of dinosaurs,
Is; and birds

first mammals

Appalachian Mountains

pines and
related plants

MESOZOIC

:sic Juraik..c

245 192 144 65 55 36 22 5 1.6

876
 774 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Guidepost: What organisms dominated A Series of Ecosystems

various ecosystems in the
past?
21.8 Cambrian Communities Were Aquatic
As students study this section of the chapter,
have them refer to section three or "A Catalog
O If this textbook had been written during the Cambrian period, around
570 million years ago, the contents would be very different. The chapter
of Living Things," appendix 3, to relate the
"Biomes Around the World" would be missing, for there is no evidence
organisms in paleoecosystems to the kinds that
of terrestrial life during the Cambrian. Marine ecosystems, however, were
are living todayparticularly in terms of higher
classification levels well developed (figure 21.18). There were shallow- and deep-water or-
ganismsfloating, swimming, and bottom-dwelling kinds. The chief
marine producers then, as now, probably were microscopic species that
floated near the surface.
There are no chordates in the Cambrian fossil record. Otherwise, rep-
resentatives of the major animal phyla known today were present. There
were sponges and coelenterates. The most abundant animals were ma-
rine brachiopods and arthropods. Many of the brachiopods were very
similar to species living today. But the arthropods were so different that
none of them can be placed in modern arthropod classes. Among Cam-
brian arthropods, the 'ones that left the most abundant fossils were the
trilobites.

21.9 Amphibians Appeared in the Devonian

After the Cambrian, the seas receded a little. In the still-widespread
seas, microscopic plants thrived and the first fish appeared. In fact, the
Devonian is often called the "Age of Fishes." Many fishes were covered
with armorlike plates. Sharks and the ancestors of modern bony fish ap-
peared then, also.
About 417 million years ago, mountains began to rise in parts of Lau-
rentia and Baltica that are now America and Europe. Most of the land,
however, was low and flat. There the first vascular plants, such as early
relatives of our ferns and horsetails, evolved. Insects crawled around and
flew above them.
I
/
Figure 21.18 An artist's reconstruction of life in
a Cambrian sea. How many kinds of organisms
can you identify?

At the left a jellyhsh floats in front of an alga,

beneath are brachiopods and a trilobite, among
other organisms, next to them stands a sea
cucumber, with a large annelid beside it, farther
to the right is another trilobite and above it
another kind of large arthropod in front of a
sponge, in the middle background are mollusks:
Other echinoderms, arthropods, and algae also
are known

Neg. No. 3184651(Photo: Charles H. Coles) Courtesy Department

Library Services. American Museum of Natural History.

,:.

8 '7 7
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 775

Some fish had adaptations"preadaptations," we might sayfor life 0 Students should use table 21 1 to note the long
on land: lungs, internal nostrils, and skeletons that better supported their periods of time between the tll,osystums
paired fins. In some fish, lobe-shaped fins became modified into stumpy, described here It Is as a we were looking at a
few still frames from a long motion picture reel
leglike paddles. Some of those fish were able to crawl out of a swamp
onto land. During dry seasons they could move from pool to pool in search
of water and food. Amphibians probably evolved from such fish, as shown
in figure 21.7 on page 760. Amphibians even today lay their eggs in the
water and spend the early part of their lives there. With their appear-
ance in the Devonian, the vertebrate invasion of land had begun.

21.10 'Giant Forests Grew

during the Carboniferous
By the Carboniferous (coal age) period, about 350 million years ago, 0
the first forests fringed the shallow seas that still covered most of Lau-
rentia (North America). The trees were unlike those in our forests,
though. They were mostly huge relatives of the present-day horsetails,
club mosses, and ferns (figure 21.19). Strata of the late Carboniferous
age contain some gymnosperm fossils, but the familiar flowering plants
of today were absent.
The plants suggest to paleontologists that the climate was warm and
humid, like that in today's tropica: forests. There was probably little
seasonal change.
Invertebrates were numerous. Some predatory insects that darted Have students compare these insects with a
about were similar to modern dragonflies. Onewith a wingspread of modern cockroach and a modern dragonfly.
almost 75 cmwas the largest insect ever known. Cockroaches were
abundant; some species were nearly 10 cm long. (How many inches is
that?)

Figure 21.19 Reconstruction of a forest in the

Carboniferous period.

.-

Trans. No. W10234. Courtesy Department Library Services.

American Museum of Natural History.

878
776 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

0 The only large animals were the amphibians, which had been very
successful since their appearance in the Devonian. Many kinds were
present. Most had four legs, but they could not really stand. Looking a
little like modern salamanders, they preyed on fishes in the streams and
ponds.
In the seas, trilobites still were present. They would disappear from
the fossil record arourd the end of the Paleozoic era.

21.11 Dinosaurs Dominated Triassic

Ecosystems
Following the Carboniferous, Pangaea was formed. Most of the seas
covering Laurentia drained away, and by the Triassic, about 115 million
years later, large areas were dry or mountainous. By then the amphib-
ians had some formidable competitors.
Evidence of the Triassic period (about 245 million years ago) can be
found in the Connecticut Valley of New England, where certain rocks
contain the large, three-toed footprints seen in figure 21.20a.
The characteristics of the rocks cause geologists to think that a slow,
winding stream flowed through a dry valley. The stream carried mate-
rials from highlands on both sides to a broad, flat plain, where it de-
posited them. Narrow bands of coal-like rocks indicate that small ponds
were present. Almost all the fossil plants are from such rocks.
Aquatic-insects and several kinds of fishes lived in the ponds. There
are fossils of lungfish (figure 21.21), which could obtain oxygen directly
from the air. This suggests that many ponds sometimes dried up, just as
do ponds where modern lungfish live.

Figure 21.20 The fossil track in the photo

could have been made by a bipedal dinosaur
such as the one below.

, 7411111KV

c-.

i ....*

4.

Betty Seacrest

8 7:)
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 777

Dinosaurs and other large reptiles were abundant. Lizard like crea-
tures scurried among the plants. The structure of their leg bones sug-
0
gests they moved quickly, and their small, sharp teeth indicate they ate
insects. In addition, several species of slender dinosaurs about 2.5 meters
high roamed the mud flats. They made the three-toed tracks that first
called attention to this paleoecosystem.

21.12 Large Mammals Roamed North

America in the Pleistocene
The Cenozoic Era is often called the "Age of Mammals," because
mammals have become so widespread in the last 60 million years. Though
the first small, ratlike mammals lived at the same time as the dinosaurs,
larger mammals did not evolve until the dinosaurs died out. Whatever
killed the dinosaurs spared some ancestral mammals.

Figure 21.21 An Australian lungfish.

Sp-

Figure 21.22 A Cenozoic landscape (Pliocene epoch, about 3.4 million years
ago).

Smithsonian Institution Photo No. 75-7811

880
v- 7,
778 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 21.23 The La Brea tar pits.

Figure 21.24 Cenozoic animals. From top to

bottom: Diatryma, saber-tooth cat,
Synthetoceras, and ground sloth.

Photo iourtasy of the Greater Los Angeles Minors and Convention Bureau.

In what is now Los Angeles, the La Brea tar pitsmolasses:like pools

of asphaltstill may entrap unwarysmall animals. Today these tar pits
are enclosed with fences that protect most animals (figure 21.23). How-
ever, 30,000 years ago, the huge animals that roamed the area often
bogged down in similar pools of asphalt and died there.
Many rabbits, rodents, shrews, and perching birds, all similar to
modern species, were trapped in the asphalt. Their similarity to modern
forms tells paleontologists that the climate of that ecosystem was prob-
ably like the warm, comfortable climate of southern California today.
Bishop pines and cypresses grew there, along with juniper and coast live
oak trees.
Western horses and other herbivores were therepeccaries, tapirs,
antelope, bison, camels, and deer. Ground sloths ate yucca and other
plants. Perhaps the most impressive remains, however, are those of mas-
todons and mammoths. Some of the mammoths were more than 4 m
high at the shoulders.
Small reptiles and amphibians also lived in the La Brea ecosystem,
eating insects such as flies and crickets. There were small carnivorous
mammals. The most obvious carnivores, though, were saber-toothed cats
and dire wolves. (Dire wolves were somewhat like modern timber wolves.)
Are you surprised to find no humans here, considering the relatively
recent age of this ecosystem? Remains of humans dating from this pe-
riod are rare. However, evidence indicates that the first Americans crossed
a bridge of land or ice that connected North America with Asia as long
as 30,000 years ago. They may have been hunters who followed the
mammoths and eventually brought about their extinction.
 Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 779

Self-Review

1. In what kind of environment did all the organisms known from

Cambrian fossils live?
2. What preadaptations of some fish may have led to the evolution of
amphibians during the Devonian?
3. Compare a forest of Carboniferous time with a forest of today.
4. What does the presence of coal beds indicate about decomposers?
5. What class of land vertebrates apparently originated between Car-
boniferous and Triassic times?
6. In which vertebrate class are most of the fossils of the Triassic eco-
system placed?

Introduction
Like other tissue, neural tissue changes as a result of genetic mutations.
If a change in an organism's nervous system brings about some harmful
change in its sensory or motor capability, then the individual is unlikely to
survive. If the change gives the organism a selective advantage, however,
it will be more likely to survive and reproduce than it would have been without
the change. For example, the brains of advanced members of the horse
family, when compared with the brains of primitive members, show an ex-
pansion of the area of the cerebral cortex controlling lip sensitivity. Prob-
ably that change was an advantage for animals that grazed on a variety
of plants.
During primate evolution, changes have occurred in the size and or-
ganization of the nervous system. We can compare the brains of primates
such as modern chimpanzees and humans by dissecting and measuring
them; but how can we compare the soft brain tissues of individuals that
decomposed thousands or millions of years ago? We can study endo-
casts (EN do kasts), casts of braincases. As organisms decomposed,
their soft tissues sometimes filled up with lime-containing sediment. When
the sediment dried, a cast of the inside of the skull was formed. Such an
endocast looks much like the original brain looked when it was covered
with membranes and blood vessels: tiny details of the brain surface cannot
be seen, but the major features are clear. One of the first natural endocasts
to be studied was of the Taung baby.
Anthropologist Ralph Holloway has devised a technique for making en-
docasts of any skull. He lines the skull with liquid latex. The latex then so-
lidifies and makes a balloonlike endocast that can be pulled out of the
braincase.
Primate brains have generally increased both in complexity and in size
(though the average modern human brain is smaller than the average
Neanderthal's). In general, a larger organism is likely to have a brain larger
than that of a smaller organism. To make comparisons of advancement,
biologists determine the ratio of brain volume to total body weight for each
organism and then compare the ratios.
In this investigation, you will compare the brains of some extinct and
modern primates.

882
 780 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Materials
Investigation 21.2 graph paper
PRIMATE BRAIN EVOLUTION

Discussion Procedure
1 The general trend has been a rapid 1. Examine the 5 endocasts shown in figure 21.25. What is the volume
increase in the ratio (See figure T21 1) of each?
2 The cerebrum has enIrrged and covered 2. Using the following information, plot the brain volume : body weight
much of the rest of the brain ratio for the 5 species on graph paper.
3 Holloway and Dean Falk, another
anthropologist, cannot agree on whether
Australopithecus endocasts show a Broca s Table 21.3 Body weight:of selected species
area, Holloway thinks they do, Falk thinks not Species Average Body Weight
4 This has an important bearing on the (in Grams)
evolutionary placement of the species having
Tarsius 900
Broca's area would indicate that the
australopithecines were more closely related to Australopithecus 22,700
early Homo (with which they coexisted) than
Homo erectus 41,300
they would be if they lacked that area If
australopithecines lacked Broca's area, Homo Pan troglodytes 45,360
probably had a competitive advantage in having
Homo sapiens 63,500
a primitive form of speech It would not indicate
that the australopithecines were ancestors of
the apes, they were definitely hominids, based 3. The area circled in color on the Homo sapiens endocast is Broca's
oi, their upright stance
area, an enlargement of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum. If a person
5 In some primates (e.g the squirrel is injured in that part of the brain, normal speech is impossible. Note
monkey) the ratio is grater than in humans that Broca's area can be seen in the endocast of Homo erectus also,
6 There are more convolutions in the but not in Pan.
cerebral cortex, and the cerebrum is larger in
4. Convert the ratios of brain weight to body weight shown in table 21.4
proportion to the brain
to decimal fractions and then draw a histogram of the fractions.

Figure T21.1 Table 21.4 Brain weight :Body weight ratio for selected mammals
Brain Weight : Body
1400 Homo Mammal Weight Ratio
sapiens
1300 sapiens Tree shrew 1 : 40
1200 Macaque 1 : 170
1100
Blue whale 1 : 10,000
1000
Human 1 : 45
-a 900
Squirrel monkey 1 : 12
;17 800
H. erectus House mouse 1 : 40
700
._ Elephant 1 : 600
'2 600
.o
500 Porpoise 1 : 38
A, atricanus
400 Pan troglodytes Gorilla 1 : 200

300
200
100
Tarsius
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
body weight (kg)

86 ,3
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 781

Figure 21.25

cerebrum

cerebellum

Tarsius (50cc) Pan troglodytes (400cc)

Broca's area

cerebellum

Australopithecus africanus (450cc) Homo erectus (930cc)

'-... \ i --\ '''''s '9

..;
cerebrum
.:...., )
... ..
)
:
N,..
...,..:N.
""s..... i
Broca's area
--......---:::_...x.:-......,..2,:,..,
....,......

.. .....
cerebellum
xY2

Homo sapiens sapiens (1400cc)

834
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Discussion
1. Based on your 1st graph, what is the general relation: nip between
evolutionary advancement in primates and the ratio of brain volume to
body weight?
2. What major division of the brain has become most noticeably enlarged
during primate evolution?
3. Do you think the endocast of Australopithecus indicates that this hom-
inid had a Broca's area in its brain?
4. How does the answer to question 3 affect the possible reason for Aus-
tralor thecus disappearing and Homo surviving?
5. How Loes your histogram affect your answer to question 1?
6. Find and compare illustrations of the brains of Homc sapiens and other
species listed in table 21.4. In addition to Broca's area, what changes
are evident?

Guidepost: How do humans differ from The Emergence of Humans

other primates?

21.13 Humans Are Classified

in the Order Primates
Humans, monkeys, and apes are very similar in the details of their
anatomy. They are, therefore, grouped together in the order Primates,
0 along with animals such as lemurs and tarsiers. Most primates are ar-
boreal (tree climbers) and possess structures and behaviors that relate
to the arboreal way of life. That life is dangerous and demanding, and
mistakes are likely to be fatal. Therefore, natural selection of adapta-
tions to that life must be severe.

Figure 21.26 Skeletal proportions and

postures of a gorilla and a human.

s,
8 Li0:-.
c.)
 Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 783

The digits of primates are well developed and give the animal a pow- 0 Have .iudents convince themselves that each
erful grasp. They have nails rather than claws. In addition to being pow- eye views a scene from a different angle by
erful, the digits are very sensitive. They can easily tell if a surface is viewing something in the clacsroom, closing first
crumbly or slippery. one eye and then the other
The eyes of primates are directed ftwward instead of to the side, as
in most mammals. Both eyes view the same object from slightly different Grasping hands, long arms, strong shoulders.
and binocular vision that allows easy gauging of
angles. That allows the brain to perceive the object in three dimensions
distances are observable in the illustration.
so accurate judgments of distance can be made. The brains of most pri-
Additional points are epidermal ridges on digits.
mates are exceptionally large compared with those of all other mammals which increase grasping friction, and low
except whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Primates have a sense of color numbers of young to be carried, as indicated by
that is lacking in most mammals. the presence of only two mammary glands.
Bearing one young at a time is the rule among primates, though twins
are not unusual. An active arboreal animal cannot carry many offspring.

Figure 21.27 Primate characteristics. Note the

binocular vision in the bush baby, tarsier, and
squirrel monkey in (a), and the grasping ability
of the gibbon in (b).

b
886
'`; 4-1
784 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

To feed those young, a female primate has two mammary glands. Young
primates, unlike young horses or jackrabbits, are given much maternal
cart for a long time. Primate young do not have to learn most of their
activities by trial and error; they arc taught much by their parents.
Primates tend to be omnivorous. They gather food in social groups,
often communicating by vocal signals.

21.14 Hominoids Are More

Human- Appearing than Other Primates
0 The first human beings on this continent migrated here from Asia,
but the human species probably did not arise in Asia. Early Asians may
have come from Africa, through the Mideast. Fossil evidence and early
tool sites suggest that it was in Africa that hominoids (HOM ih noydz)
humanlike primatesbecame hominids (HOM ih nidz)hominoids that
walked uprightand that early hominids became human.
Modern hominoids include monkeys and apes as well as hominids.
Though monkeys and apes do not habitually walk upright, in many ways
they closely resemble us. Probably all modern hominoids arose from the
same ancestral group.

21.15 Hominoids that Walk Upright

Are Hominids
Figure 21.28 The Taung baby.
Between 1 and 3 million years ago, in the area of South Africa now
called Taung, a child died. When the child's fossil skull was found in
1925, the child was nicknamed the "Taung baby." We new refer to the
1 Taung baby's species as Australopithecus africanus (ah stray loh PITH
eh kus as frih KAN us). The australopithecines (ah stray loh PITH
eh seenz) are the earliest hominids known. Their fossil remains date to
more than 3 million years ago.
The Taung baby had small brain. However, he stood upright, as
humans do, and his face was as much humanlike as apelike. The Taung
baby and his family lived on the savanna, a grassy plain with scattered
trees. They may have retreated to ale trees after foraging in the open
for food. The australopithecines had large, well-worn molar teeth, which
suggests they ate more seeds, meat, and roots than their ancestors did.
Into Oomph by Carolina Biological Supply Company
No tools were found with the child's skull. Some paleontologists, how-
ever, think australopithecines used crude tools of wood or other organic
materials, which might not have been preserved as fossils. Probably they
hunted small mammals, such as rabbits. It seems likely that the aus-
tralopithecines were scavengers, stealing meat of large animals that had
been killed by predators.
It was once thought that enlargement of the cerebrum had heralded
AM.
the appearance of the hominids. However, the fossil skulls of australo-
pithecines show that their brains were little larger than the brains of
0 apes of comparable size. Biologists today define hominids as primates
that walk upright, a position that frees the hands for using tools. Thus
hominids include all members of the genera Homo and Australopi-
thecus, while hominoids also include the pongids the modern apes and
their ancestors.
True humans are classified in the genus Homo, but the earliest hu-
mans do not appear greatly advanced over the australopithecines. Their
brains were a little larger and their teeth and jaws appear more human.

Reconstruction Nag. No. 313484. (A Foreatier restoration)

Courtesy Department Library Services. American Museum of
Natural History.
k8r-/
u
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 785

Anthropologist
Mike Hoffman is a biological anthropologist who
teaches at an undergraduate liberal arts college.
His major interest is the study of the human
skeleton, both prehistoric and modern.
As a child he was always picking up bones and
loved to visit the dinosaur and fossil human
displays in museums. During a family vacation he
visited Mesa Verde National Park and saw on
display in the park's-museum the artifacts and
skeletal remains of prehistoric Southwestern
Indians. These made a lasting impression on him.
BSCS by Dow Soktb

evolution, biological variation and adaptation,

prehistory of the American Southwest, and his re&
lovebones. His current research on prehistoric
skeletons involves material from California and
Colorado, the latter from an archaeological site
next door to Mesa Verde. A major area of interest
is explaining the patterns o! diseases present in
prehistoric populations, at least those that can be
seen from the skeleton. For example, why does a
population living in a particular environment at a
particular time have certain specific diseases? Are
MS by Doug Sok El
the differences in those patterns related to the
Professor Hoffman was a biology major in age of the individual, to male and female
college but took a number of courses in differences, to dietary differences, or to different
anthropology, mostly in archaeology and activities? Commonly seen diseases include
biological anthropology. It was at this time that he arthritis, tooth cavities and abscesses, infectious
ut.gan to see how a background in biology could diseases, and occasionally tumors. (Tumors are
be very useful for understanding some questions rare, because prehistoric peoples died at an
asked by anthropologists. As his senior year in earlier age than when most tumors occur.)
medical school began, he found he was really Mike's knowledge of human skeletons also
more interested in being an anthropologist than in allows him to be helpful to police and coroners
practicing medicine. Following graduation from who often call on him to help identify unknown
medical school, Mike started graduate school in human skeletons. Using a variety of techniques,
biological anthropology. he can tell the age at death, sex, stature, race,
After completing his Ph.D. in anthropology, right versus left handedness, genes l body build,
Mike taught for several years at universities in and other distinguishing characteristics of
Arizona and California before settling in Colorado. individuals. He often works closely with dentists to
While in California he became interested in some hz;lp in this identification process. When doing this
of the diseases found in prehistoric California kind of work Mike is wearing the hat of a forensic
Native Americans. Since then he has maintained a physical anthropologist.
professional interest in human skeletal studies. In Mike's words, "Make no bones about it, this
Today feke teaches a variety of courses in is a very interesting profession. It also happens to
biological anthropology, including human be great fun."

6 868
 786 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

No sharp physical distinction can be drawn between human and hom-

inid, however.
Humans are the only living species in the family Hominidae. This
entire taxonomic family has been set aside for human bcings and what-
ever upright-walking primates are discovered from fossils. Fossil skulls,
along with backbones and hip girdles, are enough to make this deter-
mination.
Anthropologists (an throh POL uh jists), scientists who study human
evolution and culture, use several additional characteristics to distin-
guish hominoids from hominids: brain size, head shape, teeth and facia:
characteristics. Some of those characteristics are compared in table 21.5.
You can observe the greater skeletal differences between a human and
a cat in investigation 21.3.

Tabhi 21.6 'Characteristics of the two groups of hominoids

Characteristic Pongids Hominids
Posture bent over upright
"knucklewalking"
common

Leg and arm arms longer than legs; legs longer than arms;
length adapted for brachiating adapted for striding
Feet low arches; opposable big high arches; big toes in
toescapable of line with others; adapted
grasping for walking
Canine teeth prominent reduced
Skull bent forward from spinal upright on spinal column
column

Face jaw juts out, flat nose. lips vertical profile, distinct
without a mucous chin; nose prominent; lips
membrane with mucous membrane
Brain size 280-705 c3 (living 400-2000 3c (fossil to
species) present)
Breeding season estrus at definite times no definite time for
modern humans; unknown
for early hominids
Average lifespan relatively short relatively tong
Age at puberty usually 10 usually 13 or less

Investigation 21,3 Investigation 0.3 A STUDY OF SKELETONS

A STUDY OF SKELETONS
Introduction
Materials Every vertebrate skeleton is composed of 2 major divisions. One is the
axial (AK see uh) skeleton, and the other is the appendicular (ap en DIK
Skeletons of other quadruped marnmais may
be used in place of the cat skeleton (Rat yuh lar) skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of the skull and the column
skeletons. however, are too small tor good of vertebrae arranged along the long axis of the body. It includes the ribs,
observation by groups ) Human skeletons are which are attached to certain of the vertebrae. The appendicular skeleton
expensive. but fullsize replicas are available
consists of the shoulder and hip gi:dles. Attached to the girdles are the
bones of the appendages.
In this investigation you will compare a human skeleton with that of a 4-
footed mammal.
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 787

Materials (per class) Procedure

mounted human skeleton IS only 1 skeleton of r,3c11 species is
mounted cat skeleton available, the observing in this investigation can
2 rulers be done in shifts The skeletons are large
enough to be seen easily. so observing
group may be rather large At least 2 groups
Procedure
can make all the observations in a :angle period
In this procedure you will make observations on both cat and human The items under Discussion could be worked
skeletons. When you are directed to examine a part of the skeleton, ex- out by students as homework If time and
amine that part in both animals. materials permit. however, each group should
do the work cooperatively before class
1. Begin with the axial skeleton. Examine the general outline of the skull.
discussion is begun
(a) VVhi'll occupies the greater volumethe braincase or the bones
of the face? The terms used in the investigation will be
useful for carrying on a discussion Avoid a
(b) With respect to the rest of the skull, are the eye sockets directed
large load of terminology
forward, downward, backwsrd, sideward, or upward?
3 (b) This may be a little difficult for
2, Viewing the skeleton from the side, hold a ruler along the axis of the
vertebrae in the upper part of the neck. students to determine Both the position of the
foramen magru and the musculature , ound it
(a) In which skeleton is the axis of the vertebrae closer to the vertical
result in the Konen skull being balanced rather
midline of the skull? Holding the 1st ruler in position, place a 2nd
than braced on the top of the vertebral column
ruler along the base of the teeth.
This makes us vulnerable to whiplash neck
(b; In which skeleton is the angle formed by the rulers closer to a
injuries in automobile accidents
right angle?
4 (e) In figure 21,26 the double curve of the
3. The articulation (at tik yoo LAY shun) or jointing of the skull with the
human vertebral column, in comparison with the
1st vertebra occurs around the foramen magnum (foh RAY
single curve of the gorilla's. is evident
men MAG num), meaning the "big opening". Through the foramen
6 (c; The rattier firm pectoral girdles C.
magnum the spinal cord connects with the brain.
hominids (as compared with those of cats) are
(a) In which skeleton is the foramen magnum closer to the posterior
usrally associated with presumed former
end of the skull? If you look closely, you will notice roughened
locomotion by bracloation If this is so, the
areas and ridges on the bones. These are places where muscles
shoulder architecture can be considered an
were attached. Examine the back of the skull.
example of preadaptation. that is. it was suited
(b) In which skeleton does there seem to be a greater are a (in pro-
to the extensive use of the arias in wielding
portion to skull size) for muscle attachment?
heavy tools when locomotion was shifted
4. Examine the vertebral column.
entirely to the posterior appendages
(a) Which skeleton has the greater number of vertebrae?
(b) In what portion of the column does the number of vertebrae differ?
(c) In general, which skeleton (in proportion to its size) has the thicker
vertebrae?
(d) How do the vertebrae in the region of the hip girdle differ in the
human and the cat?
(e) Observe the vertebral column from the side. In which skeleton
does the vertebral column form a single arch from shoulder to hip
girdle?
5. Now consider the appendicular skeleton. The posterior legs are at-
tached to the pelvis. This is a set of bones that, in adults, have grown
together.
(a) In proportion to its size, which skeleton has the heavier pelvis?
(b) Is the pelvis articulated with the vertebral column, or are the 2
structures fused together?
6. The forelegs, or arms in humans, are attached to an anterior girdle.
This girdle is made up of 2 broad, flat scapulas (SKAP yoo luhz) or
shoulder blades, 2 collarbones, and a sternum (STER num) or breast-
bone.
(a) In which skeleton are the bones of this girdle more closely as-
sociated?
(b) How are these bones attached to the vertebral column?
(c) With respect to their attachment to each other, how do the bones
of the anterior girdle differ from those of the pelvis?

8.g8
788 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

7. Compare the bones of the human hand with the bones of one of the
cat's front feet.
(a) In which skeleton are the bones of the digits (fingers and toes)
longer in proportion to the total length of the appendage?
(b) In which skeleton is the inside digit articulated in such a way that
it is opposable to (can be pressed against) the other digits?
8. Compare the cat's posterior appendages with the human's.
(a) In which skeleton is the knee joint in normal standing position closer
to a straight line?
(b) Consider each leg to be made up of upper leg, lower leg, and
foot (including toes). Make a comparison of the length of the foot
with the length of the upper leg.
(c) Which animal normally stands with its heels raised from the
ground?

Discussion Discussion
1 A greater cranium volume implies a The following questions will help you interpret your observations and
greater brain This is the kind of intereri, that is organize your thoughts. You may need to refer to earlier observations made
the basis for a great deal of paleontological in the procedure.
interpretation
2 Binocular vision
1. What nonskeletal human characteristic is implied by your answer to
procedure 1 (a)?
3 Many answers are possible All should
2. Procedure 1 (b) is related to what characteristic of vision found in many
concern the kinds of skeletal adaptations that
primates?
have been stressed in the preceding items
4 (a) On the forelimbs
3. Observations recorded in procedure 2 are concerned with structural
adaptations that support a relatively heavy head in an upright position.
(b) The weight of the anterior (actually,
Assume that the structure of distant human ancestors was somewhat
upper) part of a human's body is supported
like that of the cat.
primarily on the pelvic girdle
(a) What mutations in that structure would have been changes fa-
5 The vertebrae and pelvic girdle increase, in
vorable to the development of a large brain?
size and strength according to the amount of
(b) Of upright posture?
weight supported In humans, the vertebrae
increase in size from the cranium down to the
4. (a) In a cat, where is most of the weight of the anterior part of the
body supported?
pelvis as the total weight borne by them
Increases The pelvis itself is much stranger than (b) Where is the anterior weight supported in a human?
in cats because the majority of the weight of the 5. How does relative thickness of the vertebrae and strength of the pelvis
person is supported The weight of the cat is relate to how the anterior weight is supported in each skeleton?
6. (a) Judging from the structure of its anterior girdle, do you think a cat
more evenly supported along its length
6 A circus dog (with a pectoral architecture could easily support its weight on its forelegs?
similar to that of a cat figure 10 12) can be (b) Can a human being?
taught to walk short distances on its forelegs 7. Humans have the same kind of strong anterior girdle that many pri-
Hand walking in humans .s r,ct easy but the mates use in moving about through trees. How is this structural char-
problems are more ol equilibrium and cranial acteristic an advantage to humans, who walk upright on the ground?
circulation than of weakness of support 8. Notice that the position of the legs in a person who is poised to start
7 There will be many answers to this a race is similar to the normal position of the posterior appendages
question but basically. because humans walk in a cat. What advantage does this position have for the athlete and
cat?
upright, their torelimbs are left free for other
uses A well - developed. anterior girdle allows for
more muscular attachment and, thus. greater For Further Investigation
upper body strength, increasing the usefulness
of the forelimbs The greater muscular Aristotle described humans as "featherless bipeds." The adjective was
attachment also improves the nobility of the necessary because birds also are entirely bipedal. (Aristotle, of course,
limbs and torso and allows a greater variety of knew nothing of dinosaurs, some of which were bipeds, or of kangaroos.)
movement Using a mounted skeleton of a pigeon or a chicken, make a comparison
8 It provides a springiness suited to leaping with the human skeleton.
or to a rapid getaway
Conclude the imestigation with a general
class discussion. During this discussion, you
might refer to investigation 10 2, in which
891
humans and other animals were compared with
respect to some of their characteristics
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 789

21.16 The Genus Homo Includes

"True" Humans
While the australopithecines were somewhat human, and at one
time were thought to be human ancestors, they were not like us. They
were more primitive than the earliest human species, Homo erectus.
H. erectus and other early humans learned to use fire, a discovery that
certainly set them apart from hominids that could not control fire.
Paleontologists can tell from fossils whether an individual can be clas-
sified as a hominid. But to go further and say that an upright-walking
species was human requires more than this. Here paleontologists are
helped by anthropologists.
Anthropologists seek evidence found along with the fossil skeletons.
They look for evidence such as the following: stone tools; collections of
bones from food animals (indicating that food killed elsewhere was

Figure 21.29 Four types of stone tools made by Homo erectus.

chopper scrapers

points

burin

From "Peking Man" by Wu Rukang and Lin Shenglong. Copyright

0 June 1983 by Scientific American. Inc. All rights reserved.

892
Figure 21.30 One hypothesis of human evolution. It is impossible to define the
exact phylogeny of humans because numerous theories are being presented and
many debates are taking place. Only recently, new discoveries have thrown
doubt on previously accepted theories.

Today

Homo sapiens Homo sapiens

sapiens
neanderthalensis

One million years ago

A. robustus

Homo erectus

Homo habilis
Two million years ago

A. africanus

Three million years ago

A. alarensis

Four million years ago

Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo stack, H. sapleni neeederthalensis H. sapiens sapiens

oviri
0F,LfA

Skulls of Homo sapiens sapiens, H. sapiens neanderthatensis, H.

erectile, and Australopithecus alatensis from "Peking Mae by Wu
Rukeng and Lin Shenglong. Copyright OD June 1983 by Scientific
American, Inc. All rights reserved.
893
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 791

brought to a home site and shared); charcoal from campfires; art on cliff
and cave walls; and graves (indicating a burial custom).
Crude'stone tools alone do not necessarily indicate humans. But stone
tools along with collections of animal bones are considered tentative evi-
dence of humans. If charcoal, art, or graves also are found, the fossils
are considered definitely to be human.
Physiological characteristics help define human beings as clearly as
do structural characteristics. Behavioral characteristics, however, are also
important in defining humans.
One typical human behavior is our tendency to live near other persons
rather than alone. As an individual, a person is often helpless. Imagine
the plight of a person alone in the forests of Europe during one of the
ice ages. Groups of early humans, however, could survive.
Social behavior in humans can be traced, in part, to the long period
of growing up. During this period of dependency on parents, children
are woven into the social group.
The transfer of knowledge depends on communication among indi-
viduals. Human beings may communicate by gestures, but these are
usually just a substitute for language. Human language is more com-
plicated than other forms of communication and sets us apart from other
animals. Language depends on unusual capabilities of the human brain
and the human vocal cords. We have no knowledge of how or when speech
began.

21.17 Homo Sapiens Has a Large Brain

When Charles Darwin published The Descent of Man in 1871, no
science of paleontology existed. At least one fossil hominid skull was
known, but it remained unidentified. It was only a mysterious skull,
unearthed in 1856 in the Neander Valley of Germany. Today the Nean-
derthals are classified in our own species, as the subspecies H. sapiens
neanderthalensis. They became prominent as H. erectus gave way to H.
Ask students to imagine living with two other
sapiens, some time between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago.
upright-walking species that could use primitive
Later discoveries provided evidence that these Neanderthal people tools or weapons
had many cultural customs. They lived in the open, in caves, and in skin
tents throughout Europe and the Middle East. Remains of mixed bou-
Much of the fossil evidence for Australopithecus
quets of flowers have been found on their graves. and Homo erectus is fragmentary The skulls in
At first the Neanderthals coexisted with H. erectus. Before they dis- figure 21 30 are themselves to some extent
appeared around 50,000 years ago, they coexisted with our own sub- reconstructions, but moat of the musculature is
species, H. sapiens sapiens, the Cro-Magnon peoples. Thus, the based directly on skeletal evidence Details of
Neanderthals bridged ancient and modern humans. fleshy structures, such as external ear and nose,
Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons both had brains of larger size than are less sure, and hairiness is quite uncertain
our own. The Cro-Magnons also looked like us. They lived in the a me Even for modern humans the artist has
places Neanderthals did, from 25,000 to 50,000 years ago. They made compromised in the last respect, since different
beautiful cave paintings in full color. They engraved delicate designs on modern humans vary markedly in the amount
bone and ivory tools they had made. Only the use of agriculture and and character of visible hair The techniques
used by the artist are the same as those used
metal tools distinguished later peoples from the Cro-Magnons. Table
by forensic anthropologists in reconstructing
21.6 lists the major hominoid fossil discoveries.
faces from skulls. Likenesses of crime victims
are thus reproduced from skull and other
skeletal parts One forensic pathologist
produced, from a fragment of skull:a likeness
of a victim that was identified by next of kin
(See B Patrusky, 1980, "Solving Crime with
Science," Science Year The World Book
Science Annual, pp 100-13.)

894
 792 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 21.31 Caves in France and Spain contain examples of the oldest known
paintings done by Cro-Magnons. This is from Lascaux in France; the originals
are in full color.

arr.
r 4'64

' 4,0144\ Ir s
^ t
'
7wr

French Government Tourist Mee

s.'..
Date of Place Discoverers Species Current Status
Discovery (common name)
1857 Germany Quarry workers Homo sapiens Among earliest members of H. sapiens
neanderthalensis
1868 France Road builders H. sapiens sapiens Modern human
(Cro-Magnon human)
1887 Java Eugene Dubois Pithecanthropus erectus Now included in H. erectus
(Java man)
1912 England Charles Dawson ("Piltdown Man") Found to be fraudulent; ape jaw and human
skull
1924 South Africa Raymond Dart Australopithecus "Gracile" australopithecine; no longer
africanus (Taung baby) considered a human ancestor
1927 China Davidson Black Sinanthropus erectus Now included in H. erectus
(Peking man)
1930s Africa, Europe L. Leakey (Proconsul) Dryopithecus, ancestors of apes
1934 Ind G. E. Lewis Ramopithecus, Unclear. Somewhat apelike, somewhat
Sitypithecus humanlike
1938 South Africa Robert Broom Paranthropus "Robust" australopithecine, A. robustus
1959 Africa Mary Leakey Zinjanthropus Another "robust" australopithecine, A. boiee'
(Olduvai) ("nutcracker man,"
"Zinj")
1964 Africa Leakey family H. habilis Early tool-user. Considered an
(Olduvai)
australopithecine by some, an ancestor of H.
erectus by the Leakeys
1972 Africa Richard Leakey H.? Earliest generally accepted fossil Homo skull;
(Koobi Fora) (skull) disputed whether H. habilis
1974 Africa Donald Johanson A. afarensis Disputed
(Afar region of ("Lucy")
Ethiopia)
1985 Africa (Lake Alan Walker A boisei Oldest specimen of A. boisei (2.5 million);
Turkzna) (KMN-WT 14000) may affect current theories of human lineage.
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 793

21.18 All Living Hominids Are Homo sapiens

Humans wander about extensively. Thus, gene flow among human
populations has been much greater than among populations of other or-
ganisms. However, mass migrations of humans occurred before about
A.D. 1500. Before then there was a rough correlation between geograph-
ical areas of the world and variations in certain human characteristics.
From many separate "species," hominoids have
In other words, varieties of H. sapiens showed geographical patterns, now been lumped into a few groups by most
just as do varieties of other organisms. paleontologists australopithecines, early Homo
The first Europeans and Asians were probably descendants of dark- ramapithecines, ciryopithecines
skinned Africans who migrated north and east. Why did those who left
Africa lose some of their skin pigment? One theory is that the pigment Vitamin 0 is required for bone formation (see
protects against skin cancer and is needed in the sunny African envi- table 15 1) Some can be synthesized by action
ronment. In the Scandinavian countries, however, the pigment would no of ultraviolet light on substances in skin Too
longer be a useful adaptation. Further, it could be a handicap. Heavily 0 much can be injurious

Figure 21.32 Humans have been grouped in as

many as 30 varieties on the basis of traits such
as body hair and skin color. Today
anthropologists emphasize the gradual
transitions from each population to others. The
original inhabitants of widely separated areas,
however, were quite different in appearance.
Some of their descendants still are good
examples of five human populations: (a) South
of the Sahara in Africa, the Negroid people had
dark skins, very Curly head hair, relatively thick
lips, and wide noses. (b) In Europe and western
Asia, Caucasoid people were lighter skinned
and had thin lips. The males had heavier beards
and body hair. (c) Native Australians,
Australoids, were similar to Europeans, but had
dark skin. (d) Mongoloids of eastern Asia had
dark or light yellowish skin; brown eyes; little
facial or body hair; straight, black head hair; and
a fold in the upper eyelid. (e) In the Americas,
the Amerind population was similar to the
Mongoloids, but with a less-developed eye fold.
a .BSCS by Al Morgan SSCS

t .4as
Beniamin TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES d BSCS by Al Morgan e BSCS by Culp Catvi

696
t
794 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

pigmented skin can prevent a person from manufacturing enough vi-

tamin D, which is necessary to prevent the disease rickets. So, there may
have been selection for light skin in northern latitudes, where the relative
lack of sunlight lessens the amount of vitamin D the body can make.
In investigation 21.4 you can use gene frequencies of human blood
types to make inferences about relatedness of human populations.

Investigation 21.4 10:04.0017*. 10001.0k. TA

BIOLOGICAL DISTANCE
Introduction
In some classes this investigation can be Anthropologists use gene frequencies as a basis for classifying human
assigned as homework Not all students, populations. The degree of similarity in the gene frequencies of two or more
however, are able to work their way through it populations is known as biological distance. The more similar the gene
successfully. Therefore, some class dist,ussion frequencies of two populations, the less the biological distance between
must follow the work at home In other classes them, and the more genetically related they are. Conversely, the less similar
the investigation may best be done entirely in the gene frequencies, the greater the biological distance.
class. An American biochemical anthropologist proposed a human classifi-
The American biochemical anthropologist cation system based on frequencies of the genes that determine blood
referred to in the student text is William C Boyd types. There are several advantages to using blood types for this purpose.
Some of your students may want to read further First, the ways in which the blood-type genes are inherited are well known
on the subject of genetic criteria for (section 8.9). Second, the blood type of an individual does not change with
distinguishing human populations Refer them to age or with changes in the environment. Third, natural selection does not
L L Cavelli-Scorza and W F Bodmer, 1978, seem to cause any rapid changes in the frequencies of blood-type genes.
The Genetics of Human Populations, 2nd ed Therefore, present frequencies indicate to some extent how human pop-
(San Francisco. W. I+ Freeman), ulations have mixed with one another in the past. Fourth, blood types are
rather easy to determine from blood samples taken fo7 various medical
Procedure purposes. So, data for a large number of individuals representing many
human populations are readily available for study.
The data for British Columbia are derived
In this investigation you will consider the following questions: To what
from various tribal groups, those for New
extent are three selected North Americal. populations genetically related
Mexico are confined to the Navajos The data
to each other? How do the migrations of human populations affect gene
are obtained as blood typesA, B, AB. or 0
frequencies? How can the mixing rate of two different populations be cal-
and the gene frequencies are calculated from
culated? Why is this information useful?
the phenotype frequencies.
1. Answers are likely to be as various as are
the definitions of human varieties. Procedure
2(a-c). After working on investigation 8 1,
1. The 4 blood types, A, B, AB, and 0, are determined by allelic genes,
some students may argue that the slight
/A, /B, and i, Figure 21.33 shows the frequencies of the 3 alleles in an
differences between the British Columbia and
Eskimo population inhabiting Barrow, Alaska, in the Indian population
Navajo populations represent nothing more than
of British Columbia, Canada, and in the Navajo population of New
sampling errors, Without knowing the number of
Mexico. These gene frequencies have been calculated from the blood-
persons in the sample, it is not possible to test
type frequencies found in samples of the populations.
for the significance of the difference. But, in
(a) Do you think these 3 human populations should be classified as
general, blood-type data are abundant, and, in
1 variety or as 3?
the source from which the data were derived,
(b) Explain your answer.
the difference was considered significant
. 2. Examine the data.
4(b). Later /6-bearing populations would be
(a) On the basis of the /A gene frequencies, which 2 populations are
most numerous nearest the point of origin, that
is, closest to Asia.
most alike?
5(a), The Eskimo population This is
(b) On the basis of the /8 frequencies, which 2 are most alike?
supported by much other evidence
(c) On the basis of the i frequencies, which 2 are most alike?
5(b). On the basis of the /6 gene only, the
(d) Would you now classify these 3 populations in a single human
variety? Explain your ans..ver.
biological distance between central Asians and
Basques equals that between central Asians
and Navajos.

89
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 795

5(c). No subspecific, or varietal, status can

Figure 21.33 be distinguished on the basis of 1 geoetic locus.
Moreover, all these terms denote geographically
continuous, (occasionally) interbreeding
subpopulations within a species. Clearly,
Basques and Navajos seldom interbreed.
6(a) It is 0.57. You may wish to review the
discussion of Rh* and Rh- incompatibility in
section 16.7 at this time
6(b). It is 0.16.
6(c). 28% This means that the amount of
mixing is 280/0 of that required to make the
difference between American and African blacks
with respect to Rh° indistinguishable from the
difference between Europeans and Africans with
respect to Rh° This method of calculation may
seem faulty, because mixing must Involve both
populations. Under American conditions,
however, most persons of mixed black and
Caucasian ancestry have been classified as
black, so that introgression of the Rh° gene into
the Caucasian population is indeterminable
7(a). 13 generations.
7(b). About 2.2%. The answer to this
question is a biological deduction from verifiable
observations. You may wish to project the
situation into the future. If you do this, keep in
mind that the answer to item 7(b) assumes a
constant rate of mixtureand this is highly
3. Look again at figure 21.33. It shows the frequency of the /B gene in
unlikely. It is much more likely that the rate curve
Asia.
would show some of the characteristics of a
(a) As you move westward and southward into Asia from the Bering
growth curve. The Rh° gene would never
Strait, what happens to the frequency of the /B gene?
disappear from a large population (in the
(b) As you move eastward and southward in North America from the
absence of natural selection), but its frequency
Bering Strait, what happens to the frequency of the /B gene?
would become asymptotic to a level somewhc
Over much of central Asia, the frequency of /B is 0.25 to 0.30. Westward above that of the frequency in the European
from central Asia into Europe, the frequency declines (figure 21.34). Sev- Caucasian population. Keep in mind that the
eral hypotheses account for this situation, but we shall consider only one. point in time at which the black and Caucasian
Briefly, this hypothesis states that: (1) at first the population of Asia had populations became indistinguishable with
all 3 alleles; (2) Europe and America were populated from central Asia; respect to frequency of the Rh° gene would not
and (3) the 1st emigrant populations from the Asian homeland either lacked necessarily be a point at which the populations
the /8 gene or lost it along the way. would be indistinguishable with respect to other
How could an interbreeding population lose a gene? Loss by selection characteristics,
seems highly improbable. Blood types apparently have neither selective
advantages nor disadvantages. The Hardy-Weinberg principle, discussed
in investigation 9.3, states that gene frequencies remain constant. That is
true if, in large interbreeding populations, neither mutation nor natural se-
lection occurs. But what about small populationsthe kind very probably
involved in early human migrations?

898
796 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 21.34

percent
00-5
lie 5-10
010.15
15-20
El 20-25
III 25-30

Consider a hypothetical human population with ABO blood-type genes

distributed in the following frequencies: 25% /". 10% /8, and 65% Sup-
pose it is a very small population of only 50 persons per generation. Of
course, each individual has 2 genes for blood type. According to the Hardy-
Weinberg principle, then, we should expect to find among the 50 children
of one generation 25 0,10 18. and 65 i genes. Yet, from your experience
in penny-flipping and genetics experiments, you know that you do not al-
ways get exactly what is expected on the basis of probability. In penny-
flipping, you expect to get heads as often as tails. But if you flip a penny
only 10 times, you might obtain 9 heads and 1 tailor even all heads or
all tails.
You might find similar results in a small population of people. Instead'of
getting expected results, you might find that purely by chance there were
28 1", 4 /8, and 68 i genes. If this occurred, what should we expect in the
next generation? We would expect a repetition of the new frequencies-
28 /". 4 /8. and 68 Of course, in a 3rd generation the frequencies might
by chance return toward the original ones. But they might result in a further
reduction of the /8 gene in the population. This might even lappen several
times, until the /8 gene disappears from the population. Then it could never
return unless reintroduced by mutation or by immigration of /8 genes in
individuals coming from some other population.
4. This process of change in gene frequency is called genetic drift. Thus,
the first small populations of Homo sapiens to reach Europe and
America may have had genes IA and i only.
(a) What blood types could they have had? According to the hy-
pothesis, other populations emigrating from central Asia later re-
introduced the /8 gene into American and European populations
through interbreeding. Consider the difficulties of primitive travel.

8J
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 797

(b) Where would you expect these later emigrant populations to be

most numerous?
(c) Least numerous?
5. Consider the P gene frequencies.
(a) Which of the North American populations shown in figure 21.33
probably has had the most recent genetic contact with popula-
tions of Asia? The frequency of the /8 gene is 0.00 in the Basque
population of southwestern France.
(b) On the basis of the P gene only, what can you say about the
biological distance between the Basques, the natives of central
Asia, and the Navajos?
(c) Does this mean that the Basques and the Navajos represent one
variety? Why?
6. Now we will study the rate of gene flow from one population to another.
To compare 2 populations, they must have the following character-
istics:
(a) Both populations must be large.
(b) They must differ considerably in the frequencies of alleles at one
or more loci.
(c) The traits determined by these genes must be easily and pre-
cisely identifiable. The p "oulations must interbreed. All of these
characteristics are found in me Caucasian (Caucasoid) and black
(Negroid) populations that have come into North America during
recent centuries.
The genetic trait best suited for this study involves another blood char-
acteristic. In 1940, in a series of experiments, the blood of rhesus monkeys
was injected into rabbits. Material from the blood of these rabbits caused
the red blood cells of some people to clump. Such persons are said to be
Rh positive (Rh for rhesus monkeys). Persons whose red blood cells do
not clump are Rh negative. Further study showed that the Rh blood types
are genetically more complex than the ABO types. Among the genes in-
volved is one that has been symbolized Rh° This gene can easily be iden-
tified, and its frequency differs greatly in the 2 populations that you are
considering.
In black populations of Africa, the frequency of the Rh° gene is about
0.60. In Caucasian populations of Europe, it is about 0.03. In the American
black population, 4 is about 0.44.
(a) What is the difference between the frequencies of the Rh° gene
in the African and European populations?
(b) In the African and American black populations?
(c) The amount of mixing between the Caucasian and black popu-
lations in North America may be expressed as a percentage. To
do so, divide answer 6(b) by answer 6(a), then multiply by 100.
(d) What is the meaning of this percentage?
7. The year 1625 may be taken as the beginning of the genetic mixing
between Caucasian and black populations in America. The frequency
of the Rh° gene among tl-.2 American black population was obtained
from data gathered about 1950.
(a) Assuming an average generation length of 25 years, how many
generations of mixing could have occurred?
(b) On the basis of this number of generations, what was the average
amount of mixing per generation?

r' 0 0
798 Section Five Patterns -1 the Biosphere

From calculations like thiscrude though they may beanthropolo-

gists can estimate the biological distance between populations, the routes
of human migration, and the rates at which genetic differences among pop-
ulations change. And from these studies anthropologists can deduce some
aspects of the biological history of humans.

21.19 Culture Is a Unique Trait of Humans

Human uniqueness is based not on structure or physiology, but on
behavior and achievement. It lies in the human way of life, in our cul-
ture. The word "culture" is used by anthropologists to cover all human
knowledge. Culture describes all the human ways of doing things that
are passed from one generation to the next by teaching and learning.
Our uniqueness comes from the vast bank of information that our spe-
cies has built up and shared among its members through the years.
Physiologically, we are animals. It is not easy, however, to separate
the animal from the cultural human. Everything we do is affected by our
culture. We eat, for example, because, as animals, we have to have food.
But whether we eat oysters, rice, ham, grasshoppers, potatoes, or spa-
ghetti depends on our cultural attitudes toward those things. The phys-
ical aspect of humans has modified human culture. On the other hand,
human cultures have modified human biology and evolution. Our use of
information has led now to the possibility of affecting future evolution.
Genetic engineering, for instance, could change the gene pool on which
natural selection acts.
Such power to affect the environment and ourselves can easily lead
us to a false sense of importance and independence. Like all organisms,
we arc products of our heredity and subject to selection by the environ-
ment. The genotypes and environments we arc changing today will shape
the evolution of our descendants.

Self-Review

I. What structural characteristics of primates are related to an ar-

boreal habitat?
2. What characteristics separate the members of the family Homin-
idac from the rest of the order Hominoidea?
3. In human evolution, did brain expansion or upright posture occur
first?
4. Why would dark skin not have been a useful adaptation for human
populations moving into northern Europe?
5. How is the slow development of a human being related to culture?

90I,
Chapter 21 Ecosystems of the Past 799

Summary
Paleontologists interpret fossil evidence to reconstruct the organisms
and interactions of ancient ecosystems. The evolution, from simple be-
ginnings, of the invertebrates, the flowering plants, the reptiles, the am-
phibians, and the mammals of today are apparent in those ecosystems.
Radiation and convergence of living things, the results of natural selec-
tion of organisms carried on moving continents, accounts for the variety
and distribution of today's plants and animals. Our own group, Homi-
noidea, is a subgroup of primates. Ancestors of both humans and apes
radiated from early hominoids, evolving into hominids and pongids. We
share many characteristics with other primates, but also have distinct
differences. Chief among them are our upright posture, brain size and
head shape, speech, and the development of culture.

Application Questions Problems

1. Decide whether each of these situations is an 1. Why are tropical forests poor sources of fossil
example of adaptive radiation or adaptive evidence? Consider both the conditions for
convergence: fossilization and the conditions for finding fossils.
a. the many varieties of house sparrows across 2. Construct a food web for the La Brea ecosystem.
the United States 3. On September 23, 1789, 9 Englishmen and 17
b. the similar appearance of dolphins and sharks Tahitians left Tahiti and sailed to Pitcairnan
c. the 150 kinds of viruses causing common colds isolated, uninhabited island in the South Pacific.
2. New World and Old World monkeys are quite For 24 years they and their descendants had no
different in appearance. What geological event visitors, and they have been largely isolated since.
helps to explain that? The effects are described in H. L. Shapiro, 1976,
3. What is wrong with this description of a Cambrian The Heritage of the Bounty, rev. ed., (New York:
sea? "Microscopic organisms floated on the surface AMS Press). Can you find any evidence of random
of a gently undulating sea. Trilobites crawled over genetic drift among the Pitcairn Islanders?
brightly colored sponges. Coelenterate tentacles 4. Consider the causes of death in modern urban and
waved near some unwary small fish." suburban environments. Include factors that kill
4. If you found a fossil skeleton having a brain case of individuals before, during, and after the age of
550 c3 and a foot with a high arch, would you reproduction. Consider also factors that reduce
classify it as a hominid? Why? health or impair dcvciopment, and factors that
5. Would a fossil hominid having a brain case of 600 reduce fertility or the survival rate of offspring.
e3 and holding an axelike stone be classified as a Speculate on the possibility that these factors could
hominid? cause changes in characteristics of future human
6. Why are the characteristics of the original Amerind populations.
and Mongolian populations fairly similar?
800 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
R. C. )urchfiel, "The Continent Crust" Scientific American D. Pilbcam, "The Descent of Hominoids and Hominid?'
(September 1983). A good general discussion of Scientific American (March 1984). Uscs the latest findings
continental drift, focusing on the crust of the continents. to trace human evolution; includes fine illustrations.
J. Franc'Tteau, "The Oceanic Crust" Scientific American W. Rukang and L. Shenglong, "Peking Man" Scientific
(September 1983). The study of this part of thc earth's American (.lairs 1983). Describes how information was
crust is essential to an understanding of continental drift. gathered on Homo erectus pekinensis from a cave near
R. Hekinian, "Undersea Volcanoes" Scientific American (July Beijing (Peking), China.
1984). Volcanic processes taking place on thc ocean floor R. Siever, "The Dynamic Earth" Scientific American
play an important role in continental drift. (September 1983). This entire issue deals with the changes
W. Langston, "Pterosaurs" Scientific American (February that have takcn place, and will continue to take place, in
1981). Very interesting article about these flying reptiles, the history of the Earth.
thc largest animals ever to fly. E. Trinkaus and W. W. Howells, "Thc Neanderthals"
Scientific American (December 1979). Excellent discussion
of this close relative to modern humans.

0O3
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1. (a) radiation, (b) convergence, (c) radiation Fossils are less likely to be preserved there And consider
2 The separation of Gondwanaland into what would be Africa this k.omment of a paleontologist-arthaeolovst, born and
and South America at an early stage in the evolution of educated in southern California. upon tr nsferring to an
m Akeys. eastern university "All that green stuff t. ers everything
3, Fish had not yet appeared in the Cambrian upl"
4 You should: the high arches are adapted for walking even 2 Students shr have no difficulty in constructing a loud web
though the brain size is relatively small from the information given in section 21 12
-5, It could be a gorilla. 3 See reference in student text
6. The two groups separated more recer.41y than other major 4 This problem often evokes much student interest if the
human populations. points made in its statement are considered carefully, it can
result in some disciplined thought that effectively reviews
most of chapters 20 and 21

'1 904
 ,

Doug Sokol!

Mountain biomes include grassland (alpine meadow), taiga, dAirLdra:

 Teaching strategies for this chapter, pages

CHAPTER 22 T50-51.
Key ideas:
dependence of vegetation on climate.
dependence of animal communities on
vegetation;
characteristics of major biomes;
changes in biomes owing to human activities.

Biomes Around the World

Introduction Figure 22.1 White River, Ontario.

Imagine for a moment that you are in the small town of White River,
Ontario, Canada. White River is about 20 km from the northeast shore
of Lake Superior and is surrounded by a forest of spruce, fir, and some
pine. Winters in White River can be very cold. In fact, a sign with a
large thermometer down its middle proclaims that White River is the
coldest town in Canada. The temperature painted at the bottom of the
sign reads "72 degrees below zero." White River is located at 48 degrees
north latitude.
Now, imagine that you are in another town, better known than White
River, but at the same latitude-48 degrees north. You are in Paris,
France. What is the climate in Paris? Is it as cold? Do the same kinds
of trees grow here as in White River? In this chapter we will examine
the reasons for the differences in vegetation, not only in these two ex-
amples, but throughout the world.

Paul McIver

Climate and Biomes Guidepost: What are tl.e abiotic

factors that influence the
climate of an ecosystem?
22.1 Climate Determines the Distribution
of Earth's Major Biomes
Large ecosystems can be described in terms of their climate, or long-
term weather patterns. The climate of an ecosystem results from the
interaction of several abiotic factors. These include radiant energy, tem-
perature, wind, precipitation, humidity, and evaporation.
Radiant energy is important to an ecosystem for two reasons. First, O
radiant energy is the form of energy that producers trap and use to make
food. Almost all organisms in the ecosystem depend on food made by

803
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.2 The distribution of solar energy on the earth's surface.

spring equinox

ttt
sun

summer
solstice winter
111 solstice

autumnal equinox

0 producers. Second, the temperature of the ecosystem is determined by

the amount of radiant energy it receives and retains. The energy is ab-
sorbed at the earth's surface and is radiated to the air as heat.
Find out what background your students have in The earth is nearly spherical, and it is tilted with respect to its orbit
the geometrical relationship of earth to the solar around the sun. At the summer solstice, about June 21, the northern
system and ktle effects of these relationships on
hemisphere is tilted 23.5 degrees toward the sun. As a result, the northern
climates. You may neeu to use a globe and a
compass to show your students that a half-turn
hemisphere receives more solar energy than the southern hemisphere,
of the globe does not change summer to winter, so it is summer north of the equator and winter south of the equator. At
the sun remains in one position instead of the winter solstice, December 21, the southern hemisphere receives more
following the globe of the earth as it rotates solar radiation than the northern hemisphere and the seasons are re-
Ch^nge of position of the sun in relation to the versed.
earth occurs onl adually with the seasons Because it is tilted on its axis, the earth receives unequal amounts of
solar energy at different places on its surface. The circulation of air in
the atmosphere is powered by solar energy. The movement of the air
helps to distribute the heat that comes to the earth as radiant energy.
At the same time, the circulating air currents carry water vapor from
the oceans over land surfaces, where it falls as rain.
Climates occur in broad belts that encircle the earth. The boundaries
of these belts are disrupted by land and oceans. Climates are modified
further by mountains and ocean currents. Because ocean currents vary
in temperature, they can have a profound effect on the type of climate.
It is rather easy to map the distribution ofa particular factor of climate.
It is difficult, however, to map a climate as a whole. This is because cli-
matic factors overlap and interact with one another in complex ways.
The overlap of the abiotic factors mentioned earlier makes it difficult to
measure climates. To simplify this task, ecologists frequently use cli-
Climatograms have been grouped together for matograms. Climatograms are graphs that summarize only two of the
comparison More climatograms can be found in factors: monthly measurements of temperature and precipitation. In in-
H J Critchfield, 1974, General Climatology, 3d vestigation 22.1 you can prepare climatograms for your area like those
ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J Prentice-Hall) in figure 22.3.
In each major kind of climate, a characteristic kind of vegetation de-
velops and maintains itself. For example, warm, arid climates--those

337
 =
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 805

Figure 22.3 Climatograms. Average monthly temperatures are in °C; average

monthly precipitation is cm.

tundra taiga tropical rain forest

%
cm (Barrow, Alaska) °C CM (Anchorage, Alaska) °C cm (Manokwari, New Guinea) °C
36 36 36 36 CC 36
34 32 34 31 32

=
32
32 28 32 28 3 28
30 24 30 MININIMMENEN 24 30 24
28 20 28 20 28 20
26 MININMENEEME 16 26 16
24
16
12
26
24 NENIIPMIMMN 12 24 12
22 8 22 22 8
MEMOWEESMIN 84 20
20
18
4
0
20
18 MMIIIMEN
INIMENIMEN 0 18
4
0
16 4 16 4 16 -4
A/WEIMEMEM
14
12
8
-12
14
12
EMINIEe.
NIEMINE
-8
-12
14
12
10
-8
-12
-16
10 -16 10 -16
8 20 8 20 8 -20
6 -24

=11-
6 24 6 -24
4 28 4
EMEMEM. -28 4 -28
2 -32 2 -32 2 -32
0
f ma m j a 0 n d
-36
Jfmamjjason -36 i f ma mj Jason -36

months months months

middle-latitude deciduous forest middle-latitude grassland middle-latitude desert

cm Nashvil e, Tennessee °C cm (Lawrence, Kansas) °C cm (Reno, Nevada) °C
36 36 36 36 36
342 32 34 32 34 32
3 IIIMME.11 1.111. 28
30 EnumME mi ornml 24 32 28 32 28

28 MINIE IMME 20 30
28
24
20
30
28
24
20
246 IMEPAIIMERIE 16 26 16 26 16
IME.2.11111111M11. 12 24 12 24 12

20
18
LE2 10. 4
22111.1=.111.11101 8
1.111.1.11.10
22
20
18
8
4
0
22
20
18
8
4
0
18 IninEMEIMMEll _4 16 4 16 4
14 111.1.1.111.111.1. 8 14 8 14 3
121111171=1.11111111 12 12 12 12 12
10 1111-. 10 10
-16 16
8 MUN,
N-16
-20 8 -20 8 20
6 -24 6 - 24 6 24
4 -28 4 28 4 28
2 -32 2 32 2 -32
f mamj jason -36 0 36
0
j j fmamj j.
0
f m a mj ja o n
-36

months months months

with little rainfallare associated with desert vegetation. Semiarid cli-

mates usually support grasslands. Moist climates support forests. Each
kind of plant life, in turn, supports a characteristic variety of animal life.
The resulting ecological community of plants and animals is called a
biome. Biomes extend over large natural areas, as shown in the map in
figure 22.4. In the next sections, we will examine some of the distinctive
organisms found in each of the major biomes.

903
806 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.4 Major biomes of the earth. Many parts of the earth have not been
thoroughly studied, and even where observations are plentiful, ecologists
sometimes disagree about their interpretation.

Tundra

mi Taiga
Mir la 111
M idlatitude deciduous forest 1111
I
Mid latitude grassland
(prairie, steppe, pampa, veldt)
al Chaparral 11
E ll Tropical rain forest

niTropical deciduous forest

1116111111/iff
E llTropical scrub forest
.*;
niSavanna
D esert

1-1 M ountains (complex zonation)

1-1 Permanent ice

Copyright Rand McNally and Company
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 807

\
 808 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Self-Review

1. How does radiant energy affect an ecosystem?

2. What causes the winter and summer solstices?
3. What determines the chcracteristic plants and animals found in a
biome?

Investigation 22.1 Inimegg'atiOn 4.1 ,cLimATQGI,I*As

ULIMATOGRAMS
Introduction
Representing precipitation by .,ertical bars Climatograms show monthly variations in only two climatic factors, pre-
violates the general principle that a continuous cipitation and temperature. Of course, other factors also affect climate, but
variable is best shown by a line, but it is iustified a climatogram does give a rough idea of the climate in a particular- area.
by the need to distinguish easily between By daily observation you can associate the climate of your own locality
temperature and precipitation This point is with the biome found there. Only by extensive travel, however, can the
worth making in class discussion, because even worldwide relationship of particular climates with particular biomes be
those students who are familiar with the learned This investigation is a substitute for such travel. As you proceed
mechanics of graph making often do not know through the investigation, refer frequently to pictures and descriptions of
how to select a form suitable for a given set of biomes. This will help you visualize relationships between the abiotic and
data biotic features in some of the earth's major ecosystems.

Materials
Materials (per student)
If the graphs are drawn on a variety of grids,
comparisons are difficult. Furnish all students 3 to 17 sheets graph paper
with graph paper of the same kind. The best
practice is to duplicate grids that are exactly like
Procedure
those in the student's book-12 blocks wide
and 18 high On this grid the April rainfall datum 1. Construct climatograms from the data in group 1 (table 22.1). These
from Moshi, Tanzania, goes 2 blocks above the 4, plus the 6 in figure 22.3, will give you 10 climatograms that represent
top, but these can be added, the major land biomes of the earth.
Obtain local climatic data from the nearest
U S. Weather Service office To convert
precipitation data in inches to centimeters, Table 22.1 ,Group
multiply by 2.54 Assign a few students the task T = temperature (in degrees Celsius) P = precipitation (in centimeters)
of conversion. They should check each other's
work before releasing the converted data for
J F MA M J J A S O N D
class use. a. Tropical Deciduous Forest: Culaba, Brazil
For class discussion pit.pare classroom-size T 27.2 27.2 27.2 26.7 25.6 23.9 24.4 25.6 27.8 27.8 27.8 27.2
charts of the climatograms representing the 10 P 24.9 21.1 21.1 10.2 5.3 0.8 0.5 2.8 5.1 11.4 15.0 20.6
major biomes, or transparencies for overhead b. Chaparral: Santa Monica, California
projection. T 11.7 11.7 12.8 14.4 15.6 17.2 18.9 18.3 18.3 16.7 14.4 12.8
P 8.9 7.6 7.4 1.3 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.5 3.6 5.8
Procedure
c. Savanna: Moshi, Tanzania
After some of the climatograms in the T 23.2 23.2 22.2 21.2 19.8 18.4 17.9 18.4 19.8 21.4 22.0 22.4
student's book have been studied, the graph- P 3.6 6.1 9.2 40.1 30.2 5.1 5.1 2.5 2.0 3,0 8.1 6.4
making phase of this investigation may be
d. Tropical Dosed: Aden, Aden
assigned as homework The number of T 24.6 25.1 26.4 28.5 30.6 31.9 31.1 30.3 31.1 28,8 26.5 25.1
climatograms to be prepared by any student is P 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
a matter of choice Each student should
probably have his or her own climatograms of
group 1 data, However, note that the
climatograms based on the group 2 data and
the one made from local data involve the most
reasoning.

911
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 809

ii041.24:c- .610,:gi . .

J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
a. T 1.1 1.7 6.1 12.2 17.8 22.2 25.0 23.3 20.0 13.9 7.8 2.2
P 8.1 7.6 8.9 8.4 9.2 9.9 11 2 10.2 7.9 7.9 6.4 7.9

b. T 10.6 11.1 12.2 14.4 15.6 19.4 21.1 21.7 20.0 16.7 13.9 11.1
P 9.1 8.9 8.6 6.6 5.1 2.0 0.5 0.5 3.6 8.4 10.9 10.4

c. T 25.6 25.6 24.4 25.0 24.4 23.3 23.3 24.4 24.4 25.0 25.6 25.6
P 25.8 24.9 31.0 16.5 25.4 18.8 16.8 11.7 22.1 18.3 21.3 29.2

d. T 12.8 15.0 18.3 21.1 25.0 29.4 32.8 32.2 28.9 22.2 16.1 13.3
P 1.0 1.3 1.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.0

e. T -3.9 -2.2 1.7 8.9 15.0 20.0 22.8 21.7 16.7 11.1 5.0 -0.6
P 2.3 1.8 2.8 2.8 3.2 5.8 5.3 3.0 3.6 2.8 4.1 3.3

f. T 19.4 18.9 18.3 16.1 15.0 13.3 12.8 13.3 14.4 15.0 16.7 17.8
P 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.5 8.9 14.7 12.2 8.1 2.0 1.0 0.3 0.8

g. T -22.2 -22.8 -21.1 -14.4 -3.9 1.7 5.0 5.0 1.1 -3.9 -10.0 -17.2
P 1.0 1.3 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.3 2.3 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 1.3

h. T 11.7 12.8 17.2 20.6 23.9 27.2 28.3 28.3 26.1 21.1 16.1 12.2
P 3.6 4.1 4.6 6.9 8.1 6.9 6.4 6.6 8.9 5.1 5.6 4.6

i. T 23.3 22.2 19.4 15.6 11.7 8.3 8.3 9.4 12.2 15.1 18.9 21.7
P 5.1 5.6 6.6 5.6 2.8 0.9 2.5 4.1 5.8 5.8 5.1 5.3

j. T 17.2 18.9 21.1 22.8 23.3 22.2 21.1 21.1 20.6 19.4 18.9 17.2
P 0.3 0.5 1.5 3.6 8.6 9.2 9.4 11.4 10.9 5.3 0.8 0.3

k. T -20.0 -18.9 -12.2 -2.2 5.6 12.2 16.1 15.0 10.6 3.9 -5.6 -15.0
P 3.3 2.3 2.8 2.5 4.6 5.6 6.1 8.4 7.4 4.6 2.8 2.8

I.
P
T -0.6
1.5
2.2
1.3
5.0
1.3
10.0
1.0
13.3
1.5
18.3
0.8
23.3
0.3
22.2
0.5
.1=-
16.1
0.8
10.6
1.0
4.4
0.8
0.0
1.5

2. Obtain monthly averages of precipitation and temperature from the Discussion

weather station closest to your school. These data might be ex- Each of the 10 identified climatograms
pressed as inches of precipitation and degrees Fahrenheit. If so, con- should be discussed from the viewpoint of
vert the data to centimeters and degrees Celsius, using figure A.1, possible relationships between the climatic data
page 956. From your local data, draw a climatogram. and the characteristic features of the biome
3. From the data in group 2 (table 22.2), draw the climatograms assigned Focus attention on the relation of climatic
by your teacher. factors (as graphed in the climatograms) to
biota. For example, in the climatogram for
tundra (figure 22.3), the graph indicates that the
Discussion
average monthly temperatures are above
Compare your local climatogram with the 10 identified ones. freezing for only 3 months of the year During
1. Which one does it most c!osely resemble? most of the year, the average monthly
2. What similarities are there between the two? temperatures are far below freezing.
3. What differences are there? Furthermore, the precipitation is quite low a!'
4. Consider the biotic characteristics of your local area. What charac- year rom these facts we can conclude that
teristics of climate would be a factor in determining these biotic char- photosynthesis can occur during only a fraction
acteristics? of the year. But the implications of the data
5. Does the local climatogram exactly match any of the 10 identified ones? presented by the climatogram need to be
6. Explain how the differences might affect the biotic characteristics of explored The amplitude of the yearly cycle of
your biome. monthly average temperatures implies a high
latitude. This, in turn, assures a long daily period
of sunlight during the season when temperatures
are high. The low temperatures imply a low rate
of evaporation. Thus, conditions for plant growth
during the brief summer season are not as
mfavorable as they seem at first glance. The

912
 810 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

food-production conditions suggest that the Now compare each unidentified climatogram from group 2 with the 10
presence of a large migratory summer identified climatograms. Label each graph with the name of the biome that
population of consumers is possible. Such you think the climatogram represents.
reasoning should be applied to all the
climatograms.
7. Describe the biotic characteristics of each group 2 biome, using the
The discussion of known climatogram-biome climatic information shown by each of the climatograms.
relationships serves as a background for Your teacher will give you the locations of the group 2 climatograms;
developing hypotheses concerning the biomes you may then check the validity of your reasoning.
represented by the data in group 2
continued on page 851

Guidepost: How does the vegetation Biomes Determined by Radiant

change from north to
south? Energy Supply
22.2 Tundra Is Characterized
by Low Vegetation
North of the icecovered Antarctic continent, The tundra (TUN druh) biome circles the earth in the northern hemi-
where the climate could support tundra, there sphere, just south of the ice-covered polar seas. No tundra is found in
are no land masses.
the southern hemisphere. Can you explain why? A look at the map in
figure 22.4 might help.
It may be desirable to demonstrate the relation In the tundra biome the sun is always low in the sky and little radiant
between the angle of the sun's rays and the energy is received at any given time. In summer, however, the total ra-
intensity of solar radiation.
diant energy is great because the days are very longup to 24 hours
above the Arctic Circle. The top layer of soil thaws, but the ground be-
Cold, dry winds constitute perhaps the chief neath, the permafrost, always remains frozen. Melting snow cannot drain
factor in preventing woody plants from growing into permafrost, so water collects on the surface and in the top layers of
above the level of the tundra's winter snow soil, as can be seen in figure 22.5. For six to eight weeks the tundra is a
cover. land of ponds and marshes, even though the yearly precipitation is small.
I

Figure 22.5 Tundra (Alaska). Note the pond in Figure 22.6 A tundra willow. What
the foreground and the lack of trees. What environmental conditions limit the growth of this
climatic factor is primarily responsible for these woody plant?
features? Permafrost.

.....A., :s

8SCS David C. Rats

01,i
 Chapter 22 Biomes Around the Work. 811

Figure 22.7 Animals of the arctic tundra: (a) caribou, (b) arctic fox, 1,c) snowy
owl.

.
a -Jim Haslet b Leonard Lee Rue III /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

in thii short growing season, plants-mAst synthesize a whole year's food

supply. The soils of the tundra are poorly developed and contain very
little nitrogen. Microbial decomposition is slow because of the cold tem-
peratures.
Grasses and sedges dominate the tundra-Great areas also are covered
by low mats of lichens and mosses. The few woody plants, such as wil-
lows (figure Z.Z.6) and bitches, grow close to the g-ound. They seldom
become rn_rt than a few centimeters tall. Leaves of most plants are small.
Many are hair!' or have margins rolled inward, thus rcaucing evapora-
tion of water from the leaf surface. Flowers apr-Rr rapidly and seeds
develop quickly.
During summer, the tundra teem, with animal life. Large flocks of
migrator) water birds raise their young in the long days that allow
around-the-clock food gathering. There are few species of Insects in the
tundra, but huge numbers of individuals in each spe aes. Great swarms
of mosquitoes feed on the caribou, causing them to seek refuge in rivers,
only to be plagued again when they leave the water. Caribou graze on
grasses and the lichen called "reindeer moss." Ptarmigan, arctic foxes,
and snowshoe hares are present in their brown sum..,er coats. Lemmings
abound, and when their population is high, predators, such as the snowy W. Perry Conway/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

914
 812 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.8 Population fluctuations of lynx and snowshoe hare in Canada,

according to the records of the Hudson's Bay Company.

80

60 % mor---
in
40 .

RI
_

-1:117

0
20

00

80
Nim In
INIMMIII snowshoe har 111
lynx

E 60 11111011111k1111WIIP ME
40 MIIIIIMINTIII 1 1111111111
20 Mel 3 11111i1MI MIME
0 IIIMISI2111101TAVANI
1845 1855 1865 1875 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945

Figure 22.9 Ptarmigan in winter (left) and summer (right). Can you explain the
difference in the coloration of the feathers?

X1/6

owls and the stoat, or ermine, are numerous. Dramatic population cycles,
like the one shown in figure 22.8, are common on the tundra because of
the harsh climate and variable food supply.
Change from summer to winter is rapid. Lakes and ponds freeze, and
the shallower ponds freeze all the way to the bottom. Snowfall is light,
only 25 to 30 cm per year, and high winds sweep open areas free of snow.
Daylight hours are few, and above the Arctic Circle after the winter
solstice there are three months of near darkness.
One of the concerns about the Alaskan oil In the cold and darkness food is scarce. The migratory birds have
pipeline was that it would interfere with the flown south and some fly deep into the southern hemisphere. Among
annual migrations of caribou.
mammals the chief migrants are caribou, which move south to the for-
ests. Some animals, such as gulls and foxes, migrate to the seashores.
When a polar bear kills a seal and has eaten what it needs, the gulls and
foxes become scavengers, feeding on the remains. Some animals stay in
the tundra all year. Invertebrate animals become dormant or die.

LY

k.)
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 813

Figure 22.10 Musk ox. Figure 22.11 The northern coniferous forests
of all continents make up the taiga biome, in
which ponds, lakes, and bogs are abundant.

John D. Cunningham/VISUALS UNLIMITED Kin*. Perkins, VISUALS UNUMTED

Lemmings avoid the windswept bare ground and burrow under the
snow in sheltered spots. There they eat plant roots or seeds they have
stored during the summer. Ptarmigan feed on buds of plants that stick
out above the shallow snow. Though their feathers provide good insu-
lation, they burrow into the snow during storms. Only musk-oxen face
winter's full force. Living on lichens, they seek .out uncovered plants or
paw away at the snow to uncover the plant material.

22.3 Taiga Is a Coniferous Forest

Containing Many Lakes
In the southern reaches of the tundra, scattered groups of dwarf trees Taiga is the Russian word for forest,
appear in sheltered places. Eventually tundra gives way to the great con-
iferous forest, or taiga (TY guh). This forest extends in a broad zone
across Europe, Asia, and North America, and it includes many ponds
and lakes. There is no similar biome in the southern hemisphere.
Because it is closer to the equator than the tundra, the taiga receives Of course any daily comparison must be for the
more radiant energy, both dal,/ and annually. Summer days are shorter same day of the year
than those in the. tundra, but they are warmer and the ground thaws
completely. Wit, ers are itot as long as they are on the tundra, although
the snow is deeper. Under cover of the trees, snow is not easily blown
away, and is kept from melting by the dense shade.
Most coniferous trees are evergreen; they lose their needles a few at Coniferous trees that are not evergreen include
a time rather than all at once as broadleaf ;sees do during the autumn bald cypress, which does not occur in the taiga.
or the dry season. Spruc,.. and fir are the a'omiriant species of trees in the and larch, which does
taiga. Throughout the year conifers keep out sunlight, so only mosses,
lichens, and a few shrubs can grow near the ground. Most food produc-
tion, therefore, takes place in the upper parts of trees. Many insects at-
tack the conifers, and a large number of small birds eat the insects.
Porcupines eat the tree bark, and deer browse the young leaves.

1n
1.0
;Cc,
814 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.12 Moose.

IN

Ilessoll C. Dahmteon

The soil tends to be very acid under the coniferous trees and supports
few decomposers. Earthworms are uncommon, but large numbers of very
small arthropods live in the soil and decompose organic matter.
Until 10,000 to 20,000 years ago, mat of this region was covered by
a continental ice sheet. Grinding its way slowly across the continents,
the ice dug out depressions. As the ice melted, it left piles of dirt and
rocks that ofteti formed dams across streams. Many of the ponds and
lakes characteristic of taiga were created this way. Today, moose wade
into the ponds to eat aquatic vegetation.
During the winter many animals become dormant, or hibernate. As
winter approaches, they find shelter and their body processes slow down.
The energy needed to keep them alive while they are hibernating is de-
Caribou eat the lichen called reindeer moss, a rived from the body fat stored during the warmer months. Many othzr
member of the genus Cladonia.
animals migrate southward. The large feet of hares and lynxes serve as
snowshoes. Deer and moose wade through the snow on their long legs,
browsing on buds and twigs of the trees. Caribou paw away the snow to
get at the lichens that form their diet.

The term mid-latitude may be unfamiliar, but use 22.4 Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest Biomes
of temperate is now diminishing. It is much more Have Four Distinct Seasons
reasonable to think in terms of high, middle, and
low latitudes. Q South of the coniferous forest are trees with broad leaves rather than
needles. These trees are deciduous (dee SID joo us)they shed their
leaves each autumn. The shedding is caused by a decrease in three fac-
tors: temperature, available soil water, and light. Deciduous trees are
common in eastern North America. This biome is not continuous, and
in many states much of the forest has been cut and replaced with farm-
land. Deciduous forest also is found in western Europe and eastern Asia.
In the southern hemisphere a similar small forest occurs in southern
Chile.

i'l% 917
 (.4

Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 815

Deer are browsers; they eat buds and twigs

Figure 22.13 Seasons in mid-latitude deciduous forest. AU of these pictures throughout the year but obtain most nourishment
show the same area. What effects do these changes have on herbivores such from leaves, which are on most of the woody
as deer?
plants of this biome only during the summer
Winter
Snow can hinder travel.

Mow F. WO

Spring

"111w4y F. WNI

Summer

Miviny F. IWO

Fall

Mw ay F. Buill

;
91_
816 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.14 The canopy layer of a deciduous forest.

Paul McIver

The summer sun in deciduous forests is much higher in the sky than
it is in the taiga or the tundra. The days are long, and there is much
radiant energy. In June, at the latitude of Philadelphia, the daily supply
of radiant energy is greater than it is in the tropics on all but a few days
of the year. Of course, in December, Philadelphia receives little radiant
energy. So the annual supply of radiant energy is much less in Phila-
delphia than in the tropics.
Ask students what effects such conditions might Precipitation in the deciduous forest is high (50 to 125 cm per year)
have on producers High radiant energy, warmth, and droughts are rare. In winter, snow may be heavy, but it usually melts
and humidity in combination favor rapid growth rapidly and the ground is seldom covered with snow for long. In summer,
of producers during a relatively long summer both temperatures and humidity may be high.
The cool, dry air masses are never sufficient to
There are many species of deciduous trees, including oaks, hickory,
hinder growth
maple, beech, chestnut, and basswood. The tallest ones form a canopy
(figure 22.14), an upper layer of leaves that catches the full sunlight.
Leaves of deciduous trees are rather thin, and much of the radiation
filters through them. Thus, there is enough light to provide energy for
a lower layer of trees. Even these lower trees do not use all the energy,
and enough light filters through to support a layer of shrubs beneath.
Finally, mosses and ferns receive the remaining faint light.
White-tailed deer are common large herbivores This large mass of producers supports a large number of consumers.
present also in the North American taiga Squirrels collect nuts and berries from trees. Deer mice climb in the
shrubs and search the ground for seeds. White-tailed deer browse on
shrubs and the lower branches of trees. In summer, insects are abundant
iri the soil and in all layers of the forest canopy.
 Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 817

Figure 22.15 Plants and animals of the deciduous forest: (a) squirrel, (b) white-
tailed deer, (c) Trillium, (d) anemone.

. inn-PARED C Doug Sokell

. _

;
Q

d Doug Sokell

92
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.16 Bird niches in a deciduous forest. Red eyed vireos in the canopy,
flycatchers directly below, ovenbirds on the ground, and woodpeckers on the
trunks.

red eyed vireo

acadian
flycatcher

red-headed
woodpecker

ovenbird

All of these birds are insectivores, but their Many birds prey upon insects. In some foiests red-eyed vireos con-
niches do not overlap because each species sume canopy insects, acadian flycatchers catch insects flying below the
obtains its food in a different way Now they hunt canopy, ovenbirds search out insects on the ground, and woodpeckers
insects is an important part of the description of extract boring insects from the bark of trees. There are few large pred-
their niches.
ators in most of this biome. Foxes, skunks, squirrels, and an occasional
black bear are present.
In autumn, the leaves of the deciduous trees turn yellow, orange, red,
or brown. The colors appear after the chlorophyll breaks down. The leaves
then drift down, covering the ground with a thick mass of organic matter.
Nuts and acorns fall, too. Berries cover the lower trees and shrubs. Many
mammals fatten themselves on the abundant food, and some store it.
Woodchucks form thick layers of fat and then hibernate in burrows.
Reptiles, much more abundant here than in the taiga, also hibernate.
Many insect-eating birds migrate to the tropics.
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 819

Figure 22.17 Leaf litter. This-litter serves to enrich the soil through
detarnPoSitien.

Doug Sokell

In winter, because they have dropped their leaves, the trees use and
lose very little water. Many mammals rest during the cold spells. Winter
birds are more abundant here than in the coniferous forest. They eat
seeds and fruits, and search out dormant insects and insect eggs from
the cracks in tree bark.
In spring, activity resumes when masses of warm air move in from
the south. Small insects fly in swarms above brooks and ponds. Hiber-
nating. animals become active and search for food. Solar radiation be-
comes strong before air temperatures are high enough to bring the trees
to leaf. A great number of nonwoody plants spring up on the forest floor;
their leaves and flowers grow quickly. By the time the shade from the
trees has closed over them, the nonwoody plants have finished photo-
synthesis for the year. Food is stored in roots or underground stems; seeds
mature and then scatter. The nonwoody plants die back to the ground
until the next spring.

22.5 The Tropical Rain Forest

Has a Very Uniform Climate
Tropical rain forest (figure 22.18) is found in three separate places
along the equator. The biome is named for its location, lying between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The largest tropical
rain forest is in the Amazon Basin of South America. The second largest
in size is found in the East Indies, and the smallest is in the Congo Basin
of Africa.

922
 820 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

In part, the greenish tinge of the light at the floor

of the tropical rain tot est derives from the Figure 22.18 Amazon basin rainforest.
filtering out of other colors absorbed in foliage
above The picture shows woody vines (lianas),
the buttresses characteristic of canopy trees,
the relative openness of the ground beneath
(foreground and left), and the wall of vegetation
that soon appears where the forest is opened to
the sunlight (right)

N9rian Parker/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

In the tropical rain forest the noon sun is almost directly overhead
throughout the year. Thus the amount of radiant energy is high and fairly
constant. Rain falls almost every day, and the humidity is always high.
The average rainfall is about 2 m a year. Temperatures vary little
throughout the year and, beneath the canopy, are nearly constant from
day to night. No other terrestrial biome has such a uniform climate.
An excellent description of the rain forest O Vegetation is dense. The canopy reaches an average height of about
canopy is found in D R Perry, The Ca, cpy of 50 m. Some individual trees may even grow to 80 m or more. Thus, the
the Tropical Rain Forest, Scientific America,:
trees are taller than those of the temperate deciduous forest (20 to 30
(November 1984)
m), the coniferous forest (15 m), or the tundra (0.1 m at most). Beneath
thealler trees are shorter ones tolerant of shade. Beneath these are still
others even more tolerant of shade. Weaving through the branches are
many woody vines.
Much rainfall and high humidity are ,,ecessary O Along the trunks and branches of the trees and the twisting stems of
for prolific growth of epiphytes the vines are many epiphytes (EP ih fyts). These plants use the branches
on which they perch for support, but not for nourishment. Epiphytes
have no contact with the ground, so they have special adaptations for
obtaining water and minerals. Some have roots that absorb moisture from
the humid atmosphere the way blotting paper soaks up water. Many catch
the daily rain in special hollow leaves. Mosquitoes, water beetles, other
aquatic insects, and even a species of frog (figure 22.20) live in such
treetop puddles.
Clearing.. and rivers allow light to penetrate to The dense layers of trees absorb most of the light, so only shade-
ground level, so k, agetation grows thickly along tolerant plants grow on the forest floor. The trees are supported in the
their edges. Some students may enjoy viewing damp soil by huge braces called buttresses. Vines coil upward into the
National Geographic films of tropical rain dim green of the canopy. Only along rivers or at the edges of clearings
forests These natural history films are shown does a thick wall of vegetation extend down to the ground, blocking a
from time to time on TV traveler's way. The way through the forestonce you are in itis clear.

923
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 821

Figure 22.19 The layering effect in a tropical rainforest. Virtually no sunlight

reaches the rainforest floor and comparatively fewer organisms are able to live
on the ground than in the trees.

From "The Canopy of the Tropical Rain Fofesr by Dona d R.

Perry, Copyright 0 November 1984 by Scientific American, Inc. All
rights reserved.

Figure 22.20 An epiphyte with its resident tree frog.

ANIMALS ANIMALS /0 Oxford Scientific Films

92.4
IL<
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.21 Ground dwellers in a tropical rainforest: (a) long-horned beetle,

(b) the collared peccary.

a George D. Dodge /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES b. Kw lino V. Schliartz

Figure 22.22 Arboreal rainforest animals include (a) macaws and (b) spider
monkeys.

a William J. Wither/ VISUALS UNLIMITED b C. Allan Morgan

Always green may be equated by some Ripe fruits drop to the forest floor and provide a food supply for some
students with evergreen, and this, in turn, with ground dwellers. Although the trees are always green, leaves die and fall
pines and spruces. Forestall this.
continuously for most of the year. In the warm, moist environment huge
numbers of insects, fungi, and bacteria attack this food supply rapidly.
Ask students what environmental factors might
be related to the rarity of large, hoofed
Therefore, organic remains do not build up on the ground. Large her-
mammals. On the forest floor there is very little bivores, such as hoofed, mammals, are rare or live only nets riverbanks.
Predators and parasites are abundant at all levels of the forest.
herbaceous vegetation for herbivores to eat
The continuously dropping debris is quickly 0 All forests have some arboreal animalsanimals that live in the trees.
decomposed. The shallow-rooted plants quickly In the tropical rain forest many animals live in the canopy. In one study
reabsorb the released minerals. The process is of rain forests 90 percent of the birds were found to feed mostly in the
rapid because of the widespread presence of canopy. For birds this may not be surprising. But in this biome a large
r.'ycorrhizae. number of mammals, over 50 percent of the species, also are arboreal.
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 823

Since there is more food in the canopy layers than on the ground, it is 0 Untold number is quite literal, unknown
reasonable to expect a greater diversity of animals in the various canopy thousands of species remain to be described.
layers. There are many tree snakes, tree lizards, tree frogs, and an untold
number of arboreal insects.
Many animals, especially birds, lizards, and butterflies, are active in
the various canopy layers during the day. At night different animals be-
come active. For example, predators such as owls and leopards or other
large cats hunt anything that moves. These differing activity patterns
are charact( stic of a tropical rain forest.

Self-Review

1. What adaptions of structure and function are found among tundra

organisms?
2. What is the most noticeable difference between the tundra and taiga
landscapes?
3. Compare the vegetation in a mid-latitude deciduous forest and a
tropical rain forest. Explain the differences.
4. Many arboreal animals live in tropical rain forests. What are the
reasons for this?
5. How do epiphytes obtain water and minerals?

Biomes with Decreasing Guidepost: How does the vegetation

change as the precipitation
Precipitation decreases?

22.6 There Are Three Distinct Types

of Grasslands
The principal variable in the biomes we have described is radiant en- The idea expressed here is clearly related to
ergy. In each biome, precipitation during the growing season was suffi- that of carrying capacity discussed in chapter 2
cient for the plants that could tolerate the temperatures.
Along the latitudes of deciduous forest however, the precipitation de-
creases as you travel from east to west in North America. This lack of
water is the major factor limiting plant and animal life. Deciduous for-
ests are found in the east, and grasslands are found in the west. Tem- Similar areas are found in other mid-latitude
perature differences, between day and night, and between winter and regions of the world. Many names are given to
mid-latitude grassland prairie and plains in
summer, are greater in the grassland than in the eastern deciduous forest.
The principal difference between the two biomes, however, is in the 0 North America, steppe in Asia, veldt in South
Africa, pampas in Argentina
amount of precipitation: it is consistently less in the nss!and than in
the forest. Grasses can tolerate the frequent droughts that occur in cen-
tral North America, but the trees cannot.
The tall-grass prairie blends with the western edge of the deciduous
forest, and the grasses grow 1.5 to 2 m tall. Mixed-grass prairie is the
most characteristic type of grassland of the Great Plains, and supports
many species of plants and animals. Grasses here range from 0.5 to 1.2
m in height. The short-grass prairie stretches from the mixed-grass prairie

926
 824 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.23 Tall grass prairie.

Brian F;ArkeiiTO1A STACK eASSOCIATES

Figure 22.24 Mixed grass prairie.

Soul Conservation Service', VA

The ability of grassland biomes to support large on the east to the Rocky Mountains on the west. These grasses are unly
numbers of herbivores seems to be closely
about 0.5 m tall. Vegetation in the grasslands, generally, is much less
related to the ability of grass leaves to grow
dense than in the forests. Grass leaves grow continuously from their bases.
cont,nuously.
Therefore, as herbivores eat the tops, the grass crop is renewed. Many
other nonwoody plants grow among the grasses, but shrubs are rather
rare, except along streams. Cactus plants are scattered over the short-
grass prairie.
Bison and pronghorns probably did not
The most conspicuous consumers are hoofed mammals. Once there
overgraze because they were not confined by
were many bison and , ronghorns in the North American grasslands. Now,
fences.
nearly all of the bison and most of the pronghorns have been replaced
by cattle and sheep. Less conspicuous herbivores are jackrabbits and
ground squirrels. Many kinds of insects also feed on vegetation. At times
grasshopper populations reach large numbers, devouring the plants down
to ground level.
Chapter 22 Biomes Aroutd the World 825

Figure 22.25 Short grass prairie. Figure 22.27 Animals of the grassland include
meadow larks, black-tailed jackrabbits, and
badgers.
11.-

BSCS

Figure 22.26 The prairie rattlesnake is an important predator of the grasslands.

"414.21111&

John Shaw/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Wolves and coyotes were once the chief large predators. Today, wolves
X1/18
have been exterminated almost everywhere in the "lower 48" states, but
coyotes survive in many places. Rattlesnakes and badgers are important
predators of ground squirrels and prairie dogs. Many insect-eating birds,
such as meadowlarks and mountain plovers, nest on the ground under
the cactus on the short-grass prairie.

22.7 Mid-latitude Deserts Border

the Grasslands
In North America the western edge of the grassland is bordered by
desert. The climatic situation is complicated by mountains, but between
the western ranges, deserts stretch southward from eastern Washington
into Mexico. X1/18

928
.^P
 826 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Refer students to figure 22.4 for the location of

other desert areas They should be told that Figure 22.28 Hot desert in Arizona. What characteristics do many of the plants
deserts in other parts of the world are have in common?
increasing C H Southwick, ed, 1985, Global
Ecology (Sunderland, Mass Sinner Associates,
Inc.) is a good reference concerning the
problem of desertification.

Many of the plants have reduced leaves

(spines) Their stems are green, implying that
these are the organs of photosynthesis. Many
plants also have large water-storing stems. A
good reference is W F Steenbergh and C. H.
Lowe, 1977, Ecology of the Saguaro.11 National
Park Service Scientific Monograph Series, No. 8.

AMPS by Cad)* Calvin

Your students should now be able to make a
generalization about the relationships between
0 When we think of a desert, we think of an area with little or no pre-
cipitation. Just as important in defining a desert, however, is the rate of
production of vegetation (in kg/hectare/year)
and the abiotic environment. Production is a
evaporation. In a desert, evaporation rate is always high compared to
function of total annual radiant energy, given precipitation. For example, Tucson, Arizona, receives about 2(' cm of
optimal water and nutrient supplies. rain a year, but is so hot that the evaporation rate exceeds the 1auivalemt
of about 195 cm of rain. Latitude and temperature have a profound ef-
Ask students what this abiotic environment fect on desert formation. The amount of precipitation flat produces a
.actor (temperature) suggests about desert desert at the equator can support a fine grassland at high.a latitudes.
animals, especially those with variable When precipitation does occur in a desert, it is likely to be heavy but
temperature. Many desert animals migtii be brief and is often the result of thunderstorms or cloudbursts. Much of
burrowers, as, indeed, many are. Animals with the water runs off instead of sinking into the soil.
variable temperature regulate body temperature Loss of heat from the earth's surface is greatly slowed by water vapor
by coming to the ground surface or retiring in the air. Because desert air is very dry, heat that builds up in the soil
beneath it as air temperatures fluctuate.
during the day is quickly lost at night by radiation. Air and soil tem-
peratures at the soil surface vary greatly between day and night. Tem-
peratures underground, however, are much more stable.
There are two types of North American deserts. The northern part
of the desert biome is the cool desert, and it has an average temperature
of about 10 to 12° C in the shade. In the southwestern or hot deserts,
the temperature averages around 20° to 22° C. Death Valley in the Mo-
jave desert has reached 57° C in the shade.

22.8 Plants Adapt to Desert Conditions

in a Variety of Ways
The thorns and spines on desert plants probably 0 The roots of most desert plants spread far in all directions from the
are protection against herbivores in land where
stems and are only a short distance below ground. When rains occur,
their food is sparse. More clearly demonstrable
these widespread, shallow roots soak up the moisture rapidly. These plants
is the relation between reduction in leaf surface
and retardation of water loss. are drought resisters. Cactus plants are an example, and they store the
water in the tissues of their thick stems. In addition, cactus leaves are
reduced to spines, which reduces water loss through transpiration.

929
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 827

Figure 22.29 Coo desert. Hoy, do those plants differ from those of the hot Figure 22.30 Modification of leaves into spines
desert? protect against water loss.

Figure 22.31 Mesquite is a drought escaper.

BSCS

C. Allan Morgan

Drought evaders are plants that conserve water and usually grow very 0
rapidly when conditions are right. The seeds of some of these plants are
covered with a chemical that prevents germination during unfavorable
;onditions. The chemical is washed away during a heavy cloudburst so
that germination is possible.
Drought escipers have their root systems far down in the ground in
the water table and, therefore, have a continuous supply of water. Mes-
quite plants (figure 22.31) can have taproots up to 25 to 30 m long and
have been seen growing through the ceilings of horizontal mine shafts.
828 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.32 This creosote bush in the Tucson Mountains of Arizona is an

example of a drought endurer.

C. Allan Macon

O Drought endurers have small leaves that are covered with wax to pre-
vent or at least slow the loss of water. When it is very dry, many plants
shed their leaves and, thereby, conserve water. Some plants produce a
substance that inhibits the growth of other plants that would otherwise
compete for space and water. A good example of this type of plant is the
creosote bush (figure 22.32). The aromatic substance of this rush is es-
sentially the same as the creosote derived from coal tar that is used as
a preservative for railroad ties.
O Few hoofed herbivores live in the mid-latitude deserts, but rodents
are numerous. When the day is hot and water is scarce, rodents tIscape
the desert heat by burrowing underground. Here the temperature is cooler
and the humidity is higher, and the animal can wait out the hot summer
days in a state of sleep called estivation (es tih VAY shun). This response
to unfavorable environmental conditions is somewhat similar to hiber-
nation. However, estivation is a response to heat and dryness rather than
to cold.
Many rodents obtain water from their food or from early morning
dew. Kangaroo rats (figure 22.33a), for example, can survive without
drinking water. Instead, they use water produced by cellular respiration.
Their urine is nearly solid and they lack sweat glands.
Birds in the desert have several ways of coping with the heat and lack
of water. First, birds lack sweat glands and, thus, conserve water. Second,
bird feathers provide one of the best kinds of insulation found in nature,
enabling birds to tolerate the desert heat very well. Third, in flight, the
O air cools them as it moves over their bodies. Finally, if some insect-eating
birds cannot and food in the desert during summer, they can conserve

3 31
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 829

Figure 22.33 Desert animals include the (a) kangaroo rat and (b) great horned
owl.

4,

their energy by lapsing into a state of torpor. During torpor, the body 0
temperature is similar to the environmental temperature, thus reducing
the demand on the birds' energy.
As in all terrestrial biomes, there are many herbivores. Many birds
and some reptiles, especially lizards, arc insect-eaters. Scorpions also
prey on insects. Among larger predators are coyotes, hawks, and rat-
tlesnakes, all of which depend primarily on rodents and rabbits as food.

Self-Review

1. Why are there grasslands in the same latitude as forests?

2. What two abiotic factors must be considered together in describing
desert climate?
3. How are plants adapted to desert conditions?
4. In what ways are estivation and torpor adaptive behaviors?

932
 830 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Guidepost: What is the effect of Biomes that Have Variable

variable rainfall and
uniform temperature on a Precipitation
biome?
22.9 Tropical Deciduous Forests Have
Distinct Wet and Dry Seasons
The seasonless rain forests with a uniform climate cover a rather small
Figure 22.34 Tropical deciduous forest. In part of the tropics. Most tropical regions have seasons. Instead of being
what season do you think this picture was
taken?
warm and cold seasons, however, they are wet and dry. In the tropics
many woody plants lose their leaves during the dry season. Tropical re-
gions with uniform temperatures but wet and dry seasons produce a
tropical deciduous forest or tropical seasonal forest. Consult the map in
figure 22.4 to locate regions of tropical deciduous forest.
In this biome the campy is not as dense as that in the rain forest.
Light filters all the way to the forest floor. A dense mass of undergrowth
thrives during the rainy season. People can penetrate this mass only by
cutting their way through. It is this biome that best matches the common
idea of a "jungle."
Many animals estivate during the dry season. Insects, reptiles, and
amphibians in particular are likely to estivate. In parts of Africa, some
species of birds breed twice as a result of the two distinct seasons.

22.10 Savannas Are Tall Grasslands

in Tropical Dry Areas
e. Where tropical dry seasons are long and severe, trees grow far apart.
Between the trees the ground is covered with tall grasses. This is the
savanna (suh VAN uh), a biome that covers large areas in South America
and Africa. In less arid climates, fire and soil type are more likely to
cause the formation of a savanna than is the climate.
In Africa, the savanna is the home of many large hoofed mammals
that graze and browse. Zebras, gazelles, and antelopes are among the
many herbivores. These first-order consumers are followed by predators
CARIBBEAN COLLECTION/Nancy Sefton
such as lions, leopards, and cheetahs. The kills of these big cats are
cleaned up by scavengers such as hyenas and vultures. Very often the
The le green vegetation indicates the wet carcasses of dead gazelles can be seen draped over the limbs of the acacia
season.
trees. These were put there by one of the big cats so that scavengers
would not steal the remains of the carcass.
The film "Year of the Wildebeeste" is one of the
Large herds of zebras, wildebeest, gazelles, and other hoofed animals,
best for linking many concepts of biology
together. See p. T51 for listing.
as well as elephants and giraffes, are found on the Serengeti Plain of the
savanna. At present these herds of animals make up the largest concen-
The November 190 issue of Life magazine has
tration of wild animals to be found on any continent.
an excellent article on the future of large herds
of animals in Africa.

933
 Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 831

Figure 22.35 Tropical savanna in eastern Africa. Elephants, zebras, and

giraffes (background); wildebeest and ostrich (foreground). What predators
might you find here?

Figure 22.36 E!ephants and zebras share a waterhole on the savanna in

Kenya.

David L Purim/VISUALS UNLIMITED

..?
934
832 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.37 Chaparral (California). At what season do you think this picture
was taken?

Chaparral is most verdant in the season

between the winter rains and the beginning of
the summer drought There is also a greening at
the end of the summer drought

22.11 Chaparral Covers Dry Areas

that Have Thin Soil
The climate type of this biome is usually calted -In California most oFthe precipitation comes-in the winter; the "sum-
Mediterranean. for the region where it is well mers are very dry. South Africa, western Australia, central Chile, and
developed. the region around thpieditezmwAeflitysisiTilar climates. The
biome characteristic of this kind of climate has several names. In America
the term chaparral (snap uh RAL) is used to describe the vegetation.
Ask students to what environmental conditions a Chaparral is found on thin soil of rather low fertility. The vegetation
plant with such leaves might be adapted Small consists of large shrubs with small, evergreen leaves that are thick and
leaves with waxy (sometimes hairy) covering are often coated with waxy material. The canopy is very 1,,w and often dense.
a structural adaptation to seasonal lack of water In some cases, no herbs grow under the shrubs. The shrubs have thick
in plants that are not deciduousanother
underground stems that survive the dry summers and the frequent fires
adaptation to the same environmental condition
that burn through the chaparral. The fires burn off all the plant struc-
tures above the ground, releasing the minerals in the plants and litter.
The minerals are thus available for the new plants that sprout from the
thick stems that remain alive near the ground. However, when the tem-
porary loss of vegetation is combined with heavy winter rains, soil ero-
sion in the form of mud slides occurs.
Rodents and reptiles are numerous here, and in the chaparral of
southern California, there are coyotes living within the city limits of even
the largest communities.

Self-Review

1. What climatic factor explains deciduous trees in the tropics?

2. Compare and contrast hibernation and estivation.
3. Describe the savanna biome and the abiotic factors uat influence
it.
4. What is chaparral?
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 833

IngeStibalitni,22:2.EFFECISs-.0F,FIRE ON BIOMES
Investigation 22.2
Introduction EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BIOMES

Fire is an important ecological factor in ter. estriai ecosystems. Some This investigation can be assigned as
fires start from natural causes. But many are caused by peopledelib- homework and then discussed in class Or it
erately or accidentally. No natter how they begin, fires have many effects can be worked through in a class se:sion
on the organisms in their paths. The most easily observed effects are on without previous assignment
vegetation. You may find it advantageous, though not
This investigation considers three different North American biomes and essential, to do some background reading on
the changes that fire might cause in each biome. Base your answers to the effects of fire in different ecosystems. (See
the questions on the study of figures 22.38, 22.39, and 22.40. the reference in For Further Investigation.
p 836 )
Procedure
Procedure
Part AFire in Mid-latitude Grassland
The answers suggested below carry the
Figures 22.38a-d picture a series of events that occur in the southern reasoning through in a logical manner You
part of the North American grassland. Two kinds of populations are in- should, however, be aiert to reasonable
volved: grasses of various species and mesquite shrubs. alternative ideas that students may suggest
1. Study figures 22.38a and 22.38b. What is happening to the sizes of Such ideas should be welcomed, subjected to
the populations? critical examination, and, if tenable, nurtured
2. Roots of mesquite have been found in mine shafts many meters below
the surface of the soil. What competitive advantage might this kind of Part A
root growth give mesquite over grasses? 1. Both are increasing
2 Access to deep supplies of moisture
during long droughts
Figure 22.38,, 3. Mesquite brush with less grass
4 Both survive
5 Mesquite
6 Mesquite
7 Grass
8 Somewhat like d but with regrowth of the
mesquite bush as in a
9 Mesquite brush with less grass
10 Domincintly grassland
11 Fire

11.' (ranee and mesquite bush b. same area 10 years later

1/114-.=1`iii

;t400,
,114;t4-V4V" "t4114. 4444W1
.010110,0'

c. fire d. 2 years after fire

9,36
834 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

3. If occasional droughts strike the area as actually happens), what kind

of community do you think might result?
4. Now refer to figures 22.38c and 22.38.. In these figures plant parts
shown in light color represent unharmed tissue. Do both kinds of plants
survive fires?
5. In which kind has more growing tissue been killed?
6. Grasses usually reach maturity and produce seeds in 1 or 2 years;
mesquite usually requires 4 to 10 years. Which kind of plant has lost
more.in terms of growing time?
7. In figure 22.38d which kind of plant occupies most of the land?
8. What might you expect this area to look like 4 or 5 years after a fire?
9. Now you can make a generalization on the effect of fire in this com-
munity. Describe the probable landscape if fires did not occur at all.
10. What would be the appearance of the landscape if fires occurred every
few years?
11. What seems to be necessary for maintaining grassland in this region?

Part BFire in a Forest of the Great Lakes Region

Around the Great Lakes of North America is a region of transition be-
tween the coniferous and mid-latitude deciduous forests. In many places
much of the forest consists of pines (figure 22.39a). But, early in the set-
tlement of the region, Europeans brought about a great change in the land-
scape (figure 22.39b).

Figure 22.39, _

ti

Nib

a. before settlement b. after settlement

c. fire d. 3 years after fire

937
 Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 835

1. What was this change? Part B

2. Fires apparently had been rare in this region, but following the change 1 Lumbering.
in landscape, they became more frequent. What might have brought
2. More people: brush piles: further clearing
about the increase in the number of fires?
by fire in attempts at agriculture
3. If fire does not occur, what might the area shown in figure 20.39b look
3. Eventually much like a. Deciduous woody
like in later years?
plants at first would be favored, because they
4. Study figures 22.39b, 22.39c, and 22.39d, which picture jack pine. spring up as sprouts from stumps.
What characteristic of jack pine gives that species a competitive ad-
4 Small fires cause the cones of lack pine
vantage when there is a fire? (Hint: Compare the cones in figures 22.39b
to )pen: otherwise, seeds may be held in the
and 22.39c.)
cones many years.
5. Describe the probable appearance of the area shown in figure 22.39d
5. An area dominated by young jack pine.
5 or 6 years later.
6 Jack pine would become rare, and other
6. Jack pines produce cones in 8 to 10 years but do not live to a very
kinds of trees would take its place.
great age. Their seedlings do not thrive in shade. Suppose no fires
7 Dominated by lack pine
occur for 200 years. What changes in appearance might take place
in this area during that period?
7. Suppose fires occur about once every 20 years. What might the area
look like at the end of 200 years?

Part C--Fire in a Forest of the Southeastern United States Part C

In the southeastr-rn United Sta:as are great forests in which longleaf pine 1. Fire does not kill the roots of the young
is almost the only large tree. Occasionally there may be seedlings and sa- longleaf pines.
plings of deciduous trees. Between 3 and 7 years of age longleaf pines 2. Fire usually kills young deciduous plants.
look somewhat like clumps of grass (figure 22.40a). While in this grass 3. Longleaf pines.
4. Ground fires kill the lower branches, but
not the tops or the trunks
Figure 22.40 5 In the absence of fires, deciduous trees
grow faster than the young longleaf pines and
eventually shade them out
6. Fire.

D;c,

i. 0.n9 nes. b. fire in stall area

seplingsand shrubs

c. lire in mature pine forest d. pine forest - no fire far 5 years

L.!
933
(p..)
836 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Discussion stage, the young trees develop deep roots in which food is stored (See
1 Advantage, because they maintain grass cutaway, lower corner of figure 22.40a.)
2. Disadvantage, because it favors growth Fires in these forests generally are confined to the ground, where they
of j.ick pine burn grasses and the sparse growth of the deciduous shrubs and saplings
3 Advantage, because they maintain (figure 22.40b).
longleaf pine in competition with cit 'iduous 1. What is the effect of fire on young longleaf pines?
trees. 2. What is the effect on the deciduous shrubs and saplings?
4 Burning would have to be done at a 3. Which plants have a competitive advantage after a fire?
season when bobwhites were not nesting 4. After the grass stage, longleaf pines grow rapidly in height and de-
5 First, of course, the landowner must velop a thick, fire-resistant bark. What is the effect of ground fires at
decide what is wanted Even so, it is impossible this stage in the development of the pines (figure 22.40c)?
to predict the effects of fire without prior 5. Which plants have a competitive advantage when fires do not occur
empirical evidence, because in all cases the (figure 22.40d)?
variables are very numerous For example, 6. What factor seems to maintain a fofest of longleaf pines within the
periodic fires in certain tall-grass prairies tend to deciduous-forest biome?
increase productivity of cattle, fires in the mid-
grass prairies tend to hade the opposite effect
Some ecologists suggest that the depth of Discussion
mulch is the important variable in this case Knowledge of the ecological effects of fire on biomes can be useful to
To some degree, fire is used as a humans.
management tool in all regions It is, perhaps,
1. If you were interested in raising cattle in a mid-latitude grassland, would
the most ancient tool that people have
occasional fires be an advantage or a disadvantage? Why?
employed to change the landscape Today there
2. Jack pine is not as valuable a lumber tree as are other trees of the
are many other means. such as fertilizing,
Great Lakes region. If you were a landowner in that region, would fire
employing herbicides and the saw and ax.
be an-advantage or a disadvantage? Why?'
disking, and bulldozing These usually can be
3. If yo ; were interested in maintaining a longleaf pine forest to obtain
used more selectively than fire in agricultural
turpentine, would ground fires be an advantage or a disadvantage?
management, it not in forestry Ecologists do not
Why?
agree on the role that fire should play in land
4. Suppose you wanted bobwhites (game birds that nest on the ground)
management However, among other recent
in your turpentine forest. What effect might this have on your man-
findings is the tact that frequent fires prevent the
agement of the forest?
growth of the understory of a forest After a
5. What things must ecologists know before deciding whether to rec-
long period without fire. the understory provides
ommend fire as a method of management to a landowner?
a route by which a fire can reach the crown of
larger trees Therefore, the controlled burning of
forests at frequent intervals is sometimes For Further Investigation
suggested as a means for preventing disastrous
Invest;gation 22.2 is based on case studies of fires in forest and grass-
forest fires The Nationa, Park Service and the
land management (originally published in Scientific American). Recent con-
U S Forest Service have recently reevaluated
troversy over fire as a means to control diseases of forest trees, and as
their policies on forest-fire management Now
a means to control the replacement of older trees by younger ones, has
they will study a fire to determine if it should t
been discussed in many newspaper articles. A useful and comprehensive
allowed to burn naturally In fact, in Yosemite
reference is T. T. Kozlowski and C. E. Ahlgren, eds., 1974, Fire and Eco-
National Park, some fires have been prescribed
systems (New York: Academic Press).
in order to keen the area as near the natural
state as possible Try 10 draik out these points
during class discussion

Guidepost: How do mild climates, Cool, Wet, and Mountain Biomes

heavy precipitation, and
high altitudes affect biome
formation? 22.12 The Coastal Coniferous Forest Has
Cool Summers and Mild Winters
Sometimes called the mid-latitude rain forest, this biome is found in
a narrow band along the coast from southern Alaska into northern Cal-
ifornia. It is characterized by cool summers, comparatively mild winters,
and abundant precipitation, up to 640 cm per year in some areas.

93:i
 Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 837

Figure 22.41 Mid-latitude rainforest. The canopy is much simpler and a fair
amount of sunlight reaches the ground. The life on the floor of a mid-latitude
rainforest is richer than that of a tropical rainforest.

'

--Urida Kelly-144510ft

The trees are mostly conifers, but they are much larger than those of O G B Sudworth, 1967, Forest Trees of the
the taiga. Some even exceed the height of the trees in tropical rain for- Pacific Slope (New York Dover Publications) is
ests. The "coast" redwoods of California are located in the rain forest a good rtftrtnct for idtntifying types of trees
found in this biome
and may grow to more than 100 m (see figure 13.2, page 438). These
redwoods are huge trees with a thick, red bark that resists fire. In ad-
Ask students which climate condition favors
dition, chemicals in the bark make the trees nearly insect-proof.
growth of epiphytes Abundant moisture,
The canopy is much simpler in this biome than in the tropics, and particularly in the air, high humidity
there are relatively few species of trees. Moss, fern, and lichen epiphytes
are abundant. Shrubs are fairly numerous, but herbs and vines are few. Ask students what kind of tolerance is
The ground is covered with deep cushions of moss. associated with lack of herb, and abundance of
Elk and deer browse on the shrubs. Many birds and rodents live pri- mosses In general, mosses art much more
marily on conifer seeds. Compared with the tropical rain forest, this forest shade tolerant than herb& _ous seed plants
has few arboreal v- rtebrates, but it has many insects. Small inverte-
brates live deep in the layers of humus, or decomposing pi nt and animal Tht dttp layers of humus are due to wetness
tissue, on the forest floor. They are food for populations of ground birds. which rtsuits in a rather large production of
organic matter, and the generally cool
conditions that inhib.t the activity of
22.13 Mountain Biomes Resemble Biomes decomposers
at Higher Latitudes
Air is heated at the earth's surface and becomes cooler at higher al- If your students did investigation 3 1, they may
titudes. Temperature drops (on the average) about 2.7° C for each 500 rtme nUtr tht difttrtnuts rn ttmptraturt at
nz of elevation. A climb of only a few hundred meters up the side of a ground It vtl and at distanuts about ground
mountain gives the same effect as going many kilometers toward the
North Pole. This means that at the base of a mountain you may find a
climate suitable for grassland, whereas near the top of the mountain only
tundra plants can survive. Ecosystems that resemble the biomes of higher
latitudes develop as beltlike zones circling mountains.

9, 0
838 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.42 Comparison of effects of altitude and latitude in western North

America. Types of vegetation and animal life are affected by both altitude and
latitude.

ice Rocky Mountains

alpine north
(tundra-like) s

coniferous Arctic
forest $,4
104 Ocean
(taiga-like)
it,N4 A,

06: 4i. '1/13,

',::;'
411111,6

taiga 411?.

.assland tundra
ice

Figure 22.43 The Rocky Mountains of Colorado. What zones seen here can be
compared to the biomes you have learned about?

Carlye Calvin

0 We might attempt to relate these zones to the similar biomes we have

read about. The similarities, however, are somewhat superficial. For ex-
ample, in thr upper mountain, or alpine, region of the Rocky Mountains,
the landscape looks much like the tundra of the north. Many species of
organisms are the same in both alpine and tundra biomes. However, there
are some differences in the plants due to differences in the amount of
light received.

94
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 839

Figure 22:44 Flowers of the alpine tundra.

.;, .7"/ Mgr

Doug Sokell

During the summer, arctic tundra plants receive a great deal more
light than those of the alpine tundra, even though the light intensity is
greater in the alpine tundra-Arctic _tundra plants are long-day plants,
and alpine tundra plants are short-day plants. For this reason there are
different species of plants in the two similar biomes.
In the alpine tundra there is usually no permafrost and no long period
of darkness in the winter. The amount of radiant energy receiN ed here
in summer is much greater than that received at any time in the northern
tundra. In both biomes the winds blow long and hard, particularly during
the winter months. Mount Washington in New Hampshire is about 1830
m high and its alpine tundra has withstood a wind velocity of 385 km
per hour.
The amounts of snow are quite different in the two biomes. The
northern tundra may get no more than 25 cm during the winter, whereas
the top of Mount Rainier, in the state of Washington, receives over 20
m. It seems best, therefore, to think of mountainous regions as often
having familiar biomes with certain distinctive characteristics.

Self-Review

1. What vegetation grows it coastal coniferous forest?

2. How do conditions in an ipine ecosystem on mid-latitude moun-
tains resemble 'onditions on the arctic tundra?
3. In what ways e3 the arctic and alpine tundras differ?

942
840 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Investigation 22.3
Investigation 22.3 A FIELD STUDY OF ANIMAL
A FIELD STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR BEHAVIOR

The student materials are fairly complete and Introduction

should give students all the direction needed for Ethology is the study of an organism's behavior in an ecosystem. This
,.1-uccessful field study Emphasize that no includes its responses to its own species, to other species, and to the
domesi.^ated animals should be used in the nonliving environment. One can learn a great deal about the behavior of
study. If you h'1OW of specific environmeats in an organism by observing it in the field (in its environment) because one
your area where a variety of animals would be will observe the organism under natural conditions. Therefore, the behavior
available for otx,ervation, recommend the observed is likely to be typical of the species. Usually behaviors observed
environments to your students Students may in the field are responses to ti,e basic needs of the animal, such as food,
know of some (jood locations as well and can survival, and reproduction. Your goal in this investigation is to develop a
share these with the class systematic field study of an animal in its natural habitat and then relate the
You might discuss the point of whether a behaviors of the organism you observe to its basic needs without using
park in a city is a nature/ habitat for an animal human values and emotions.
Will a squi al or bird that lives here behave in
the same manner as those that live away from
populated areas? Hopefully, students' study
Materials
areas will represent a broad range of field notebook
environments Invite the students to compare
roct:.:s in this respect
Procedure
1. Select a nondomesticated animal that you feel will be available for your
observation. Some animals that should make good field subjects are:
(a) Arthropods. Any number of insect species such as the dragonfly,
bee, beetle, fly, butterfly, or ant are available in almost any envi-
ronment. Other arthropods such as, spiders, sowbugs, or crayfish
will do nicely also.
(b) Birds. A variety of birds such as the sparrow, pigeon, cardinal,
dove, robin, and starling live in most neighborhoods. Common in
fields or parks are the redwing blackbird, meadowlark, killdeer,
crow, duck, and goose.
(c) Mammals. Squirrels, deer, mice, chipmunks, gophers, muskrats,
and otters are very interesting if you are able to observe them.
(d) Mollusks. Snails and slugs.
(e) Fish. Aquarium fish are acceptable.
2. Fields, ponds, aquariums, or just a large tree in a park are the homes
for many of the organisms listed. The best times of day for observation
are just before sunset or just after sunrise because many animals will
be feeding at these times. It is not necessary to study the same indi-
vidual during your observation, because many behavioral character-
istics are common to the species.
3. Some good behaviors to focus on are:
(a) Orientation (change in position) to external stimuli (sunlight, wind,
temperature, and moisture)
(b) Communication with its own species and/or other species
(c) Feeding
(d) Courtship
(e) Interaction with other members of its species
(f) Defense or protection of itself, its young, or its territory
(g) Reactions to the presence of other species (including humans)

94 4
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 841

4. Once you have decided on an animal to study, make a plan for your
study and have it approved by your teacher. Your plan should include:
(a) The name of the organism.
(b) Where and when you will make your observation.
(c) What problem or question you will investigate.
(d) A hypothesis related to your problem.
5. Conduct your observations. Your best observations will be when you
are not seen by the animal under study.
6. Take good notes in your field notebook during your observation and
refer to these notes when you write your report.

Discussion
1. Organize the data you collected during your observations.
2. Write a report that relates the behaviors of the animal you observed
to its basic needs without using human values or emotions.
3. A good report will include the following:
(a) Title, your name, and date.
(b) Your origin& plan sheet with your teacher's approval
(c) Your actual procedure (if o;iferent from your original plan).
(d) Your problem and hypothesis.
(e) Data (notes of your observations): organize your notes by quan-
tifying as much of your data as possible (how many, how large,
how often, and so on).
(f) Conclusions: interpretations and/or explanations of the behav-
iors observed in light of basic needs of the animal.
(g) Evaluation of hypothesis: did the data support or refute youl hy-
pothesis?
(h) Recommendations for further study: what you would suggest if
someone else were going to do the same study; what you would
do differently if doing the study agaih.

Human Influence on Biomes Guidepost: How are human activities

changing biomes?
22.14 The Need for Land Has Changed
Some Biomes
The brief descriptions of the biomes may lead you to conclude that F or this section, Global Ecology (see annotation
they have changed very little since they were first described many years on page 825) and E Hillary, ed , 1984, Ecology
ago. In fact, many have been altered so they no longer resemble the orig- 2000 The Changing Face of Earth (New York
inal biome. What causes these changes, and what are the consequences? Beaufort Books) are good references
Flying from Cleveland, Ohio, to Nashville, Tennessee, you cross the
biome of mid-latitude deciduous forest, yet you see only a few traces of
forest. Flying from Chicago, Illinois, to Lincoln, Nebraska, you cross
the eastern part of North American grassland. Here, too, you see only
hams of the original ecosystem. In fact, in these two flights, the land-
scapes below appear remarkably similar. Although in both cases the cli- 0
mate remains an important factor, the present landscape has been shaped

J #4
 842 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.45 The rich flat plains of the midwest became the corn and wheat
belt of the United States.

John 0. Cunningham !VISUALS UNLIMITED

0 by humans. The changes have been ;pined by the need- for food and
homes. In Ohio, for example, only about two percent of the original de-
ciduous forest remains, and the land now supports farms and cities in-
stead. This is the inevitable consequence of a growing popnlafion.
Let us examine how biomes are being altered and the consequences
of those changes.

22.15 Tropical Rain Forests Will Nearly Be

Gone by the Year 2000
Ecology 2000 (see annotation on page 841) has The demands of a growing population have placed the tropical rain
a section on the "Hamburger Connection!' We
forests of the world in jeopardy. About 50 percent of the earth's forests
are trading the tropical forest for cheap meat via
are located in the tropics, and it is estimated that the tropical forests will
the fast food n Iket.
be nearly destroyed by the year 2000. What happens when a forest is
destroyed? One of. the tragic effects is the loss of habitat for countless
numbers of plants and animals, many of which, surely, have yet to be
discovered. Perhaps several million species of organisms are being lost.
These organisms could create joy just by being seen. Many of them also
could have potential use as medicine and food.
One of the reasons for cutting the forest is to clear the land for crops.
0 However, the soil under the trees of the 1 ropical forest is very poor in
humus. When the trees are removed, the c)ntinual leaching of the plant
nutrients by the heavy rainfall leaves the soil infertile and incapable of
supporting crops after a few years. The soil becomes almost as hard as
concrete and few plants can grow where a magnificent rain forest once
stood.
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 843

Figure 22.46 This photo dramatically illustrates how overgrazing can aflect a
grassland.

4111144.7-
1,7

to Comerveteoe Service/USDA

22.16-Desertification Is Increasing Rapidly

Desertification is an ecological change that takes place along the mar-
gins of deserts and usually means the loss of grazing land. In other words,
a grassland that would support a large herd of livestock becomes unable
to support any at all. What are the causes of desertificatio:. No one
single factor is responsible for the changes, but several factors 'appear
to be involved in the process of increasing the size of des:;rts. One is
overgrazing by excessive numbers of livestock. Too many sheep, cattle,
and goats are eating away the grass and are browsing on the few shrubs
and trees.
Another cause of desertification is a change in climate. Drought is
caused by the absence of sufficient precipitation needed to make the plants
grow. The few plants that amain are soon eaten by the livestock. With
the ground cover gm, the winds begin moving the soil of the grazing
lands into dunes. and in some places the sands of the deserts encroach
on the margins of the grasslands. This is happening in the sub-Saharan
region called the Sahel and has caused great misery and death to those
nomads who live there. It is estimated that billions of acres of !and that
border deserts are at risk of becoming deserts by the year 2000.

22.17 Acid Rain Is Destroying Forests

Normal rain has a pH of 5.6. The pH of acid rain ranges from 5.5 to You may wish to discuss all.aspects of acid rain
as low as 2.4. In general, the precipitation over much of the world now at this time See sections 23,18 and 25.7.
is thirty times more acid than normal. The burning of fossil fuels adds

94:6k;
844 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 22.e- Trees exposed to acid rain eventually die.

John 0:Cunningham/VISUALS IAILIMITED

large amounts of sulfur and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere. There,

these oxides react with water and are transforined into sulfuric and ni-
tric acids, which fall to earth as acid precipitation. What happens to
forests that are watered with acid rain?
0 The soils supporting the forests can no longer buffer, or neutralize,
Oe acid precipitation, which then leaches minerals out of the soil. That
deprives the trees of the mineral salts that they requite for growth, and
they begin to weaken and die. The waxy cuticle on the leaf surface can
be directly destroyed by the acid rain. Then needles and leaves turn yellow
(figure 22.47) and drop prematurely, and the trees eventually die. Whole
forest ecosystems are threatened by acid rain; the forests of the eastern
United States, Canada, and Europe show the greatest destruction so far.

Self-Review

1. What has happened to the deciduous forests of the Midwest?

2. How does the cutting of a tropical rain forest affect the soil under
the trees?
3. What factors, human and natural, increase the size of des 1?
4. When forest soils can no longer buffer acid rain, what happens to
the trees?

.;
947
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 845

Itnvestigation 22.4 .A 'FIELD STUDY OF A PIECE

Investigation 22.4
OF-THE:BIOSPHER,E
1-k FIELD S1UDY OF A PIECE
OF THE BIOSPHERE
Introduction
By now you have studied many specific living organisms and have studied Every investiga, should be planned
ecological relationships between organisms. You also have examined small carefully. but an outdoor one demands doubled
pieces of the biosphere in the laboratory using climatograms. Now you care Given time and attention. however, it can
should study a piece of th ''sphere in a natural setting. It need not be be one of the most rewarding experiences of
a very large piecejust large enough to contain several kinds of organ- the year Certainly a field study is central to an
isms that show interrelationships with each other. Different schools have ecological approach to biology, and should be
different opportunities for outdoor studies. Therefore, procedures will have the highlight of the yeas
to be worked out by your class and your teacher to fit the piece of bio- For many reasons. it is impossible to
sphere that is most convenient to your school setting. Read the following prescribe a single prccedure for this
sections carefully to get an overview of what you might do. investigation Nevertheless, students have been
Selecting a study area. You may not have many alternatives but let given enough information to enable them to take
us examine some possibilities. A foi est is complex and provides oppor- an active part in the planning Two helpful
tunities to collect abundant data, but it is most difficult to picture as a whole. resource. are A. H. Benton and W E. Werner.
A prairie is almost as complex and is somewhat easier to study. Cultivated 1972. Manual of Field Biology and Ecology. 5th
areas, such as cornfields and pastures, are relatively simple to study. They ed (Minneapolis Burgess) and W. A Andrews
are as important as forests and prairies because they now cover a large et al . 1974. A Guide to the Study of Terrestrial
part of the land area of our country. Ecology (Englewood Cliffs. N J. Prentice-Hall)
Pieces of the biosphere suitable for study can also be found in cities. Make these and others available as stadent
Many schools have lawns with trees and shrubs. Here there may be fewer references.
kinds of organisms than outside the city, but you can be more thorough in
your study. You also can study vacant lots and spaces between buildings. Procedure
Even Cracks in pavement, gutters, and the area around, trees often contain
a surprising number of organisms. Try to locate a study area near the school,
so repeated visits can be made However, if tne
Organizing the work. After deciding where to make the study, your
resources in the immediate vicinity of the school
class must next decide what kinds of data to collect. The questions in the
are poor. a single excursion to a desirable site
discussion for this investigation should give you some -Ices. Different teams
at a greater distance may be preferable,
should gather different kinds of data. Each team must decide what ma-
In no school is this investigation impossible
teria!s it needs and arrange to obtain them. A team should draw up a form
In urban situations, vacant lots, the area around
on which data can be recorded quickly. Each team should select a leader
a billboard, even cracks in cement and asphalt
to see that all parts of the work are completed as planned by the team.
contain plants. insects, and nematodes. Mice.
Each individual has special abilities. Use these when deciding on tasks within
the team. rats, cats, and pigeons also are common Urban
biology teachers can find ideas in J Kieran,
All of the procedures in investigation 22.4 can be expanded, depending
1959. Natural 1-1.story of New Y_rk City ,Bos.on
on the wishes of your class. Additional activities or alternative procedures
Houghton Mifflin) and J Rublowsky, 1967,
may be found in many ecology text000ks. Your teacher can suggest ad-
ditional references. Nature in the City (New York Basic Cooks)
If you have students whc re camera buffs.
Collecting the data. it may be easier to handle sheets of paper on a
you may want to use their skills and equipment
clipboard than to take data books into the fie'-!. Paste the sheets into your
data book when you return to the laborator; Close-up and microphotography are excellent
techniques for recording data Encourage
No biologist can identify every organism observed. There are two ways
students with artistic skills to keep a racord
to deal with this problem. One is to identify kinds only by general group
through pictures, those with writiny skills to
names such as trees, spiders, grasses, beetles, or turtles. Another method
write about their observations
is to collect a specimena sample individual or, in the case of large plants,
a characteristic part (a leaf, for example). Assign the specimen a letter (A,
B, C, and so on), and whenever you need to refer to that kind of organism,
refer to its letter. After you return to the classroom, you may be able to
identify your specimen by looking it up or showing it to an expert.

948
 846 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Visit the selected areawith a committee of Some descriptions of ,plants you may find in your study area may be
students, if possible to determine its useful to you:
possibilities fcr observation. On the basis of
1. Tree. Tail, woody plant with a single stem (trunk).
your visit and the suggested procedures, the
2. Shrub. Woody plant that branches at or near the ground and lacks a
class can make detailed plans and select team
trunk.
leaders. The plans must fit the personnel. Each
3. Sapling. Young tree with a trunk 1 to 5 cm in diameter.
student must have something to c each must
4. herb. Nonwoody plant that dies back at least to ground level in winter.
know what her or his responsibility is and how to
5. Tree seedling. Very young tree with a trunk less than 1 cm in diameter.
carry it out. Written instructions are essential. In
the Teacher's Resource Book is a sample form Searching for animal data. This activity should be carried Jut after the
used in an 8-day forest study that provides a studies of plants have been completed, possibly at a later date. Work in
way for-you and the team members to keep pairs, with one person searching and the other recording. Turn over stones,
track of the team's plans. Work with individual logs, ad other cover to find animals, being sure to return these sheltering
teams to devise forms that are appropriate for objects to their original position. Look on plants, too, especially in flowers.
recording the kinds of field data their plans call Look for animal droppings.
for. Go through a dr, run with team leaders to Make notes of the kinds, numbers, and activities of animals you find. If
check cut directions and data forms. it is permitted in the area where you are now working, collect specimens
Provide additional class Nine, as needed, for of unknown kinds for identification.
students to collect and construct field Netting insects. In thick forests it may be difficult to catch flying insects,
equipment. The latter might include making but you can beat the shrubs and saplings with a stout net, holding the open
insect nets from clothe hangers and old nylons end up. In open fields sweep your net through the plants. If you identify the
You also might have students practice setting up insect as sr 3.cifically as you can or wish to, you can release it. Otherwise,
quadrats, especially if they will be using the 100 - you may INE..lt to preserve it according to directions by your teacher and
m2 quadrat. If you want to have students use take it back to class for further identification.
their geometry, help them review the relationship Studying larger animals. Your searching proOedure may uncover toads
of the sides of-a right triangle. Using a- or snakes. CAUTION: Do not pick up any animals or touch any plants
meterstick, the 3:4.5 ratio of the sides can be unless you can identify them as harmless. To study reptiles, birds, and
laid out accurately by measuring the sides as 60 other large animals, you will need to cover larger areas than the ones we
cm, 80 cm, and 100 cm. The students can have been considering and observe the areas over longer periods of time.
measure 60 cm or the first string and 80 cm on It is preferable not to collect these animals.
the second. Then, the angle can be adjusted Birds might not be present or active when your class is collecting data.
until the meterstick touches the two points This A few students may want to look for them at different times over a period
will cr*.r:ts,a 90° right angle. of several days. Around daybreak and dusk are usually the best times.
Other 'things you may want to provide The most convenient way to begin studying larger animals, other than
binoculars for bird watching birds, is to trap them alive and unharmed. Simple traps can be made using
a knife to cut through sod if -a pasture or a large coffee can or juice concentrate can. Remove the top and bury the
lawn study is done can so that the top rim is level with the soil surfve. For bait, mix peanut
agar plates-tor streaking so? samples to butter and oatmeal and roll into balls.
show how many microorganisms' live in the soil Even if you decide not to trap the animals, be sure to look for animal
If possible, the investigation shou'd be a tracks and animal droppings. These can be identified as well. In cities you
comparative study. For example, the border of a are likely to see birds, rats mice, dogs, and cats. And do not forget to
woods may be compared with the interior; a look for signs of humans.
grazed pasture with a mowed meadow, a well-
trodderr section of the school campus with a Materials (per team)
less-disturbed section. Consider comparog
studies by classes in successive years. This hammer or mallet
gives firsthand meaning to the concept of 8 stakes, approximately 18 to 25 cm long
ecological succession and long-term studies about 60 m of rope, tv,:ne, heavy string, or plastic clothesline
Population densities of several selected meterstick or metric tape
species may be obtained by counting individuals trowel or small-bladed garden shovel
on measured quadrats. Choice of species whits-enameled van or large sheet of white paper
depends On the habitats being compared Foi. collection containers such as jars and plastic bags, as anticipated
instance, in comparing a much-trodden lawn forceps
with an out-of-the-way one, count dandelions wire screen'of approximately 5 -mm mesh curved into a bowl shape
and plantains rather than grass. The mean
densities in one habitat can then be compared
with those in another. Let students decide
subjectively whether the degree of numerical
difference is significant.
Chapter 22 Biomes Around the World 847

Procedure Several of the specific procedures suggest

1. Determination of the study area. collecting specimens. If you are working in a
(a) In a forest, study areas for different organisms should be of dif- public park, check on permission to collect
ferent sizes. These can be set up as shown in figure 22.41 Square leaves and other specimens. Be sure that you
or rectangular study areas are called quadrats. and your students do not violate preservation
(b) In unforested areas, quadrats should be 2 to 4 m on a side without laws If possible, allow students to collect
internal divisions. something; insects are probably most
(c) In vacant city lots, cultivated fields, and pastures, use smaller acceptable for this purpos- . But collecting is
teams (of 2 to 3) and more of them. Each team should work on certainly not an aim of the :nvestigation. Take
a quadrat 1 m square such as that shown in figure 22.49. care to see that student enthusiasm for it does
2. Each team should select a site for its quadrat that appears to be rep- not interfere with the study of the relationships
resentative of the study area. Dive stakes into the ground, measure among organisms. Warn your students not to
off the appropriate-sized quadrat, and connect the stakes with your collect anything unle' they know it is not
harmful.
rope. The quadrat should oe vs square aF possible. You may want to
subdivide the quadrat to count smaller organisms or to make your
counting easier. If so, stake off these areas also and mark them with
the rope or clothesline. Figure 22.48
3. It will be convenient for most study areas to divide plants into 5 groups:
10m
trees, shrubs, saplings, herbs, and seedlings. If you count small or-
ganisms in only a subdivision of your quadrat, multiply the number of
each different population in that subdivision by a factor that would re-
flect their abundance in the total area.
4. You also should examine a sample of the surface soil and/or organic
litter. This is best done by inserting a trowel or small garden shovel
into the ground to a depth of approximately 10 cm and removing a trees
cubic sample of approximately 10 cm X 10 cm X 10 cm. Us;ng the
wire screen that has been shaped into a bowl, sift the contents onto
a white-enameled pan or onto a large sheet of white paper. Pick through
the remaining litter with forceps. Likely organisms present will be a
variety of insects (especially beetles), sow or pill bugs, millipedes and
centipedes, spiders or other arachnids, worms, and fungi. You may 0.5m
herbs and seedlings
ire surprised by the presence of even other organisms.
5. Special problems may arise. :n a law.% for example, there is no need
to count blades of grass. H )wever, count of the weeds might be
worthwhile, especially if comparisons are made between well-trodden Figure 22A9
areas and protected ones.
6. When your field work is completed share your team data with the rest
of the class. ThiS can be done by combining data from each team in
a large table drawn on the chalkboard. Answer as many of the dis-
cussion questions as possible. If different kinds of areas were in-
cluded, make comparisons wherever possible.

Discussicn
1. What producers are in the area? Answer in general terns trees,
shrubs, and so onor by laming the organisms you were able to 1 d= imet r
identify.
2. Are producers abundant or rare? Explain why.
3. Du you have any evidence that there are seasonal c tinges in the kinds 11 drn
and numbers of producers? 15 dm
4. Are 1".ere different groups of producers? If so, which one contributes
the .ost toward producing the, food that is present in the area?

n
0
848 Section Five Patterns in BI- Biosphere

'Discussion 5. Are there layers of producers? If so, what relationships can you tad
Have checksheets (which will be I, )cated to among the producers in the different layers?
the Teacher's Resource Book) availi:ble for 6. Does the area produce all its own food or is food carried in from be-
each team to put their data on. so tha 'opies yond its boundaries? What evidence do you have for your answer?
can be run off for everyone in the class If at all i. What consumers are in the community? Answer again in general terms
possible, assemble a labeled collection of the or with the names of organisms you have identified.
species mc,,t likely to be encountered This may 8. Which consumers are herbivores and which are carnivores? What evi-
be difficult the first time you do the investigation, dence supports your answer?
but your collection will Oro v and will help 9. What relations ips can you find between the numbers of a particular
students identify their organisms Although herbivore and the numbers of a carnivore that eats it?
specific identification is not necessary in this 10. Using the information you have, construct an energy-flow diagram for
study. students like to have names or things the area.
Such knowledge increases their sense of 1. What evidence is there that one kind of organism affects another in
accomplishment But do not let identification ways other than those involving food relationships?
become the goal of the work 12. What biome type best characterizes the area you studied? Give rea-
Either before or after class discussion of the sons for your choice.
questions, each student should write a r port on 13. An investigation such as this should raise more questions than it an-
the work as a whole It should include the swers. In studying the data, part of your job is to look for questions
purpose of the investigation. a brief account of that need answering. Mite several questions concerning the organ-
the methods used. a summary of the dda, and isms in your area. Although your data from this study is incomplete,
you have taken a biologist's first step in describing a study area.
(most important of all) his or her own detailed
uWerpretation of those dataa description of
,11MI
relationships either observed or inferred.

Summary
In each type of climate, a characteristic kind of vegetation develops
and maintains itself. That vegetation supports a characteristic variety
of animal life. In this chapter we have discussed characteristics of sev-
eral major biomes. The tundra biome of the northern hemisphere grad-
ualiy blends with the taiga in a southerly direction. In the middle latitudes
of North America are the temperate deciduous forest biome in the east,
the grasslands to the west, and the desert biome in the Southwest.
The tropical 'in forest biome, located just north and south of the
_

equator, receives abundant rainfall and has warm temperatures all year
long. The tropics also suppers a deciduous forest, but unlike the rain
forest, this .biome has wet and dry seasons. Still within the tr,,pics is the
savanna biome, a grassland that supports a few trees and the world's
largest concentration of hoofed animals. Southern California and other
scattered areas support evergreen shrubs that make up the chaparral
biome.
From southern Alaska into northern California lies a mid-latitude
rain forest that includes redwoods, the largest trees in the world. Be-
cause of changes in altitude, the mountains have a numb a of biomes
that form bands of vegetation ranging from grasslands at the base to
alpine tundra on the top of the tallest peaks.
All biomes around,the world are undergoing changes due to the ac-
tivities of people. The cutting of the tropical rain forests, the lose- of
grasslands due to desertification, and the acid rain problem in North
America and Europe are just a few examples.
Chapter 22 Biomes Arcund the 'odd 849

Application Questions Problems

1. Explain why the four seasons are more pronounced 1. Investigate your area and determine the biome in
in the mid-latitudes than in the tropics. which you live.
2. What biomes would you encounter if you were to 2. The prairie dog once was abundant in the prairie
travel from Washington, D.C., to San Francisco? ecosystem.
3. What are some examples of changes in biomes that (a) What is the role of the prairie dog in that
are caused by human activities? ecosystem?
4. Describe what you think would happen if all human (b) Why is it being exterminated?
beings left the following places: (c) How will other species be affected by the
(a) a farm in Nebraska extermination of the prairie dog?
(b) a sidewalk in New York 3. The search for oil in the arctic has ecologists
(c) a swimming pool in Seattle, Washington concerned about damage to the tridra.
(d) a landscaped park in Las Vegas, Nevada. (a) What happens to the tundra when heavy
5. Make a list of terrestrial organisms that human equipment is driven over it?
beings have brought into your locality. Divide the (b) What might be the effects on migrating
list into two parts: (a) organisms that (in your herbivores such as the caribou?
opinion) survive bezause of human activities, and 4. Find out what different countries are doing to
(b) organisms that (in your opinion) would survive protect their particular ecosystems. Some examples
without human help. Give reasons for your decision of things that could be explored are:
on each organism. (a) national parks
(b) forest pres- 'yes
(c) wildlife preserves
(d) city parks
5. Investigate the ecological consequences of forest
fires.
6. Before Europeans settled the grasslands of
Australia, kangaroos were the ecological
equivalents of the bison in North American
grasslands. These animals had similar niches in the
community structure of their regions-=-they were
the largest grazing herbivores.
(a) What are the ecological equivalents of these
animals in most of the Australian end Nortn
American grasslands today?
(b) What were the ecologh-al equivalents of these
animals in the steppes of Asla.,the pampas of
Argentina, and the veldt of South-Africa
before these regions were highly modified by
humans?
(c) What are the ecological equivalents of these
animals in the tundta?
(d) In the desert of South Africa, what are the
ecological equivalents of the cacti of North
American deserts?
(e) In the tropical forests of the Old World, what
are the ecological equivalents of the cacti of
North American deserts?
(f) In the tropical forests of the Old World, what
are the ecological equivalents of the
hummingbirds of the New World tropical
forests?

69 52
850 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
L. R. Brown, W. U. Chandler, and S. Poste!, "State of the J. Raloff and J. Silberner, "Saving the Amazon" Science
Earth" Nctural History (April 1986). Effccts of air News (4 October 1980). Discusses how saving the world's
pollution and acid rain on the forests of central Europe are least-known biome will benefit more than its dwellers.
discussed. C. Uhl, "You Cf..n Keep a Good Forest Down" Natural
C. Hughes and D. Hughes, "Teeming Life of a Rain Forest" History (April 1983). How much abuse can Amazonian
National Geographic (January 198J). Many fine rain forests take and still recover?
illustrations highlight this discussion of this disappearing P. T. White, "Nature's Dwindling Treasures: Rain Forests"
biome. National Geographic (January 1983). Many photos
C. A. Munn, of Different Feather Also Flock accompany this article dealing with Earth's most complex
Togeth.." Natural History (November 1984). In the natural habitat.
lowland forests of South America, as many as 70 species
may forage in a single group.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 The earth is tilted vi `1 respect to its orbit around the sun 1 Must be done locally.
As a result, its rotation produces a change in seasons that 2 (a) Prairie dogs are herbivores, feeding, mostly on grasses
is more pronounced in 'ne northern and southern and other plants. (b) Prairie dogs compete with cattle for
hemispheres than in the tropics the grasses, and as a result. the prairie dogs are being
2. If you were to travel along the 38th parallel from eliminated throughout their range_ Expansion of suburban
Washington, D.C. to San Francisco, you wcuid expect to communities is also a factor contributing to the
see the following biomes. From Washington, D.0 to central extermination of prairie dogs (c) Elimination of prairie dogs
Missouri is mid-latitude deciduou, forest, such as oak and has nearly caused the extinction of the black-footed ferret,
hiceccry. Eastern Kansas is predominantly mid-grass prairie, which preys exclusively on them. Fewer prairie dogs
with a few deciduous trees limited to banks of streams and means that there are fewer rattlesnakes, and the rodent
rivers. Continuing across Kansas, the grasses become population has increased as a result.
shorter and shorter. In eastern Colorado, the grassland 3 a) Any heavy piece of heavy equipment that is driven over
biome consists of grama and buffalo grasses. the tundra damages the sma'l plants to the point that the
A series of complex mountair. biomes forms in the tundra canno, recover for many generations. The equipment
Colorado Rockies For example, hom Denver, a mile above also leaks lubricating oil and fuel onto the tundra, which
sea level, to the top c. Mt Evans, which is 14,264 feet permanently destroy the delicate plants (b) As the caribou
above sea level, is a distance of about 35 miles Traveling encounter more and more man-made str ....tures, they may
those 35 miles is the equivalent of going north abcJt 1700 be forced to change their former migration routes. Oil, gas,
miles to the arctic tundra. Continuing west into Utah is a and mineral expioration ',II certainly be a factor in the arctic
series of complex mountain biomes interspersed wth for sometime to come_ id the caribou are likely to
canyons and desert Nevada is mostly desert with st-attered encounter some new obstacle that interferes with their
mountain ranges covered with pine and juniper migration Scientists are not sure wt.at causes caribou to
The Sierra Nevada of California are covered with pine. migrate north toward their calving grounds, and any change
spruce, fir, and juniper along the eastern mare o of the could prove disastrous
mountains. Descending the western portion of the mountains 4 (a) The tiny Central Amman country of Costa Rica, which
are broadleaf deciduous trees, part of the complex had a birth rate of about 3 percent, was clearing about
mountain biome system of the Sierra Nevada. The large 140,000 acres of forest annually. During the late 1960s,
central valley of California supports a variety of grasses and concerned about the loss of plants and animals, Costa Rica
is similar to the other grasslands to the east. established 20 notional parks and reserves representing 8
The low coastal range is covered with grasses and pe ent Jr nearly 24 thousand square miles of the total land
trees. Just north and south of San Francisco are groves of mass (b) D2struction of India's forests dates back to the
redwood and fir, part the Northwest Coastal Forest beginning of British colonial rule, and the problem hasn't
Biome. There are mem; changes due to human activity, such improved during the last 40 years It is estimated that only
as farming, fores`ry, highway building, cities, and in general, 12 percent of Indin s forest remains today The state of
increased population. Uttar PradF-h once had a wide variety of wildlife, including
3. Grasslands are undergoing changes due to loss of top soil bear, deer, and tigers, but the 1962 border dispute between
increased alkalinity, and desertification India and China opened up the forest area to logging.
Tropical forests are undergoing rapid, destrJctive Today, as a result of excessive logging, only a few monkeys
changes because of increasing human population and the can be seen In 1976, the government set aside 1200 acres
demand for forest products. Once the forest has been and forbade any logging for a 10-year period. reforestation
removed, high rainfall leaches what little nutrients there are, has been intensified, but it will take 200 years for replantec.
 and the soil becomes unproductive The rich biological forests to make a dent in the problem The one problem
diversity of the tropics is lost and the agricultural productivity that won t go away is that of a growing population
has not been increased Millions of species of plants and (c) There are many examples throughout the word, t A one
animals are lost as the destruction opi..al forests of the best is in India The Indian government, along with the
continues. World Wildlife Fund, has set aside 15 preserves, saving not
Acid rain is damaging both deciduous and cont arous only the tiger, but .,stems of teak, bamboo, and
trees in Europe, Scandinay.a, and in North America mangrove swamps Tha number of tigers has risen from
Extinction of plants and animals probably will increase as 2000 in 1972. to more than 3000, of these, more than a
the amount of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen increases Any third are in tiger preserves (d) A good reference is the
human endeavor will in some way alter any biome The March, April 1984 issue of International Wildlife. An article
degree of change will depend on the type of activity and the entitled Wild in London describes an urban ecologist s
duration You need only look around the area in which you efforts in developing ecological settings in London.
live to see the changes in your particular biome 5 A useful reference is Craig Chandler, 1983, Fire in Forestry.
4 Students' speculations may range widely. The important Forest Fire Behavior and Effects, Vol 1, Wiley Interscience.
thing is to keep them consistent with riown facts A pamphlet published by Rocky Mountain Nature
concerning the biomes and concerning succession Briefly, Association in cooperation with the National Park Service,
then, we can say. (a) the farm would go back to grassland, entitled FIRE) describes the lightning-ignited fire at Ouz,.4l
(b) after a very long time deciduous trees would occupy the Lake on August 9. 1978
cracks between sidewalk fragments, (c) after a period as a 6 This problem will test your students skill in using references
freshwater pond, the swimming pool would fill and be as as their ability to think ecologically No one reference
occupied by humid coniferous forest, (d) without constant will serve for all parts, perhaps the best single one would be
watering the Nevada park would revert rather quickly to the. encyclopedia Clues that may aid in assessing a
desert. student's success (a) cattle, (b) steppes of ASI2Old
5. Some organisms that might be found on these lists are World bison, horse., wild ass. pampas of Anger. na
apples. grapes, oranges, plums, cherries, melons. potatoes. guanaco, pampas deer, veldt of South Africagnu and
tomatoes, beans, squashes, corn, baey, wheat. rice. other large antelopes, (c) reindeer, caribou, musk ox. (d) the
sorghum, house mice. Norway rats, cockroaches, bedbugs, euphorbias, which have succulent stems, are thorny, and
house sparrows, starlings. and pheasant. Whether or not live in arid climates of South Atrica (see figure 21 11),
each of these could survive ir your locality without human (e) the .,unbinds, whith an. .mall, have long bills, am! feed
help depends in part on the climate of your region However. on neclar
some, such as corn and perhaps bedbugs, could probably
not flourish anywhere without 'lens

continued from page 810

Point out the limitations of the data with climatograms However, some local climatic data
which students are working. Some significant may depart rather far from the data of the
variables not indicated in the chmatograms representative station
include vends, cloud cover, and humidity It may Grass prairie anti Laramie are in short-grass
be useful to discuss al ) how the data have plains (See figure 22 )
been derived. Temperature data are means 7 Following are the stations from which the
derived from daily means, which are actually the data in group 2 were Waned
midpoints ir, range of hourly readiNs over a (a) Washington, DC paid latitude deciduous
24-hoar period, The precipitation data, on the forest)
other hand, are true means for monthly (b) Lisbon. Portugal (cha,larral)
precipitation over a period of years The number (c1 Iquitos, Peru (tropical rain forest)
of years of observation vanes from cne station (d) Yuma, Arizona (mid-latitude desert)
to another, These data do not indicate the (e) Odessa. U.S S R (niid-iatitude grassland)
monthly range in orecipitation and temperature (f) Valparaiso, Chile (chaparral)
rile range of the means of these variables. (g) Upernavik. Greenland (tundra)
however, is a significant factor to organisms, as (h) San Antonio. Texas (mid-latitude
are the extremes grassland)
Students should realize that a chmatogram (i) Bahia Blanca, Argentina (mid-latitude
does not summarize precipitation and grassland)
temperature for an entire biome The stations (1) Oaxaca, Mexico (tropicul deciduous
have, of course, been chosen as carefully as forest)
possible to provide data that are typical for (k) Moose Factory, Ontario, Canada
each biome (coniferous forest)
1-5. The major biomes of the United States (I) Fallon, Nevada (mid-latitude desert)
(excluding Hawaii) are in the set of 10

J54
 I

f'#;'''44.e"
: `v, 443. toto:
'(
l

NASA
The earth is a watary planet, as ei/idenced.in this photo taken from Apollo
 Teach strategies for this chapter, pages

CHAPTER 23 T52-54.
Key ideas
human deoendeoce on freshwater and ocean
water for survival;
ablotic factors in aquatic ecosystems,
major zones in the ocean,
interruption of aquatic ecosystems by human-

Aquatic Ecosystems caused pollution,

oceanographic technique nd importance of
oceanography.

Introduction
Our planet, when,viewed from outer space, is blue with water and water
vapor. All this water makes up the hydrosphere (HY droh Or), just as
all the air makes up the atmosphere. The hydrosphere is a vast heat
jEcologists who study ecosystems on inland
reservoir. It absorbs, stores, and circulates the heat that results when
12,2aters are called limnologists
radiant energy strikes the earth. It is also a reservoir of chemical ele-
ments and compounds. These arecontinuously dissolved in water that Ask students w ich in i.d bodies of water
eventually drains into the oceans. are located below sea level The principal ones
Oceans form the great interconnecting system that surrounds the are the Dead Sea, Salton Sea, and Caspian Sea
continents. Tides are clearly evident in oceans, which contain a large basins, Death VdPey is below sea level but has
amount of dissolved minerals. Inland waters are found on the surface of no permanent inland waters.
the land and ustial:y contain very few dissolved minerals. Most inland
waters are above sea level, and their water tends to flow downward to Ask students in what places have people
the oceans. made the most use of aquatic food re:uurces
Primitive human groups in some places depend
Humans are terrestrial organisms, but they have always lived close
on aquatic resources, especially along estuaries
to a source of fresh water. Throughout the world, villages, towns, and (for example, the Chesapeake) and along large
cities have developed close to bodies of water, which ;eve supplied food, tropical rivers (the Amazon). Among modern
transportation, and a waste removal system. In this chapter we will ex- nations Japan is a principal user of aquatic
amine the major aquatic ecosystems and the invoct human activities resources Some library work can greatly
have on them. broaden this topic.

Standing Fresh Waters Guidepost: What are the

characteristics
of ponds a. d lakes?
23.1 Inland Waters May Be Standing'
or Flowing
Inland waters are affected in many ways by the surrounding land, but
they have distinct environmental characteristics. Puddles around the
world contain very similar organisms. The Nile delta is surrounded by
desert, and the Mississippi delta by marsh, yet environn .stal conditions
are similar within the slow-moving, warm, muddy waters of both rivers.
;.%
853
854 Section F:.'e Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 23.1 Part of the Mississippi delta. What major kinds of ecosystems can
you see here?

'L ,,,Aitioadr.441

EARTH SCENES/0 C. C. Lockwood

Figure 23.2 Cross section through the edge of a natural pond in the
northeastern United States.

4
;tY
; , 1
-,-1.-tzzri;rt
7.ets

^,',
; ;
i% 4,1, ',;
FOREST EMERGE
SHRUBS
r

Iro
-Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 855

Inland-water ecosystems are grouped as standing waters or flowing O

waters. As is usual in ecological classification, the boundary between
these is not distinct. A pond is an example of standing water, yet some
current of water passes through most ponds. Many ponds are fed by
springs or brooks, and many have outlets. On the other hand, a river is
an example of flowing water, yet in some places a river may have such
a slow current that it is difficult to observe any movement of the water.
Standing waters range in size from roadside puddles to the Caspian
Sea, which occupies more than 350,000 km2. Puddles may last for only
a, few days, whereas ponds may last for a few hundred years. In general,
lakes are standing waters that are larger and older than ponds. Standing
waters range from very shallow to very deep, from clear to muddy, and
from fresh to salty.

23.2 Ponds Are Shallow Enough

for Rooted Plants
Ponds are generally defined as small, completely enclosed bodies of
water that are shallow enough for light to penetrate to the bottom. Rooted
plants can grow throughout, and temperatures from top to bottom are
relatively unifoi in during the warm months of the, year. The character-
istics of ponds are the same whether they are natural or artificial. As an
example, let us look at a natural pond in the northeastern United States.

rr

Plc eiv
- .

SUBMERGED PLANTS
856 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 23.3 A natural nond. It is easy to see the relationship between the forest
and aquatic ecosystems.

We stand on &hill overlooking the pond. As we walk down the tree-

covered skip, moiquitoes, which began their life in the pond, start to
annoy us and "bite." We walk out of the trees into a tangle of low shrubs.
Encourage use of A Catalog of Living Things, As we push our way through willows and alders, the ground becomes
appendix 3, and the index for locating pictures wetter. We leave the last shrubs behind us, and our feet 'sink into mu&
of the organisms mentioned Before us lies a marsh of sedges and cattails, with shallow water lapping
about their stems. Dragonfliesnewly emerged from the waterdart
about. Frogs sit on driftwood and a water snake slithers through th'
muddy water. A muskrat interrupts its meal of cattail stems and shuffles
away. In wading boots we follow the muskrat through the cattails. At
last we see the open water surface of the pond. Here and these it is dotted
with leaves of water lilies. With our boots ur tkep mud and with water
up to our knees.Ave are now 'in the middle of the pond' ecosystem.
In studying any ecosystem, an ecologist first looks for its source of
energy. In a pond, the most important producers are not the most ob-
vious ones. The large rooted plants sr., are conspicuous, but
they produce little of the ecosystem's food. Indeed, in some pondses-
Figure 23.4 Frankton.
pecially artificial onesrooted plants may be scarce of absent. We see
many plants within the water itselfsome floating on the surface and
some submerged. Such plants may become so numerous that their thick
mass hampers a swimmer. Yet even these are not the most important
pond producers.
You may have watched specks of dust drifting in a bright beam of
sunlight. In a beam of light shining into a pond, you also can see moving
specks that look like dust. These specks, however, are living organisms.
They may belong to any of the five kingdoms, but all are microscopic or
nearly so. Few can swim, but all can stay afloat. They are carried about
by the currents it the water, Together all these microscopic organisms
z
are called plankton. A variety of plankton organisms can be seen in figure
23.4.
KNIh 0111111/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES
Early ecologists began to realize that plankton make up for their small
size by their incredible numbers. Careful studies showed that most food
production in all parts of the hydrospherenot just in pondsis the
result of photosynthesis by plankton.

59
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 857

The plankton producers are collectively called phytoplankton (FYT

oh PLANK ton). Different kinds of phytoplankton vary in abundance Figure 23.5 The mayfly lives its entire life in
from one body of water to another. Diatoms are usually the most nu- and near the water. Nymph (top) and adult
(bottom).
merous, though not the most conspicuous. Green algae may become so
abundant in late summer that a pond's whole surface becomes green.
Because most pond producers ate microscopic, you might expect the
herbivores to be small, and most of them are. These zooplankton (ZOH
oh PLANK ton) include a variety of protists, and animals such as ro-
tifers and small crustaceans. Zooplankton are not the only pond herbi-
vores, however. Many young fishes also are herbivores, as are macroscopic
bottom dwellers such as mussels. Other pond fishes are carnivores; the
larger kinds eat the smaller. Fishes of all sizes eat aquatic insects, many
of which are themselves carnivores. Some zooplankton ; carnivores.
As you can see, pond food c'ains have many links. Most of the macro-
scopic carnivores stay near the edge of a pond, where the floating plants
provide a hiding place. The larger predatory fishes 'hroughout the
pond.
Dead organisms sink, so layers of organic matter build up on pond
bottoms. Decomposers such as tubifex worms (annelids) reduce the de-
taying organic matter to smaller bits and pieces, which are then acted
on by other decomposers such as fungi and bacteria.
We saw in chapter 3 that it is often difficult to determine the bound-
aries of an ecosystem. In a pond ecosystem, for example, the surface of
the water is not a distinct boundary. Insects are usually flying above and
around pOnds. Many of them hatch from eggs laid in the water and spend
most of their lives there. For evample, a mayfly's entire life is sr. ,nt in
the water except for the last few hours, when the adults mate in the air.
The females then lay eggs in the water, and the immature mayflies grow
there for a year or more. Frogs live primarily on such insects. Water
snakes eat fish and frogs. Many kinds of birds and some mammals feed
on fish, crayfish, and mussels. Such consumers, though they spend much
of their time on land, are actually part of pond ecosystems. Their energy
supply can be traced back to phytoplaricton.

23.3 Lakes Are Larger and Deeper

than Ponds
Lakes are larger than ponds and have some depths that are always
dark. Most of the world's naturally occurring lakes were formed by the
Food produced by rcoted aquatic plants is
action of glaciers and will eventually change through the process of less imdortant :11 lakes than in ponds The larger
succession and become terrestrial ecosystems, as shown in figure 23.6. and deeper the lake, the less, proportionally.
Phytoplankton are the major producers in lakes, as they are in ponds. can so-,1 ph.nts contribute to the energy budget
The phytoplankton of a lake, however, can exist only near the water's of one ecosysteo
surface. In deep lakes, therefore, all the food is produced in the upper
part of the water.
In deeper lakes light may penetrate to a depth of about 80 m, de-
pending on the clearness of the water and the cloudiness of the sky. The
existence of aquatic consumers, therefore, is limited not by light, but by
the* amount of oxygen in the water. Surface ,eater constantly receives
dissolved oxygen from photosynthesis.and from the air. The oxygen dif- Wave action, which is an important a tent of
fuses slowly downward from the surface, but before going very far, most mixing in oc, .s, is of rather minor importance
of it is used up by zooplankton. The spread of oxygen into deep water in any but the largest lakes
thus depends on other factors.

960
858 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 23.6 An example of lake succession.

sediments
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 859

The growing season is short: the average

Figure 23.7 A mountain lake. What are the environmental conditions here and water temperature cold in the summer, there is
what are their effects? little shore vegetation to contribute nutrients

Katherine A. Wintemitz

Figure 23.8 The formation of a thermocline in a lake.

a
wind

11
otisEpar-,
and
nutrients nutrients 3

mixing of water currents during spring a northern lake in late spring and early layers formed during midsummer
and fall in a northern lake summer, and a tropical lake in all
seasons

23.4 A Thermocline Prevents Circulation

of Oxygon and Nutrients
During the summer, the sun heats the lake surface and the water ex-
pands, becoming lighter or less dense than water at the lake bottom. This
0
forms a warm layer that floats on the colder water below. Separating
these two layers is a zone, the thermocline (THER moh klyn), across
which both temperature and oxygen concentration drop sharply. The
thermocline prevents vertical mixing of the upper and lower layers of
water, resulting in important differences between these layers. Oxygen
concentration remains high in the upper layer because of photosynthesis,

962
 860 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 23.9 Mono Lake in California is another example of the salination of a

lake. Salt accumulation is responsible for the large tufa formations on the right.
The water is so saline that only brine shrimp live in it.

Catheiine L. Qua/VISUALS UNUMITED

but declines in the lower layer as it is used up by consumers. The activ-

ities of aerobic decomposers are restricted, so dead bodies of organisms
that fall from above are only partly decomposed. Nutrients produced by
decomposition remain on the bottom.
Have your students recall that water expands In the fall, as the air temperature drops, the surface water becomes
when it cools from 4° to 0° C This is an denser than the lower level of water. The heavier surface water then
important physical properly of water If it did not sinks, forcing deep water to the :op. Wind action aids in mixing the water
occur, life in the oceans would be limited.
uniformly and distributing oxygen throughout the lake. During winter,
the surface of the lake may freeze, so a warmer layer remains at the
bottom. The oxygen concentration declines, but anaerobic decomposers
0 continue to release nutrients from dead organic matter. In the spring,
rising temperatures bring about another turnover of the waters, mixing
oxygen and nutrients throughout the lake again. Measurements of oxygen
content provide useful information about aquatic ecosystems, as 3,-..0 can
learn in investigation 23.1.
Lakes in the tropics maintain a thermocline all year, so iertical mixing
of water, oxygen, and nutrients does not occur. Tropical lakes such as
Tanganyika in Africa, therefore, have no deep water aerobic animals.
Outside the tropics, however, lakes have many animals in their deeper
water. Animals have been foiind at a depth of 600 m in Lake Baikal,
U.S.S.R., the world's deepest lake.
If a lake has no outlet, minerals washed in from the surrounding land
become concentrated in the water, because only water molecules (not
In addition to minerals, other substances minerals) can evaporate from the surface. The salination (sayl ih NAY
such as DDT and herbicidesmany containing shun), or salt and mineral build up, of a lake takes place faster in arid
mercuryaccumulate temporarily even in lakes regions where evaporation is more rapid. The water may become satu-
that have outlets. These substances may poison rated with minerals, the most abundant of which is usually sodium chlo-
animals or make fish unsuitable for human ride (NaCI), common table salt. The result is an environment unfavorable
consumption, to most organisms. The Great Salt Lake in Utah contains such a high

: '
r

963
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 861

Figure 23.10 The water cycle. Water is necessary to life in many ways, as we The long cycle would be eliminated except
have seen throughout this book. Land plants absorb water from the soil. Land for groundwater to the oceans, if living things
animals drink water or get it in their foods. Water constantly bathes organisms
were absent The water cycle would revert to
that live in ponds, lakes, rivers and the oceans. Water also evaporates from the
the short cycle only. (Notice also. in figure 4,14,
surface of all bodies of water and from land. Plants and animals lose water, too,
that the carbon cycle would be virtually
but by different processes. All the water comes from the nonliving environment. It
all returns from the organisms to the nonliving environment. What is the elminated by the absence of living things.)
difference between the long and the short cycles?

long cycle

atmospheric
water vapor

rain life processes

or
snow
evaporation

evaporation ..

The level of the Great Salt Lake has been

rising steadily since 1981 and is now at a
historic high, The salt concentration has
dropped to 9%, and one species of fish has
concentration of sodium chloride that only brine shrimp, a few species entered the lake `rom springs at the south end
of cyanobacteria, and two species of brine flies can survive there. Those and is living in the lake. A few species of algae
organisms, however, are present in great numbers. also are living in the lake now.
Some of the water that falls on land runs directly into lakes, ponds,
and streams; some evaporates. But most of the water soaks into the Ask students what factors might affect the
ground. This ground water reappears in springs, from which the course amount of water that sinks into the ground.
to the ocean may be short or long. Thus, water cycles in the biosphere. Among those that students might mention are
character of precipitation (snow v. rain), rate of
fall, slope of land, amount of vegetation, and
amount of humus in the soil.
Self-Review

1. What are the principal types of inland waters?

2. How do phytoplankton affect a pond ecosystem?
3. How is a pond ecosystem linked to surrounding terrestrial ecosys-
tems?
4. How do three layers of water form in a lake?
5. Why are animals found deep in Lake Baikal but not deep in Lake
Tanganyika?

964
862 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Investigation 23.1 10000016-23.1::DISsixygoogypEN

DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Introduction
The reaction from the titration is so dramatic The amount of free oxygen (02) dissolved in water is an important abiotic
and clear that students are eager to test the environmental factor in all aquatic ecosystems. Oxygen measurements can
oxygen content in a variety of waters The Hach be used in studying aquatic productivity and, indirectly, aquatic pollution.
Kit method (which follows the Winkler technique) Here you are given a procedure for measuring dissolved oxygen. How-
was selected because the reagents are neatly ever, you must design your own investigation to make use of the proce-
packaged to pose less hazard to students than dure. Some suggestions from which you may develop hypotheses are the
when they mix their own reagents following:
Aquariums. Amount of oxygen with and without artificial light, plants, or
Materials aerators; or amount of oxygen early in the morning and in the afternoon.
CAUTION: The only 2 reagent that are
Standing water. Amount of oxygen in freshly collected rainwater pud-
labeled as harmful by the Hach Chemical
dles, at various depths in a pond or lake, or in a natural pond compared
with that in an artificial pond.
Company are the PAO titrant and the dissolved
oxygen 3 reagent powder Avoid prolonged
Running water. Amount of oxygen in a sewage-polluted stream at var-
ious distances from the source of pollution or in a stream at various times
contact with the skin or contact with the eyes
of the year.
Students should wash their hands alter use, as
with any chemical test.
Kit availability: Hach Kits are available from Materials (per team)
the Hach Chemical Company, PO. Box 389,
1 Hach Kit (Kit #1469-00) containing:
Loveland, CO 80537. Telephone. (303)
1 glass-stoppered sample bottle
669-3050. The basic kit is useful for 100
100 dissolved oxygen 1 reagent pillows
dissolved oxygen determinations and is Model
100 dissolved oxygen 2 reagent pillows
0C-2P, Cat. No. 1469-00. Replacement
100 dissolved oxygen 3 reagent pillows
reagents and larger kits also are available.
1 plastic measuring tube
The LaMotte Dissolved Oxygen Set may be
1 square mixing bottle
substituted for the Hach Kits This procedure
also uses the azide modification of the Winkler
1 fingernail clipper for opening reagent pillows
1 plastic bottle PAO titrant
Method, but utilizes the LaMotte Direct Reading
instructions for high- and low-range procedures
Micro Burette, which reduces errors of titration.
Water samples from various sources
The set is available from Ward's Natural
Science Establishment (Ward's #21W0054; 24
tests; refill kit #21W0050; 200 tests) 5100 West Procedure (high range)
Henrietta Rd., Rochester, NY 14692-9012
Telephone. (716) 359-2502 If this set is used,
1. Fill the glass-stoppered sample bottle with the water to be tested by
you should of course follow the instructions
allowing the water to overflow into the bottle without trapping any air
accompanying the test
bubbles.
If neither set is available the necessary
2. Add the contents of 1 pillow each of dissolved oxygen 1 reagent
chemicals can be mixed by jou or a small group
powder and dissolved oxygen 2 reagent powder. Stopper the bottle
of responsible students The materials and
carefully so that no air is trapped in the bottle. Grip the bottle and
procedures necessary in this situation can be
stopper firmly and shake vigorously to mix. A flocculent (soft flakelike)
found in the "Supplementary Materials" section precipitate will be formed. If 02 is present, the precipitate will be
fcr chapter 23, page T52 The introduction and brownish-orange in color.
discussion parts of the investigation need not be 3. Allow the sample to stand until the precipitate, or "floc," has settled
changed. halfway and leaves the upper half of the bottle clear. Then, again shake
the bottle and let it stand a second time until the upper half of the bottle
Discussion is clear.
4. Remove the stopper and add the contents of 1 pillow of dissolved
1-4. Discussion will depend on the samples oxygen 3 reagent powder. Carefully restopper and shake to mix. The
and the hypotheses used. The measurement floc will dissolve, and a yellow color will develop if oxygen was present.
procedur., is secondary to the ecological ideas This is the prepared sample.
that the measurements may generate. 5. Fill the plastic measuring tube level-full with prepared sample and pour
In one school most aquarium waters it into the mixing bottle.
measured 4.5 to 5.0 ppm 02 A foul, unaerated
tank measured 1.5 ppm, and an outdoor
artificial pond measured 16 ppm 02.
5. Aside from gross mistakes in following the
procedure, the principal errors probably involve
determining the end point of the titration. Error
may also be introduced if fresh solutions are not
used. 965
la 1
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 863

6. While swirling the sample to mix, add PAO titrant dropwise, counting 6 It is quite possible for oxygen to be taken
each drop, until the sample changes from yellow to colorless. The up or lost from the water between the time the
dropper must be held in a vertical manner. Each drop indicates 1 mg/ sample is taken and the time the measurement
liter or 1 ppm dissolved oxygen. is made Therefore, measurement should occur
as quickly as possible after sampling.
Discussion
1. How much oxygen did you find in your water samples (in ppm)? Not-water brooks flow for some distance
2. Were your hypotheses supported? from hot springs and geysers, notably in
3. How does the oxygen content of your samples compare with that of Yellowstone Park, New Zealand, and Iceland,
the water samples of other teams?
4. How do you account for the differences or similarities? The current is running rapidly, which prevents
5. Assuming that the chemical materials were properly prepared, what plankton organisms from accumulating, and the
sources of error might there be in the procedure? water is quite dear, which indicates little
6. What factors might cause a difference between the accurate mea- suspended organic matter Also, there are no
surement of oxygen present in a sample and the actual amount of rooted plants or evidence of submerged ones,
oxygen in that sample? though the latter might not appear in a
'photograph.

Flowing Waters Guidepost: How do flowing water

ecosystems differ from
those of standing water?
23.5 Plankton Are Usually Absent
from Brooks
Most springs give rise to small brooks. Such flowing water is usually 0
cool, though some hot springs do exist. Tumbling through rapids and IFigure 23.11 A mountain brook. What
falls, the water traps many air bubbles from which oxygen easily dis- evidence can you see that this aquatic
ecosystem has few prOducers?
solves. Because cool water can hold relatively large amounts of gases in
solution, the water in brooks usually contains much oxygen.
In the swift-flowing water of brooks, most plankton are absent be-
cause they are swept away. Producerscyanobacteria, diatoms, and fi-
lamentous algaegrow attached to stones. These producers provide some
e
food and much shelter for aquatic insects. The insects, in turn, are food
for small fish. Most of the food supply in a brook ecosystem comes from
the land around it. Small terrestrial organisms, such as insects, fall in
the brook and are eaten by stream inhabitants. Every rain washes in
dead organic matter. Anything not used immediately, however, is washed
downstream, so there is very little food left for decomposers.

23.6 Brooks Jo;n to Form Streams

Brooks meet, forming larger streams with wider beds and more water.
Here the water usually moves more slowly. Solid substances that have
been carried along by the s gift brooks are now deposited as sediments.
Bits of organic matter, accumulating among the sediments, provide food
for decomposers.
As the stream widens, the relative amount of water surface shaded
by trees along its banks decreases. Direct sunlight reaches most of the
water surface. Some phytoplankton organisms may live in this slower-
moving water, but many still are carried downstream. Rooted plants, BSCS by Carlye Calvin
such as those in ponds, grow in the sediments of a stream bottom. They,
too, may be washed away during floods. 7 brook ecosystem might be compared with
a small town; it has its gardens, but most of its
food comes into it from elsewhere.

966
864 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Because it contains more producers, a stream supports a larger number

Figure 23.12 Stream consumers. (Top to of consumers than does a brook. Mussels, snails, crayfish, and many im-
bottom): dragonfly nymph, freshwater mussel,
rainbow trout.
mature insects inhabit the bottom. Larger consumers, such as turtles
and fish, are dependent on these bottom dwellers.

0
23.7 Rivers Carry Large Amounts
of Sediments
Many streams come together to form a river, a large body 1 flowing
water. As a river approaches the sea, it usually moves more slowly and
deposits larger amounts of sediments. Thus, near its mouth a river often
builds up land instead of eroding it. The river banks may actually be-
come higher than the land behind them. During floods a river often breaks
through these natural levees. The water left behind is slow to drain away
and forms a swamp. Many rooted and floating plants grow in these
r- swampy lands. Fruits, seeds, and other plant parts that are swept into
I the river during floods contribute to the food supply of the river eco-
system. Phytoplankton grow well in the unshaded, slow-moving water
and provide much of the food for consumers in large rivers.
Consumers in rivers are varied and numerous. Zooplankton are food
for bigger predators. Mollusks, crustaceans, and fish often grow to large
size. Crocodiles are common in tropical rivers. Many terrestrial birds
and mammals obtain their food from rivers, just as many do from pords.
Since ancient times, many humans also have taken advantage of the
abundant food in rivers.
Ara
Figure 23.13 A river in Alaska.

The terminology of flowing waters of various

sizes is confused We have used brook, stream,
and river to indicate size (roughly, volume) _j

Many ancient riverside civilizations were

agricultural. Ask students how river ecosystems
contributed to agriculture Consider the Nile
Valley Students should suggest irrigation
possibilities in addition to soil building that
results from floods
Doug Sokol'

96
 ft

Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 865

23:8 Flowing Waters Can Serve

as a Laboratory
Not all springs give rise to brooks. Some pour forth so much water
This section may be confusing to some
that large streams flow from them. Many of the short rivers of northwest
students Try to get them all to comprehend that
Florida originated that way. The short Florida rivers are fine outdoor a phenomenon can be understood indirectly.
laboratories. Each river has lengths with stable conditions of volume, Productivity as used here refers to the amount
current, chemical composition, and temperature. Ecologists have used of organic substance produced per unit of time
several of these rivers in studies of ecological productivity. Refer student:: to section 3 7
Productivity of any community depends on the photosynthetic rate
of its producers. That rate can be measure 1 indirectly. Photosynthe-
0
sizing organisms give off oxygen in proportion to the amount of organic
substances they produce. To calcu;ate productivity, biologists first mea-
sure the oxygen given off during a measured period of time. Using that
figure, they can calculate the amount of organic substance produced
through photosynthesis during that same time period. Point out to students that a stream has
Any increase in the amount of oxygen in the spring water as it flows depth Why, then, was surface area rather than
downstream comes largely from photosynthesis. Figure 23.14 shows the volume used in zalculating productivity? The
oxygen content measured at given places along the river flowing from question emphasizes the fact that productivity is
concerned with energy, not matter The energy
Rainbow Springs. The ecologists also measured the amount of water that
in food comes from the sun The amount of
flowed past each point per day. Based on that information, the ecologists sunlight available depends on the amount of
calculated the total productivity of the water between its source in the water surface exposed to sunlight Water depth
springs and the point of measurement. That was expressed as grams of may affect the proportion of sunlight used, but it
organi0 substance produced per square meter of stream surface per day. cannot affect the amount of solar energy
The investigators found an average productivity of 17.5 g/m2/day. available
In further studies the investigators esti.mated the biomass of each
Note that figure 23 15 is a pyramid of
major species in the community. Biomass is the total mass (usually minus
biomass and hgure 3 15 is a pyramid of energy,
water content) of all individuals of a species in a given area. Figure 23.15 so the latter is not a mere generalization of the
shows the result of biomass measurements in the Silver River, another former Energy always decreases along a
short Florida river. Such measurements provide information that helps trophic chain. but biomass might not appear to
ecologists understand the interrelationships in an ecosystem. In inves- do so when generations of producers turn over
tigation 23.2, you can study some of those interrelationships. more rapidly than those of consumers

Figure 23.14 Diagram of Rainbow Springs (Florida) and the river that flows from Percents are parts per hundred, which is
them. Ecologists measured the amounts of oxygen in the springs and in the river much too crude for expo ssing amounts of
water at several places downstream. Such measurements are expressed as oxygen dissolved in water The ppm expression
parts per million (ppm). One ppm = 0.0001 percent. is used frequently to express amounts of
de* pollutants in air and water You might compare
the use of micrometers instead of meters for
Rainbow Springs e or, 111
41
measuring microorganisms Meters could be
used, but the resulting large number of decimal
5.0 km station
.64$.41404W 1 Places Is not convenient
8.0 ppm 441P4P
9.0 ppm
7.6 ppm 10.5 ppm
7.35 ppm 10.7 ppm

968
43
866 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 23.15 Average biomass measurements from Silver River, Florida.

Largemouth bass are top carnivores. Compare this with figure 3.15.

second carnivores 1.5g/m2

first carnivores 11 g/m2

decomposers
5g/m2
herbivores 37g/m2

Self-Review

1. How do abiotic conditions in a brook differ from those in a river?

2. What is the source of energy for organisms in a brook?
3. Why is plankton more abundant in a river than in a brook?
4. How do ecologists measure productivity?
5. What usually happens to biomass between one link in a food chain
and the next?

Investigation 23 2
Invest!gation 23.2 ENERGY FLOW
ENERGY FLOW IN AN AQUATIC IN AN' AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
Materials Ecosystems are ecological units of a variety of organisms interacting
There are several options depending on with each other on a regular basis. A pond, woodland, small section of
your teaching resources Here are some prairie, or cave is an ecosystem. The African baobab tree is so large and
suggestions serves as a habitat for so man? organisms that it is an ecosystem in. itself.
1 An artificially stocked ecosystem in a Ecosystems are relatively independent and self-sustaining because of the
classroom aquarium One 10gat aquarium with presence of producers, consumers, and decomposers.
a moderate filtering system can contain the The energy in an ecosystem typically begins as sunlight captured by
aquatic ecosystem The exact organisms are photosynthetic plants. As this energy passes from the plants, through a
not critical, but the ecosystem should have progressive chain of consumers, and ultimately to decomposers, patterns
balanced biomasses of a variety of primary emerge as to how the energy is utilized and how much is available for use
producers, primary consumers. secondary and
tertiary consumers. and decomposers, so that
approximately a 10 to 1 ratio of numbers of
organisms Is established with each ascending
trophic level The aquar6m should be stocked

'.1 969
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 867

by the various consumers. Although you will investigate only one specific 4itt knuNr, ,t, 4,,d111.,,,- it
case of energy flow through an ecosystem, the principles you will learn ,,,t4401.1J -imp Ina will CIA pit tt tht2it
apply to other ecosystems. Your goal in this investigation is to identify some 1-,3r oiatior, 11 ,s recommi Lit d that tht talton,
of the major principles dealing with the flow of energy through ecosystems. ,..oarse sand to a he4gra ,t r
Before beginning procedures for this investigation, be sure you under- i..11,1T1t.t..r, and Via' the watt r tk, ,
stand the following terms: ecosystem, biomass, energy pyramid, food chain, c lr, it A it 00,i !RIM sc ur,t is important for
Plod web, producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, decom- prcdu,er growth Sunlight is best The
poser, and trophic level. ecosystem should have been estab'ished
several Nee iks in order for quantities of algae to
bt growing on the sides of the glass A relatively
Mater;als (per class)
small number of organisms will serve as a
aquarium (at leas', 13-gallon) containing a variety of plimary producers and ;.tarter sou add about 1 g of Rapid
consumers ai different trophic levels or actual samples from a natural :,ra pt r gai of Aatcr and id the ,,ulture sit at
aquatic ecosystem (such as a pond) either collected on site or brought room tt mperature for a week or two
freshly into the classroom laboratory. Recommended organisms for thc aquarium
(per student) at,
microscope (3) Producers Alga cultures
slide rAnkrstk'deernus. Sca-Dedesrnos, etc ) at a
c overslip density of about 10 000 cells ml This writ give
Pasteur pipet the water a s' ht cloudiness The cells tend to
Sink so you may want to try some mottle forms
suche Chlainvdomoras tvlacraphytes. such
Procedure aS Ceratophyllum, Chara 01 E/Odr-a can be
1. Sample an ecosystem systematically to estimate the biomass per added to the extent desire d Floating sort'
volume of ecosystem. You should sample several layers (depths) of Lemma on top is a ,-43 recOrnMeridtd it the
the ecosystem, including surface and bottom. If you do not know the water , Jvt.r filtere, i may be neues:ary to
name of an organism, assign a number or letter to each one you cannot rt plc niJi the algae The prism, e, of ample
identify. Try to organize your sampling data by trophic levels so the ilia, rophyte., and goiid aeration will n, s,ow
organisms are represented correctly on the food web and energy pyr- algal filtration
amid that you will construct later. Consider working in groups with other (bi Herbivores MiLrociusta,,earts, su.rt as
students to divide the labor of counting the organisms in each sample. Paphro or cone-pods at a de.rriitL of 10 to 2C
If you do not have sufficient time to count the organisms in your
tit 2 to s.) soak pt.T tta, rciphyt strand
samples, you may wish to judge the relative numbers in qualitative plus 10 to 20 snails for the tank at large ifew,r
,1 the- ,nails are large) Water e r avenger: such
terms, such as abundant, many, some, few, or none. If you follow this
a. 11'11(1qt larvae and watt r thliatttitin ,.sold be
strategy, it is important to apply these terms consistently to each
list d of ityletarnorpriosh, the
sample. Identify representatives from all trophic levels: producers, pri-
mary and secondary consumers, and decomposers. riiidge larvae Lan bt delayed toy keeping m
citd umil ready for t,,e )
2. Macrobiotic sampling. Identify those organisms that are visible to you
without the use of the microscope. There will be few of these organ- () Carnacut iptOy ,niatuly 5 mitinowt,
d or fry of blurgill or crape w,li
isms, so you can identify the common name of each organism and
count the numbers present.
T1,, iint.-ia) prOper balaikc t: Any nicite will too
earls line the herti,,fOrt, A :,mat: tiger
3. Microbiotic sampling. These organisms can only be seen with the mi-
croscope. An acceptable and simple technique is to sort all observed salaander is another vertebrate that will ft ed
organisms into 1 of 4 groups: en zooplankton tf one is added, r, move 1 or 2
trti l.ratger it me f,11,31A fist}
(a) Arthropods. Insects and crustaceans that have obvious eyes,
Cragortfiy Of 4.12411:,Litiy rirva, ar.2 also flood
jointed legs, and generally move rapidly.
pro ,tors, and larger ones will also at the
(b) Worms. Multicellular worm-shaped organisms. Most will be col-
orless roundworms. bSti Other (100d predators to k.iSo as
alt-rnato.es (not additionally) are baily.iwailner,
(c) Zooplankton. Single or few-celled organisms lacking pigment but
usually quite active. giant water bugs, and dytiscid beetles
(d) Phytoplankton. Single or few-celled organisms that contain pig- ',1) Other', A small crayfish Of Iwo fli,1), be
ment (usually shades of green). added as they are snowy and fill a variety of
mot).- s (carnivoms on snails. scavengers,
,,,ometimes herbivores) Small bivalves and many
other insects are also possible It is important to
avoid the temptation to add too many large
consumers A balanced ecosy3tem appear
almost empty compared to home ;:aquaria
868 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

2 Obtain organisms from a local pond for Use a table similar to the one below for microbiotic data.
the classroom ecosystem In some cases, it
may be convenient (and inexpensive) to stock
the classroom ecosystem with organisms Trophic Level Sample # Name/ Description Count
collected a' a local pond The pond environment Code
would provide a much wider variety of
1
organisms than could normally be afforded from
a biological supply company Gaps in the 2
community, particularly representing whole
trophic levels, can always be purchased Using etc.
fresh pond samples also has the advantage that 1
students will consider the ecosystem more real
than one stocked commercially 2
You will want to consider taking the following etc.
materials on your collection trip a dip and
sweep net plankton nets of at least 2 mesh
saes (60/inch anC 180/inch), a few different- 2
sized screens or sieves for collecting
macroorganisms, an assortment of pails, etc.
bottles, and dippers for holding samples
Water samples should be collected from 4. Construct a food web for your ecosystem. A food web shows the en-
several different depths Collect representative ergy relationships of organisms in an ecosystem. If all organisms are
vegetation also from all depths Sample the muc not represented, at least all trophic levels should be. Try to show all
on the bottom by using a screen or sieve. and possible food interactions for each different organism you sample.
collect more extensive bottom samples by 5. Construct an energy pyramid for your ecosystem. An energy pyramid
dragging a scoop sampler (or weighted conical illustrates the relative amount of food energy present at any given
net with strapron handles and rigid opining) trophic level of an ecosystem. Actual energy available in an ecosystem
along the bottom Use a sweep net at tie is nearly impossible to measure directly. However, because food en-
surface to collect phytopfankton and acme ergy it in the bodies of organisms that may be consumed, a good
major herbivores All of these efforts will yield estimate of energy in any population may be derived from the biomass
the following organisms from a typical pond of those organisms.
algae, phytoplankton, zooplankton, water Biomass is closely related to the total number of organisms found
spiders, willigig beetles, a variety of insect in a given population. Base the construction of your energy pyramid
larvae such as stonelly, mayfly. dragonfly, on your data, assuming that the samples represent the total environ-
damselfly, dipertains, and caddis fly, snails ment. When using sampling to determine numbers of a population, be
leeches, Planana. floating forms such as water sure to take several samples in different locations and average the
fleas and copepods, rotifers, protozoans. numbers. Use the following formula when computing the total popu-
swimmers sUch as fish and amphibians, and lation from the average of these samples.
burrowing forms such as annelids and doter()
larvae As for the simulated ecosystem, the total volume or area of space
total population = ave. # in samples X
water should be allowed to settle for several vol. or area of space sampled
days, at which time you should check for the
organisms you need for the student
Discussion
investigation
3 Take the students to a natural pond or 1. What is represented by the food web and food pyramid you con-
marsh Probably the most desireble ecosystem structed?
study is the natural habitat itself Most natural 2. Is the ecosystem you studied a natural one? Give reasons why it might
ponds will have a lush variety of orgoisms, and might not be natural.
especially anytime but midwinter or late summer 3. How do a food web and a food pyramid illustrate energy relationships
The students should bring equipment to in the biosphere?
measure the physical environment If they are to
examine the microbiota back in the laboratory,
they should bring collecting equipment as well
The same sampling procedures discussed
above should be followed
To assist in identification of microscopic
organisms, you will need to provide students
with some supplementary literature

continued on page 891

9 71
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 869

Ocean Ecosystems Guidepost: What factors affect ocean

ecosystems?
23.9 Many Abiotic Factors Influence
the Ocean
Ocean environments differ in many ways from inland-water environ-
ments. The principal difference lies in the chemical composition of the
water itself. Seawaterthe water of the oceansis about 3.5 percent Exceptions such as the Great Salt Lade
dissolved minerals. Because most .rf the dissolved minerals are salts, the contain more minerals than seawater does
mineral content of seawater is referred to as salinity (say LIN it ee).
Sodium chloride accounts for more than 75 percent of the dissolved min-
erals. Salinity varies somewhat at different depths and in different places
on the surface. The average mineral content of seawater is shovr. in table
23.1.
Evidence from rocks and fossils indicates that the ocean has had a
high salinity for hundreds of millions of years. It seems, then, that the
The shells of most sea animals are made
dissolved substances constantly washed into the ocean from the land have
primarily of calcium carbonate Ask students
had only a slight effect on the composition of ocean water. Ocean water
how the existence of sea animals affects the
represents a steady state. Substances are continually added to it, but supply of calcium ions in sea water The supply
substances also are continually removed by marine organisms, organ- is affected as marine organisms remove both
isms that live in the ocean. Ocean water is the environment of marine calcium carbonate and silica from the reservoir
organisms, but it is also a product of their activities. The hydrosphere, of dissolved substances in the sea Once
like the atmosphere, would undoubtedly have a much different compo- removed. they may remain in the accumulated
sition if life were absent. skeletons for long periods of geological time

Table 23.1 Average mineral content of

Figure 23.16 The ocean.
seawater'
Element Seawater
(Parts per Thousand)
Chlorine 18.58

Sodium 10.56

Magnesium 1.27

Sulfur .88

Calcium .40

Potassium .38

Bromine .065

Carbon .028

Strontium .013

Silicon .003
Fluorine .001

Aluminum .0005

I:414, 40 Phosphorus .0001

Iodine .00005
'These elements occur as parts of compounJs.

svn0 12
 870 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 23.17 Diagram of an ocean in cross section.

/100 m maximum reached

by most green plants and by scuba divers.
4 200 m reached by submarines.
"Sea-bottom" films
3 and pictures are 330 m light still visible to Trieste crew.
Perpetual darkness below this level.

i i/
2 mostly taken here.
liyoral zone 500 m sperm whales island
coastel,plain coral
/ reef /
1 I
/hunt giant squid.
0
7; 1
2
2 3
24
ii. 5
2 -6
E7
8
9
10
11

The horizontal scale in this diagram is greatly

contacted with respect to the vertical,
therefore, the slopes are greatly exaggerated Figure 23.18 Penetration of seawater by sunlight. The water appears blue
because blue wavelengths penetrate farthest.

Color piLtures taken under water by natural

light have a bluish cast Rtd algae are usually
found at greater depths than other algae The
red color implies that these algae do not use
red light

Howard 141i/TOM STACK t ASSOCIATES

Ask cli dents to Jescribe some rapid Rapid changes of the atmosphere result in great differences in the
changes in weather from their own expenerk,es
climates of terrestrial ecosystems. Such rapid changes do not occur in
the hydrosphere. Temperature changes between day and night and be-
tween the seasons are very small at the ocean surface. Although the sur-
face water at the equator is very different from that of antarctic and
arctic waters, those differences diminish with increasing depth. At great
depths the oceans have a uniform temperature.

973
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 871

Figure 23.19 The major ocean currents have profound effects on climate.
Europe is warmed by the Gulf Stream, the western coast of South America is
coded by the Humboldt Current, and the eastern coast of South America is
warmed by water from the equator.

The amount of light energy available to photosynthetic organisms is

greatest at the water surface. The extent to which light penetrates into
the water depends on several factors. One is the angle at which light
strikes the water's surface. Another is whether the surface is smooth or
broken by waves. A third is the rate at which light is absorbed by the
water. As light passes through the water, longer wavelengths are ab-
sorbed most rapidly. That means that red and yellow disappear first, and
that blue and violet penetrate farthest. Finally, the rate at which the
absorption of light occurs depends on the clarity of the water. The clou-
dier the water, the faster the rate of light alorption.
Ocean currents distribute chemicals that are useful to organisms. 0 Depending on students earth-sueme
Currents also affect water temperatures and salinities at any given place bacAground (and the availability of a globe). you
in the ocean, and they have a profound effect on climate. Currents, in may want to discuss the relatiori,,hip between
turn, are affected by the world pattern of winds and by the earth's ro- differential interception of solar radiation and the
tation. The major ocean currents a:e shown in figure 23.19. powering of ocean current systEms

974
 872 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

23.10 Productivity is Limited

Figure 23.20 Plankton net being cast from the
Horizon, a research vessel of the Scripps
in the Open Ocean
Institution of Oceanography, California.
The chief producers of the open ocean are diatoms, other microscopic
algae, and certain flagellates. The zooplankton depend on these phyto-
plankton directly. Many food chains are based on these producers, with
large consumers being the tuna, sharks, whales, and oceanic birds such
as albatrosses.
Many scientists have tried to determine the density of marine plankton
populations. Detailed results have come from one study at the marine
laboratory at Plymouth, England. The ocean water there contains, at
the very least, 4.5 million phytoplankton organisms in each liter of water.
Biologists do not have enough data to give accurate density averages for
the ocean as a whole. But they do know that the oceans vary greatly in
productivity.
0 A limiting factor in the ocean, as on land, may be the availability of
chemical elements, especially phosphorus and nitrogen. The phyto-
plankton continuously use up these elements. Their continued growth,
therefore, depends on constant resupply. Elements may be added from
sediments washed from the land or from water welling up from below.
Upwelling may occur as a result of seasonal changes. It also may occur
when offshore winds move surface water and deep water rises to take its
place. Because of upwelling, ocean areas at higher latitudes and close to
the land are very productive. The North Sea and the Grand Banks of
M. W000ixidge VMliems
Newfoundland are examples. These areas of upwelling are very small,
however, compared to the entire ocean. About 50 percent of all fish and
Ask students how this relates to the location shellfish harvested from the ocean are taken from 0.1 percent of its en-
of great ocean fisheries. Most fisheries are tire surface. On the other hand, ocean regions far from land, especially
located near oceanic areas rich in
those in the tropics, have very low productivity. The Sargasso Sea in the
phytoplankton, the basis for food chains that
Atlantic is an example.
lead to fish useful as food for humans
Regardless of the availability of nutrients, phytoplankton need light.
All of the photosynthesis of the open ocean occurs in the upper layer of
water, where light penetrates beneath the surface. That layer isvery thin
compared to the total depth of ocean water. Despite the deep penetration
of blue light (550 m near Bermuda), phytoplankton are largely limited
to the upper 100 m of water.

23.11 Ocean Depths Support

Some Forms of Life
For a long time biologists thought that life could not exist in the dark,
cold ocean depths because of the tremendous pressure of the water. The
first clear evidence that this idea was wrong came in 1858. One of the
telegraph cables lying on the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea broke
and was hauled up for repair. It was encrusted with bottom-living ani-
mals, mostly sponges. Some had grown at depths as great as 2000 m.
When brought to the surface, fish caught at
great depths often look as it they had exploded Further investigation showed that water pressure has no ill effect on or-
Gases within the bodies of these fish are ganisms that do not contain body spaces filled with air or other gases.
adjusted to the great external pressure of the Deep-sea organisms lack such spaces, so pressure is exerted equally from
ocean depths. When such fish are hauled to the both inside and out, and damage due to pressure does not occur.
surface, the pressure of their internal gases is The ocean depths are special ecosystems that require unusual adap-
no longer balanced from without, the gases tations in the organisms that st.. Ave there. The depths are cold, dark,
expand and may rupture membranes within the and quiet, and food is scarce. In general, life depends on organic sub-
fish, stances that settle from the water above. The adaptations of organisms
to the pressures of the deep also make their ascent to upper levels fatal.
Thus, the consumers in the ocean depths form one of the most isolated
communities of the biosphere.

975
 Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 873

Figure 23.21 Some fishes of the ocean depth and the depths at which they
have been caught. An are small: they are shown here actual size.

Figure 23.22 An acorn worm on the.ocean bottom (South Pacific, depth about
4800 m).

John D. Cunningham /VISUALS UNLIMITED

976

,.
 i`r

874 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

This illustration may arouse interest in the Figure 23.23 Air-breathing sperm whales descend as much as 500 m to hunt
diving prowess of marine mammals and the giant squid.
dc pths to which they go. Refer students to E J
Linehan, The Trouble with Dolphins (whales are
included loo), National Geographic (April 1979)

Figure 23.24 The submersible Alvin. This deep-sea research laboratory can
dive to a depth of 4000 m with a crew of three. Alvin is transported to research
sites by its mother vessel Lulu, a large boat that contains living qaarters and a
laboratory.

Rod Cateasch. Woods Hob Oceanographic Institution

0 In the eternal night of the ocean depths, most animals are either black
or dark red and have very sensitive eyes. Many animals produce their
own light; they are bioluminescent (by oh loo mih NES ent). The ability
to produce light may serve several functions. One species of 'fish dangles
a special luminescent organ in front of its mouth. Apparently this lures
unwary victims close enough to be caught and eaten. Deep-sea shrimp
escape some predators by secreting clouds of a luminescent substance
when disturbed. Patterns of light on an animal's body also may serve as
marks of recognition in the depths. That would be similar to the color
patterns among many organisms in the world of light.
Development of self-propelled, deep-sea research laboratories has en-
abled scientists to study ocean bottoms. Some of these labs are built so

977
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 875

Figure 23.25 Deep ocean vent community. The abundant tube worms may
measure 1.5 m long.

Kathleen Crane. Woods HolisOceenooraphic institution

that several scientists can live in them for weeks at a time without re-
turning to the surface. The labs are equipped with mechanical arms that
pick up objects and samples for study. In addition to observing life at
great depths, deep-sea research has provided evidence for the theory of
plate tectonics discussed in section 21.6.
In 1977 an ecosystem was discovered on the ocean floor Prirtheast of
the Galapagos Islands. This unusual ecosystem was characterized by an
abundance of consumers, including mussels, giant clams, tube worms,
Figure 23.26 A diver in a kelp bed.
crabs, anemones, and large pink fish. Some of those organisms can be
seen in figure 23.25.
The ecosystem derives its energy not from the sun, but from the
breakdown of radioactive materials inside the earth. The breakdown re-
leases heat and results in the formation of new oceanic crust. Seawater
seeping into the crust reacts with the crustal rock, and large amounts of
hydrogen sulfide are released.
The primary producers of this ecosystem are bacteria. At vents in the
ocean floor, they absorb the hydrogen sulfide and combine it with oxygen
dissolved in the seawater. That reaction releases sufficient energy to sup-
port the bacteria, which, in turn, support the other organisms.

23.12 Coastal Waters Are the Source

of Much Food for Humans
With few exceptions, oceans are relatively shallow near the conti-
nents. These bands of shallow water average less than 200 m in depth.
They are widest at the mouths of large rivers and along areas of broad
lowlands. Along mountainous coasts, as in California, shallow waters
may be almost absent.
In shallow waters some light reaches the bottom. Where there is plenty
of light, a luxuriant growth of seaweeds may be found. In middle and
higher latitudes the most common and conspicuous seaweeds are brown
algae. Among these are kelps (figure 23.26), which may reach lengths
of 35 m or more. Nevertheless, here, as elsewhere in aquatic ecosystems,
phytoplankton are the principal producers. Howard Hall/TOM STACK i ASSOCIATES

978
876 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Ask students how their knowledge of plants 0 The physical characteristics of the bottomsand, mud, or rockde-
might lead them to predict this fact Except for termine fiba kinds of organisms that live there. Plants are not usually
phytoplankton, plants cling by roots (or by abundant on unstable sandy bottoms. However, many kinds of animals
holdfasts in the larger algae), and so they
burrow into the sand, especially crustaceans, mollusks, and annelid
require a stable substrate Thus shifting sands
worms. Muddy bottoms have even more burrowers, and most of the spe-
either above high tide (on dunes) or below
have few plants.
cies are unlike those adapted to sand. Sea cucumbers, clams, and some
crabs plow through the mud. On rocky bottoms and coral reefs, many
animals attach themselves permanently to one place. Crabs, octopuses,
and fishes hide in nooks and crannies among the rocks.
Because they are shallow and close to land, coastal waters offer more
opportunity for human use than does the open ocean. Much of the ma-
rine food supply of humans comes from the coastal waters. Underwater
farming of kelp, fish, crustaceans, and mollusks is a future possibility.
It is unlikely, however, that the ocean will supply all the food we will
need in the future. With the exception of coastal waters, the ocean is
very limited in some of its dissolved nutrients. Rich fertile soils may con-
tain 0.5 percent nitrogen, an important nutrient for growth. The richest
ocean water, in comparison, contains only about 0.00005 percent ni-
trogen.

23.13 Coral Reefs Support a Great Diversity

of Life Forms
Coral reefs are large formations of calcium carbonate laid down by
living organisms over thousands of years. They are found only in tropical
Pefer students to the discussion of the waters where there is adequate light and oxygen. The reef structure is
phylum Cnidaria in chapter 14 for a review of formed by individual coral polyps that secrete calcium-containing skel-
coral structure.
etons. Mutualistic green algae live within the tissues of the polyps. These
algae carry out most of the photosynthesis of the reef. In addition, they
recycle essential minerals such as nitrogen and enhance the ability of
Figure 23.27 Coral reef showing a variety of the coral to deposit calcium carbonate. Red and brown algae also are
corals and sponges with a large starfish.
part of the reef ecosystem.
0 Coral reefs are among the most productive and colorful of the eco-
systems. They provide food and shelter for a great diversity of sea ani-
mals. Numerous species of fishes populate the reef ecosystem. A
tremendous variety of invertebrates, such as sponges, sea urchins, and
crustaceans, is present in large numbers. In term of their diversity of
9 life forms, coral reefs have been called the tropical rain forests of the
sea.

23.14 The Littoral Zone Is a Difficult

Place to Live
Everywhere along the margins of the oceans you can see the effects
of waves and tides. In the Bay of Fundy (Nova Scotia) the maxium ver-
tical change bctween high and low tides is 15.4 m. At the other extreme,
the average tidal difference in the Mediterranean is only 0.35 m. Wave
action, too, varies depending on the place and time. Some shores, such
as those of Maine, are pounded by heavy surf. Others, especially in small,
protected bays, may be no more exposed to wave action than the shores
of small lakes. High and low tides each occur twice a day. The zone
between high and low tidesthe littoral zoneis a difficult environment
for life. Twice a day littoral organisms are submerged in salt water and

CARIBBEAN COLLECTION/Nancy Salton

,..0
979
 Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 877

Figure 23.28 The ocean shore. Wave action helps to form the pattern of rocks
and life along the shore.

Doug Sokell

Figure 23.29 Tide pool. On rocky ocean shores many aquatic organisms live
during low tides in pools left'above the waterline. Starfish, anemones, and
barnacles are visible in this'Plioto.

Doug Sokell

then exposed to air and the bright, hot sun or freezing wind. Between
those times the littoral zone is pounded by the advancing or retreating
surf.
On rocky coasts, life in the littoral region is surprisingly abundant.
In cold water, different species of brown algae cling to the rocks. They
are protected from the drying sun by a jelly-like coating. These tangled
algae provide protection and support for other algae, protists, and many
animals. In addition, barnacles, chitons, and snails cling firmly to rocks
or seaweeds, closing up tightly during the periods when they are exposed
to air.

980
t
a
878 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

On sandy coasts, life in the littoral zone is limited to o' ganisms that
can burrow in the sand or skitter over it. There are no attached pro-
ducers, but phytoplankton may be present when the tide is in. The bur-
rowers, such as small crustaceans, eat food particles brought by the high
tides. Shorebirds are a link with land ecosystems. They prey on the sand
burrowers or forage in the debris left behind by the retreating tide. Land
Estuaries are among the most productive
crabs release their young in the water. Sea turtles crawl out on the beach
areas on the earth. Tidal salt and brackish
marshes produce 4 times the plant biomass of a
and bury their eggs. Terrestrial and marine ecosystems merge in the lit-
good cornfieldwithout fertilizers If your school toral ze ie.
is near an estuary, you should certainly pursue Wheiever ocean meets land, there is constant change. In only a few
the topic further, A good reference is G H years sediments deposited at the mouths of rivers stretch the land into
Lauff, ed 1967, Estuaries, Publication 83, the ocean. Elsewhere you can observe the ocean pushing back the land
American Association for the Advancement of as it carves out sandy beaches with its wave action. Such changes have
Science, Washington, D.C. occurred throughout most of the earth's history.

Self-Review

1. Why do some parts of the oceans have a higher productivity than

others?
2. Describe the environment of the ocean depths and the organisms
that live there.
3. How do coastal ecosystems differ from those of the open ocean?
4. How do marine organisms affect the amount of dissolved substances
in ocean water?
5. Compare variations of temperature in the oceans with those in the
atmosphere.
6. What factors determine the amount and color of light beneath the
water surface?
7. In what way is a coral reef like a tropical rain forest?

Investigation 23.3
'11)100titikitIcin'.23:3: 'EFFECTS OF SALINITY
EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON AQUATIC PN_AQUATIO,:ORGANis,m6'
ORGANISMS
Introduction
This investigation is concerned with the idea If you were to move freshwater organisms into the ocean or ocean or-
of tolerance, which ,ras discussed in chapter ganisms into fresh water, they would probably die very quickly. Although
20. Tolerance to variations in concentration salmon migrate from the open ocean into freshwater rivers to reproduce,
of dissolved substances is an important they first spend several days in water with decreasing salinity. In this way,
characteristic of all aquatic organisms In a more their bodies adjust gradually to the lower salt concentrations.
general view, the investigation is concerned with Small freshwater ponds become salty as the summer sun evaporates
osmoregulation Students should be encouraged the water. Small aquatic organisms that cannot tolerate the change will
to relate the observations in this investigation either die or go into a dormant stage.
to their work with osmosis and diffusion in In this investigation you will observe the tolerances of some freshwater
cl* apter 5. organisms to various concentrations of salt solutions. Review the proce-
dure and set up an appropriate hypothesis.
Materials
Each pair of students should test the effects Materials (per pair of students)
of all concentrations of sodium chloride on a
particular organism. Many different aquatic living specimens of small aquatic organisms
sodium chloride solutions (10/0, 3%, and 5%)

981
Chap' lr 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 879

elodea or filamentous algae ,:,Iganisms and concentrations of salt may be

monocular microscope used The following are suggested largely n the
...k

3 microscope slides basis of availability

3 coverslips Anaeltans (elodea)
dropping pipet Spirogyra or other filamentous algae
paper towels Vodicella
Paramecium
Procedure Euglena
Hydra
Part APlants and Salinity Aderma (brine shrimp)
1. Take a leaf of elodea from near the tip of the plant Place the leaf Daphnia or Cyclops
upside down on your microscope slide. Add a drop of fresh water and rotifers
cover with a coverslip. You may use a filamentous alga such as Spi- You may want to prepare a hay infusion 3 to
rogyra instead. 4 weeks before doing this investigation and
2. Using the low power of your microscope, find a cell that you can ob- have the students use whatever species develop
serve clearly. in it Anemia eggs can be hatched a few days
(a) Describe the cell contents. before the investigation
(b) Does the cell seem to be completely filled with the cell contents?
3. Add a few drops of 5% salt solution to one side ot your coverslip. Draw Procedure
it under the coverslip by applying a paper towel to the opposite side. Part A
Watch your cell and describe what you observe.
Devote some time to a prelaboratory
4. See if the process is reversible by drawing pure water under the cov-
discussion Be sure that each student has
erslip. Record any changes you observe.
developed a hypothesis and understands how
to use it in the experimental procedure
Part BAnimals and Salinity You can provide a basis for comparison by
1. Your teacher will have placed several aquatic organisms in containers having all students observe the effect of a 5(7
salt solution on elodea cells. The "shrinking" of
of water, 1%, 3%, and 5% salt solutions. Using a medicine dropper,
the cytoplast away from the wall is very
place on a slide a drop of the water containing the kind of organism
dramatic and easily observed. The process can
you have chosen to study. Add a coverslip.
be reversed by flushing away the 5"6 satt with
2. Using the low power of your microscope, observe the organism!, for
distilled water
a few minutes to determine their normal appearance and ac ins. You
can slow down the movement of some kinds of protists by adding
protozoa slowing compound, a few wisps of cotton, or a bit of shredded Part B
paper towel to the water. Motile organisms tend to be drawn up by the
3. Prepare another slide of the same organisms from the 1% salt solu- paper towel when solutions are changed by the
tion. Observe the organisms, and record any difference in movements method used with elodea or filamentous algae If
and shape. you have rich cultures of several organisms, you
4. Repeat procedure 3 with the 3% and 5% salt solutions. Which of these can add 2 or 3 droppers full of culture to small
is most like ocean water? containers of the appropriate salt solutions at
5. Replace the 50k salt solution with water as you did in part A, procedure the beginning of each class period
4. The organisms may be drawn up by the paper towel. If organisms 4 The 3% Ask students to express the
remain on your slide, record any changes in movement or shape that percentages as parts per thousand
you observe.
Discussion

Discussion AU the questions depend on the actual

observations made Much variation is to be
Individuals of a species usually respond in a variety of ways to an en-
expected Have students check each other's
vironmental factor. All students who worked with the same organisms should
observations to eliminate this source of
compare their results.
observational error. In addition, students will
1. Did all individuals of the species react in the same way? If not, what carry out the procedure differentlyespecially
differences were noted? with respect to timingand tolerance among
2. Did the kind of reaction differ with different salt solutions? Try to explain individual organisms will vary For microscopic,
any differences. freshwater organisms, individual variation may
3. Compare observations of teams that worked on different kinds of or- be greater than variation between species
ganisms. However, if Anemia is used, it should provide
(a) Which kind was most tolerant to changes in salt concentration? marked contrast to most other species in its
(b) Which kind was least tolerant? ability to tolerate even a 5% salt solution.

982
880 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

For Further Investigation 4. What kind of aquatic habitat do you think each kind of organism nor-
If marine species are used, it is appropriate mally inhabits?
to vary the concentrations downward from 5. Which of your observations support the hypothesis you set up?
about 3.5%, 6. Do any of your observations weaken your hypothesis? If so, which
ones?
7. Taking all your observations into account, rolate your hypothesis in
the form of a conclusion to the experiment.

For Further Investigation

All the organisms you studied in this investigation are small. Many larger
Ducks and pond fish can be used as human
ones (salmork for example) regularly move from marine water to fresh water
food as well as wheat. How, then, dces
(or vice versa), apparently without harm. Others cannot tolerate much
drainage increase the food supply? This
change in salinity. Test the salinity tolerance of macroscopic aquatic ani-
question is partly related to the energy pyramid
mals such as crayfish, goldfish, guppies, or snails, using the principles em-
This is not the wIlole story, of course, because
ployed in this exercise. If you use a marine species (for example, a clam
more of the biomass of a hectare of spring
worm) in your experiments, how should you modify your procedure? CAU-
wheat goes to human food than of a hectare of
TION: It is not necessary to kill the animals used in your experiments.
duck- and fishproducing marsh This is another
Whenever they show signs of discomfort, return them to a more tolerable
example of trade-off in economic-ecologic salinity.
human decisions. Encourage such thinking

Guidepost: How do human activities Human Influences on Aquatic

affect aquatic ecosystems?
Ecosystems
Have students review the discussion of 23.15 Drainage of Standing' Waters May
human influence on terrestrial ecosystems
Have Serious Consequences
(sections 22. 14-22, 17).
Shallow ponds, lakes, and marshes are basins where rich organic
matter constantly builds up. This organic matter can be used to grow
crops. We need only remove the water from the basins and plow the muck
Figure 23.30 Migratory birds (Western to mix air into it so that crops will thrive.
sandpipers) in wetlands.
After the invention of powered pumps, humans could easily drain
standing inland water. Throughout the twentieth century the use of such
pumps has reduced the number of natural-water areas in many parts of
the United States. An unfortunate effect of this drainage has been a
decrease in migratory bird populations. The grassland ponds and marshes
are the main breeding sites for many migratory bird species (figure
O 23.30). When a pond or marsh is drained and turned into a wheat field,
the area supplies an increased amount of food for humans but no longer
supports migratory birds. This is a clear example of one consequence of
a growing human population. In the management of farmland and wild-
life, as with other resources, we must make choices. These choices are
called trade-offs. They involve the study of many interacting ecological
factors.

23.16 Artificial Ponds and Lakes Are

Formed by Dams
Although drainage of standing waters has continued, the surface area
of inland waters has actually increased during the last 50 years. That
Thomas KAMA /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES
has resulted from construction of dams across running waters.
Dams are built to provide a waterfall that will turn electric genera-
tors. Most dams, especially in the western states, also form basins in
which floodwaters are stored for irrigation and for supplying water to

9c
 Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 881

The Structures are hsh laddl,:rf,, who.h agoW

Figure 23.31 Lower Monument Dam on the Columbia River. What purpose do atiaNtlit19 .).,thiloti tt, Mort,- t,eiond the
the structures in the lower right corner of the photo serve? (Jam

-
-
'Z.11
.3
Nt
_1/
rr

BoAAvNle Pow*, Administtation

Figure 23.32 A term pond.

USDA

cities. The result is bodies of standing water where once there were
streams and land. Such major changes in environment bring about major
changes in communities. A large dam may block the passage of fish that
swim up rivers to lay their eggs in headwater streams. On the other hand,
it may greatly increase the amount of habitat favorable for other species,
such as catfish. Trout and catfish may become trade-offs. Ask students how farmers might im.rease the
hsh crops of their ponds Relate. this question to
Much of the new inland-water area is made up of small ponds that
the food-web concept, to loss of energy from
cover only a few thousand square meters. Some artificial ponds are dug
one trophtc level to the next, and to effects of
merely to provide a supply of water in case of fire. Other ponds supply
overcrowding Certain combinations of hsh
a summer source of water for range cattle, deer, and game birds. Still (bass and bluegilb set up reasonably stable
others produce fish for food, sport, or both. In such cases the pond owners equilibriums, others do not Consult your state
must understand something about pond ecosystems so they can make agricultural extension agent fur pamphlets on
favorable habitats for the fish they want. raising fish in farm ponds

984
882 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

23.17 Sewage and Industrial Wastes

Affect River Ecosystems
One of the first human uses of flowing water was to float boats for
transportation. Today boat and barge traffic, along with industry, have
affected stream ecosystems principally by simplifying community struc-
ture.
Humans have always used water to flush away unwanted substanccs.
0 When humans come together in towns and cities, their accumulated bi-
ological wastessewagegreatly affect nearby river ecosystems. Sewage
Ask students how this would affect is mainly organic substances mixed with water. By providing nutrients,
consumers Growth of pruduLt.r toopuidtiolis sewage increases the growth and reproduction of producers in the water,
shOufd allow growlet ..on1,urrur pOPUlatial. a process known as eutrophication (yoo troh fih KAY shun). If the amount
(Sewage acts as a ft:Irbil/el ) But inLrease of of sewage is Iarge relative to the volume of river water, the producer
consumers 2,111 further mdse. the demand for growth is great. Phytoplankton have short lifespans. When they die, de-
dissolved oxygen composers use up the oxygen in the water as they break down the pro-
ducers' bodies. An anaerobic condition results, which is deadly for all
Many miles of river t.ourst are ,ompressed aerobic organisms. However, as the waters of the river flow on, the sewage
m this diagram

Figure 23.33 Diagram of sewage pollution in a stream. (Organisms are not

drawn to scale and distances are greatly decreased.) At the left sewage is
attacked by decomposer. The oxygen supply decreases. Aerobic organisms
die. Further downstream the amount of sewage decreases. The oxygen supply
increases. The phytoplankton and aerobic consumers increase in number.
Chaqie; 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 883

may be diluted by water from tributary streams. In any case, decc

posers eventually use up the sewage materials. River ecosystems ors.,e
could clean themselves of sewage pollution, as described above. Human
populations have increased, however, and cities have been built closer
together. Today a river ecosystem seldom can clean itself up fore it
receives another load of sewage.
From factories and mills, alkalis and chromium, lead, and mercury
ions have been dumped into bodies of water. All of these are poisonous Initially the mercury ions are nannies., but
to some living things. Industrial processes, particularly the generation miauorgartisms incorporate them and Litangc
of electricity, often result in the discharge of hot water into rivers. Such therm into mercury ,ompounds that enter toad
chains and poison other organisms An
thermal pollution abruptly changes the abiotic environment and makes
additional pollution problem is the .dannitication
it intolerable for many aquatic organisms. The warmer water also may
of puz:ficides, described in suction 3 9
bring about a change in the types of species that can inhabit the area.
Nuclear reactors sometimes add small amounts of radioactive sub-
stances to streams. Those substances accumulate in the bodies of stream
organisms, harming tht,1 and the organisms that eat them. All of those
pollutants may affect the health of the human populations that depend
on the water.

6:66 to
884 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

23.18 Acid Rain Is Toxic

Figure 23.34 A mountain stream such as this
one would likely be able to cleanse itself of Acid rain is precipitation that has a pH of less than 5.6. When acidic
pollution. Why? rain falls into a lake over a period of time, the lake is changed into a
body of water that has lost nearly all forms of life normally found in a
lake. How does that happen?
We can use the simplified sulfur cycle in figure 23.35 to understand
how acid rain forms and gets into lake water. Atmospheric sulfur comes
from several sources, including volcanoes, the action of soil microorgan-
isms, and the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, gas, and oil. When
fuel that contains sulfur is burned, oxygen combines with sulfur to form
oxides. When the oxides of sulfur reach the atmosphere, they combine
with rain water and form sulfuric acid which, in turn, falls to the ground
as acid precipitation.
3 As the pH drops, the organisms that live in or near a lake are affected.
Amphibian eggs fail to hatch, snail populations decline, and the diversity
of plants and animals diminishes. Bacteria die, and bacterial decom-
position of dead plant and animal matter is retarded. The normal re-
productive cycle of many fish is disrupted. Toxic metals, such as
aluminum, can be leached from the surrounding land or lake bottom,
damaging the gills of fish. Mercury can be converted to its organic form
and be absorbed by fish. Mammals birds that depend on aquatic
foods are affected because their sources of food are gone.

Figure 23.35 The sulfur cycle.

conversion of gas to acids

depositiOrk,
wet and'

nitrogen affects
oxide visibility sulfur dioxide `nitric acid
Y 14

, ,11,1416L__

* 4c
'

1.1.te
;?'4,-1*.
...in

't
el.1 ...46.
;IV

,;
111-

11 -
,
L ,.'
to
, .mod

- ,... ik447.4'7 4,4,4*

' Occeg
:4
r4
W.,....0.... 7:1'141.=
4.41'

967 -1
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 885

By the time the pH of a lake falls to 4.5, no fish are left. Most of the 0
frogs, insects, and decomposers are gone. The remaining bacteria rap-
idly use up the available oxygen, and anaerobic bacteria increase. The
water becomes beautiful and clear, but the lake is dead. You can observe
the effects of acid rain in your area in investigation 23.4.

kivostiotion:4474 'ACID RAIN IN LOCAL Investigation 23

ENVIRONMENTS: ACID RAIN IN LOCAL ENVIRONMENTS

Introduction Students investigate their immediate

The degree to which acid rain is destru^+ive differs in the United States surroundings for possible influemes and
from region to region. Many factors influence the probability and the po- evidence of and rain Materials from local
tential damage of acid rain. Most experts agree that the problem begins environments such as soil, lake, ,-)r pond vater.
with the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas. Smokestacks as tall as 300 snow. and rainwater must be -ollected pr or to
meters allow winds to carry pollutants far from local sources. In addition, the start of this investigation Snow, if you are in
the capacity of the soil or bedrock to buffer the effects of the acid rain an area where this occurs, can be collected
varies. Limestone bedrock neutralizes the acid very well. Granite bedrock wheii it is available and then placed in a freezer
has no effect at all on the acid rain. until needed Rainwater also should be collected
One can study the extent of acid rain in one's own area by starting with when it rs available and then stored until
a map of the United States that displays several areas of greatest vulner- needed The estimated time for the investigation
ability. After determining the degree of vulnerability, actual tests of the sur- is 2 class periods
roundings can be performed.
Part A

Materials (per class) Procedure

The observation called for in this part of the
individual student samples of:
rainwater Investigation can be enhanced if a transparency
lake or pond water of the map on page 886 is projected by an
overhead
soil
snow (if possible)
pH meter or pH paper Discussion
acid solutionpH 4 I Northeast, Southeast. Upper Great Lakes.
boiled distilled waterpH 7 West Coast, Northwest. and Rocky Mountains
glass or plastic funnel 3 Greater production of pollutants
filter paper responsible for acid rain. prevailing winds, and
100 ml beaker ability or inability to buffer acid rain

Part AVulnerability to Acid Rain

Procedure
Examine figure 23.36 showing the areas of the United States with the
highest susceptibility to acid rain.

Discussion
1. According to the map, which parts of the country are most susceptible
to acid rain?
Part B
2. According to the map, is acid rain currently destructive to your area?
3. What causes an area of the country to be more susceptible than an- Procedure
other area? The data collected will be of high quality if pH
meters are available to your students Borrow
Part BpH of Your Rainwater Samples then from your chemistry department or order
an adequate supply from science equipment
Procedure suppliers Several have inexpensive meters
Test your rainwater with a pH meter or pH paper and record its pH. which are very accurate

968f.
 886 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 23.36

is high sensitivity
Discussion
El moderate sensitivity
2 Normal rainwater is any with a pH of 5.6
or higher Comparison should be made on that 0 low sensitivity
basis Adapted from E. Johnson and R. Bybee. supervisors, "Acid RaM: Activities for Science Teachers" The
American Biology Teacher 45.4 (April/May 1983) 0 National Association of Biology Teachers, Reston,
3 If it is workable have each student record Virginia, Reprinted by permission.
his or her pH on the chalkboard Then discuss
differences in light of the entire class Discussion
4 If very acidic High degree of sulfur and
1. What is the pH of your rainwater?
nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, either being
2. How does the pH of your rainwater compare to that of normal rain-
produced locally or being blown in from high- water (pH 5.6)?
producing areas in neighboring states by the
3. Compare the pH of your rainwater to that of 3 other students who live
prevailing winds Little or no buffering being
in different neighborhoods. Do you find a difference in pH? Describe
done in the environment
these differences.
Not very acidic The reverse of the above
reasons
4. Give some reasons why you think your rainwater is or is not very acidic.

Part C Part CpH of Soil Samples

Discussion Procedure
2 Again, have students record their results 1. Place filter paper in a funnel and fill the funnel with your soil sample.
on the chalkboard 2. Hold the end of the funnel over a small beaker and pour 100 ml of
3 Different pH of rainwater Different boiled distilled water through the soil; dirty water should collect in the
buffering action of the soil beaker.
4 If the pH of rainwater is low, it could 3. Determine and record the pH of the collected water with the pH meter
increase the acidity of the soil However, if the or pH paper.
soil is a good buffer, this would not necessarily
happen Conversely. if the pH of rainwater is
high, it should not increase the acidity of the Discussion
soil However, the pH of soil is affected to a 1. What is the pH of "our soil?
large degree by the types of plants that have 2. How does this compare to that of 3 classmates?
grown or are growing in it Soil under pine trees, 3. State 2 reasons why your soil pH might differ from that of your class-
for example, will be more acidic than that mates.
developed beneath deciduous trees 4. Consider the data on the pH of the rainwater of your area. In what
way, if any, is this rainwater affecting the acidity of your :oil?

Part DBuffering Capacity of Soil Samples

Procedure
1. Set up your funnel and a new sample of soil as you did in part C.
2. Hold the end of the funnel over a small beaker and pour 100 ml of an
acid solution (pH 4) through the soil.
3. Determine and record the pH of the collected solution.
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 887

Discussion Part D
1. The acid solution had a pH of 4 before it was washed through the soil. Discussion
What is the pH of the washed-through solution collected in the beaker?
2 It the pH increased, the aLid solution has
2. Based on the data you just collected, discuss the buffering capacity become less acidic and. therefore the soil does
of your soil. have a buffering capacity II the pit remained the
3. What might cause a soil to have a buffering capacity? same or decreased the soil does not have a
4. Considering the pH of your rainwater, could your soil be healthy without
buffering capacity
a buffering capacity?
3 The presence of neutralizing agents
Lime. limestone or sandstone all contain
Part EAcidity of Lake or Pond Water Samples calcium carbonate. a potent buffer
4 If the rainwater has a tow pH, the soil
Procedure would not be very healthy if it did not have a
Determine and record the pH of your water sample. good buffering capacity

Part E
Discussion
Discussion
1. What is the pH of your pond or lake water sample?
2. Compare the pH of your sample to that of 3 other students who have 2 Record results on the chalkboard if
samples from different lakes or ponds. Do you find a difference in pH? possible
Describe these differences. 3 A healthy pond or lak should have a pH
3. How does the pH of your sample compare with a healthy pond or lake? around 6 5
4. Do you think this pond or lake is too acidic? 5 Buffering agents affect the rainwater
5. If the pond or lake water is not too acidic and the rainwater is known before it becomes a part of the pond or lake
to be acidic, what might be some factors influencing acidity of the pond water
or lake water? 6 The presence of neutralizing agents in the
6. Consider the characteristics of the area around the pond or lake (for soil. gravel or bedrock surrounding the body of
example, forest, farmland, bedrock). How might these factors influ- water will affect its pH, as well as audi, soils as
ence the acidity of pond or lake water? in coniferous forests

Part F
Part FpH of Snow Samples
Discussion
Procedure
3.4 It would be less if the snow fell during a
1. Melt your snow in a small beaker. period when there were few pollutants in the
2. Determine and record the pH of the meltwater. atmosphere The usual case. especially ' the
snow being tested is old snow, is that the pH of
snow is lower than the pH of rainwater All
Discussion
winter, the pollutant loads from snowstorms
1. What is the pH of your melted snow? accumulate in the snowpack The acids
2. How does the pH of your meltwater compare with your rainwater in- t,oncentrate on the surface of the snow The
vestigation in part B? first mild weather melts this surface. releasing
3. Discuss reasons why snow meltwater might be more or less acidic the accumulated acid, This first meltwater can
than rainwater. be 5 to 10 times more acidic than the remaining
4. From your data, what conclusions can you make about what time of snowpack Because of this, most severe fish
the year you might find your lakes and soil the most acidic? kills occur in early spring

For Further Investigation For Further Investigation

Write a letter to your congressional representative explaining the pos- The letter to the students' k,ongressional
sibilities for a problem with acid precipitation in your area. Include in your representative is an option You are in the best
letter some suggestions for what we as a nation can do to lessen the threat position to decide the value of this kind of
of acid rain. activity It is possible that 1 or 2 of your students
might be interested enough to want to do
This investigation was adapted from E. Johnson and R. Bybee, supervisors, "Acid Rain: Ac-
something like this A representative would be
tivities for Science Teachers" The American Biology Teacher 45:4 (April/May 1983) m Na- more reL. eptive to 1 or 2 well-writteil letters than
tional Association of Biology Teachers, Reston, Virginia. Reprinted by permission. to 100 poorly written ones
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Most of the world's largest cities are coastal 23.19 The Oceans Receive the Major Part
In addition to sewage, garbage, and industrial
wastes from the cities themselves, there are
of Human Waste
wastes from ships in the harbors It has been estimated that more than 80 percent of all ocean pollution
comes from human activities that are land based. This pollution takes
many forms and is found in every ocean, sea, and bay of the world. For
example, large amounts of garbage are dumped in the ocean off New
Figure 23.37 New York City garbage being York and New Jersey. Evdything from plastics to radioactive waste is
towed to sea for dumping. being dumped in the oceans at an ever increasing rate.
Large rivers that empty into the sea carry sediments from the normal
process of erosion. Now, along with the sediments, the rivers carry raw
sewage, fertilizers, pesticides, heavy metals, and chemicals, such as dioxin
and formaldehyde. What happens to these substances once they have
reached the ocean? Some, such as pesticides and mercury, enter the food
chains and could eventually end up in the seafood that we eat. The people
of Minamata, Japan, learned firsthand what mercury pollution could do.
They ate fish with tissues containing high concentrations of methyl mer-
cury, which causes crippling from damage to the brain and nervous
system. Between 1953 and the early 60s, 46 persons had died of Min-
amata disease, and hundreds of others, many of them children, had been
affected.
Oil spills are a constant threat to ocean ecosystems and must be con-
stantly monitored. Between 1969 and 1974, there were 500 oil spills and
1 million tons of oil were lost from tankers by accident. On March 16,
1978, the oil tanker Amoco Cadiz broke apart off the coast of Brittany
0 in France, spilling 1.6 million barrels of crude oil onto the beaches. More
than a million sea birds were killed, and the oyster beds, as well as fish
and other sea animals, were destroyed. The tourists avoided the Brittany
coast for years after the oil spill because the seawater was nearly devoid
EPA
of marine life, and the beaches still had a residue of oil in the grains of
sand.
The captains of oil tankers often clean the holds of their ships by
washing them out with seawater. Most of the pollution comes from these
Figure 23.38 An oil spill and cleanup crew. illegal activities. As a result, there are very few beaches in the world
that are not affected by oil pollution of this type.
The oceans of the world are like a large basin or tub. Everything that
is dumped into a river or stream eventually ends up in the ocean, and
many of those pollutants will end up in the food chain. Most pollutants
stay in coastal waters, the most productive parts of the ocean. They could
very well cause the destruction of important species of fish that many
people depend on for food.

Self-Review

1. What benefits do humans get from draining inland water? From

damming flowing waters?
2. How might draining and damming waters be harMful to human in-
terest?
3. What eventually happens to sewage when it is dumped into a river
system?
4. What are the effects of acid precipitation on a lake?
5. How did the people of Minamata, Japan, get mercury poisoning?
API) VISUALS UNLIMITED 6. Why is crude oil so destructive to ocean ecosystems?

9j
Chapter 23 Aquatic Ecosystems 889

Summary
Humans always have depended on various sources of water to meet
their needs. Inland-water or freshwater ecosystems are grouped as
standing or flowing waters. Ponds are generally shallow and smaller than
lakes, but phytoplankton are the primary producers in both. Plankton
are usually absent in brooks and streams, but may be present in slow-
moving rivers. Rivers carry sediments and pollutants into the sea.
Drainage, dam building, and pollution may have an adverse effect on
the amount, quality, and usage of water by all organisms.
The oceans cover about 70 percent of the earth's surface. The con-
centration of salt and other minerals remains in a steady state through
the action of marine organisms. Temperature, the amount of light avail-
able to photosynthetic organisms, and currents also affect ocean waters.
There are four major zones in the ocean. The zones blend together, but
each one is different in terms of physical factors and biota. All of the
zones are affected by human activities, and pollution has become one of
the most demanding challenges with which we must deal.

Application Questions Problems

1. Why does thy; concentration of oxygen in a small 1. Current is one of the most important limiting
pond differ from night to day? factors in a stream ecosystem. Stream organisms
2. How would a cloudy, windy day affect the must be adapted to maintain a constant position.
productivity of phytoplankton in a lake? Cite at least five specific organisms showing five
3. Is a layer of ice on the surface of a lake harmful to different adaptations to stream currents.
fish? Explain. 2. Differences in the physical characteristics of water
4. Compare the sources of oxygen in a brook, a slow- and air are important in understanding the contrast
moving river, a pond, and a lake. between aquatic and terrestrial environments.
5. Would you expect decomposers to be more active on Consider questions such as these:
the bottom of a pond or of a lake? Explain. (a) What land organisms have the most
6. Why is a poisonous substance in a pondsuch as a streamlined bodies? With what form of
mercury compoundlikely to be more concentrated locomotion do you associate this streamlining?
in the flesh of a bass than of a ciliate? (b) What water organisms have the most
7. A program designed to improve the fishing was streamlined bodies? What niches in aquatic
introduced in a midwestern pond. First, a fish ecosystems do these organisms occupy?
poison was used to kill all the many small fish that (c) Why do most plankton organisms have little or
were in the pond. Then the pond was restocked with no streamlining?
game fish. Instead of large game fish, the flew (d) How does locomotion by walking on the
population contained many stunted individuals. bottom of the ocean differ from locomotion by
Explain. walking on land?
8. If you collect 167 snails of a given species from five 3. The Saint Lawrence River in North America is
plots totaling 5 m2 and find their total mass is 534 about 1223 km long. Find out what changes have
g, what would be the biomass of the snail been made in the river in the last 25 years and
population? what those changes have done to the river's
ecosystem.
4. Investigate the effects of the current called El

. 392
890 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

5. Estuaries, such as Chesapeake Bay and San

Francisco Bay, represent a special kind of aquatic
environment. Find out what characteristics
distinguish estuarine environments from marine and
inland-water environments and how these affect
aquatic life.
6. Though the seas are very large, pollution of marine
waters can occur. Investigate the kinds of oceanic
pollution and their effects on the marine
ecosystems.
7. Investigate the various kinds of adaptations that
allow organisms to survive in the littoral zone.

Suggested Readings
J. F. Grass le, "Hydrothermal Vent Animals: Distribution and K. C. Macdonald and B. P. Luyendyk, "The Crest of the East
Biology" Science (23 August 1985). Describes the latest Pacific Rise" Scientific American (May 1981). More
findings on hydrothermal vent communities. discussion of sea floor hot spring communities, with
M. M. Littler and D. S. Littler, "Deepest Known Plant emphasis on the undersea exp!oration used to discover
Life Discovered on an Uncharted Seamount" Science them.
(4 January 1985). Living marine macrophytes found at a Scientific American, 1980, Life in the Sea (San Francisco:
record depth of 268 m are investigated. W. H. Freeman). A series of reprints from Scientific
R. A. Lutz and R. R. Hessler, "Life Without Sunlight" The American dealing with oceanic habitats, adaptive living,
Science Teacher (March 1983). This well-illustrated article representative organisms, and human factors.
explores the biological communities of deep-sea
hydrothermal vents.

Answers to Application Questions and Problems

1 Photosynthesis by phytoplankton produces oxygen during 1 (a) Small organisms such as rotifers, nematodes, and
the day At night the concentration decreases as consumers protozoa can hide in the cracks of rocks and stream gravel.
use the oxygen in respiration (b) Some species of fish that swim against a strong current
2 Cloudiness, by reducing intensity of radiant energy, are streamlined A minnow that byes in the Colorado River
decreases photosynthesis. But windy conditions circulate has a hump lust behind its head that acts as a hydrofoil and
phytoplankton, gases, and nutrients This increases reduces the effect of the current. (c) The massive shells of
photosynthesis because more phytoplankton are exposed some bivalved mollusks hold them to the bottom of a fast-
to sunlight, and the nutrient supply near the surface is moving stream (d) Larval blackflies spin a web that sticks
augmented, A rough water surface also reduces reflection to submerged rocks The larvae then hold on to the web
of light. with a set of abdominal hooks (e) Caddis flies build a case
3 Ice reduces diffusion of cxygen into lake water, but it also made of stone that holds them down against the bottom of
slows further cooling of the water. the stream
4 The sources are air and photosynthetic organisms Brooks 2 Answers to these questions are related to the idea that the
have little of the latter, but their turbulence promotes solution density of water is greater than that of air (a, b) Birds that
of atmospheric oxygen The more quietly a river flows, the catch their food by pursuit in air correspond to fish that
less oxygen it obtains from the airbut the more catch their food by pursuit in water. In both, streamlining is
photosynthetic organisms it is likely to contain Wave action associated with predation niches. (c) Plankton organisms,
mixes air with water in lakes and ponds, and there is more being drifters, encounter no resistance in moving. (d) More
wave action in lakes. energy must be expended to walk in water because of the
5. While many decomposers are anaerobcs, decomposition in increased resistance, but less energy is required to support
general proceeds more rapidly where oxygen is abundant the body because of greater buoyancy of water than air,
Tnerefore, it proceeds more rapidly, provided temperaLire is 3 The St Lawrence River drains the Great Lakes, and any
favorable, at the bottoms of shallow ponds pollutants that get into the lake water will more than likely
enter the river Acid rain will most certainly affect the fishing
industry, and the sewage from Quebec City has made the
river unsafe for certain water sports. In the coming years,
acid precipitation will be a factor in changing the river's
ecosystem

98.3
6. Most such substances are not efficiently excreted by 4 El Nilio is a current of warm water that piles up oft the coast
organisms. They accumulate and are passed on to any of South America The normally cold, nutrient-rich current is
other organism that uses the first as food Therefore, a pushed below the surface and the fish and birds no longer
bass, which is a consumer several steps up the food chain, can teed Change in atmospheric pressure causes the
accumulates more than a ciliate, which is low on the rood normal easterly winds to reverse direction and push a large
chain. mass of warm water along the coast of Peru and Ecuador.
7 When a pond with a favorable food supply is stocked with a Weather patterns are affected as far away as Australia and
single species of fish, such as bluegills, rapid reproduction the central Pacific islands
results in a dense population, but because of intraspecific 5 The essence of the matter is that estuaries contain a
competition, individuals are stunted, If at least one prey- gradient from salt water to brackish water to fresh water.
predator combination is included, the predator tends to This fluctuates back and forth with tides Hence, organisms
consume those stunted offspring, and the average size of must have wide tolerance for salinity
remaining fish increases 6. Pollution of the seas can occur through dumping of
8. The number of snails is irrelevant The total weight divided garbage, oil, and radioactive wastes, The major argument
by the number of square meters gives the biomass for the use of seas as dumping grounds is that of dilution,
534 g/5 m2 = 107 g/m2 but cal e must be taken with the effects of currents,
stagnation in basins, and ecological concentration of
mater:als in food webs.
7 Littoral organisms exhibit various adaptations to a variety of
environmental changes. The ability to withstand wave shock
is seen in animals with tough skins, heavy shells, and tube
feet Some organisms are exposed to direct sunlight at low
tide and are white to reflect the sun's light A limpet uses a
muscular toot to fasten itself to rocks, as do chitons.
Organisms that live in surf-swept sandy beaches survive by
burying themselves in the sand

continued from page 868

The following references may be useful it you Discussion
are interested in more information on the related
1. Answers should consider the role of
ecological concepts, identification of aquatic
energy in a balanced ecosystem, and the loss
organisms, or in maintaining a balanced aquatic
of energy at each trophic level, as well as
ecosystem in your classroom. H Janua, 1966,
interrelationships between organisms, and the
Pond Life in the Aquarium (Princeton, N.J D
importance of individual organisms to the overall
Van Nostrand); C. 0, Masters, 1975,
ecosystem
Encyclopedia of Live Foods (Neptune City, N J.
2 If you were forced to introduce enough
T F. H. Publications); R. W. Pennak, 1978,
organisms to prevent depletion, then the relative
Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States
abundance of the various organisms may not be
(New fork: John Wiley & Sons); R G. Wiegert,
a true representation of a natural ecosystem.
ed., 1976, Ecological Energetics, vol. 4 of
Only by working directly out of a pond could a
Benchmark Papers in Ecology Series
truly natural environment be studied, methods of
(Stroudsburg, Penn.. Dowden, Hutchinson &
sampling would have to be near perfect for
Ross).
faultless results
3 Energy cannot be created or destroyed
or, in this case, recycled. The energy may
change in form, or the system itself may gain or
lose energy.
A large percentage of energy is lost to each
succeeding trophic level The energy becomes
more random or disordered

994
 014

!sus
Humans modify the environment in many waYe:Th& is an aerial view of Busch Gardens in Tampa, Florida.

995
 Teaching shateg,es for this chapter, pages

CHAPTER 24 154-57
Key ideag
adaptation of environment by human
use by humans of renewable and
nonrenewable resources,
impact of the agricultural revolution,
modern human-shaped ecosystems.
Human-Shaped Ecosystems influence of human population growth on
environments.
need for urban and rural planning

Introduction
Seen from the air, the impact of humans on the earth is most apparent
where we have built cities. However, we have affected the landscape in
less visible ways as well. The varied communities in natural biomes have
been largely replaced by agricultural and urban ecosystems.
In previous chapters, you have seen some of the varied ecosystems of
the present, how they came to be, and how humans have changed them.
Here we will concentrate on how ancient and modern humans have
evolved within and spread across the landscape.

The Built Environment Guidepost: In what ways have humans

changed natural
ecosystems?
24.1 Early Humans Worked Together
within Ecosystems
One reason humans have been so successful in modifying the bio- 0 Some speues of ants feed on a substance
sphere is that we cooperate, or work in groups. In other words, we have siA,retLd by aphids They care for the aphtri,
social behavior. Cooperation is an important trait in many animal spe- much as humans care for cows Why, then. an,
cies. It is probably most apparent in the insects, which are highly adapted the behaviors of humans and of ants not
for division of labor (figure 24.1). Insects, however, cooperate without comparable?
For all their social virtues, ants have a very
reflection on what they do, because they are genetically programmed to
restricted nervous system We make heavy use
do so. Their behavior is involuntary. Human cooperation might or might
(Ideally) of our cerebral hemispheres in learn,ng
not be voluntary, and that is a subject of heated debate among biologists. and reasoning Ants have no such complex
However, we do cooperate, at least much of the time, and we do reflect structures and do not reason However, a
on the matter. number of interesting behavioral investigations
can be carried out with ants An easy reference
for your students is P P Larson and M W
Larson, 1976, All About Ants (New fork
Apollo/Harper & Row)

996 893
894 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 24.1 Honeybees. Each of these Figure 24.2 A chimpanzee social group.
individuals has specialized behavior. Drones are
males; workers are nonreproductive females;
queens are egglayers.

worker

&won He *vim /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

queen There is little cooperation in primitive primates, such as the tarsier.

Each tarsier lives a solitary life most of the time. However, in the pri-
mates most like uschimpanzeesevolution has produced much co-
operative behavior. Females care for the young, younger males defer to
older and stronger ones, adolescent females "baby-sit," and animals
sometimes share food and groom each other (figure 24.2).
Like modern apes, the Cro-Magnon men and women who appeared
about 25,000 years ago were hunters and food gatherers. Though early
humans ate meat, they often gathered berries, fruits, and nuts, and they
dug up roots. They were particularly efficient predators because they
used tools, were intelligent, and formed social groups. It is likely that
drone
men did the hunting, and women did the gathering (and eventually much
of the farming). That division cf labor probably had little to do with
physical differences between men and women: more likely it was that
women carrying babies or walking with small children had little freedom
of movement.
Even today humans are an occasional article of Among today's few remaining hunting and food-gathering tribes,
animal diet Sharks have become an increasingly about 5 km2 of land are needed to support each person. Based on this
serious danger, as we have turned toward
figure, the total human population 25,000 years ago must have been
exploitation of the seas An active program of
research on protection from sharks has been
small. It also must have been scattered in widely separated groups.
carried on in recent years, mostly under the Primitive hominids gathered many plants, preyed on some animals,
sponsorship of the Office of Naval Research and sometimes fell prey to other anilnais. Hominid ecological relation-
ships changed little for most of our history. Indeed, in some remote parts
The Australian aborigines, African bushmen, and of the world they continued unchane,ed well into the twentieth century.
tribes in the Philippines are examples Just as Domestication of wolves, 15,000 years ago or more, was important in
extant species that have retained primitive changing the nomadic way of life. Probably some hunters took wolf cubs
characteristics help us to visualize organisms of home an were later able to take advantage of the growing wolves'
the past, so primitive human cultures in remote
parts of the modern world suggest to us the
conditions of life in ancient human cultures. But
study of such surviving cultures must proceed
rapidly, for modern culture is penetrating
everywhere.

3S7
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 895

Figure 24.3 Social behavior in wolves. The alpha male of the pack reasserts
dominance over his brother. The interaction is ritualizeda fight that does not
result in injuries.

We Park, SON Grand. Indiana 47920

hunting and social behavior. (In a wolf pack, some wolves are subordi-
nate to others, as seen in figure 24.3. A human may be treated as a "top
wolf" by wolves.) Eventually dogs (Canis familiaris) evolved from the
wolf line (Canis lupus). With the help of dogs in hunting, and perhaps
with the invention of nets for fishing, some human groups began to form
permanent settlements.
One early settlement was in the southern USSR, where anthropol-
ogists unearthed a large assemblage of mammoth bones and tusks. At
first these appeared to be merely the garbage from some early human
group, but the scientists found that the mammoth bones and tusks were
arranged in certain patterns, not carelessly heaped. It turned out, in fact,
that the mammoth bones had been used as construction materials for a
small group of human homes (figure 24.4). The homes were used as a
winter camp by a band of hunters and gatherers 15,000 years ago. From
such beginnings came the earliest villages.
Ly

24.2 The Agricultural Revolution Increased

the Human Impact on the Biosphere
In early villages, the garbage dumpa by-product of settled life Ask students how else wild plants might appear
must have appeared almost at once, and that probably led to deliberate on dumps Seeds of some plants may have
sowing of "crops." Wild plants were gathered for food and brought into 0 passed unharmed through human alimentary
the settlement. People may have noticed how a discarded portion of a canals and been deposited on dumps in feces
wild plant sometimes grew into a mature plant on their dumps. They
may then have dug up favorite wild plants and transferred them to their
settlement.
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 24.4 A reconstruction of a mammoth-bone dwelling from a site in the

USSR. The structure was about 5 m across at the base. Hides, supported by a
wood frame and held in place by bones, may have made the roof.

080 400 7,:e. 6

:1'44
.01.73 oft w met' .411=0. e

From "Mananotheorto Dvalhngs on tho Russian Plain.- by Mikhail I. Muth*. WWI 1. Komintz. and Olga SOW.
Copyright er Noyontoor 1084 by Seinnli§e American. Inc. All rights rosorved.

About 7,000 to 10,000 years ago, in Iraq, a series of genetic accidents

changed wild wheat into a plant that could be sown and cultivated (figure
24.5). Probably humans already were gathering and using the wild wheat;
now they could have wheat fields near their settlements. Similarly, wild
rice was gathered in Asia, and eventually it was cultivated for the first
time. These events made it possible to obtain more food from a smaller
area. When people first assisted the growth of plants and harvested their
products, the agricultural revolution began. It made human life easier in
some ways. It also indirectly increased the size of the human population.
Hunters and gatherers can get by with working three or four days out
of each week. But without any way to store food they must sometimes
go hungry. Around AD. 1600, Indians in northern New England were
hunters and gatherers. Their population density stayed around 0.16 per-
sons per km2. Indians in southern New England, however, were farmers.
Their population density was 7 times as great, 1.12 persons per km2.
The Indian farmers used common village grounds for their farms.
Use of common areas for grazing and farming tends to lead to what
biologist Garrett Hardin has called the "tragedy of the commons:" even-
tually one of the users tries to use more than his share of the common
resource. That problem probably never arose for the Indians, because
the available laud was vast and they moved villages when resources be-
came scarce.
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 897

Figure 24.5 The domestication of wheat. Chance crossing of wild grasses

produced an early domesticated wheat. Breeding this with another wild grass
gave a plant whose kernels were easily separated from its chaff. This
devfoprnent marked the beginning of the interdependence of humans and
wheat. Wheat could not survive without people to cultivate it, as its seeds could
no longer be dispersed by wind. Civilization could not grow without this readily
available, complete food source. Further crossing gave the common wheat form
which now accounts for the majority of modern world wheat production.

chromosome domastic (non-shattering) wild (shattering)

number collected/cultivated weed
1 i
Triticum
1
T. boaotioum
MOAOCOCCUM
I (A genome)
T. saarsh
einkom wheat I (B genome)
hulled N

I
T. durum
macaroni wheat
naked
T. dlcoccum
emmer wheat dicoccoldes
hulled (AB genome)

T. tayschll
(0 genome)

T. aestivum
compactum (ABD genome)
club wheat
naked T. at spolta
spelt
T. ae. vulgar. hulled T. ae. sphaerococcum
bread wheat shot wheat
naked hulled
0 Sesotro Books. London W .
When European settlers arrived, however, they brought along their
European ideas of private ownership of property. Again, at first there
was plenty of land for all the Europeans. In Plymouth Colony, however,
friction developed when pigs wandered into corn fields. Soon the fields
were fenced. Eventually, New England was filled with privately owned
farms, then factories, and the commons were gone. Today the water and
air of New England, common resources of everyone, have been polluted
by some users. And much of the forested land has been logged heavily
by private owners.
Early hunters had domesticated dogs before the agricultural revo-
lution, but the domestication of other animals apparently came later.
Except for dogs, remains of domesticated animals are found only in ag-
ricultural communities. Perhaps during times of drought, wild herbi-
vores invaded fields and gardens looking for food. Such animals couid
be captured, penned up; and used for food later. Some captured animals
must have had young, which were then raised by humans. Thus, the
domestication of cattle, sheep, and goats may have begun.

kk0 0 0
 898 Section Five 'fl'atterns in the Biosphere

Figure 24.6 Animal-powered agriculture. Figure 24.7 Primitive village in Mesa Verde
Preparing rice fields with water buffalo in Java, National Park, Colorado. Agricultural products
Indonesia. Compare its effects on the biosphere were grown in the valleys and on the slopes and
with the effects of the kinds of agriculture shown mesa tops. These adobe dwellings were
in figure 24.24b. occupied between 500 and 1400 A.D.

ve,

Gary aAnbumrTOM STACKS ASSOCIATES BSCI by J. B. Thornton

This discovery apparently was never fully made Well after the beginning of the agricUltural revolution, primitive
in ancient Amert,:a What domesticated animals
farmers discovered that some animals could be put to work. Such ani-
did American Indians have, and how were they
mals had to be fed, but that investment paid off in greater food produc-
used Animal muscle was used only for burden
tion. That was an early step for humans toward using energy other than
carnage Llamas were used extensively in South
Amerk,a, dogs (travois and sledge), in North
their own to change their environment.
America Otherwise, American Indians fully Farming required more foresight than hunting did. Farmers had to
domesticated only turkeys and guinea pigs, adjust more of their activities to the changing seasons. They had to store
though a number of birds and perhaps some crops between harvests. They had to work hard, and without immediate
mammals were casually adopted at times reward. But farming also provided more leisure time. Once the harvest
was in and the surplus stored, farmers usually had enough food for sev-
How does animal-powe, ed agriculture compare eral weeks or months. Hunters had no such extended leisure time.
with modern agriculture in its effects on the Surplus agricultural products also supported craftspersons. They
biosphere/ The draft animal is a part of the and gathered with farmers in villages. Eventually the villages became towns,
system, it receives a part of the produce from and towns became cities. As the size and complexity of the human-
the soil as its food, and its wastes are returned
dominated areas grew, the human population grew greatly in s17.e also.
to the soil Not so the machine
The areas surrounding towns were sources of building materials for
the "built environment." Trees were felled for lumber, stones were used
for walls and buildings, and straw and clay were mixed for bricks, con-
crete, and adobe. In investigation 24.1, you will be able to study the
changes that have occurred in your ecosystem during the past 20,000
years.

o oi
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 899

!ii04140106::?' 'YOUR f ;ECOSYSTEM Investigation 24.1

YOUR ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
Since the last glacier retreated from the area that is now the United How much help you give students with this
States, the climate has remained fairly stable. If you are fortunate enough investigation depends on how mud) emphasis
to live near a wilderness area, you can probably see plant communities as you wish to place on teaching library skills and
they were before the arrival of the first Americans from Asia. on teaching about your local ecology With
In this investigation you will diagram a food web to show the relation- minimal guidance. your stud .Its can spend
ships among the major plants and animals in your area 20,000 years ago. se,eral days on the library work, but if you do
Then yc 'I will modify this food web to show how the ecosystem was af- the preliminary research yourself, they can
fected oy immigrants from Asia and, later, from Europe and Africa. complete the investigation in an hour or two
Concerning part B There are many
Procedure opportunities here for cooperating with a social
studies teacher in showing the interconnections
Part A
between U S history and ecology, for example,
1. Using the science and public libraries as well as references provided The best endpoint for this investigation depends
by your teacher, assemble a list of at least 100 plants and animals on where you live and on whether you are in a
found in your area 20,000 years ago. Find the generic and specific large city In Boston or New York. for example,
names if possible. Include representatives of each of the following you could end it before 1800, in newer or less
groups: urban areas, you could end it in the late 19th
(a) Plants. Bryophytes, gymnosperms, monocots, and dicots. century A good general reference book will
(b) Animals. Insects, other invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, birds, provide most of the list of 100 organisms The
and mammals. classic by V Shelford. 1963. The Ecology of
(c) Decomposers. North America (Urbana. University of Illinois
2. The common and scientific names of the organisms should be listed Press) is excellent for this purpose If you live in
on the chalkboard for reference by the entire class. New England. W Cronon, 1983, Changes in the
3. Your teacher will now assign you to 1 of the groups of organisms. Land Indians, Colonists. and the Ecology of
Using field guides and other references, link your organisms to others Nev England (New York Hill and Wang) will help
on the list according to feeding relationships, using a chart such as greatly More specific information on local
the following: ecosystems may be found in periodical 'articles
such as those listed on pages T55-57

Name of Organism Eats Is Eaten by

etc.

If you can find no information about some organisms, revise the gen-
eral list after conferring with others in the class.
4. Using butcher or shelf paper, construct a giant food web that includes
all 100 organisms.

Part B
Using the same reference materials, modify the ,food web diagram to
include any changes that occurred as a direct result of immigration into the
area by peoples from different parts of the world, and at different times
over the past 20,000 years. Your teacher will tell you in which year to end
your study of the effect of immigration, but generally you do not need to
consider changes occurring after about 1880.

1
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Discussion
1. In what biome was your school 20,000 years ago?
2. Is this the same biome that exists today?
3. Briefly describe the changes in the local ecosystem that have occurred
in the past 20,000 years.
4. In many parts of the United States, the ecosystem began to change
Ask students what physical characteristic
when hunters from Asia followed migrating mammoths and masto-
enables humans to make more use of tools than
dons. How did those elephantine creatures '., into food webs?
do other animals Primarily, our hands, with
5. What effect did early hunters and gatherers have on your ecosystem?
opposable thumbs; secondarily. our upright
6. How has agriculture changed it?
posture,

Figure 24.8 Early copper craftsmanship (Peru; 24.3 The Built Environment Helped
1100-1400 A D.).
Shape Human Culture
Even the most primitive Homo sapiens were skilled toolmakers. The
agricultural revolution, however, created a need for many new kinds of
--tools. As humans shaped their new tools, they began to look at all the
things in their environment as resources, or things they could use. Stone
was originally the toolmakers' basic material. In many parts of the world,
people later discovered how to use metal as well. The refining of metals
required much heat. Fuels became important for toolmaking, as well as
for warmth and for cooking.
All kinds of resources are not found in all places, however. Flint was
an especially desirable stone used for toolmaking. Even in the Stone Age,
it was traded among different groups of hunters. Trading resources helped
tie distant human ecosystems together. Phoenicians from the eastern
Mediterranean traded goods for tin in Britain 3000 years ago. Long be-
fore Europeans arrived in North America, Indians in what is now Al-
Photograph by Carolina Biological Supply company
abama obtained copper from the Lake Superior region. Thus, building
settlements helped to bring about travel and trade.
With the growth of trade, villages grew into towns of artisans and
Figure 24.9 Roman aqueducts constructed
nearly 2000 years ago.
traders. Tools and resources made it possible for villagers to erect per-

=IL manent homes and other buildings. In permanent towns, humans with
more leisure time could improve the transmission of knowledge. Manu-
scripts and books could be preserved for use by many persons and even
for many generations. Paintings and maps also could be protected and
used for long periods of time. Religious objects, as well as the costumes
and sets used in theater, no longer had to be completely portable.
Science, too, could grow in urban surroundings. The tools that made
possible better observations could be used only after they were manu-
factured, and that required permanent buildings and equipment. So,
technology and science evolved together.
© The built environment and the technology making it possible quickly
became more sophisticated. Even today, for example, bridges and
aqueducts built by the ancient Romans (figure 24.9) are considered en-
gineering feats. For all such structures, however, more and more ma-
terials and energy were taken from the natural environment.
Today, it is hard to find areas having no human-built structures. We
have dammed rivers and built bridges over them. We have fenced off
land for grazing animals. Mines and hydroelectric plants can be found
far from cities. Even in national parks, there may be "rustic" lodges,
bathrooms, and other buildings.

J. Cra-air 'VISUALS-ill/LIMITED

;"'1,51.0 03
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 901

Figure 24.10 -(a) Medieval planned community and (b) modern unplanned
hodgepodge of buildings.

J. Creeper/VISUALS UNLIMITED Albert Copley/VISUALS UNLIMITED

a

In general, growth of the built environment has been unplanned. Here

and there a local or national government has decreed that a master plan
be used for an area. Usually, however, individuals or small groups have
erected their buildings to suit their own preferences, limited only by how
much land and materials they could afford. Humans have easily adapted
to the built environment, and today few of us would wish to live away
from some buildings and other human-made structures.

Self-Review

1. What useful behavioral adaptation is shared by humans and some

insects?
2. What is a likely hypothesis concerning the beginning of agricul -
ture?
3. How did even the most primitive built environments change the eco-
systems in which they appeared?
4. How did the growth of technology aid the growth of science?

Cities and Suburbs Guidepost: What advantages and

disadvantages do urban
environments have for
24.4 Humans Have Created a New humans?
"Urban Biome"
Biomes such as grasslands, tundra, and deciduous forest are the prod- A good source of background material for this
ucts of their geography and climate. At the climax stage, each supports section is chapter 11 of G T Miller, Jr 1982.
a distinct community of plants and animals. In contrast, a city in any 0 Living in the Environment. 3d ed (Belmont,
Calif Wadsworth Publishing Company)
biome has more in common with other cities than with the natui al biome

z,:jt-}1004
902 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 24.11 Skylines of Denver, Colorado and Tampa, Florida. What were the
original natural ecosystems and how have the cities affected those ecosystems?

Cody. Colvin Fladde knotii File. Inc.

A variety of activities is present in BSCS, 1984, surrounding it. The skylines of Denver and Tampa (figure 24.11), for
Investigating the Human Environment. Land Use example, are much alike. But the natural ecosystems of those two areas
(Dubuque, Iowa Kendall/Hunt Publishing
Company)
are nothing like each other; and the two cities are nothing like their orig-
inal natural surroundings.
Regardless of geography or climate, the urban biome tends to include
maple trees and geraniums in wealthier areas and dandelions and trees
of heaven (Ailanthus glandulosa) in poorer areas. Concrete, glass, and
brick surround us; in most cities, even wood is seldom found in newer
buildings because of its flammability. In the urban biome there are both
more human pathogens and more means to combat them than in natural
biomes. On the one hand we are exposed to many infectious diseases
because of close proximity to other people, and on the other hand, modern
sanitation brings plastic wrappings, insecticides, chlorinated water, ger-
micides, mold inhibitors, and mothballs into our surroundings. These
things are found in any urban biome in the United States, with only a
little variation in other countries.
Urban ecosystems are largely artificial. Increasingly, building ma-
terials are neither wood nor natural stone. Food ib shipped in. Garbage
is shipped out. Trees are seldom those native to an area. Even weatl'er
can be modified by the urban biome. The limited number of trees and
other plants allows much sunlight to reach the ground or pavement. In-
stead of using the sun's energy as plants do and absorbing it as soil does,
concrete and glass reflect much of it, heating the air. High buildings
interrupt natural air currents and create "wind tunnels." Rain and snow
accumulate on concrete until they run of into gutters and sewers. The
air is filled with the particles and gases of factories and automobiles.
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 903

Figure 24.12 Daily matter and energy inputs and outputs for a large U.S. city.
A

Irn)

1).1:c..11, fr.

ti:Tiiii II

U.S. city of
1 million people

' +I 1
rt.s.o

NA!

water sewage
568 million kilograms 454 million kilograms
(625,000 tons) (500,000 tons)

I;
0
aT1
.. -
refuse
8.6 million kilograms
(2,000 tons)

food air pollutants

1.8 million kilograms 864 thousand kilograms
(2,000 tons) (950 tons)

From Living in the Environment, Third Ed , by G. Tyler Miller. Jr. Ca

1982 by Wadsworth, Inc. Used by Permission.

100 3
 904 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Sometimes we prefer an "unnatural" environment. For example, we

figure 24.13 Golden Gate' Park, San
Francisco.
discourage bears and skunks from wandering into urban areas. The
planned surroundings of San Francisco's Golden Gate Park (figure 24.13)
probably appeal to more people than would the original sandy area. The
park's combination of wooded areas, bicycle paths, museums, and music
represent much of what has made cities attractive.
In many cases, however, the artificial human-shaped environment is
an unwelcome barrier between humans and the natural ecosystem. In
some urban areas, the only plants are unattractive weeds, and the only
nonhuman animals are dogs, cats, and pests such as rats and cock-
roaches. Food in supermarkets may be as nourishing as that found in
the country, though not as fresh; urban water supplies are often pref-
erable to those in rural areas. However, many individuals feel that it is
important to be in natural surroundings at least some of the time.

24.5 The Quality of Urban Life

Has Decreased
Residents of many American cities have felt that the quality of life
has declined greatly during their lifetimes. Crime, poverty, and dirt are
common. This has happened for a variety of reasons, including economic
recessions, poor urban planning, lack of consistent support by taxpayers
for public services, and so on. The issue that is most biology related,
however, is overpopulation.
Before the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century, only one
Chrome Towers. San ancisco Parks & Recreation Department
person in five lived in a city having more than 10,000 residents. Since
then, cities have grown cuickly. In the past 100 years, especially, more
and more persons in all cointries have moved to the cities.
When any population reaches a size that nears the area's carrying
capacity, competition for the available resources increases greatly. In a
city, middle-class residents may begin moving into low-rent districts,
forcing the poor to crowd together in slums. Upper-class residents, in
Ask students to cite local examples of these turn, may move into middle-class areas. Public parks or golf courses may
;.hanges
be turned into housing affordable only by the wealthy. Corner grocery
and drug stores disappear, to be replaced by clothing boutiques or ex-
pensive bath shops.
As a population increases in size, there is also greater need for basic
goods and services. More and more shopping centers appear, providing
food and other necessities for residents. Many new shops and homes ap-
pear at the edge of the city.
The poor tend to remain in the older inner core of a city, for as a city
grows and changes they are unable to move to more desirable areas. The
poor are not courted by merchants, who tend to locate new stores in
suburbs or near the perimeters of cities. A cycle of urban decay is es-
tabished: the city's core becomes undesirable; wealthier persons move to
the outer areas or suburbs and then fail to support services for the urban
poor; and the city's core deteriorates further. Some wealthy suburbs be-
come independent cities with their own shopping areas, universities, and
other urban advantages. But in time the cycle may begin again in these
new cities.
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 905

Figure 24.14 The percentage of world population living in cities in the years
1950, 1980, and the estimated percentage in the year 2000. The numbers below
the pie graphs indicate total population.

percentage of population living in urban areas

1950 1980 2000

-o
75

total population
2.5 billion 4.4 billion 6.3 billion

-o
a)
o.
1).1)
,....
0
.-(1
4D,
°o
20 iliiil
o
E 0.9 billion 1.2 billion 1.4 billion

-o
ay
w
oe
er.
>z=
<9
13
co u
ca
o . Ca)16%
11-1-1
a)

1.6 billion 3.2 billion 4.9 billion

Fron Living in the Environment, Third Ed.. by G. Tyler Miller. Jr. 0

1982 by Wadsworth. Inc. Used by Permission.

Overpopulation also can contribute to epidemics of contagious dis- 0

eases. When massive immigration greatly increased the population size
of many U.S. cities around 1900, diseases such as tuberculosis also spread.
Crowded together in tenements (figure 24.15), people were exposed to
new bacteria and often had little money for fuel and healthful food. When
sanitation increased, immunizations became widespread, and workers
were better paid, the incidence of contagious diseases decreased.
Many cities in other countries are more crowded and have a higher
incidence of disease than cities in the United States. A combination of
overpopulation and lack of resources has brought about much human
misery. For instance, in 1980, about 177 million persons in cities in the
developing countries did not have safe drinking water. Sanitation was
inadequate for 331 million persons. In such conditions, typhoid and other
diseases spread quickly.
Pollution increases with population size also. Pollution of air and water 0
is especially evident in urban areas, where the concentration of people
quickly affects the air and water. Is the water in your area polluted?
Investigation 24.2 will give you an opportunity to find out.

40 08
 906 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 24.15 An urban slum c. 1900. What conditions shown in this photo
would contribute to the spread of disease?

-- ti
American Stook Photos/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Investigation 24.2 Aku,kTiNp. :QUALITY:

EVALUATING QUALITY OF NATURAL 'tjvATER,:%)ORCES:=
WATER SOURCES
Introduction
This investigation is especially successful if One of the major results of industrialized soci:.,ty and overpopulation of
the water sample,: are from very diverse Homo sapiens on Earth has been a serious reduction in the availability Y
cources. An example would be samples from a quality water sources for human consumption. In addition to preserving the
clean freshwater stream, a polluted river or availability of natural water sources, the quality of water to be used must
pond, a relatively undisturbed pond or marsh, a be continuously assessed.
drain sewer, a swimming pool, a horse trough or One criterion for evaluating the quality of water from natural sources is
rain gutter, and tap water Samples need to be based on an examination of the types, variety, and abundance of certain
collected no later than the day prior to the kinds of organisms present. Another is the relative clarity of the sample.
student observations, Obviously, the abundance of organisms alone can affect the clarity, but
You will need to provide plentiful materials to significant amounts of impurities of any kind make a sample unsafe for
help students identify the microorganisms drinking. In this investigation you are to evaluate several water samples
Ward's Scientific Establishment has several from diverse sources and to estimate their potential for human consump-
good illustration sheets available, as well as a tion.
Water Quality Assessment Kit (Ward's Water that would be equivalent to clear mountain streams free of or-
#86W3056). Particularly helpful may be the ganic debris is considered to be pristine; there is typically diverse algal
Protist Chart (#35W5840) and the Dichotomous flora, relative to total biomass, because of relatively low nutrient levels.
Key to the Protozoa (#32W2203) Water resulting from natural fill-in, sewage input, or fertilizer runoff would
be considered to have organic enrichment; here, species diversity is mod-
erate to low, relative to total biomass. Water from acid mine drainage, sulfur
springs, or metallic or industrial pollution is said to represent inorganic en-
richment; such water may be highly toxic, resulting in low diversity and low
'o high biomass depending on the total nutrient status. These concepts
se useful in discussing the quality of water samples. It should be noted
that even pristine water can contain undesirable components, such as En-
tomobea histolytica, whose waste products may give a human a' 'bic
dysentery. Such cases are rare, however.

1009
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 907

Materials (per class) Discussion

6 labeled water samples (from a variety of natural and 1,2 Responses will vary depending on the
human-made habitats) sources of the sample.
large pipets in each sample 3. Other factors of importance may be
bacterial content, presence of metals or other
(per team)
toxins, oxygen content, and the source of the
compound microscope
water.
slides
4 Most analyses will require relative!,
coverslips
6 small test tubes, approx 13 mm X 100 mm sophisticated instruments.
Pasteur pipet 5. Accuracy could be increased by repeated
light source and random sampling of the water volume in the
containers, by repeated and random sampling
of the source of the water sample, and by
Procedure specific knowledge of the danger of the
organisms present.
Part ADetermining Clarity
6. Humans have been largely responsible for
1. Pipet a subsample from each of the water samples into a test tube, the deterioration of water quality on earth.
nearly filling it. Label each test tube by sample source. 7. Pollution of water may be caused by
2. Estimate the relative clarity of each sample. This is drne by lining all industrial waste, sewage, mining, and many
the test tubes up against a light source in a holder so that the tubes other activities. Encourage the students to
are between you and the light source. Be sure that the amount of light discuss this question, especially relating to local
is the same on each tube. View each sample in a straight line ex- pollution-causing factors.
tending from the light source to your eye. Arrange the tubes in order 8. There are many reasonable responses,
from the clearest to the least clear. Record the result:, of your clarity including conserving water, controlling pollution
analysis. sources, preserving watershed sources of water,
and even measures to limit the growth of human
population.
Part BDotermining Abundance and Diversity of Organisms
The following are guideli:ies ioi water quality based on the types, di-
versity, and 'relative abundance of organisms in each sample.
As a general rule, when water sources become increasingly enriched
orgonically, they support a greater total biomass.
Low diversity of organisms in a sample suggests contaminated water
and high diversity suggests cleaner water.
Fora rr.::jor groups of organisms are important in determining water
quit diatoms, groan algae, cyanobactena, and flagellates.
(a) Gr;an algae and diatoms, in the absence of cyanobacteria and
flagellates, suggest clean water.
(b)- Cyanobacteria and flagellates (with or v.,'.-out diatom c,. and green
algae) inoicate higher levels of crganic (nutrient) materials.
1. !iv, the Catalog of Living Things (appendix 3) and additional materials
your teacher will provide to identify the 4 groups of organisms.
2. Depending on availate time, use 1 of the fo':owing methods to de-
termine the relative abundance of organism', in your sample:
(a) Qualitative method (if there is very limited time). Examine 3 dif-
ferent drops from each sample (selected at random) and deter-
mine using your own criterion whether a "iven group of organisms
in the sample is very abundant, somewhat abundant, present in
moderate numbers, or scarce. Make a decision about which of
these categories best describes each species present in the
sample. A rather loose definition of species can be adopted here,
that is, a group of organisms which appear very similar may be
considered as 1 species.
(b) Quantitative method (if there is time to be mcre precise). Actually
count the number of individuals of each species (loosely defined)
in 3 different drops of each sample. Average the 3 readings. A
sampling procedure such as described in past investigations may
be necessary.

1.010
 908 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Discussion
1. Based on your analysis of the samples, arrange them from what you
feel are most to least drinkable.
2. Identify those from which you would probably drink.
3. Name several other factors that also should be considered when es-
timating water quality.
4. How would those factors be assessed?
5. What methods could be employed to make more accurate estimations
of the factors you used here?
6. Most of the factors that influence the suitability of water for human
consumption deal with pollutants. To what degree has Homo sapiens
been responsible or this pollution?
7. In what ways do himans pollute the water on earth?
8. Suggest some ways that we can guarantee that enough water of the
quality necessary for human consumption will be available for future
generations.
/11111=11

24.6 Similar Cities Are Surrounded

by Similar Suburbs
The modern American landscape has been shaped largely by the au-
Students will recognize many The most obvious tomobile. Widespread suburbs are possible only because each suburban
are air and noise pollution. family has at least one car. Railroads once were the leading movers of
food and manufactured goods to city dwellers. Today, trucks deliver food
and manufactured goods to widely scattered homes and shopping malls.
Figure 24.18 Freeway with heavy traffic. The shift from urban to suburban living has caused a demand for a
Besides the loss of land on which to build the
highways, what other effects does this method large, complex highway system. That system requires space, as we have
of transportation have on the environment? seen in chapter 2. Beneath the highways alone lie more than 8 million
hectares of land. That land cannot be used to grow crops, although much
of it was once prime farmland.
A second consequence of the population shift has been the shift of
light industry from the cities to the suburbs. Most of these low, rambling
factories (figure 24.17) are built on what was once productive farmland.
These industries also must be served by highways.

FfPure 24.17 A suburban factory.

tio;idy /TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

ISKS by 001IG Sokol,

XV 1
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 909

Figure 24.18 The sameness of suburban homes.

Linda 011y-Hassitt

Like the urban biome, the suburban biome is almost independent of

the natural ecosystem around it. "Colonial" and "Californian" sub-
urban homes may be seen anywhere from Oregon to Florida, and nearly
all suburban factories look alike. The ecosystem is simplified and mod-
ified considerably from the natural biome.

Self-Review

I. In what ways would the urban biome be similar in Chicago and Los
Angeles?
2. In what ways do cities affect weather?
3. How can overpopulation contribute to epidemics?
4. How does overpopulation increase pollution?

Agriculture Guidepost: Compared with other

human activities, what is
the relative impact of
24.7 Agribulture has Reduced the Variety of
agriculture on natural
Plant Species biomes?
Like cities and suburbs, modern farms aro built environments to some
extent. Farm buildings, irrigation pipes, and farm equipment are essen-
tial parts of today's agriculture. The agricultural revolution brought
about a shift in the role of humans in the biosphere. Before that, humans
had been merely members of biotic communities. Since then they began
changing and simplifying those communities.

-LA 12
910 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

41
Figuie 24.19 Irrigated rice fields in Cafornia. Figure 24.20 An example of monoculture.
Sunflowers are the only crop grown on this Ohio
farm.

Doak hM.avY OWLS UNLIMITED David NawIL"M /VISUALS UNLIMITED

With the coming of agriculture, naturtIldomes began to be trans-

formed. Humans removed native plants to make space, and to reduce
competition for plants that could be used as food for humans or as fodder
for food animals. In some cases the abiotic parts of ecosystems also are
modified for agriculture. Rice requires a warm, wet climate. Yet it is
grown in some rather dry areas, such As northern California. Water must
be piped in for irrigation of the rice fields.
Farmers usually find that marketing one large crop is more profitable
than marketing many small ones. All the farmer's resources can be di-
rected to that one crop. By growing only potatoes, for example, a farm-
er's profit can be maximized; and the farmer's income can be use4 to
O buy other foods and manufactured goods. Similarly, the farmer might
grow only one variety of crop. Such concentration on a single kind of
crop is called monoculture. For example, though once there were many
varieties of apples for sale, now only a few kinds are available in most
stores. The Delicious variety of apple is grown by many farmers because
it is attractive and resists plant diseases. Many people find this variety
of apple tasteless compared to the older varieties, such as Winesaps and
Jonathans. Yet, Winesaps and Jonathans are hard to find, and, !muse
of monoculture, the Delicious is everywhere.
O Monoculture presents more serious problems. Fungal and bacterial
diseases of plants can spread quickly through large areas where the hosts
are available and where the ecosystem has been modified for those hosts
and whatever depends on them. Also, many crops use up the soil's ni-
trates and phosphates quickly. Only it those crops are alternated with
others having nitrogen-fixing and other bacteria will those substances be
put back in the soil naturally.
Chapter 24 Hurian-Shaped Ecosystems 911

Figure 24.21 A cotton crop ready for harvest. Figure 24.22 The "dust bowl" of the Americen
midwest in the 1930s (Morten County, Kansas).

Dick Georle /TOM STACK i ASSOCIATES Soil Conservation Service 0504

24.8 Agriculture Has Affected

United States History
At a site in Pennsylvania called Meadowcroft, archaeologists have
found squash seeds and popcorn cobs left then:, in about 350 B.C. The
Indians who settled in that area must have done some farming, but it
probably affected the natural ecosystem very little. The people hunted
deer, wild turkey, and other animals, and they gathered hackberries and
nuts. Even that effect on the Meadowcroft environment was temporary,
though. By the time Europeans reached the area in the eighteenth cen-
tury, it was deserted.
European settlers soon began farming the rich lands of the United
States. For example, tobacco and cotton have been trajor crops in the
United States throughout its history. However, both crops exhaust the O
topsoil of its nitrogen. Most topsoil is less than 20 cm thkk. If plantings
of tobacco and cotton are not alternated with crops of legumes, the soil
eventually becomes useless for farming. Much of the topsoil is gone, and
erosion (wearing away) by wind and water removes the remaining soil.
Many small farmers who had worn out their soil by growing tobacco or
cotton were forced to move westward before the Civil War.
Farther west, much land was suitable only for grazing, not for farming.
In the late nineteenth century, new machinery and new irrigation methods
made it possible to use the land for growing crops. Eventually that top-
soil, too, began to erode.
In the late 1920s, drought added to the earlier problems, and wind There is concern that this sitt. lion could occur
began to blow away theiemaining topsoil. Topsoil was blown for hundreds again Have studen'l investigate agricultural
of miles, and finally was washed into the oceans. After a few years the practi es that might prevent or slf the
area that was left without its topsoil became a huge "dust bowl" where process
nothing could grow. Again, many farmers moved farther west, this time
to California.
212 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 24.23 (a) "Silicon Valley" California now and (b) as it was only a few
years agoorchards.

San Jose HiMorical Museum Dai/id Newman/VISUALS UNLIMITED

a b

Some of the land along the West Coast is still wilderness, but much
has been converted for agricultural use. Some of the farmland has been
further converted to housing developments and shopping malls. In Cal-
ifornia, what was once one of the most productive orchard areas in the
country is now called "Silicon Valley," because it is filled with computer
factories, which produce silicon computer chips, and allied businesses.
Federal legislation affecting agriculture was passed during the early
years of this century and during the dust bowl years of the 1930s. For
example, farmers are often paid not to plant their land if planting will
A review of section 2 11 at this point would be make the soil less fertile, or if an excess of their usual crop has accu-
appropriate There, the concern was with mulated. Other federal and state laws require inspection of food pro-
providing food for humans, here the emphasis is cessing plants for health violations and of farms to ensure the control of
on changes in the biosphere It is important that
diseases of farm animals. Such laws have become even more necessary
students make the connection between the two
as small family farms have become huge "agribusinesses." The farms of
The energy we invest in agriculture goes chiefly today may be thousands of acres in area and involve the use of large
for the manufacture of 'ertilizers and pesFcides amounts of energy, water, and other resources.
and for transportation The progressionnatural ecosystem to agricultural land to ruined or
paved-over landcontinues nearly everywhere on earth. It is the inev-
itable effect of unchecked human population growth. The progression
could be greatly slowed by combining careful use of land with a halt in
population growth.
 Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 913

Figure 24.24 Family farms (a) are being replaced by large-scale agribusiness
(b), often Managed by corporations.

evin Magee/kW STAaCCATSSOCIATES escs ejoag salmi

b

The contrast between this figure and figure 24.6

is self-evident, but the implications of the
Self-Review contrast iequire some thinking, For example,
figure 24.24b represents the industrial America
of today better than a panorama of Gary's steel
1. In what way has agriculture affected natural variation in plant spe-
mills does Concentrations of industrial
cies?
population are possible only because such
2. What is monoculture, and what are its disadvantages? wholesale production of food is possible. And
3. How have agricultural practices led to loss of topsoil? figure 24.24b itself implies a great industrial
complex, for only that can produce and keep
running such a fleet of machines Modern
farming depends on machinery, fertilizers, and
pesticidesall products of industrialization,

Future Ecosystems Guidepost: What changes are desirable

or possible in human-
24.9 Planning Can Help Determine the dominated ecosystems?
Quality of Life in Cities
Time for correcting our past mistakes is running out. In many parts Figure 24.25 Volunteers planting native trees in
a city.
of the world, biomes have been permanently changed to deserts or urban
wastelands. But there is still some wilderness left; there is still farmland
that can be restored or used as is; there are still some livable cities.
One approach to the problem involves urban planning. Architects,
ecologists, and other specialists can help city officials and urban planners
determine the future appearance and functioning of their areas.
Cities can be planned to harmonize with the natural ecosystem, not
to be artificial biomes that grow uncontrollably. For example, cities can
0
plant native trees (trees found in the area's successional stages or its
climax community). Such trees help a city reflect the area's natural
biome, give the city an individual character, and resist the problems
caused by climate and pollution. Palm trees and tropical plants arc ap-
pt-priate for cities such as Honolulu, but not for many cities in Cali-
fornia and Florida.

San Francisco Friends of the Urban Forest

10 ,Lb
914 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

City Forester
Ron Morrow is the city forester for Colorado
Springs, a job that includes caring for the city's
trees, flower beds and greenhouses. He also is a
private forestry consultant and shows
homeowners how to care for their trees.
Ron has been interested in the outdoors since
he was a child and he majored in forest science in
college. His main focus was forest pathologythe
study of insects and diseases that afferst trees.
After obtaining his master's degree he ,.orked in .Cay of Colorado Spring,
timber management and as an interpreter in the
Coronado National Forest in Arizona.
and if the tree is not a hazard to people, it is
He became city forester 10 years ago and has tagged as a "wildlife tree" and allowed to remain
been responsible for maintaining the trees and in place.
flowers in new and existing parks and other city- All of the trees on city property are recorded
owned land. He also has developed and on a computer. Information on the type of tree, its
implemented many new and innovative plans. The height, diameter, condition, and value is readily
care of trees involves maintenance and disease available. Soon the computer also will store
control. Recently trimmed trees are more vigorous information concerning the history of the tree and
and less susceptible than untrimmed trees to any treatment it has received.
damage from wind and snow loads. It also is Ron is in charge of 22 full-time employees and
necessary to ensure that the trees do not obstruct 10 to 20 seasonal employees for the forestry and
street signs or interfere with power lines. About
greenhouse divisions. There are four city
80,000 trees along the city streets and 20,000 greenhouses that produce about 120,000 plants
trees in the parks are individually maintained. If
and flowers for more than 195 flower beds
diseased trees are found, and spraying pesticide throughout the city. The greenhouse division also
is ineffective, the trees (both living and dead) must is responsible for the planting and maintenance of
be cut down and buried. Any trees that die a formal garden. Ron persodally initiated a native
naturally are examined for wildlife nesting signs, and drought tolerant plant demonstration garden
in cooperation with a local horticulture group.
New ordinances Ron has helped develop
include rade that requires developers to maintain a
certain amount of "green space" in each new
project. Another ordinance requires that a certain
number of trees be planted and maintained in
parking lots. The number of trees planted
depends on the number of parking spaces.
Ron feels that urban forests and urban parks
are very important. Not only do they add to the
beauty of a city, but they provide valuable habitat
for many different animals, and the trees also
serve as wind breaks. Ron feels that a city can
grow and still be attractive to people and other
animals. He says that trees and parks are
important to mental health: "You get out, see
BSCS by Doug Sokell open space and wildlife, and you feel better."

.107
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 915

Figure 24.26 Small urban park in an apartment

complex.

; ,.-*'.7

r.

Sybil Shelton/PETER ARNOLD. INC.

Urban planning for new buildings can include reserving some land
for parks and other open spaces. In many cities a certain amount of open
space must be provided around any new building that is constructed. Zoning laws are important to predetermine the
Even a small park such as the one in figure 24.26 can add greatly to appearance of a city Have students investigate
reducing noise, allowing air circulation, and increasing the livability of zoning taws in their community and the impact
as area. Larger parks can provide common "lawns" for many people they have had on the location of shopping
who live in apartments. By sharing facilities in parks, people can use centers, residential areas, business centers, and
smaller amounts of space and other resources per person. manufacturing areas

Even when urban planning limits growth within city borders and cre-
ates a livable environment for the city residents, there are problems with
the surrounding environment. Suburbs may draw wealthier residents out
of the city, beginning the cycle of urban decay described earlier. Suburbs
may replace good farmland, and farmland may then replace wilderness.
Transportation is a major problem in most urban areas. Workers may Have students compare the advantages and
spend hours every day traveling to and from their jobs or visiting cus- disadvantages of various modes of individual
tomers and clients. Some cities have begun providing better public trans- and mass transit
portation, making it easier and faster for commuters to get to work.
Unfortunately, many persons cannot or will not use public transporta-
tion. In some cases, however, new rapid-transit systems are too popular:
their suburban parking lots fill up early, and many persons who would
prefer to use public transportation are forced to drive to work instead.

1Q ir ,
J
4 :*
916 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure:24.27 Many urban areas utilize public transportation to ease highway

congestion and reduce air pollution. The BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) system
shown here serves the San Francisco metropolitan area.
-re

San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District

Ultimately population growth can override the best plans to live within
the environment. If births and immigration bring, about a large increase
in the human population in any area, something has to givespace for
parks, for example. For that reason, urban planning is unlikely to suc-
ceed unless it is accompanied by control of population size. The prob-
lems of urban populations may increase by the end of the century. At
that time two-thirds of the earth's human population will be living in
cities or 100,000 or more.

24.10 Agriculture Can Be Integrated with

Natural Ecosystems
Ag,liculture originally fit into natural ecosystems. It did not seriously
interrupt the cycles of carbon and other nutrients. Plants were grown
where the soil and climate were appropriate for those plants. Yields were
fairly small, and not too many of the nutrients in the soil were converted
into plant Human and animal wastes were used as fertilizer
for the soil, returning much of the nitrogen and phosphorous.
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 917

As farming has become more widespread and complex, however, those

relationships have changed. Intensive farming methods deplete nutrients Figure 24.28 Patterns formed by fields watered
in the soil. Farming is carried on in dry areas by means of irrigation. by center-pivot irrigation systems.
When topsoil is not rich enough to produce high yields, artificial fertil-
izers are added to the soil. Because these are added in large quantities
at the soil surface, rain or irrigation water often washes them into nearby
waterways, creating water pollution (figure 24.29). We also increase
yields by-using pesticides to kill insects and plant pathogens, but these
may enter food webs. In chapter 3 you saw the effect of DDT on birds'
eggshells, and the indirect effect on humans of DDT used in Borneo.
Agriculture has a destructive Sect on most biomes, because the eco-
system is modified and simplified greatly. In many tropical areas, slash-
and-burn agriculture is destroying thousands of acres of forests. The for-
ests are cut to clear land for planting. -and then farming destroys the soil
within a few years. DeKalb-Pfizer Genetics
Ecologists have made various suggestions to lessen the impact of ag-
riculture on the biosphere. We can use organic fertilizers, such as cattle
manure, instead of artificial ones. We can plant a variety of crops in an
area, in place of monoculture. Crops can be chosen to firtch the natural
biome, making less irrigation and fertilization necessary. Consumers can
demand fewer out-of-season products and eat "lower on the food chain." This is the subject of a book that contains many
The lessened use of pesticides, such as DDT, has already had a beneficial suggestions for how to do it See F M Lappe,
effect on some birds of prey. In 1975, the bald eagle was present in only 1975, Diet for a Small Planet Copyright © 1971,
39 states; today it can be sighted in every state except Hawaii. Other 1975, and 1982 by Frances Moore Lappe (New
rare birds of prey, also, have grown in number. York Ballantine Books).
Such measures can help somewhat. Ultimately, though, like urban
planning, they cannot offset the demands of a burgeoning human pop-
ulation. Figure 24.29 Artificial fertilizers containing
phosphorus often cause water pollution. Two
basins of a lake were separated by a plastic
Figure 24.30 Slash and burn agriculture in the Brazil rainforest. curtain. Phosphorus, carbon, and nitrogen were
added to the far basin; only carbon and nitrogen
were added to the near basin. Within two
months the far basin had developed the heavy
algal bloom characteristic of polluted water.

G. Prance IVISUALS UNLIMITED

From D. W:Schindler;qutrcighicationand Recovery fn

Experimental Lakes: Implications for SclneC Vol. 184, pp. 897-
898, 22 October 1974. Copyright 1974 by the AAAS.
918 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 24.31 Wise agricultural practices, such Figure 24.32 Unspoiled wilderness. Why is it
as contour farming, can reduce soil erosion. important that areas such as this be preserved
This farmer has allowed perennial grasses to in, their natural condition?
grow in areas most susceptible to erosion.

Tim McCabe. Soil Conservation Service USDA Doug Sokill

24.11 Humans Must Act to Preserve

the Biosphere
Humans have had a tendency to try to "conquer" nature. As we have
learned more about interrelationships in the biosphere, however, we have
come to realize the danger of that approach.
We are an integral part of nature. In thoughtlessly trying to subdue
it, we ignore all the principles of ecology that are outlined in this book.
We cannot ignore those principles forever. Our failure to heed them comes
back to haunt us as polluted lakes and rivers, ruined farmland, and
overcrowded cities.
Unlike other organisms, humans can and do modify the environment
to meet their own needs. That singular ability implies a special obliga-
tion. We must remember that we share this fragile planet with countless
other organisms. Rather than trying ro conquer nature, we must learn
to coexist with it. We can cooperate to preserve it, if we understand the
basic principles of ecology.
Each one of us is a part of the biosphere, and we are here for only a
short time. We can never really "own" any piece of land. We are only
stewards, caring for the biosphere until someone replaces us. We have
an obligation to our successorsof all speciesto preserve the environ-
ment in which we live.
Chapter 24 Human-Shaped Ecosystems 919

Self-Review

1. What are the advantages of using native trees in a city?

2. How does agriculture often lead to water pollution?
3. How might we lessen the impact of agriculture on the biosphere?

Summary
The earliest humans changed the biosphere little, living within it much
like other primates. With tools and social behavior, however, our ances-
tors began to adapt environments to make them more hospitable to hu-
mans. Renewable and nonrenewable resources were used to make
buildings and tools. The agricultural revolution greatly increased the
impact of humans on their surroundings, simplifying the variety of plant
life and leading -to trading of resources between different geographic
areas. Today agriculture and the built environment have shaped most of
the biosphere to human uses. Because of population growth, many urban
areas are crowded, and there is competition for resources. Urban and
rural planning may alleviate some problems if population growth is
checked also.

Application Questions Problems

1. What social behaviors common to chimpanzees and 1. Find out about the plant disease called potato
humans have had an adaptive advantage in the blight. How did it help bring about the immigration
evolution of the two groups, and why? of many Irish persons to the United States?
2. In what ways have automobiles contributed to the 2. What native trees might be used in cities in your
human impact on the biosphere? area? What advantages and disadvantages would
3. The oldest fossil evidence of humans at the each kind have? Should many trees of the same
Meadowcroft site (p. 911) is about 19,000 years species be used in the same area, or should
old. How does that fact contradict some established mixtures of species be used together? Explain your
ideas about human migration to this hemisphere? answer.
4. How does annual crop rotationthe altelnation of 3. Brackish estuaries are sometimes declared wildlife
crops such as corn with leguminous plants such as sanctuaries. They are seldom scenic areas or
soybeansaid the soil? suitable for picnics, and local industries may find
5. If Americans ate more corn muffins and less corn- the sanctuary a nuisance. What reasons can you
fed beef, what would be the effect on corn give for saving this kind of habitat?
consumption and production? 4. Find out how genetic engineering is being used to
produce crops that are resistant to disease, pests, or
environmental stress.

022
920 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
A. A. Boraiko, "The Pesticide Dilemma" National A. W. Spirn, 1984, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and
Geographic (February 1980). Examines the dangers to Human Design (New York: Basic Books). Interesting
humans of widespread pesticide use. discussion of the urban environmental interactions of air,
W. H. Jordan, Jr., "Invasion of the Medi ly" Natural History earth, water and energy.
(May 1982). Unconventional methods may be necessary to L. Tangley, "The Urban Ecologist" BioScience (February
battle this destructive insect. 1986). Discusses how ecologists conduct their field research
D. Pimentel and M. Pimentel, "The Risks of Pesticides" on a variety of organisms living in our cities and suburbs.
Natural Science (March 1979). Discusses the possible G. F. White, "Environment" Science (4 July 1980). Contrasts
alternatives to chemical pesticides. traditional resource management and preservation with the
Scientific American (September 1976). The entire issue deals new perspectives that will be necessary in the future.
with food and agriculture in North America and
worldwide.

1 0 2 ;3
Answers to Application Questions and Problems
1, Both live in groups that provide safety from predators and 1 Blight is a fungus disease of potatoes, which were
allow for cooperation in food getting and sharing of monocultured .n Ireland in the nineteenth century. When
resources. Both,groups have had a male-female division of blight destroyed much of the potato crop, many of the
labor that helped in exploiting the environment and in farmers emigrated in search of better farming and living
allow;ng for more parental care of offspring. Specifically, conditions.
males did more of the hunting, females, more gathering 2 Answers will depend on the local area Agricultural
(and in humans, probably the farming also), extension services and local environmental groups are good
2. Their manufacture and use necessitate the use of large sources of such information As in agriculture, monoculture
amounts of metals, glass, and energy. They made suburban should be avoided, the loss of the American elm to Dutch
sprawl possible and modern highways necessary. They elm disease is a classic example of one reason.
have contributed to air pollution. 3 Brackish areas are often rich in animal larvae that are
3. It is usually assumed that the first Americans came across important links in food chains The sanctuaries may be used
the Bering land bridge about 13,000 years ago as resting areas by migrating birds.
4. The nitrogen that is depleted during one year is replaced by 4. Geneticists and plant scientists are attempting to isolate and
the nitrogen-fixing legumes during the next year clone the genes that provide natural resistance to infection.
5. Less corn would have to be grown, because much energy is They hope to insert those genes into a suitable vector, such
lost when corn reaches us by way of beef as Agrobactenum, and allow the vector to transform the
plant cells so that they contain and express the genes for
disease resistance.
Monsanto has developed an engineered strain of
Pseudomonas Iluorescens, a soil bacterium that lives on the
roots of corn plants. Monsanto scientists have inserted into
P. Iluorescens the gene from another bacterium that
produces a toxin that kills certain kinds of insects. The
engineered bacteria are ar plied to seed corn. The P.
Iluorescens then colonizes the roots of the young corn
plants The toxin then kills cutworms that eat the roots of
corn plants
Advanced Genetic Sciences in California has developed
an engineered strain of an "ice-miner's" bacterium,
Pseudomona syringae. P syringae normally promotes the
formation of ice crystals on plants, causing severe damage
to the plants and loss of revenue for farmers (potatoes,
strawberries) Ice - miners, P syringae, when sprayed on
plants, prevent the formation of ice crystals to temperatures
as low as 4° C This could mean substantial savings for
farmers There is considerable debate, however, about the
safety of those engineered bacteria when released into the
environment in large numbas and over large areas.

,
.1. 0 2 .4'
 F. Stuart WHImorland/TOM STACK & ASSOCIATES

Spaceship Earth at Epcot Center, Florida. Will futureldWe nds look like this?

105
 Teaching strategies for this chapter, pages

CHAPTER 25 T57-59.
Key ideas:
the increasing uses and effects of
biotechnology;
- the storage and transmission of human
knowledge;
the bioethical dimension of biology;
Humankind in the Future the interaction of genetics and environment;
the crucial issue of human population growth.

Introduction
Early in this century, science fiction writers and artists tried to imagine
what humans would be like in future stages of evolution. They assumed
that humans in the distant future would need tremendous knowledge
and calcnlating ability and, therefore, ever larger brains. Thus humans
of the future were sometimes pictured with large, bulging heads on small,
wasted bodies, Their uniquely human attributes would increase, and their
animal characteristics would decrease.
How have such predictions changed? What have we learned about
environmental selection and about human evolution? In this final chapter,
we will take a more realistic look at humans of the futurenot separated
from the biosphere, but woven firmly into broad patterns of life.

Figure 25.1 One students conception of what future humans will look like.
What do you think?

1026 923
924 Section Five Patterns in ti; Siosphere

Guidepost: Is our behavior a result of Human Biology and Behavior

"nature" or "nurture?"
25.1 Human Social Behavior May Be Innate
Though the human brain is a most impressive organ, it contains no
unique structure that sets it apart from a chimpanzee's. In fact, the basic
divisions of all vertebrate brains, from fish to human, are t; same as
'hown here in figure 25.2, and also in figure 17.12 on page >19. The
major difference in the human brain is an expansion and greater folding
of the cerebrum.

Figure 26.2 Brains of animals in five vertebrate classes. Olfactory bulbs are
related to odor. Optic lobes are related to sight. The pituitary is not part of the
brain. From these examples, what generalizations about brains in vertebrates
can you make? Note the size comparisons. Compare these with the human brain
in figure 17.12, page 619.

Be sure students note the amount of reduction or dssoodtion of olfactory bulbs with cerebrums. the tendency
enlargement the artist has used in each drawing Oniy ut the cerebrum to cover other brain sections. a .
wit it become apparent that the more recently evulved maintenance of relative position of parts The pituitary, partly
animals have larger cerebrums Students atf4 lila. not,: tht de=lved truth nerve tissue. serves as a topographical marker
. .

102 y
Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 925

Although humans have the ability to think, and a great deal of our
behavior is learned, wo: probably still have considerable innate (inborn,
0 Figure 25.3 Alxiby displaying irxcste behavior.
or genetic) behavior. Studies show that much of animal behavior is in-
nate. Songbirds, for example, sing the songs of their species without ever
hearing elem. Apparently, only local song "dialects" are learned.
Certainly human babies exhibit some innate behaviors, such as
smiling, grasping, and clinging. But no one knows how much of an adult's
behavior is innate and how much is learned.
How can we explain altruistic (al troo IS tik), or unselfish, behavin-
that might be harmful to the performer? For example, a female killdeer
sensing a predator near her nest will act as if shc. has a broken wing
(figure 25.4). By moving away from the nest (which is on the ground),
she lures the predator away from her young. If her "acting" is too re-
alistic she may be caught by the predator. Then both mother and or-
phaned young will die. Evidently this does not happen often. The altruistic
behavior of the mother birds saves more offspring ['Jan would survive if
killdeer did not possess this innate behavioral drive
Genes for altruism are selected for if more of the genes survive in
offspring than are lost by the death of the mother. Each child shares half
of its genes with its mother. For any gene, the evolutionary result of losing
two chit' .ren is the same as losing one mother. If an altruistic gene results
in the loss of only one mother per five offspring saved, that gene will be
selected for. Thus, the trait of altruism survives.

25.2 Human Social Behavior

May Be Learned For a fuller discussion of altruistic traits, see
Robert Trivers, 1985, Social Evolution (Menlo
lsi.'.ogists who study mainly social groups, including the effects of Park. Calif Benjamin Cummings Publishing
selection on dm, are called sociobiologists (SO see oh by OL uh jists). Company, Inc )
They think that human behavior is determined largely by our genes.

Figure 25.4 A female killdeer exhibiting altruistic behavior. By pretending to be

injured, she can lure a predator away from her nestlings.

J,1-1 F?ott

.1- 0 I) tj
fl
si
926 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 25.5 Who is to blame: you or your genes?

i, Judge.
can I help it
if I have pkic-
pocket germs?

Other scientists believe that all human behavior is learned. They think
that individuals who act altruistically do so because they have been taught
Those who oppose genetic (biologic) that behavior. Similarly, they think selfish individuals have been taught
determinism do so because they see a potential to be selfish. These biologists argue that sociobiology defends genetic
for erroneous justification of racial and sexual determinism. That is the idea that an individual's traits (characteristics)
prejudice For example, if intelligence is largely are determined mostly by his or her genes, with little or no influence
determined by the genes, then it might be from the environment. Such inherited traits would include intelligence
suggestd that attempts to improve education and personality. What might be the results if society were organized on
for ;hose who test poorly on 1.0 tests (often the basis of that assumption?
minorities) are futile. Biologists, social scientists,
Which is more important, genes or environment? Many biologists
and behavioral scientists who oppose
think the debate is somewhat pointless, because it is difficult to separate
determinism see it as an example of
reductionism, that is, an attempt to explain
the two in any meaningful way. That is especially true for complex traits
complex phenomena by analyzing the such as intelligence. It is unlikely that an experiment can ever settle the
component parts tin this case, genes) ana question, because no control can be devised. In this case, a control would
ignoring the important interactions between the be a person who was isolated at birth from contact with other humans.
parts and with the larger environment In its Such an experiment would, of course, violate our rules of ethics (ETH
social applications, genetic determinism has iks), or principles of conduct (and ethical behavior itself may be innate
been .:0tegorized as "blaming the victim." or learned).

25.3 Human Social Behavior Has Important

Consequences
Whether human altruism is hereditary or learned, we sometimes make
great sacrifices for each other. Whether selfish behavior is hereditary or
learned, we sometimes behave selfishly. Regardless of its origin, human
behavior has certain consequences. If we make war, we are likely to be

1020
 Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 927

killed. If we overpopulate the world, we are likely to die in a famine.

Even if making war and babies is "in our genes," we can be taught the
negative consequences. Even if selfishness is hereditary, we can learn to
help other people at some cost to ourselves.
As you have already learned, the consequences of some human ac-
tivities degrade our environment. If we act without thinking, we may
proceed mindlessly to destroy our environment. But we can see the con-
sequences of our actions, and in this case we can see that destroying the
human environment is actually self-destruction.
The environment does not "know" why we behave in certain ways; it
selects organisms according to their adaptations. Psychologist B. F.
Skinner has called that process selection oy consequences. If we are to
survive and pass on our genes to our descendants, we r.3ed to assess the
consequences of our behavior in terms of selection.

Self-Review

1. Distinguish between innate and learned behavior.

2. How might gents for altruism be selected for?
3. What could be some environmental consequences of "selfish" human
behavior?

Irigiatitigooki:05:f M:.
Investigation 25.1
Introduction VIEWS OF EARTH FROM AFAR

Aerial photos give the "big picture" of what is happening in an area. In Procedure
addition, the use of infrared film and computer imaging make it possible to
find out about events that are not visible to the naked eye. Infre:ed film is 1 (a) The level has increased by 6.30,b in 20
sensitive to heat. Consequently, photos of objects giving off heat are dark years
on black-arid-white infrared film, or show up as a different color in color (b) If that is typical, it has increased by 3L5
infrared photos. Some color prints show warmer areas as green; others in 100 years.
2 (a) Depends on locality.
show them as red. In either case, the color contrast with cooler areas is
striking. (b) Redder areas are hotter
Aerial photos may show a broad view of a city and the surrounding area.
Or, sensing devices on a satellite orbiting Earth may provide information Discussion
about a larle portion of the planet. The data collected from many adjoining 1 Increase.
areas by cameras and other sensing devices on NASA's LANDSAT satellite 2. By causing deforestation, acid rain sowers
are transmitted (in a mathematical code) to a land station. There a com- the use of carbon dioxide by plants, the gas
puter translates the code and draws composite maps showing the tem- then increases in concentration in the
perature or other characteristics of large areas. atmosphere. Carbon-containing air pollutants
In addition to these methods of studying the earth from long distance also increase it
in space, new methods are being introduced for studying events after long 3. A positive correlation, Although less
periods of time. For example, some scientists are now examining 19th- sunliglt may penetrate polluted air containing
century instruments that were used for navigation and other purposes. Be- particulate matt Jr which would lower the earth's
cause the instruments were tightly sealed, they still contain air from the time temperature, the gradual rise in the earth's
when they were sealed. The air can be analyzed for comparison with modern temperature since 1860 indicates to many
air. scientists that carbon dioxide has produced a
In this investigation you will see how some modern technology is being "greenhouse effect" that has rased the
applied to investigating a current environmental problem. temperature.
4 The color might be slightly redder if the
mean temperature rose another C 4° C Local
conditions min " more severe.

t 10 30
928 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

M. Matins. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. and J. &folded. Goddard Space Flight Gaeta; NASA.

Procedure
RtOntlY-Fftitit.******P02
1. Examination of old 'airs" in sealed instruments may show results sim-
Average Annual ilar to those given in table 25.1. These data were collected in Hawaii,
Year CO2 Level and similar data have been collected in other areas.
(PPIn) (a) Between 1958 and 1978, by what percent did the proportion of
carbon dioxide in Hawaii's air change, and in which direction did
1958 315
it change?
1960 317 (b) If that trend is typical of industrial America in general, by what
percent has the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide increased in
1962 318
the last 100 years?
1964 319 2. Study the maps shown in figure 25.6, which were produced by a com-
puter from satellite data.
1966 321
(a) What r:clor has been used for your area for January? For May?
1968 322 (b) What do those colors indicate in terms of temperatures?
1970 324 3. Study the aerial photo of the Vermont forest (figure 25.7). In this film,
healthy trees appear green and damaged trees appear red. In areas
1972 326 west of this forest, industries are producing acid rain and other forms
1974 331
of air pollution.

1976 333
Discussion
1978 335
1. What is the general trend in atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide from 1958 to 1978?
2. How might that trend be related to arki rain? To air pollution in gen-
eral?
3. During the last 100 years, measurements taken around the world show
that the mean global temperature has risen 0.4° C. What is the rela-
tionship between the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide and tem-
perature?

t
1G
Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 029

M. Chahine. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. and J. &welded. Gilddard Spice Flight Center. NASA.

5 None The correlation is interesting and

Figure 25.7 supports the hypothesis that a rise in carbon
dioxide has brought about the rise in
temperature, but more work Is needed in this
area Emphasize to students that correlation
does not equal causation, though it ht...,ps In
supporting a hypothesis.

Jet ProPu Ision Laboratory. GMornli ;WNW of Technology. under

contrast with Ow Nati:inid li..7.onautics & Space Administration.

4. If the trend represented by,table 25.1 continues, what colors (tem-

peratures) might be used in a map of your area 100 years from now?
How might the food web in your area change as a result of a change
in temperature?
5. What cause-and-effect relationship, if any, is demonstrated here?
930 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Guidepost: What kinds of issues may Major Issues in Human Ecology

affect the environment?
25.4 Social Issues Can Affect the Human
Environment
Many important and complex issues affect the human environment.
Americans have diverse views on those issues. In addition, the opinions
of society often change over time. For example, the 1973 Roe v. Wade
Supreme Court decision affirmed that only a woman and her doctor have
the right to decide whether the woman may have an abortion during the
first six months of pregnancy. That decision has come under increasing
attack in the 1980s. Those who oppose the decision feel that the fetus is
already a person whose right to life outweighs other considerations. Some
people in 'the "right to life" movement feel that even contraceptive
methods that act by destroying the zygote are wrong. Those who support
Roe v. Wade feel that the pregnant woman has a right to decide what
will happen with her own body.
Another social issue is the problem of poverty. Though not as critical
in the United States as in countries with fewer resources, poverty affects
many here as well. A 1985 report by the Physicians Task Force on Hunger
stated that up to 20 million Americans are chronically underfed. In re-
cent years, poverty has affected a growing number of young persons.
Many children and young adults have too little food, or are undernour-
ished. Experts in child development fear that this might lead to per-
manent intellectual impairment, especially for very young children.
Can this poverty be relieved in the future' Many persons feel that
the vast resources in the United States can be shared and that the answer
to poverty is a redistribution of wealth. Others maintain that as the pop-
ulation expands, the ultimate effect of such redistribution would be pov-
erty for everyone.

25.5 Americans Are Trying to Protect

the Environment
In the United States, we have gone through several periods of envi-
ronmental crises. As we have seen the wilderness disappearing, the top-
soil eroding, and birds being poisoned by pesticides, we have demanded
legislation to govern such waste. Our concern has led to laws such as the'
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and the Soil Conservation Act (1936),
and to the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency in
1970.
Laws have helped to protect the environment, but they have only
slowed environmental damage, not stopped it. Despite legislation and
voluntary environmental efforts, we still have many problems. These in-
clude acid rain (discussed in chapters 22 and 23), offshore drilling for
oil, pollution from toxic wastes, and other issues.
Offshore drilling for oil threatens life in the sea. Already water birds
have been harmed by oil spills (figure 25.9). If oil spills continue and
increase, fish and shellfish probably will be threatened. We are increas-
ingly dependent on those organisms for food.

0,I
Chapter 25 Humankirid in the Future 931

Figure 25.8 (a) Humans simplifying an ecosystem. (b) Soft egg shells resulting
from ingestion of DDT by birds.

James H. Enderson

Figure.25.9 Oil or gasoline spills can ruin miles of beaches or river`s. Each year
thousands of birds are- killed by oil or gasoline pollution.

EPA

In the past we simply buried many toxic wastes. (Toxic waste is a 0

phrase used by the media. In fact, any waste that affects the cycle of an
element may have a toxic effect on organisms in that cycle.) However,
"out of sight, out of mind" did not work. In some places, chemical wastes
that caused human diseases 4. birth defects seeped into water supplies.
,

In other places, birds were poisoned by wastes that entered water used
by the birds for swimming or drink;,.-I.

1:4 3-
.I.Gr)*(';
Lt
932 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

The EPA has identified 17,000 toxic-waste sites in the United S. rtes.
More than 500 of these pose a danger to water supplies and have been
classified as high priority for cleanup.

25.0 All Environmental Issues Are

Connected to Population Growth
What we have accomplished in pollution control is encouraging.
However, we need to remember a great insight that came out of the
eighteenth-century concern with the survival of democracy: "Eternal
vigilance is the price of liberty." The discoveries of our own century make
it clear that eternal vigilance is also the price of preserving environ-
mental quality for our children and generations beyond.
Environmental degradation happens slowly, and the early stages are
not always obvious. In fact degradation is often disputed by those who
stand to profit from exploiting the environment. As population increases,
there is more pressure to take more resources from the limited physical
and biological environment. That raises a great moral question: to what
extent are today's peoples justified in satisfying their needs at the ex-
pense of future generations?
In the People's Republic of China, where the population size is more
that 1 billion, there is much restriction on individual frecdom. To make
even a minimum standard of living available to everyone, the Chinese
governm-nt has set a limit of one child per married couple. Birth-control
counseling is mandatory for all citizens. If a woman with one child be-
comes pregnant, she may be pressured to have an abortion. Social pres-
sure against large families is strong; "only children" are given preferential
access to schooling and jobs.
Although the situation in China may seem like a great restriction on
the freedom of some individuals, further expansion of the Chinese pop-
ulation you'd lead to far worse consequences for the e tire population.
And China is not unique. The U.S. population, for exampi, , is now nearly
239 million. If it doubles just twice, our population size also will be nearly
1 billion.
Birthrate tells only part of the population story,
All our environmental problems are made more severe by our growing
en important factor in population increase is the
number of women tr. the fertile age group (15 to
population. It is sometimes said that the United States has reached zero
45) Population Increases in proportion to the population growth because the 1984 birthrate was 1.8 births for every
rate of increase (similar to the interest rate in two adults. That sounds as if we are doing less than replacing ourselves,
financial matters) and the number of peodle and as if population growth is no longer an issue. But we also are a nation
doing the reproducing (equivalent to the amount of immigrants. All of our ancestors came here from other countries, and
of money drawing intertst) Therefore, aiwough new Americans arrive ever;4 day. In 1984, the net gain (immigration
the rate of increase is deck there is still an minus emigration) was 523,C00 persons. That figure takes no account
expanding population doing the reproducing of illegal immigration, which is known to be considerable.
In addition, the age structure of the population is changing. The pro-
What effect does postponing death to older portion of older persons in our society is increasing. Of the four factors
ages have on a population? Perhaps the that determine population size, three are leading to population growth:
principal effect is on population structure Other
mortality and emigration are decreasing, and immigration is increasing.
factors remaining the same, postponement of
Even natality is not decreasing as much as it was during the 1970s, as
death Increases the proportion of people in
shown in figure 25.10.
older age groups, resulting in problems of
economic support among others 11nd. as in any
decrease of death rate, it increases rate of
population growth, if natality remains constant

I ft
00)
Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 933

Figure 25.10 Changing age pyramids through the years for the United States
population. In 1940, the smaller base reflects the decline in fertility during the
Depression. The large base in 1958 represents the post World War II baby
boom.

age 1900 age 1940 age 1958

85+ 85+
80-84 80-84 I0
75-79 male female 75+ 75-79 male 108 female
70-74 70-74 70-74 IS03
65-69 65-69 65-69 BEA MEM
60-64 60-64 60-64 0Z0i0 MEER
55-59 55-59 55-59 IMM EZIESEI
50-54 50-54 50-54 MMMEI IISMISS31
45-49 45-49 45-49 EMBEMS9MEINENIII
40-44 40-44 40-44 ISM233
35-39 _35-39 35-39 MEMEMMIERiIiMERM
30-34 30-34 30-34 WEIONEE3 00MMEIM
25-29 25-29 25-29 ffliffEMS03 IMMM0
20-24 20-24 20-24 ESOME/11
15-19 15-19 15-19 IMOSEM3 105SMISIM
10-14 10-14 10-14 ISINESS0/061/1011M000M0
5-9 5-9 5-9 IMEISEERIMI 1000
0-4 0-4 0-4 =00201=0:100
6543 1 0 2356 1 01 4 56 65432 0 123456
percent percent percent
a b

age 1980
85+
8) -84
75-79 male female
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
11 10 987 4 51 7 8 9 10 11
percent
d
From Volpe. E. Peter. BIOLOGY AND HUMA.I CONCERNS. 0 1983
Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Dubuque, Iowa. All rights reserved.
Reprinted by permission. Data from the U S. Bureau of the Census.

25.7 The Environment Does Not Stop

at Political Borders
Interrational cooperation is necessary to solve modern problems. One
nation cannot curb worldwide pollution nor ensure preservation of en-
dangered species. To succeed, such efforts require the cooperation of all
countries.
Just as ecological problems fail to stop at rate borders, they also fail
to stop at national boundaries. Air pollution drifts across lakes and oceans
into other countries, and water pollution flows into the sea.

36
^"44 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Ozone and the Greenhouse Effect atmosphere. The earth's atmosphere heats up
In 1974 two chemists at the University of because carbon dioxide and other gases act like
California at Irvine used computer-model the glass walls and roof of a greenhouse, by
calculations to predict that an important part of trapping infrared radiation (heat).
the earth's atmosphere, the ozone layer, was in Carbon dioxide, the best known greenhouse
danger of being seriously damaged or even gas, is produced in large quantities when fossil
destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons, gaseous fuels (oil, natural gas, or coal) are burned.
compounds widely used in aerosols and Destruction of forests also increases carbon
refrigerants. Ozone (03) forms a layer in the dioxide levels in the atmosphere. The increased
stratosphere about 30 km above the earth's levels of carbon dioxide, and chlorofluorocarbons,
surface. This layer protects plant and animal life could cause global warming.
from ultraviolet light by screening out about 99 The earth's temperature is predicted to
percent of the ultraviolet rays falling on the increase an average of 5 to 10° C by the year
stratosphere. 2030. Global flooding would follow the melting of
The U.S. Government banned the use of glaciers and parts of the polar ice caps. Warmer
chlorofluorocarbons as the propellant gas in oceans would spawn more powerful and frequent
aerosol sprays in 1978. However, air conditioners, tropical storms, and weather patterns would
refrigerators, and insulating foam products also change. Precipitation would decrease 50 percent
emit chlorofluorocarbons. If emissions continue at in the American grain belt and would increase in
today's rate, 'ye to nine percent of the present the north where less productive soils could not
ozone layer could disappear over the next 50 utilize it. Ocedn currents would change and the
years; it might be disappearing even faster. Since amount of nutrients available to food fish would
1977, British meteorologists have observed that fall.
an ozone "hole," in which the ozone is reduced What can be done? Emission control is the key.
as much as 40 percent, opens up every October Energy conservation and forest preservation are
over the South Pole. essential. Banning the use of chlorofluorocarbons
The thinning of the ozone has led to some dire on an international level is an option. Efforts to
predictions for the future. Over the lifetime of safeguard the ozone layer and reduce the
people alive today in the U.S. there could be a greenhouse gases may result in unforeseen
dramatic increase in cl.in cancer, cataracts, and negative side effects. Worldwide cooperation will
fatal malignant melanomas. Agricultural crops and be needed to solve the problem.
aquatic plant communities could be damaged.
Ozone thinning could contribute to the
"greenhouse effect" of the gases in the earth's

N'OA
Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 935

Figure 25.11 The Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Photo was taken May 9,
1986.

*M,
.1474. 1"-14;

, AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS

In April 1986, a nuclear power plant in the Ukraine, in the western

part of the Soviet Union, exploded and caught fire. The carbon rods used
to control the rate of nuclear fission burned for several days. Many deaths
and injuries were reported in the U.S.S.R. The effects of the accident
were not limited by national boundaries, however. The fire in the reactor
released large clouds of radioactive particles, which were carried by the
wind to Scandinavia and countries in eastern Europe. Health-care per-
sonnel in those countries had to make plans to protect their citizens from
the fallout. People were told to stay indoors, and the sale of milk and
vegetables was banned in some countries for a short period of time. (Why Radiation would settle on the plants, be eaten
would milk sales be banned after an accident such as the one described by cattle, and appear in their milk
above?)
Another problem with global environmental effects is acid rain, which
is carried by wind across national boundaries (figure 25.12). We have
0 Ask students to speculate about the effects of
th-se climatic changes on the biosphere See
discussed some of the effects of acid rain in sections 22.17 and 23.18. Carl Sagan, The Nuclear Winter," Parade
Magazine (30 October 1983)
Mexican copper smelters produze acid rain that falls on the United States,
and U.S. industries produce acid rain that falls on Canada. All three
Research on the concept of a nuclear winter
countries must cooperate solve this problem.
was given some impetus by the work of
Escalation of the nucleal arms race by the United States, the USSR,
and their allies 1-as raised the specter of what some scientists call nuclear
0 paleontologists on the mass extinction of
dinosaurs One hypothesis holds that the earth
winter. Scientists have produced, computer-generated models of what was plunged into darkness following the impact
might happen after a major nuclear war. The nuclear explosions would of a large meteor. which sent enormous
be followed by a period of darkness lasting fron, a month to a year, be- amounts of dust into the atmosphere The drop
cause of the dust and smoke raised by the explosions and the large fires. in temperature and lack of sunlight caused
Because much of the sunlight (up to 95 percent) could not reach the extinction of many life forms, including the
earth, the temperature would fall to as low as 25° C within three weeks, dinosaur A number of researk.hers have
attempted to identify, without much success, a
cyclical celestial phenomenon whose
occurrence coincides with the cyclical mass
extinctions (approximately 26 million years) in
the fossil record
936 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 25.12 Direction traveled by pollutants responsible for acid rain, and the
average acidity of rainfall. Remember that low pH figures indicate high acidity.
What other factors should be taken into account when considering damage
done by acid rain?

oston

w York

The most crucial factor is the ground's capacity 0 and it would not rise to its usual level for several months. The cold and
to neutralize or buffer the acid rain. In the the darkness would be accompanied by violent windstorms, firestorms,
northeastern U.S., rain witn high acidity falls on
toxic smog, and persistent radioactive particles. The biosphere might
soil WI poor buffering capacity, environmental
never recover.
damage results. Alkaline soilof the plains can
neutralize the rain

Self-Review

1. Why cannot toxic wastes simply be buried?

2. What has China done to control population growth?
3. Why is international cooperation necessary to solve the problem of
acid rain?
4. How would a nuclear winter affect the biosphere?

10 39
Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 937

Figure.25.13 A patient undergoing kidney dialysis.

BSCS by Carly' Calvin

Human Technology in the Future Guidepost: How will we change

ourselves and our
environment in the future?
25.8 Biotechnology Will Continue
to Advance
Science has made spectacular advances during`the past 30 years. The
basic mechanisms of inheritance are known. The operation of the brain
is largelybut still imperfectlyknown. The manner in which tne im=
mune system works is largely understoodagain, however, not com-
pletely. Despite this progress, much remains to be done.
A bioengineer is a scientist who combines the talents of a biologist
and an engineer. Miniature control systems designed for space research
and new materials from industry permit bioengineers to make many ar-
tificial organs.
Few persons with poor eyesight complain about wearing eyeglasses
or contact lenses. Similarly, anyone who has had a faulty heart corrected
with a pacemaker considers that iavention significant. Persons unable to Some of your students might be interested in
wan( because of arthritis do not regard plastic hip joints as dangerous researching progress in development of artihcial
inventions. On the contrary, their pain in walking and standing is re- joints and other prosthetic devices.
lieved, and they can once again lead normal lives. Cataract surgery, with
the implantation of plastic lenses, has become a routine procedure for
many of the elderly.
Disputes arise, however, when lifesaving machines are attached to
those who are chronically or terminally ill. Those machines were de-
signed by bioengineers to help people survive brief emergencies that
threaten the body's homeostasis. Hearts can now be mao;; to beat by
electrical shocks. Several persons have had their diseased hearts re-
placed with mechanical hearts A person's blood can be oxygenated in
an artificial chamber, or a mechanical respirator can be used. An arti-
ficial kidney can be attached to a patient's body to remove metabolic
wastes from the blood (figure 25.13). Glucose and other essential nu-
trients can be added to the circulating blood by means of. tupes.
ki

10,10
 938 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 25.14 (a) A normal EEG and (b) that of a brain-dead person.

BSCS by Carly* Calvin CsdyS Calvin

Tragic cases such as that of Karin Ann Quinlan raise bioethical ques-
tionsethical questions rooted in biollgy. After using alcohol and other
drugs together, Karen Ann fell into attoma. She lay for 10 years without
waking, and she was on an artificial respirator for most of that time. She
died in 1985. Should a person in a vegetative state or with a terminal
. illness be prevented from dying? Should anyone be forced to lie mo-
tionless, attached to numerous mechanical devices? Should a family's
and society's money be spent to keep someone alive? Does anyone have
the right to terminate that 1,fe? How do physicians define death? Qu.;s-
tions of this kind arise because of our growing technologic ability to ma-
nipulate basic life processes. The questions will increase in frequency
and complexity as our knowledge and skills increase.
Some answers to these questions have been proposed. None of the
answers is completely satisfactory, but all are being debated. We will
mention just two. First, terminally ill patients, if they are conscious or
have expressed their desires in writing beforehand, may themselves re-
quest that all mechanical devices be disconnected. Second, a 24- to 48-
hour absence of electrical brain waves (as normally produced by con-
scious perms) is defined as "brain death." In some courts, brain death
is viewed as a justification to allow the still living organs and cells of the
rest of the body to die as "the valves are turned off."
Biotechnology in the future will continue to aid us. However, bioeth-
ical questions will surely follow. For example, how much effort should
be made to keep a newborn baby alive, if the baby has a fatal disorder
for which some cure might be developed? Have we the right to cause
the baby great suffering on the slight chance that a cure might be found?
On the other hand, who is to determine what constitutes a "serious"
disorder? Perhaps investigation 25.2 will help you deal with some of these
problems.

Investigation 25.2 10041910070 IOETHICAL 'PROBLEM

A BIOETHICAL PROBLEM
Introduction
The birth of Louise Brown in England in In the usual course of events the scientific inquiry process follows a rather
1978-9-..1 first child conceived in vitroraised definite series of events. The process begins with a problem. Hypotheses
questions about the legal, ethical, and moral are developed as possible answers to the problem. Then experiments are
implications of advances in reproductive biology. designed and performed to test the hypotheses. The data that is gener-
ated by the verirnents is used to evaluate the hypotheses. With the great
104
ChapteN25 Humankind in the Future 939

strides being made in biomedical technology, problems develop that cahoot The contentious debate concerning in vitro
be solved by the inquiry process. They involve sity-tions and values that fertilization illustrates the sensitivity of issues
do not lend themselves to hypotheses and experimefilation. pr, Asa these related to reproduction, child rearing, and family
problems confront science with unprecedented qv ea-licel relationships, and demonstrates the gap
questions, controversy is a definite part of dealing w, In this between the capabilities of science and
investigation you will consider a bioethical problem t, 41ectives technology, and society's capacity to rapidly
and then consider some questions raised b the confri.,069,.viewpt.aints. accept scientific advancements.
In vitro fertilization (fertilization in glass) involves, the fertilization of the You may wish to add additional questions
ovum outside the body. The fertilized egg is then reimPlarted in the uterus that put more focus on a student's personal
at the proper time (embryo transfer). 'Research or in vitro tertilize.tion has feelings, such as "Would you support a
been going on for several decades. In 1975, the fede%.1: government with- member of your family utilizing in vitro
drew support for this type of research. In the fall of 1978, the Ethics Ad- fertilization'?" or If you and your spouse found
visory Board-11 men and 2 womenconducted publi 7. hearings in 1U that fertilization any other way was impossible,
regions across the Jnited States. The board heard testimony from 179 woula in vitro fertilization be an option for you?"
people. After analysis of the testimony and the consideration of the ben- Issues such as in vitro fertilization are
efits and risks of in vitro fertilization, the Ethics Advisory Board concluded potentially controversial How much controversy
that "It is acceptable from an ethical standpoint to undertake research will develop depends on many fat.lors ine
involving human in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer." In January 1980, socioeconomic climate of the community, the
the first in vitro fertilization clinic in the United States opened at Eastern religious background of your students, and the
Virginia Medical School in Norfolk. value system of your students and their parents.
Most im;crtant, it will depend on how you
handle the issues in the classroom. One
Procedure teacher's method of dealing with controversy is
Carefully_ read the following excerpts from 2 articlGs, one defending and described below,
the other opposing in vitro fertilization, that are representative of the tes- 1 Present as much information about the
timony given at the Ethics Advisory Board's pubiic hearings, Then, with 'sue as possible. Often, the narrow and rigid
your team, prepare responses to the discussion questions to be presented viemoint of students is a result of having little or
to the class. erroneous information.
2 Allow all opinions or feelings to be
1. The Case Against In Vitro FertilizationRuth HubbardBiological
Laboratories, Harvard University. expressed. Do not censor radical or shocking
(a) . . IWthen it comes to thinking about how a complex organism works, views On the other hand, if a student is saying
be it as a person in her or his own life, or more especially as a pregnant something for shock value alone, point out the
woman carrying a fetus, 1 have always felt that one ought to interfere as inappropriateness of hie statement for the
little as possible, and only when it's absolutely necessary in order to avoid discussion
severe pain or death. . . . 3. Acknowledge each opinion equally Do not
(b) . . .1frankly view with incredulity and horror the notion that one can 'simply' favor one viewpoint, and encourage a similar
remove an egg from a woman's ovary, put it in a culture medium in a dish, accepting attitude among the students. Students
fertilize it and I' it go through the first few divisions, and then 'simply' pick should feel that they have every right to say
it up, rrInsf.41 it in a uterus that is at the proper stage of preparedness,
what they feel as long as they are making a
and have it 'mplant and go through development, without these many ma-
positive contribution to the discussion
nipulations having some effect on the process of development. I simply
do not believe there is no effect , . . there rust be an effect. T more 4 Create an open, nonhostile atmosphere in
likely effects. How or when the effect will express itself is anothsr question, the classroom.
or whether it will be overt and noticed. . . . 5 Be careful to keep your personal values
(c) . . An issue that has been raised is the nc on that every woman has a out of hie discussion, and be ready to assist
right to bear a child . . . it had never occurred to me that every woman students in defending differing ports of view,
has a right to bear a baby any more than that every woman has a 'right'
to a 34-inch bustline or a 24-inch waist. . . I had never thought of cir-
cumstances or events that have a strong biological component (as well
as, of course, environmental ones) as described in terms of 'rights.' . . .
(d) . . IAIcknowledging the genuine hardship and suffering of women who
want children and cannot bear them. I question whether there is not some
better way to help than to lead them down the garden path of in vitro
fertilization, which I believe to be a path of disaster. . .
(e) . .1 am also very concerned because this is an extremely complicated
technology that involves many steps. . . . There is no way to put this
technology into the control of the women who are going to be exposed
to it. . . It really locks the women and their babies into the high-
technology medical system. .1 have read that Drs. Steptoe and Ed-
wards, the men who produced two of the in vitro babies . . made each
woman promise to have an abortion if the doctors felt it should be
done. . .

1042
940 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

(f) . . . [T]his is an expensive technology that requires highly skilled profes-

sionals.and costly equipment . . as we have heard, poor women with

minimal access to minimal health care are being sterilized or otherwise
coerced into not having babies they want and can have, while women who
can pay high prices are encouraged to participate in the expensive and
risky technology of in vitro fertilization.
2. In Defense of In Vitro FertilizationBarbara MenningProject RE-
SOLVE, Belmont, Massachusetts.
(a) . . It is estimated that 10 million AMerican women are currently infertile.
.

Of that number, one third of those are problems relating to the Fallopian
tubes . surgical repair of the Fallopian tubes is successful only 30 per-
cent of the time. This means of every one million women who have serious
tubal diseases, 700,000 cannot be helped to become pregnant by this
means, at this time. . . .
(b) . . [C]ouples desiring in vitro fertilization are going to be screened so
rigorously that there is no danger of inappropriate application of this tech-
nology.
(c) . . [W]e have accepted the following as facts oflife: 15 percent of all
pregnancies will end in miscarriage; 3 percent of all pregnancies will result
in perinatal death, and 5 percent of liveborn children will have a congenital
defect. There is ke reason to expect the in vitro conception to escape
these risk factors. One thing is sure: The couple who are infertile due to
hopeless tubal damage run a 100 percent risk of remaining childless -if
they are not allowed access to in vitro fertilization as a technology. . . .
(d) . . It hurts to be infertile, to make the conscious and informed choice to
have children and then to be denied. . . .

Discuss!on
1. Some of the excerpts express concern over the risks of in vitro fertil-
ization. Do you think the risks, as stated, are serious enough to con-
sider another moratorium on research of in vitro ' ertilization?
2. Barbara Menning says, "Let us (the infertile) decide if we want to take
the risks."
(a) Should people be allowed to take such risks?
(b) Does the government have a responsibility to prevent people from
taking a risk?
(c) Does the government have a right to stop people from putting
themselves or others--in this case, the developing embryoat
risk?
3. Do you think every woman has a "right" to have a child? Explain your
answer.
4. Ruth Hubbard stales, "I simply do not believe that there is no effect
ion the process of development)." Do you think she has made-an ef-
fective argument in support of her position concerning the risks of the
procedure? Explain your answer.
5. According to Robert Murray, a member of the Ethics Advisory Board,
"There was a clear difference in the positions of witnesse 'om var-
ious regions of the country." In the Northeast ". . . witnesses tended
to favor . . . research into in vitro fertilization as well as in vitro fer-
tilization with embryo transfer. On the other hand, in the Midwest and
Southeast, witnesses tended to oppose-the further development of
both technologies."
(a) To what do you attribute these regional differences?
(b) What implications do they have for the development of a public
consensus on policy issues, such as government funding for in
vitro fertilization?

'043
 Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 941

25.9 Genetic Engineering Will Expand

into New Areas
Genetic engineering is the process of altering the genes of a living cell
by artificial means. The technology is often referred to as recombinant
DNA technology, because molecular geneticists can recombine genetic
material in new sequences as we have seen in section 8.20 and figure
8.30.
Already we can engineer bacteria to suit our purposes. For example,
bacteria-can -be altered to produce insulin or other natural substances.
That is done by removing the genes for insulin from human cells. Those
genes are then inserted into bacteria. Thus, the genetic material has been
recombined. When the bacteria reproduce by fission, they reproduce the
gene for human insulin. The gene is active in the bacteria. That is, the
bacteria make protein (in this case, insulin) from the directions encoded
in the gene. The gene productinsulinis then harvested for use by
diabetics.
Pseudomonas syringae, a bacterial species found on plants, makes a
protein that acts as a nucleus for the formation of ice crystals. Genetic
engineers have produced a mutant P. syringae, v.,';:ch lacks that protein.
They want to apply the mutant strain to the surface of potato and straw-
berry plants. If the mutant crowds out the other form, it will make the
plants frost-resistant. Another species of Pseudomonas (P. fluorescens)
has been engineered so that it is a natural pesticide. If it is added to the
roots of corn or other plants, it will kill the hornworna, cutworms, and
other pests that usually attack the plants.
Both of these engineered bacteria appear to be safe. Scientists, how-
ever, want to use caution in introducing any mutants_into natural envi-
ronments. They want to be sure that no beneficial insects are killed by
P. finorescens, and that the toxin does not persist in the environment. P.
syringae is less controversial, because the mutant is similar to some bac-
teria found in nature. However, there is a possibility that the normal,
be-forming strain is needed for cloud formation and rainfall.
Genetic engineering in humans is still in the future. The hope of mo-
lecular geneticists is that specific nes can be transferred to the cells of
persons having genetic disorders. :fhe cells with the transferred genes
should then produce the protein that the patient lacks. That type of ge-
netic engineering resembles bioengineering. A handicapped individual,
having received suitable treatment, could live a more normal life than
if untreated. Genetic engineering could help a person with phenylketon-
uria (PKU), for example. l'ersons who suffer from PKU have a genetic
defect that prevents the formation of an essential enzyme.
Inserting genes into a person's body cells will not correct that person's
reproductive cells. His or her offspring would still risk inheriting the faulty
gene:To eliminate that risk, the normally functioning gene would have
to be transferred into sperm and ova. Some people find the thought of
that procedure disturbing. The genes we carry are a random collection
of our,parent's genes. Some fear that genetic engineering on germ cells
might reduce that randomness and change the frequency of genes in the
gene pool.
942 'Section Five Patterns in the Biosphete

^-s

Figure 25.15 Ground control using computers to guide astronauts.

NASA

25.10 Knowledge Will Continue to Expand

Since early members of our species learned to use fire and tools, human
evolution has been rapid. As humans continued to use tools, their brains
expanded and their tools grew more complex.
0 For the last 35,000 years, however, human brains have changed little.
The Neanderthals' brains were as large as ours. Our brains are limited
to their present size because babies with larger heads would not be able
to pass through the birth canal. Human knowledge, however, has grown
greatly, because of our tools. More complex .cols have taken over not
Cultural evolu .m now proceeds much snore only much of our physical labor, but growing amounts of our mental
rapidly than biological evolution work as well.
When early humans scratched a map in the soil with a stick, or drew
an animal on a cave wall' with a crayon of ochre (figure 21.31, page 792),
the process of storing knowledge outside the brain was beginning. While
the human brain can store a gnat deal of information, its capacity for
storage has limits. Except for what is needed often or b emergencies, it
is far better to store information permanently as a written record and
retrieve it only when needed.
Now we use the Lys of computers rather than sticks of wood or ochre.
We fill libraries and museums with the accumulating: knowledge of our
species. We can spend time interpreting and using information, not merely
memorizing itor doing arithmetic. With computers as out partners, hu-
mankind may learn not only how to live well on earth, but also how to
explore the stars.
While this artificial expansion of our brains is occurring, the brain's
immediate environment, the body, is improving also. In developed na-
tions, better nutrition, sanitation, and health care have increased' both

1045
.11
 Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 943

the life span and the health of the average person. New knowledge in
medical genetics promises improved treatment and prevention of some
genetic disorders. Gene therapy may actually cure some genetic disor-
ders. Such changes in genotypes and phenotypes may even help to direct
human evolution.
Evolution of organisms, however, occurs only within environments.
Will our enlarged intelligence and ability lead us to understand the en-
, vironment and live within it for our benefit and that of other organisms?
Or will we destroy the environment on which vie depend?
There are signs that many persons throughout the world are deve-
loping a greater environmental awareness. Since 1975, for the first time
in modern history, the growth rate of the world's population has declined
(from 2 percent to 1.7 percent). The total population of the world is still
rising, of course. It is now expected to reach 6.1 billion persons by the
year 2000. Population and related issues may gradually be brought under
control if there is continued awareness of and action on these problems.

,25.11 Individuals Must Participate

in Important Decisions
about the Environment
Because some issues are international or require expert knowledge,
we tend to feel that our individual contributions are meaninglevs. How-
ever, just as evolution at the population level can occur only a:_: the result
of selection of individuals, so too are global changes in the environment
made up of many interacting specific events.
In addition, in recent years many ecologists have come to-see each Figure 25.16 Snail darter.
small environmental issue as the focal point of many interactions. For
exartkple, in 1."73, a biologist discovered a small population of snail-eating
fish, which he called snail dartcis (figur.:25.16), in a river in Tennessee.
As far as aayone 'ail darters c. std be found nowhere else. Thus,
under the Endangered Species Act, which had just been passel, any con-
struction destroying the snail darters' habitat could not proceed. Un-
fortunately, a ma: ,:ve project, the Tellico Dam, was nearing completion
next to the snail Garters' habitat. It had already cost $103 million and
would provide electricity to heat 20.000 homes. The construction was
held up for more than five years while the case was in the courts. Finally,
Tennessee Valley Authority
some snail darters were moved to other streams, and the construction of
the dam was resumed. Later on, another natural population of th3 fish
was found several miles away, so the.lengthy public controversy had not
been necessary.
"That particular combination of factors was unique to the situation.
But each environmental problem has unique, local aspects. In addition,
there are biological, physical, and social aspect; of rich environmental
issue. recisions about specific problems cannot:be mle from a distance
or from.a broad level only. They must be made, in part, by those who
are cle" to the situation and who are themselves affected.
Some biologists think that we should not provide food to countries
suffering famines unless they agree to control their growing populatioi
which would help prevent future famines. In contrast, some persons who
944 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Figure 25.17 The power of hurnarvi to shape cur environment may lead to
continuing _usefulness, or this power may be directed toward waste, depletion,
and ruin. Consider the choices shoWohere and in the word around you.

`BSCS by Bob Wilson

pscs d BSCS by BM Callahan,

oppose abortion say that -we should not provide any financial aid to coun-
tries that promote the use of abortion for population control, Have we
the right to interferein other countries' ethical decisions, even when those
decisions affect the global environment?
There are similar difficult bioethicai decisions to be made in other
arias. Does a childless couple have the right to use fertility drugs that
may produce multiple births, for example? Do we have the right to use
hominoids as sources of organs for transplants, or as subjects of research
that may be painful? Given the-threat of "nuclear winter," should we
halt nuclear weapons tests even if our enemies continue testing?
 Chapter 25 Humankind in the Future 945

BSCS
f

-Kenneth A. Pals JeCk D. Swenson/TOM STACK 3 ASSOCIATES

25.12 Decisions Must Be Based

on Sound Informatior and
Mi.:st Be Reached'Logically
The problems that face humankind are varied and complex. Their
solutions will require knowledge, creativity,.and cooperative effort. The
skills of biologists and other scientists will be important. The knowledge
stored in computers and the mathematical calculations.they make pos-
sible will help. But edticateti citizens are the true key to sound policies
that will help ensure a bright future.

1048
 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

You may have no interest in becoming a professional biologist, but

you cannot avoid making biological decisions in your own life. Some of
your decisions will be personal, but they will affect the environment. You
will make other decisions IA len you vote on environmental issues or face
environmental problems in the course of your daily work. We hope that
the knowledge and attitudes gained in this year of studying biology will
help you-to make those decisions.

Self-Review

1. What are some of the issues raised by our increasing use of bio-
technology?
2. How can genetic engineering be used to benefit humans?
3. If human brains have not changed ir. the past 35,000 years, how can
we explain the rapid increase of knowledge?
A. What pro'.s.lems resulted from the effort to save snail darters from
extinction?

Summary
If someone had tried 100 years ago to predict what humankind and
the environment would be like today, the prediction would probably be
only a rough approximation of our current situation. Not many people
could have foreseen our use of computers, genetic engineering, or nu-
clear energy.
Now we stand almost at the threshold of a new century. We can see
only a fuzzy picture of what the future -lay hold. Perhaps the only state-
ment we can make with certainty ig .aat many human environmental
issues will continue to be important.
In the past, nearly everyone has made mistakes about environmental
issues. Now, you have the chance to help determine the future. By
knowing sortie:hi:1g about ecology, and by caring about the earth and"
the people in it, you can help to bring about rebirth of our old planet.

Application Questions Problems

1. If humans are "s-lected by consequences," what 1. Demographers are concerned with more than
human behavioral adaptations are most likely to changes in the total numbers of persons. They are
Lead to our future survival? also interested' in the structure of populations=the
2. Two children are given an IQ test. If child A has a relative numbers of individuals of various kinds. For
score of 105, and child B has a score of 110, does example, two populations of the same size may
that mean that child B inherited genes for greater have different proportions of males and females. Of
intelligence? two populations of the same size may have different
3. A population map of the United States would show proportions of children and adults. Such data often
large areas that are barely inhabited. If someone provide much information about a population.
Chapter-25 Humankind in the Future 947

argued that the map showed there is no population (a) The total populations ..f the United States and
problem here, what arguments might you present Sri Lanka arc quite different. More important,
for another conclusion? the U.S. population has a smaller proPortion
4. Suppose a growth-enhanci..g form of Pseudomonas of children than that of Sri Lanka. What
could be engineered. Would it be a goc I idea to hypotheses can you suggest on the strength of
apply it to food cramps to increase production? Why this information?
or why not? (b) We can divide the population of the United
5. Research on human gene therapy is likely to begin States into three age groups: (1) persons under
before the end of the 1980s. Compare gene therapy 20, most of whom are not self-supporting;
on somatic cells with gene therapy on germ cells. (2) persons 20 to 65, most of whom are
working; (3) persons over 65, most of whom
are retired. In recent years the first and third
groups have been increasing more rapidly than
the second'gtoup. What hypotheses can you
suggest to explain this? Can you see a future
economic problem in this situation?
(c) In human females reproduction occurs mostly
between the ages of 15 and 45. Suppose this
age group increases more slowly than the age
group over 45 but the number of children per
female remains the same. What will happen to
the birthrate in the population when expressed
as births per 1000 of population?
(d) The average age at which a female has her
first child is higher in nation A than in nation
B. The average age of death is about the same
in both nations. From this information, make a
guess about the rate of population growth in
the two lountries. What additional
information would make your guess more
reliable?
2. What bacteria are used or are likely to be used in
the future in agricultural and industrial
microbiology? What foods and pharmaceuticals are
the products of bacterial or fungal action? How will
microbiology change as a re-cult of future genetic
engineering? Much information on this topic is
available in the September 1981 issue of Scientific
American.
3. The term ecology has become a household word,
but it is often used as if it were a synonym for
pollution or environment. Sometimes it is merely
used as a vague indication of something good. How
would you explain the scientific meaning of the
word ecology to a person wio has never studied
biology?
4. Identify a local environment problem in your
cc:nmunity. Research the biological, physical, and
social aspects of the,p7oblem.

1050
948 Section Five Patterns in the Biosphere

Suggested Readings
R. P. Ambroggi, "Water" Scientific American (September D. Overbye, "Prophet of the Cold and Dark" Discover
1980). Examines the future of water resources worldwide. (January 1985). Discusses how a nuclear war may affect
I. Asimov, "The Union of Genes and Genius" Science Digest Earth's ecosystem, and the ultimate results of a "nuclear
(March 1983). An interesting discussion concerning the winter."
future of,biotechnology. W. Sassin, "Energy" Scientific American (September 1980).
L. R. Brown, W. U. Chandler, and S. Poste!, "Stage of the Investigates future energy demands and development,
Earth" Natural History (April 1985). Various negative focusing on the less-developed countries of the world.
aspects and effects of the Earth's rapidly expanding C. Southwick, ed., 1983, Global Ecology (Sunderland,
population are examined. Mass.: Sinauer Associates). Collection of articles and
N. Myers, 1984, GAM, An Atlas of Planet Management essays dealing with a full range of environmental problems.
(Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books). Exquisitely illustrated
with photos, maps, and diagrams, this book discusses the
state' of the Earth at a critical point in its historynow,
and what the future prospects are.

answers to Application Questions and Problems

I Answers should allude to pi JI,ct 1 the erviroriment and I (a) Sri ,arika has higher birth and death rates herefore,
controlling ppillation growth there is a great preponderance of young, and the life
2 Taking a written test depends on reading skill and other ei'pectancy of an individual IS 10:v (b) The young and the
learned knowledge and abilities An environni) ntal old age groups have increased in size relative to the mddle-
explanation for the difference is more likely age grt up in the U because of better control of childhood
3 The areas have little water and poor topsoil Food and tritedious diseases and the diseases of old age The
water would have to be taken from other areas which might increase in young also results from a high natality rate This
have none to spare
dy,iribution of age groups in the population places an
4 Not without some research on the mutani effect on insect irLi,_asing economic Ourden on the middle-age class, which
and weeds
is the principal suppoMng one (c) The birthrate for the
5 Gene therapy on somatic cells might co, 2tt a geneti- population as a whole will decline, since the number of
disorder in the individual who was treated but it would nit reproduc,ing individuals declines (d) The rate of population
affect his or her offspring In the c ase of gene therapy or increase w oe greater in nation B because the earlier age
germ cells, the modified gene would be passed on The, of .ielivery of the first child reduces the length of a
concern is that the human gene pool would be changed heration tt yOU kne,..4 the proportior s of the population
that were of childbearing aae in both nations the hypothesis
would Pe on firmer ground
3 The exteti, to which students i.ari do this is a fair measere
of their grasp raf the major aspect of is course

105 1
Appendices

Appendix 1 Some General Procedures

for the Laboratory
Appendix 2 Supplementary
Invespnations
Appendix 3 A Cata ,g of Living Things

949
 IAPPENDIX

Some General Procedures

for the Laboratory

Safety Guidelines
The laboratory investigations in this book allow-you to experience the
methods and thought processes used by the professional biologist. They
should be an enjoyable and rewarding learning experience. This goal can
be achieved provided you and your classmates make the laboratory a
safe place in which to work. Accidents rarely happen when every student
is engaged in careful, thoughtful and productive investigative activities.
Accidents often happen when someone becomes careless, is apathetic
toward the activity, or engages in unacceptable behavior. You, your fellow
students, and t :acher are responsible for a safe, laboratory environment.
If an accident does occur, you should know whack, do immediately. You
are responsible for your fellow students' safety as well as your own.
The following safety guidelines should be observed whenever you are
in a biology laboratory:
1. Preparation: Study the assigned investigation before you come to
class. Clear up any confusion before you begin the investigation.
2. Organization: Arrange the materials needed for the investigation in
an orderly fashion. CI-rganizatior...elps ensure safety.
Cleanline.:3: Maintain a clean, clutter-free work area from begin-
ning to end of the investigation. Wash your hands immediately after
handling any living organism or any hazardous materials.
4. Chemicals: MI chemicals are dangerous, especially if handled
without knowledge. Know the 4 hazard classes of chemicals and the
safety rules for each class. Know the hazard class of the chemical
you are working with. Report all chemical spills to your teacher im-
mediately; do not attempt to clean up a chemical spill. Never dis-
pose of any chemical unless specifically instructed to do so by your
teacher.

951
952 Appendix 1 Some General Procedures for the Laboratory

5. Biological Safety: Treat all microbiological cultures as pathogenic,

or disease-causing. Dispose of all contaminated materials and cul-
ture material as your teacher directs. Never handle microbiological
cultures if you have cuts on your hand or are ill. Report any bio-
logical spill immediately to your teacherdo not attempt to clean
up a biological spill.
Wash your hands thoroughly following any experiment, or after
handling animals, Do-not eat or drink while conducting investiga-
tions.
6. Eye Safety: Safety goggles must be worn when working with any
chemical, or when working with an open flame. Contact lenses should
never be worn while conducting any experiment involving the use
of chemicals. If any solution or substance is splashed into your eye,
use the eye wash station immediatelyflushing the eyes, including
under each eyelid, for at least 10 minutes. Make sure your teacher
is notified by your partner or classmate.
Never use reflected sunlight to illuminate your microscope or
other optical device. Reflected or direct sunlight can damage your
eye's retina and cause serious injury.
7. Safety Equipment: Know the location of all safety equipment and
be familiar with the use of each piece of equipment. If you witness
an accident, report it to your teacher immediately.
8. Heat: Use only the source of heat specified by the investigation.
When heating a substance in a test tube, do not point the mouth of
the tube at another student or yourself.
9. Glassware: Never use cracked or chipped glassware. Use caution
and proper equipment to handle hot glassware; remember hot glass
looks the same as cool glass. When putting glass tut,;.% into rubber
stoppers, moisten the tubing, and protect your hands with heavy
cloth. Never force the tubing into the stopper. Broken glassware
should be swept up immediately (never picked up with your fingers)
and discarded into the special broken glass container.
10. Neatness: Keep your work space free of everything except those ma-
terials necessary for the assigned investigation. Tie back long hair
and remove dangling jewelry. Roll up long loose sleeves, especially
when working with chemicals or an open flame.
11. Cleanup: Used glassware and instruments should be washed ac-
cording to the teacher's specific instructions. Disposable materials
should be wrapped in paper towels and placed in the proper con-
tainer. Tables and sinks should be cleaned. Put away all equipment
and supplies. Make sure all water, gas, burners, and electrical ap-
pliances are turned off. Return all laboratory materials and equip-
ment to their proper place.
It is your responsibility, along with your fellow students and teacher,
to ensut e that the laboratory is a safe place in which to conduct biolog-
ical investigations. Make special note of any cautionary statements made
in the instructions for your laboratory investigations.
Remember that the laboratory will be safe only if you regard labo-
ratory work as serious work.

10r 4-1 1
Appendix 1 Some General Procedures for the Laboratory 953

Use of Materials
Apparatus. Some kinds of biological work still can be done with a few
simple tools. However, as biologists probe deeper, they often find it nec-
essar:,.to use complex apparatus for handling and observing their ma-
terials. It is important that you learn how to use each piece of apparatus
in order to obtain accurate scientific information.
Living materials. All biologists deal with living things. Though some
have no need to handle living things directly in their daily work, no one
in a general biology classroom or laboratory can get along without living
materials. You, as a biology student, should learn how to care for living
organisms.
Animals must be cared for humanely. General rules are as follows:
I. Always follow the teacher's instructions carefully concerning the
care of laboratory animals.
2. Provide an escape-proof container suitable for the animal, in a lo-
cation where the animal will not be constantly disturbed.
3. Keep the container clean. This is necessary for the health of the
animal. Cages of small birds and mammals should be cleared daily.
Provide proper ventilation, light and temperature.
4. Provide water-at all times.
5. Feed regularly. The frequency of feeding depends on the animals.
Small birds and mammals may need to be provided with a contin-
uous food supply.
6. Treat laboratory animals with kindness in all situations. Cruelty has
no place in biology.
7. When animals must be disposed of or released, your teacher will
provide a suitable method.
8. Plants are just as much living things as are animals; they, too, can
be injured or killed. Therefore, handle them carefully and gently.
Most plants must be provided with light, soil, and water. Require-
ments differ a great deal among plants. Therefore, individual stu-
dents should care for your classroom plants. They will learn the
requirements of the particular kinds of plants in their charge.

Record-Keeping
Science deals with verifiable observations. No onenot even the orig-
inal observercan check an observation that is hazy, indefinite, or half-
remembered. All scientists must keep clear and accurate records of what
they have observed, made at the tint, "observation.
Data books. The best method of ling such records is to jot them
down in a data book. This should be a stiff -cover book, permanently bound
(not loose-leaf), preferably with square grid pages.
Keep records in a diary form, recording the date first. If you make
observations-on two-or -more investigations on the same day, use the
numbers or abbreviations of the titles as subheadings.
Data may, be recorded in words. In the laboratory, time is short, so
you should make these notes brief but to the point. Complete sentences
are not necessary, but single words are seldom satisfactory. Phrases are
usually most useful.

1055
954 Appendix 1 Some General Procedures for the Laboratory

You may choose to sketch your observations. A drawing often records

an observation more easily, completely, and accurately than words can.
Your sketches need not be works of art. Their success depends on your
ability to observe, not on your artistic talent. Keep them simple, usually
without shading, and draw them with a hard pencilotherwise they
might rub off.
Data may be recorded numerically as counts or measurements. Give
the units in which measurements are made. Often numerical data are
most easily recorded in the form of a table.
Do not jot down your data on other papers, to be copied into the data
book later. This might increase neatness, but it will decrease accuracy.
Boo- are virtues in a scientist, but neatness is of value only when it in-
ci,..ses accuracy. Your data book is your record. Your teacher may want
to look at it to help you with your work, but he or she is interested in
the accuracy of your data, not in the blot .nd stains that are a normal
lidzard of field and laboratory work.
Remember to do the following:
1. Record immediately.
2. Record accurately.
3. Record completely.
More and more, science is becoming a cooperative enterprisea team
activity. You will do much of your own laboratory work as a member of
a team. Your data book, thereft.re, will sometimes contain data contrib-
uted b, other members of your team. Keep track of what you yourself
have observed by encircling (or recording in a different color) obser-
vations made by others. You should be able to say: "This I know because
I saw it; that I believe because I have confidence in my teammates."
Laboratory reports. Discoveries become a part of science only when
thy are made known to others. Communication, therefore, is a very im-
ix ant part of science. In t-riting, scientists must a A,.ress themselves so
clearly that another person can repeat their procecn. exactly. The
reader must know what material was used (in biology this includes the
kind of organism) and must be able to understand every detail of the
work. Scientists must be free to communicate, but they can use this
freedom only if they know how to communicate. For publication, sci-
entific reports are usually written in a rather standard form, somewhat
as follows:
1. Title
2. Introduction: section usually stating how the problem urose and often
giving a summary of past
3. Materials and equipment
4. Procedure: complete and exact account of what was derv, in gath-
ering the data
5. Results: data obtained from the procedure, often in the form of ta-
bles and graphs
6. Discussion: part that points up the relationship between the data
and the,purpose of the work
7. Conclusion: summary of the meaning of the results, often sug-
gesting further work that might be done
8. Referenc&s: published scientific reports that have been specikaily
mentioned

rt0nv
"(-1-
Appendix 1 Some General Procedures for the Laboratory 955

If you undertake work on an independent problem, your report should

follow this form. For the usual work in this course, however, you do not
have to be so elaborate. You are communicating with your fellow stu-
dents and your teacher, who already know a great deal about the work.
Occasionally your teacher may direct you to do a rather complete job
of reporting. Usually, however, a much shorter report is all that is re-
quiredperhaps merely the answers to the questions in an investigation.
In either case, the material in your data book is the basis for your re-
ports.

Measurement
All major countries of the world use the metric system of measure-
ment except the United States. The metric system is a decimal system
that is, it is based on powers of ten, like our system of currency. Scientists
in the United States have long used the metric system.
The official name of the internationally standardized metric system
is the International System of Units, abbreviated SI (for Systeme In-
ternationale). Its units of measure are easily manipulated by doing cal-
culations with ten or powers of ten. Among its basic units of measurement
are the meter (length), the kilogram (mass), the kelvin (temperature),
and the second (time). All lengths are bard on that of the meter, and
all volumes on a cubic meter. All units of mass are based on t1:- kilo-
gram. Units of temperature, which you will become familiar with as de-
grees Celsius, are equal to kelvins.
The major exception you will make to SI measure is in the measure
of volume. You will use liters and decimals of liters, rather than cubic
meters and their decimals. Liter measure is widely used for liquids, and
most of your volume measurements in biology will be of liquids. Liter
measure is accepted by SI, although not officially as a part of it. Like
the cubic meter, the liter is also metric (I I = 0.001 m3).
Some of the SI units derived from the basic units for length and mass
follow:
1. Length
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters
1 hectometer (hm) = 100 meters
1 dekameter (dkm) = 10 meters
1 meter (m)the basic unit of length
1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 meter
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meter
1- .millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meter
1 micrometer (Am) = 0.000001 meter
1 nanometer (nm) = 0.000000001 meter
Measurements under microscopes are often made in micrometers.
Still smaller measurements, as for wavelengths of light used by plants
in photosynthesis, are made in nanometers.
Units of area are derived from units of length by multiplication.
One square hectometer is a measure often used for ecological studies;
it is commonly called a hectare and equals 10,000 m2.

Ofjv
956 Appendix 1 Some General Procedures for the Laboratory

2. Mass
Figure A.1 A comparison of Fahrenheit and
Celsius (centigrade) temperature scales. 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams
1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams
°F °C 1 dekagram (dkg) = 10 grams
1 gram (g)derived from the kilogram, the basic unit
1 00
210 1 decigram (dg) = 0.1 gram
200
1 centigram (cg) = 0.01 gram
90 1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 gram
190 1 microgram (gig) = 0.000001 gram
180
1 nanogram (ng) = 0.000000001 gram
80
170
Measurements of mass in your biology laboratory usually will be
made in kilograms, grams, centigrams, and milligrams.
160 70 The units you will use for volume and for temperature follow:
150 3. Volume
140 60 1 kiloliter (kl) = 1000 liters (or 1 cubic meter)
130
1 hectoliter (III) = 100 liters
1 dekaliter (dkl) = 10 liters
50
120 1 liter (1)derived from the cubic meter
110
1 deciliter (zil) = 0.1 liter
40 1 centiliter (c1) = 0.01 liter
100 1 milliliter (ml) = 0.001 liter
90 Your volume measurements in the laboratory will usually be made
30
in glassware marked for milliliters and liters.
80

70 = 20
4. Temperati.xe
Your laboratory thermometers may read from 0° to 100° Celsius
PO
(abbreviated C). Or, since you may be reading temperatures below
50 10 0° C, some thermometers may read 30° or 40° below zero.
40
On the Celsius scale, 0° is the official reading for the triple point
of water. At this temperature ice, liquid water, and water vapor pass
0
30 from any one of these three states to another, staying in equilibrium.
20
Commonly, 0° is known as the freezing point of water. Atmospheric
10 pressure affects this freezing point.
10 The boiling point of water, commonly, is 100° C. Atmospheric
pressure also affects this boiling point.
20 Figure A.1 illustrates the Celsius scale alongside the Fahrenheit
-10 scale that is still used in the United States. On the Fahrenheit scale,
°F °C
32° F is the freezing point of water and 212° F is the boiling point
of water. The figure is useful in converting from one scale to the
other.
SI measure includes still other basic units (units of electric current,
of force, of amount of substance, and so on) that you will not use in your
biology studies.
If you wish to learn more about SI measure, write to the U.S. De-
partment of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D.C. 20234.
 APPENDIX 2
Supplementary Investigations

Investigation.A.1 CHEMICAL SAFETY

Investigation A.1
Introduction CHEMICAL SAFETY

Many of the chemicals used in the laboratory can injure you if you are not These activities are designed to increase
careful. All chemicals are hazardous in some way. A hazardous chemical student awareness of hazards and safety
is defined as a substance that is likely to cause injury. Chemicals can be measures in combination with the safety
placed in 4 hazard categories: flammable substances, corrosive sub- guidelines in appendix 1 and the teacher s
stances, toxic substances, and reactive substances. Their characteristics edition, these materials should help enure safe
are summarized in table A.1. This activity will help you become aware of laboratory experiences for you and your
the 4 types of chemical hazards and of how you can reduce the risk of students
injury when using chemicals.

Part AFlammable Substances Figure A.2 The fire triangle.

Flammable substances are solids, liquids, or gases that wii. burn. The
process of burning involves 3 interrelated components: fuel - oridizer - ig-
nition source. For burninO to occur, all 3 sides (components) of the fire
triangle (figure A.2) must be present. For practical purposes, there must
be sufficient fuel (any substance capable of burning) and oxidizer (usually
air) present to form an ignitable mixture. To complete the triangle, an ig-
nition source (energy) must be present. The ignition source need not be
in the form of a spark or a flame; temperature alone can supply the energy.
To control the fire hazards of flammable substances, one must remove,
or otherwise make inaccessible, at least 1 side of the fire triangle. Re-
moving the oxidizer leg is the most difficult approach. Removing the fuel
leg is somewhat easier: Store flammable liquids in an area isolated from
reactive substances, such as oxidizers (acids). Removing the ignition source ignition source
leg is the easiest approach: Store flammable materials in a cool area; elim-
inate obvious ignition sources, such as flames and sparks; and eliminate
those ignition sources that are not so obvious, such as hot plates, sparking
electrical equ!pment, and static electricity.

957
958 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations

evention / Control
Know the hazard class of each chemical or
solution you handle or work with in the
laboratory. Know all safety precautions for each
hazard class. Read and understand ail
information on the product label. Ask your
Kind of Material Categories teacher if you have any questions.

Flammable Substance Flammable LiquidLiquid having a flashpoint Store away from oxidizers and reactives.
Common Lab Hazard less than 100° F (37.8° C).
Store in approved, grounded containers and in
Combustible LiquidFlashpoint equal to or safety cabinets.
greater than 100° F (37.8° C) but less than
Store no more than one-half gallon in glass
200° F.
containers.
Flashpointthe lowest temperature at Store in cool area (under 80° F).
which a liquid gives off vapor which forms an
ignitable mixture with air near the surface. Transport in metal or other approved containers.
Flammable SolidCauses fire through friction, Store in cool area (under 80° F).
absorption of moisture, or spontaneous Transport in metal or other approved containers.
chemical change. Ignites readily; burns
vigorously. Ground all metal containers when dispensing.

Flammable GasForms a flammable mixture Report all chemical spills to your teacher
immediately.
with at ambient temperature and pressure.

Reactive Chemical Acid - Sensitive Reacts with acids or acid Isolate compounds of a given hazard class from
Violent reaction under fumes to generate heat, flammable or explosive other hazard classes.
certain ambient or galas, or toxicants.
Protect reactives from physical shock.
induced conditions.
Water-SensitiveReacts with moisture to Provide a ready water source for dilutions not
Spontaneous generation
generate heat and/or flammable or explosive
of great heat, light, and involving water sensitives.
gases.
flammable and non- /-\\ Keep water away from water sensitives.
flammable gases OxidizerPromotes combustion in other
or toxicants. / materials through release of oxygen or other Store reactives in a cool, dry area away from
sunlight.
gases.
HINER
Never pour any chemical or chemical solution
down any drain. Ask your teacher for correct
disposal method.

Corrosive Chemical Corrosive Liquid, Solid, GasCauses visible Never mix any two chemicals or solutions
Injures body tissue and destruction or irreversible alterations in living together unless told to do so by your teacher.
corrodes metal by direct tissue.
Store in approved containers away from sunlight
chemical action.
IrritantCauses reversible inflammation in living and rapid temperature changes.
tissue.
Wear protective equipment: eye goggles,
SensitizerCauses allergic reaction in normal gloves, and lab apron.
tissue of a substantial number of individuals
Know the exact location of the eyewash station
after repeated exposure.
near you.
Never handle any chemical directly.

Toxic Chemical InhalationToxic gases may pass rapidly into Treat all chemicals as toxic until you are certain
Injures by direct action capillary beds of lungs and be carried to all they are otherwise.
with body systems when parts of the body via circulatory system.
Wear protective equipment over exposed skin
tolerable limits are
IngestionToxics may damage tissues of and eyes.
exceeded. Exposure mouth, throat and gastrointestinal tract; produce
routes: direct contact, Handle contaminated metal and glassware
systemic poisoning if absorbed through these
inhalation, ingestion, and carefully.
tissues.
penetration.
Skin/Eye ContactHair follicles, sweat
glands, as well as cuts and abrasions are the
main portals of entry. Eyes are acutely sensitive
to chemical irritants as well as corrosives.
Injection/PenetrationExposure to toxics by
injection seldom occurs; however wounds by
broken glass or metal are frequent avenues for
circumstances of injected chemicals.

Courtesy of Ward's Natural Science Establishment

!Uri°
1:7
 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations 959

Procedure A
1. Use your knowledge to draw fire triangles with the correct leg removed 2 (a)
to represent the following control measures. (b) A (b) 8
(a) Isolate flammable materials from reactive chemicals. (c) _\ (c) a
(b) Do not store more than 1 gallon of flammable material in glass in (d) A (d) 6
the laboratory. (e) A (e) a.
(c) Transfer flammable liquids in a working fume hood whenever pos- (I) (()
sible. (9) ._
(d) Eliminate sources of ignition.
(e) Store flammable substances in a cool area, at a maximum tem-
perature of 27° C (80° F).
(f) Use special sorbent materials to reduce vapor pressure when
wiping up spills.
(g) Transport flammable liquids in metal or other protective con-
tainers.
2. Use your knowledge to circle the leg of the fire triangle that is most
vulnerable to these common safety problems.
(a) Improperly stored glass containers of flammable solvents.
(b) A lack of adequate grounding to prevent sparking (by static elec-
tricity) generated by flowing liquids.
(c) Mixed flammable liquids in a waste disposal can with other chem-
icals.
(d) Open flames on a laboratory bench near flammable liquids.
(e) Transporting glass containers containing flammable liquids on top
of cart.
(f) Flammable substances stored on shelf with acids and other re-
active chemicals.

Part BCorrosive Substances

Corrosive chemicals are solids, liquids, or gases that, by direct chemical
action, are injurious to body tissue and corrosive to metal. Corrosive injury
may range from irritation to actual physical destruction of body tissues.
Below are typical corrosive substances that you may encounter in the lab-
oratory.

Type Chemical Phase

Mineral Acid Hydrochloric acid (HCI) Liquid
Mineral Acid Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Liquid

Organic Acid Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Liquid

Strong Base Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Solid or Liquid

Strong Base Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Solid or Liquid
Strong Base Ammonium hydroxide (NH,OH) Solid or Liquid

I. Mineral acids. Everyone knows that mineral acids can cause burns.
Few people realize, however, the extent to which they can damage body
tissues. Sulfuric acid vapor is more toxic than hydrogen cyanide (HCN).
The corrosive and toxic effects of sulfuric acid are listed below.
(a) Physical properties: Dense, corrosive liquid. Very strong oxidizer.
Liberates large amounts of heat when mixed with water. Dissolves
most metals with release of hydrogen gas.
(b) Flammability: Non-flammable, but highly reactive. Heat of reaction
sometimes great enough to ignite flammable gases generated by
reactions.
960 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations

Part B (c) Effects: Destruction of skin and eye tissues. Vapors can cause
4 This model demonstrates that there is destruction of lung and other respiratory tissues. Ingestion of a
little dilution occurring when water is added corrosive liquid can cause teeth to dissolve and destroy tissues
directly to an acid. When this is done, numerous of mouth, throat and abdomen.
red solash marks indicate a high acid content If
an individual were to mix an acid with water in
such a manner, serious injury could result Materials
Conversely, when acid is added to water, 1 pint concentrated red food dye
great dilution capability exists and splashes glass beakers, 100 ml
have a low acid content white paper
Set up the demonstration of corrosive solids 2 dropping pipets
as follows
Mater ials
sodiu m hydroxide
Procedure
(crystalstpellets)number 1 Every student has heard the admonishment "Do as you oughta . .
potassium hydroxide add acid to water." The following investigation will demonstrate why this
(crystal/pellets)number 2 rule is critical to chemical safety.
phenol crystalsnumber 3 1. For illustration purposes, the red food coloring will represent hydro-
sodium chloride (lumps of rock salt)number 4 chloric acid. Cut and position 7-cm white paper strips around the top
sugar (lumplnumber 5 edge of two beakers. Fill 1 beaker with the red dye, the other with tap
petri dishes containing solid agar water. Fill beakers to the same height, about 2 cm from the lip.
forceps 2. To the beaker containing the acrd (red dye), use a pipet to add 5 to
eye goggles, apron, gloves 10 drops of water from a normal dispensing height (15 to 20 cm).
Use forceps to remove small quantities (3-5 3. To the beaker containing the water, use a pipet to add 5 to 10 drops
pellets or small lumps) of each of the test solids of acid from a normal dispensing height.
and place them on top of the agar in separate. 4. Remove the paper and check the white paper wrapped around each
numbered petit dishes Cover the dishes and beaker for signs of splashing. What can you conclude from the evi-
record the start time of the experiment dence (the color of the splash marks) about acid dilution?
The following table summarizes the expected
results II. Corrosive solids. Corrosive solids may appear relatively harmless
Label Chemical Key Deduction
because they can be removed more easily than liquids, and because they
Substance Observations might not cause an immediate destructive effect. The effect is largely de-
sodium Solid liquefies Corrosive
pendent on their solubility in skin moisture and even more rapid solubility
hydroxide following contact substance in the moisture present in the respiratory and intestinal tracts.
with agar Hazy Caustic alkalies (sodium or potassium hydroxides) are perhaps the
area forms on
surface, spreads greatest potential hazard because of their wide use in general science lab-
outward Surface oratories. The hazards of corrosive solids include the following.
fisrupted
(a) Solutions of corrosive solids are readily absorbed through the skin.
2 potassium Solid liquefies corrosive
hydroxide following contact substance
(b) Caustic alkalies and other corrosive solids might not produce im-
with agar Hazy mediate, painful reactions.
area forms on (c) Many corrosive solids dust easily, thus increasing the hazard
surface, spreads
outward Surface through other exposure routes (inhalation).
disrupted. (d) Molten corrosive solids greatly increase the threat of exposure by
3 phenol Solid liquefies corrosive acting as liquid corrosives.
following contact substance
with agar Hazy
The most serious hazard associated with corrosives is from materials
area forms on in the gaseous state. In this state, corrosives are rapidly absorbed into the
surface, extending body by dissolution in skin moisture and by inhalation. Remember, many
deep into agar.
spreads outward corrosives give off dangerous vapors whether by themselves or during spills
both on top and or chemical reactions.
below surface.
Surface disrupted.

4 sodium Solid liquefies. noncorrosive Procedure

chloride either entirely or to substance
a major extent No Your teacher will set up a demonstration that shows the action of cor-
hazy area forms rosive solids. Agar is used to represent body tissue.
Surface not
disrupted 5. Observe the effects of each substance on the agar over the next 1 to
5 sugar Solid liquefies. noncorrosive 2 hours, especially within the first 1 / 2 hour.
either entirely or to substance 6, Which solid(s) had the greatest corrosive effect? Which solid(s) the
a major exter' No
hazy area for least corrosive effect?
Surface not
disrupted.

10
 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations 961

7. What factor present in the agar is responsible for initiating the cor- Pnenol is the most corrosive of the 3
rosive effect? corrosive solids investigated. sugar and salt
8. Which solid took the longest time to exhibit a corrosive effect? being non corrosive All substance.> liquefy Joon
9. (a) Are some substances non-corrosive? contact with the agar which. like tissue, is mostly
(b) Why, based on what observed characteristics? water in content It is skin moisture that initiates
10. Based upon your observations, what can you conclude about those the corrosil, effects clt the solid As observed.
solids that are corrosive? these effects are usually not immediate, but
progress slowly and become evident over a 30-
minute period In agar, tissue damage is
Part CToxic Substances mimicked by a roughened surface in onjunction
One gram of table salt will kill a rat, if administered in the right manner. with a white, hazy area that spreads and
AU chemicals are toxic in excess, that is, if they exceed tolerable limits. deepetis over time Phenol would be deemed
Chemicals can injure a body system via one or more exposure routes: most corrosive due to the deep penetration of
direct contact, inhalation, ingestion, and penetration. the hazy area versus the other substances
At the conclusion of this demonstration add
dropwise, to each of the plates
Materials
containing corrosive bases until neutrality is
Paramecium culture reached by litmus test Discard plates only alter
concentrated biological stain this step
dilute biological stain
microscope slides Part C
coverslips
Prepare the concentrated stain as a 2 '0
dropping pipets
alcoholic solution of Brilliant Cresyl Blue dilute
protozoa slowing agent (DETAIN)
1:9 in distilled water for the diluted preparation
pond or distilled water
The concentrate A is cytotoxic to
Paramecium, the 10-fold dilution B should not
Procedure injure the cells Stains applied to a living
organism without killing it are termed vital stains,
1. Prepare a wet mount with 1 drop each Paramecium culture, concen-
stains that kill organisms are termed suprevital
trated biological stain, and DETAIN (protozoa slowing agent). Label
Students should observe the following signs
the-slide A.
of cytotoxicity a marked reduction in contractile
2. Prepaie a 2nd wet mount in the same way, but this time use dilute
vacuole and ciliary activity coupled with eventual
biological stain. Label this slide B.
cell death
3. Prepare a control with Paramecium and DETAIN but no stain. Label
You may wish to speculate with students
the control C.
whether the stain or the alcoho: used to dissolve
4. Observe each of the 3 slides for 15 to 20 minutes under various mag-
It is cytotoxic to Paramecium Brilliant Cresyl
nifications of a compound microscope.
Blue is also soluble in water, and additional
(a) Which preparation concentration is toxic to Paramecium?
inventigatiol cati be conducted to demonstrate
(b) What observations would form the criteria to measure cell toxicity
that at higu enough concentrations, both the
of the stain?
stain and the alcohol can be cytotoxic

Part DReactive Substances

Reactive chemicals promote violent reactions under certain conditions.
They are placed in categories that reflect their common reactive hazard.
(a) Acid-sensitives: chemicals that react with acids (or acid furbes) to
generate heat, hydrogen, or flammable gases and toxicants.
Type Example
alkali hydroxides sodium hydroxide
carbonates potassium carbonate
nitrites
sulfides
(b) Oxidizers: chemicals that promote or start combustion in other ma-
terials through the release of oxygen or other gases.
Type Example
oxygen hydrochloric acid
mineral acids hydrogen peroxide
peroxides potassium nitrite
nitrites sodium nitrate
nitrates potassium dichromate
dichromates zinc oxide
oxides
ci
10 63
962 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations

(c) Water-sensitives: chemiclls that react with water, steam, and mois-
ture to generate heat and/or flammable or explosive gases.
Type Example
Strong acids sulfuric acid
Strong bases sodium hydroxide
Always read the container label for any listed incompatibilities for any
chemical that you are working with.

Part D Materials
Baking soda or s bicarbonate 1 baking soda (sodium bicarbonate)
reaction category of acid-sensitive tha it can vinegar (acetic acid)
react with an acid (in this case vinegar) to small glass beaker
generate heat and gases, arff+ng other spatula
procluis
inorganic rnitkiral acids such as sulfuric acid
are extremely strong acids when compared with Procedure
vinegar (a solution that usually contains about 1. Pour a small amount of vinegar in the glass beaker.
4-8' acetic acid) If baking soda were 2. Add a pinch of baking soda to the vinegar. What happens?
sprinkled onto a quantity of ,uilaric acid the 3. What reaction category did this chemical reaction demonstrate?
intensity of the reap. ton would he much greater 4. Can you write the chemical equation for this reaction?
with more heat and tux, gas aigit,rated at a 5. Would you expect this reaction to proceed at a quicker rate if sulfuric
much faster rate acid were used?

....,, Investigation A.2 INTRODUCTION

Investigation A 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE MICROSCOPE TO THE MICROSCOPE

Materials
Introduction

No 2 glass coverstips are satisfactory for

There are many different kinds of microscopes. The compound micro-
students use at both tow and high power They scope often used in biology laboratories is an instrument made up of two
do not break as easily as the No 1 coverslips
groups of glass lenses, one at each end of a tube. With the monocular
Plastic coverstips soon become scratched and
microscope you use only one eye in viewing an object, so the image you
unusable they may not present any saving Use
see has length and width but little depth. Most objects examined under a
glass from the beginning and stress proper monocular microscope must be so small or thin that light can pass through
handling them. You can see form and structure in such objects because some of
Lens nape is usually suppiied in booklets their parts absorb more light than others. Things seen in this way are said
Store it in dustproof containers Be sure to be observed by transmitted light.
students understand that lens paper is to be
ased for cleaning lenses onlynot slides Materials (per student or pair of students)
Slides may be cleaned with ordinary paper
monocular microscope
Lowe% but a softer grade of paper or cloth is
prefer ble Facial tissues are preferable for
microscope slide
coverslip
cleaning coverstips
The print used for financial reports and
forceps
sports statistics in newspapers is small enough
dropping pipet
IC fit into the low-power field of view Try to find finger bowl or beaker containing water
pieces of newspaper with printing on 1 side only
lens paper
Almost any kind of container can be used in
paper towels
strips of newspaper
place of finger bowls or beakers
Cut transparent plastic rulers (with a metric
scissors
scale on one margin) into several pieces with a
transparent plastic millimeter rule
saw or with scissors Short pieces are easy to
pieces cut from magazine photograph
handle on the microscope stage Find pieces of
magazine photographs without print on the Procedure
back
1. Setting up a microscope.
Remove your microscope from its case or storage cab:net. Grasp the
arm of the instrument with one hand. Place your other hand under the
Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations 963

base. Always use two hands to carry a microscope. Set it down gently
on the laboratory table, with the arm toward you and the stage away
from you. The base should be a safe distance from the edge of the
table.
Your teacher will help you identify each part of the microscope (figure
A.3) and explain its use. Become familiar with each part before pro-
ceeding.

Figure A.3 Two styles of monocular compound microscope.

ocular
lox

body tube
coarse adjustment

revolving nosepiece
fine adjustment
high-power objective

low-power objective arm

stage clips
Stage
inclination joint
substage diaphragm
mirror

ff, base

ocular

body tube

revolving nosepiece
arm
mediumpower objective
high-power objective
lowpower objective
stage
fine adjustment
stage clips
coarse adjustment
substage diaphragm
mirror

base

1065 ,
U
964 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations

Procedure 2. Preliminary adjustments.

The microscope description is nct Use the coarse-adjustment knob to raise the body tube so that the
general Radical changes have Burred in objectives do not hit the stage when you rotate the revolving nose-
microscope design, and many types are now piece. Turn the nosepiece so that the low-power (shorter) objective
being marketed Exhibit an example of the type is in line with the body tube. You will hear a click when the objective
your students will use. with the parts labeled moves into position. Adjust the substage diaphragm to the largest
A microscope can be of only limited possible opening. Adjust the mirror so that it reflects light upward
usefulness if illumination is poor You may n..ed through the opening in the stage. Never let direct sunlight strike the
to provide a lamp for each microscope mirror. Look into the ocular. Make final adjustment of the mirror so that
Most classes require part of a period for the circular field of view is evenly illuminated. Adjust the diaphragm to
introduction of microscopes by the teacher and eliminate any glare.
2 lull period., for student proLeduri, Undue If the lenses of the ocular or the objective are cloudy or dusty, wipe
haste at this time may result in faulty te(hriques them gently with apiece of lens paper. Use a circular motion and light
and poor attitudes toward careful laboratory pressure. Never use any other kind of paper or cloth. When a piece
work Enough time must be provided so that of lens paper has been used once, discard it. If this procedure does
students Can proceed carefully and can do v.ork not clean the lenses, consult your teacher.
of high Quality 3. Preparation of materials.
Databook notes should wive as u basis for Material to be studied under a microscope is usually placed on a piece
a short class discussion at the end of Du of glass called a microscope slide. In most cases the material is cov-
investigation Since notes are based on ered with a small, thin piece of glass called a coverslip. Both slide and
Observation only, disagreements between coverslip should be as clean as possible. Always handle them by the
students usually reflect differences in edges.
interpretation of instructions Attemp' to cf,sc over To clean a slide, hold it by the edges, between index finger and
the source of difficulty and after that establish thumb, and dip it into water. Then wipe dry, using a piece of soft, clean
consensus cloth or paper towel.
Coverslips are much more fragile , an slides. To clean a coverslip,
hold it by the edges, using the index finger and thumb of one hand,
and dip it into water. Fold a piece of thin, soft cloth or lens paper. Hold
Figure A.4 Cleaning a coverslip. it between the index finger and thumb of the other hand. Insert the
coverslip in the fold and apply pressure to both surfaces at the same
time by bringing thumb and finger together (figure A.4). A gentle, cir-
cular motion is most effective.
4. Preparing a wet mount.
Using scisst ;s, cut out a piece of newspaper that includes at least
one letter e. The piece should be not more than 3 to 5 mm2. If possible,
find a piece that has printing on only one side. Place the piece of news-
paper in the center of a slide, printed side up. Put a single drop of
water on the newspaper. Some of the water will soak into the paper,
but some should remain surrounding it. If necessary, add another drop
of water, Place a coverslip over the paper. The water will spread out
in a thin, even layer between coverslip and slide.
Some skill is required to place the coverslip on the slide so that no
air bubbles are included in the mount. The best method is to hold the
coverslip at an angle of about 450 to the slide. Bring the cover slip
down to the slide until the lower edge touches the drop of water. Con-
tinue to lower the slip slowly until it is parallel to the surface of the slide
(figure A.5). Remaining bubbles may be moved by gently tapping the
coverslip with the eraser of a pencil.
5. Focusing.
Using the coarse adjustment, raise the body tube until there are about
2 cm between the low-power objective and the stage. Place the wet-
mount slide on the stage. Position it so that a letter e is in the center
of the stage opening and is right side up. Use the stage clips to hold
the slide in position. Look at the microscope from the side and use
the coarse adjustment to slowly lower the body tube. The lower end
of the objective should be about 1 mm above the coverslip. Never
allow the objective to touch the coverslip.
Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations 965

Look through the ocular. Slowly raise the body tube until the print
on the newspaper becomes visible. If you see no image after you have Figure A.5 Making a we mount.
raised the object more than I cm, you have missed the position for
correct focus. Refocuslook at the microscope from the side, lower
the objective to its original position, and try again. Never lower the tube
with the coarse adjustment while you are looking into the ocular. When
you see an image of the printed material, rotate the fine-adjustment
knob to obtain the best possible focus. Adjusting the diaphragm may
improve clearness.
(a) Compare the position of the image of the letter e in the ocular
with the position of the printed e (the object) on the slide. Is the
image in the same position as the object seen with the unaided
eye? If not, describe its position.
(b) While looking into the ocular, slowly move the slide from right b
left. Which way does the image move?
(c) Move the slide away from you. Which way does the image move?
6. Using high power.
Rotate the revolving nosepiece so that the high-power (longer) objec-
tive is in line with the body tube. Make sure that the lower end of the
objective does not touch the coverslip. If this happens, you will have
to repeat the entire sequence, beginning with focusing the low-power
objective. Use only the fine adjustment to bring the image into focus.
Usually less than one full turn (in either direction) is needed.
(a) Is the field of view now larger or smaller?
(b) Does the switch from low power to high power change the po-
sition of the image?
(c) Is the illumination more or less bright than it is with low power?
Use the coarse adjustment to raise the body tube. Remove the slide
and save it for later use.
7. Magnification.
If an object is magnified 50 diameters (50X ), the image you see is 50
times longer and wider than if the object were viewed with the unaided
eye at a distance of 25.4 cm.
The degree of magnification provided is engraved on each objec-
tive and ocular. The magnification of combined ocular and objective
equals the product of these numbers. If, for example, the number on
7 (b) For most student microscopes
the ocular is 5X and that on the low-power objective is 12X, the
,0 X 10 100
combined magnification is 5 X 12, or 60, diameters. Using the same
(c ) for most student mIcrosc.opes 10 X 43
ocular and high-power objective that magnifies 45X will produce a
-- 430
magnification of 5 X 45, or 225, diameters.
(a) Find the magnification numbers on your microscope.
(b) Calculate the magnification with low power.
(c) With high power.
8. Measuring with a microscope.
Because objects examined with a microscope are usually quite small,
biologists use units of length smaller than centimeters or millimeters
for microscopic measurement. One such unit is the micrometer, which
is one thousandth of a millimeter. The Greek letter A (called mu) fol-
lowed by m, thus Am, is the symbol for micrometer.
You can estimate the size of a microscopic object by comparing it
with the size of the circular field of view. To determine the size of the
field, place a plastic mm rule on the stage. Use the low-power objec-
tive to obtain a clear image of the divisions on the rule. Carefully move
the rule until its marked edge passes through the exact center of the
field of view. Now, count the number of divisions that you can see in
the field of view. The marks on the rule will appear quite wide; 1 mm
is the distance from the center of one mark to the center of the next.
(a) What is the diameter, in millimeters, of the low-power field of your
microscope?

1067
966 Appendix 2 Supplementary investigations

(b) What is it in micrometers?

To measure the diameter '1 the high-power field, use the following
procedure: First, divide the magnification number of the high-power
objective by that of the low-power objective. Then divide the diameter
of the low-power field of view by this quotient. The result is the di-
ameter of the high-power field of view. For example, if the magnifi-
cation of your low-power objective is 12X and that of your high-power
objective is 48X, the quotient is 4. If the diameter of the low-pcm.
field of view is 1600 Am, the diameter of the high-power field of view
:s 1600 ÷ 4, or 400µm.
(c) Calculate the diameter of your high-power held in micrometers.
Remove the plastic rule and replace it with the wet mount of the letter
e. (If the mount has dried, add water.) Using low power, compare the
height of the letter with the diameter of the field of view.
(d) Estimate as accurately av possible the actual height of the letter
in millimeters.
(e) In micrometers.
9. Resolving power.
Remove the slide from the stage and carefully lift off the coverslip.
Discard the piece of paper. DrYsthe slide and the coverslip. Prepare
another wet mount, using a small piece of a magazine photograph.
Examine this mount under low power.
(a) How does the magnified image compare with the photograph as
seen with the unaided eye?
You have just seen an example of a microscope's resolving power,
its ability to clearly separate details. With the unaided eye most people
c nnot see two separate objects that are less than 0.1 mm apart. A
microscope permits . to detect space between objects that are much
closer together that. this.
A microscope actually does two things: it provides magnifying power,
and it provides resolving power.
10. Care of a microscope.
Microscopes, like all other laboratory instruments, must be given proper
care. At the end of the class, turn the revolving nosepiece until the
low-power objective is in place. Adjust the body tube so that the lower
end of the objective is about 1 cm above the stage. If you tilted the
instrument at the inclination joint, return it to its untilted position. Turn
the stage clips so that they do not extend beyond the side of the stage.
Do no leave a slide on the stage. Return the microscope to its storage
space. Clean and dry all slides and coverslips.

For Further Investigation

If you have a stereoscopic microscope in your laboratory, explore its
use. This instrument is used most often to view whole objects by reflected
rather than by transmitted light.

10 Gs
Appendix 2 Supp:ementary Investigations 967

01111111.,
10,1iitifiti*inA.67VSE OF A -MICROSCOPE:. Investigation A.3
010=-0901.CAL:.[MAtERIAL USE OF A MICROSCOPE
BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL
Materials (per student or pair of students)
small piece of white potato Materials
iodine-potassium-iodide (12K1) solution in dropper bottle Cut white potatoes into 3 awn ubes
yeast culture
(approximately) it pia t d n a fittie watt: in a
monocular microscope dish the pieces 4., an tit, kept through rat
glass slide periods of the day
coverslip
Iodine-potassium-iodide (1, KI) solution
dropping pipet Dissolve 15 g KI in 50 nit water Dissolve about
beaker or finger bowl containing water 3 g i:dn. in this solution and add water to
lens paper make 1 titer Small bottles with dropper caps are
paper towel useful for dispensing the stain
Yeast culture Add about 1 g dried yeast to
Procedure about 5 ml tap water and mix to form a thick
paste In a glass Jar (about 400 mit place about
For setting up the microscope, cleaning slides and coverslips, and pre-
250 ml molasses diluted to the color of strong
paring wet mounts, follow the directions given in investigation A.2.
tea Pour the paste into the jar and stir to
1. Place a small piece of potato in the center of a clean slide. Place the disperse the yeast FiaL.e the urK,overed tar in
slide on your laborato y table and carefully press the potato with a warm. dark place Set up the culture
finger until some juice L forced out. Distribute the juice evenly over the hours before use Dispense ,n ;,mall beakers or
center of the slide by moving the piece of potato in a circle. Discard in baby-food Jars
the potato. Add 1 drop of water and a coverslip. Avoid getting air
bubbles in the mount. Procedure
2. Examine the mount under low power. Decrease the size of the opening
A brief class discussion should tollow the
in the substage diaphragm. This increases contrast between the starch laboratory work but there is no need to ach.eve
grains and the water surrounding them. Move the slide on the stage consensus on all observations Instead
until you locate a field in which you see well-separated grains. Center emphasize the possible reasons for differences
a group of these grains in the field and switch to high power. in observations
(a) Describe the shape of an individual starch grain. 2 (b) Detection of the layered structure of
(b) Can you ser; any internal structure in these grains? If you can, starch grains depends on lighting Many
describe what you observe. students will not see d Does, it exist or are
3. Turn again io low power. Stain the starch grains by placing a small students who report it seeing something that
drop of the iodine-potassium-iodide (12KI) solution on the slide at one isn t there? This is a good oppnrturifty for a bnet
side of the coverslip (figure A.6). Tear off a small piece of paper towel. discussion of artifacts in microsLopy
Place the torn edge in contact with the water at the opposite edge of
the coverslip. As water is absorbed by the paper towel at one edge,
12K1 solution will be drawn under the coverslip at the opposite edge.
Continue until the 12K1 solution covers half the space under the coy-
Figure A.6 Putting a liquid under a coverslip.
erslip. 12K1 solution will continue to spread slowly throughout the mount.
4. Examine various regions of the mount to observe the effects of dif-
ferent concentrations of 12K1 on starch grains. Examine under low power,
then under high power.
(a) What changea occur in the starch grains exposed to relatively
high concentrations of 12K1?
(b) What differences do you see between these grains and others
exposed to lower concentrations of 12K1?
(c) Can you see internal structures in the stained grains? If so, de-
scribe them.
(d) Using the method given in investigation A.2, estimate the size (in
micrometers) of the larger starch grains.
5. Remove the slide, lift off the coverslip, and dip both into water. Dry
them. Carefully wipe off any liquid from the microscope stage.
6. Place 1 drop of yeast culture on a clean slide. Add a coverslip. Ex-
amine first under low power, then under high power. Describe the shape
of the yeast organisms.

(.1 {3

1669
968 Appendix 2 Supplementary Investigations

3 (b) Differences depend on a gradient of 7. Study the arrangement of small groups of these organisms.
stain concentration and may easily be missed as (a) From your observations, can you come to any conclu.Aons about
the stain spreads how new yeast organisms develop?
(c) See item 2(b) (b) Sketch any internal structures you see.
6 If potato starch grains turn up in the yea,t 8. Using 12KI solution, stain the yeast as you stained the starch grains.
preparations, students have not cleaned the (a) Compare the effects of the solution on the yeast organisms with
slides carefully its effects on starch grains.
7 (a) Students may have difficulty (b) Can you see any structures that were not visible in the unstained
recognizing that the presence of smaller yeast organisms? If so, describe them.
organisms attached to larger ones indicates the 9. Using the method previously described, estimate the size (in micro-
occurrence of budding A drawing may be meters) of an average yeast organism.
needed This may be recalled when the concept
of an individual is discus,ed in chapter 3
(b) It is unusual to see much structure in
unstained yeasts
8 (b) Nuclei and possibly vacuoles may be
seen in stained yeasts

1070
11
 APPENDIX 3
A Catalog of Living Things

This appendix shows one way taxonomists arrange the In examples, common names of groups are used wher-
major groups of living organisms. It does not take into ac- ever appropriate, as, for example, phylum Chlorophyta:
count the many extinct groups known to us only from fos- green algae. The illustrated organisms are identified by
sils. common names if they have them. If not, names of genera
In general the classification is not carried below class rather than of individual species are usually given. Ref-
level. In two groupsinsects and mammalsa more de- erences to figures in the text are provided to supplement
tailed classification at the order level is given. In some the appendix illustrations, thus providing a greater diver-
cases, examples are given at the family level. To show how sity of examples.
complicated classification can become at lower levels, the
primate order of mammals is carried to the family level.

A Catalog of Living Monerans

All are prokaryotic, lacking membrane-bounded organelles; DNA a naked strand, usuall, circular. Extremely minute
(usually 1 to 5 pm). Single cell, chains, colonies, or slender branched filaments. Great diversity in metabolic pathways:
many anaerobic, many photosynthetic. Photosynthetic species may use H2, H20, or other substances. Reproduction by
fission; exchange of genetic material occurs in some species. Bacteria are prevalent in all environments; more than 5000
species described; 2 major groups; classification to phyla difficult. (Figures 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.6)

`d , 01
969
107i
 970 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Archaebacteria X790 X1960

Biochemically, this group appears to fall between the eu-

bacteria and the eukaryotes; composition of cell walls and
plasma membranes differs from that of eubacteria; transfer
RNA and ribosomal RNA also unique. These may have
beer, among the very first organisms. They are adapted to Spirillum

extreme conditions. 3 major groups: methanogens, ther-

moacidophiles, extreme halophiles. (Figures 11.8, 11.9,
Chlorollexus
11.10)

ere X5200
leX3170

41111161.

X436 0
methanogens
Streptococcus Pseudomonas Micrococcus

Eubacteria
Distinguishing characteristics include shape; nutritional
patterns; waste materials produced; reactions to stains;
size, shape, and color of colonies; and means of locomo-
tion. Bacterial flagella are different in structure from those
of eukaryotes. Major groups include cyanobacteria, an-
aerobic photosynthetic bacteria, chemoautotrophic bac-
teria, spirochetes, enteric bacteria, fermenting bacteria,
aerobic nitrogen fixers, gram-positive bacteria. (Fir res
6.1, chapter 11 opener, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 1! 2, .48114 Irma.
11.13,.11.15, 11.16,,,11.18,_11.19, 11.26, 11.34, 11.38)
X18,000

X1750

e/
photosynthetic purple
Gloeocapsa
X300

Merismopedia
sulfur-excreting bacteria
bacteria

Streptomyces Nostoc Tolypothrix

Escherichia coli .(actinobacteria)

(cyanobacteria)
Continued at top, o/ next column.

.10
t.;
1/2
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 97i

A Catalog of Living Protists

Eukaryotic, with membrane-bounded nuclei and organelles; DNA organized into chromosomes complexed with pro-
tein. Size ranges from microscopic to 100 m. Unicellular, colonial, or multicellular. Great variability in cell organization,
chromosome structure, mitosis, meiosis, and life cycles.
Reproduction asexual, by fission; or sexual, by conjugation or fertilization; cften involving complex life cycles. Nu-
trition autotrophic or heterotrophic; many can switch from one form to the other.
Algae, protozoa, slime molds, slime nets, water molds, and others; more than 100,000 species. (Figures 10.23b, 10.23c)

Flagellates (several phyla) [Latin: flagellatus, Sarcodines (several phyla) [Greek: sarx, flesh,
whipped] eidos, form]
Microscopic or almost so. Locomotion by whiplike fla- Microscopic or almost so. Locomotion by pseudopods.
gella. They occur singly or as colonies. Some contain chlo- Many produce intricate shells or skeletal structures; others
rophyll. Includes euglenoids, dinoflagellates; many are naked. About 8000 species. (Figures 10.23b, 10.33a,
parasitic, mutualistic, and commensalistic forms. About 12.2)
2000 species. (Figures 1.11b, 12.7)

X 1000

X50
Trypanosome

X 1750 amoeba

Euglena

X300

Peranema

Difflugia Radiolarians

Sporozoans (Phylum Apicomplexa) [Latin: apex,

summit, + complexus, an embrace]
Microscopic. Usually no locomotion, but pseudopods or
flagella may occur in certain stages of some species. Par-
asites with complex life histories. About 2000 species.
Noctiluca

Eimeria
972 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Ciliates (Phylum Ciliophora) [Latin: cilium, eyelash, Golden Algae (Phylum Chrysophyta) [Greek:
+ Greek: phoros, carrying or bearing] chrysos, gold, + phyton, plant]
Microscopic or almost so. Characterized by pmence of Mostly microscopic. Many with shells of silicon. Chloro-
macro- and micro-nuclei. Locomotion by cilia. About 5000 phyll usually masked by yellow pigments. Food often
species. (Figures 1.11a, 12.1b, 12.11, 12.12) stored as oil. Some 10,000 species of diatoms alone.
(Figure 12.15)

Cycloposthium
Green Algae (Phylum Chlorophyta) [Greek: chloraF.
green, + phyton]
X25 Single cells, filaments, ribbons, sheets, tubes, or irregular
X35
masses. Chlorophyll seldom masked by other pigments.
Food usually stored as starch. Probably ancestral to plants.
About 7000 species. (Figures 12.14, 12.16, 12.17, 13.1,
Spirostomum
13.5, 19.9)

Slime Molds (Phylum Myxomycota) [Greek: myxa,

mucus, slime, + myketes, fungus]
Macroscopic masses of living substance with hundreds of
nuclei inside 1 membrane. Each mass moves about and
engulf; food like a giant amoeba. Reproduction by spores,
as in fungi. Found on decaying vegetation in damp hab-
itats. About 450 species. (Figure 10.23a, 12.5)

X1/2 X20

Physarum Badhamia
(vegetative stage)

Chlamydomonas
X1/2

Hemitrichia

1074
,
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 973

Brown Algae (Phylum Phaeophyta) [Greek: phaios, Red Algae (Phylum Rhodophyta) [Greek: rhodon, a
brown, 4- phyton] rose, 4- phyton]
Almost all macroscopic (up to 100 m) and marine. Chlo- Almost all macroscopic and marine. Chlorophyll usually
rophyll usually masked by brownish pigments. Food stored masked by red pigments. Complex life histories. Repro-
as carbohydrates, but not as starch. About 1500 species. ductive cells not capable of locomotion. Food stored as
(Figures 12.18a, 12.18b) carbohydrates, but not as starch. About 4000 species.
(Figure 12.18c)

X1/20 Agardhiella
X1/2
440
Nereocystis

X2

Polysiphonia

Porphyra

X1/4

Sargassum

Corallina

Chondrus

1 0 "1 0
974 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

A Catalog of Living Fungi

Eukaryotic; nonmotile; heterotrophic; develop from spores. No chlorophyll. No vascular tissues. Structure primarily
a system of threadlike cell groups, or hyphae. Mostly saprophytic, but many are parasitic on plants or animals. More
than 100,000 species. (Figure 10.22)

Conjugation Fungi (Phylum Zygomycota) [Greek: Imperfect Fungi (Phylum Deuteromycota) [Greek:
zygon, pair, + myketes] deuteros, second, secondary, + myketes]
Hyphae usually not divided by cross walls. Sexual repro- Fungi whose life histories are so little known that they
duction by conjugation and formation of thick-walled cannot be placed in any of the other classes. This is, there-
zygospores. About 600 species. (Figure 12.20) fore, a taxonomic grouping of convenience, not of rela-
tionship. Includes members of the genus Penicillium.
About 25,000 species. (Figures 12.28, 12.30)

Altemaria

Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota) [Greek: askos, bag,

bladder, + myketes] Fusarium
Hyphae divided by cross walls. A few unicellular species.
Spores of a definite number (usually 8). Sexual spores
produced in a saclike structure, the ascus. Many form li-
chen partnerships with green algae or cyanobacteria.
About 25,000 species. (Figures 2.14, 8.19, 12.22, 12.24)

X260 Cordana

apple scab
morel X70
X1/4

Lichens (Phylum Mycophycophyta) [Greek: myketes,

phykos, seaweed, + phyton]
Club Fungi (Phylum Basidiomycota) [Greek: basis, Symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an alga. Ex-
base, + myketes] tremely slow-growing. Reproduction often involves the
Hyphae divided by cross walls. Spores produced on the formation of ascospores by meiosis. About 25,000 species.
surface of a clublike structure, the basidium. About 25,000 (Figures 3.9, 12.32, 12.33, 12.34)
species. (Figures 1.8, 12.0, 12.25, 12.27)
Xt

Puccinia
(stem rust of wheat)

lichens
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 975

A Catalog of Living Plants

Eukaryotic; multicellular; autotrophic; develop from a multicellular embryo that does not have a blastula stage. All
have cellulose-containing cell walls and chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b plus other pigments. Reproduction
sexual, with alternation of generations; in some cases asexual, by vegetative means. 500,000 species.

Bryophytes (Division Bryophyta) [Greek: bryon, moss, Class Miami (true mosses) [Latin: muscus, moss]
+ phyton]
Gametophytes developed from algalike masses of green
Small (less than 40 cm tall). Mostly terrestrial. Many bear threads. Plants usually erect (not flat) with leaflike
structures resembling stems and leaves, but lack vascular structures arranged in radial symmetry around a stalk.
(conducting) tissue. Well-developed alternation of gen- About 15,000 species. (Figure 13.12)
erations. Gametophyte generation is the more conspic-
uous; sporophyte is more or less dependent on it. About
24,000 species.

Class Hepaticas (liverworts) [Greek: hepatikos,

liverlike (from the shape of the leaves)]
Gametophytes flat; often simple, branching masses of
green tissue, sometimes with leaflike structures. About
8500 species.

Psilorthytes (Division Psilophyta) [Greek: pcilos, bare,

+ phyton]
Vascular plants with alternation of generations and con-
spicuous sporophyte. No roots. Forking stems, with spore
Class Anthocerotae (Hornworts) [Greek: anthos, cases at the tips of short branches. Oldest fossil land plants.
flower, + keras, horn] 3 species. (Figure 13.12)
Gametophytes similar to those of liverworts. Sporo-
phytes live longer and are capable of continuous growth.
About 50 species.
la
' xi

Psilotum X1/3 _,,T Tmesiptens

Anthoceros
V76 Appendix 2 A Catalog of Living Things

Horsetails (Division Sphenophyta) [Greek: sphen, a Ferns (Division Pterophyta) [Greek: pteron, feather,
wedge (from the shape of the leaves), + phyton] phyton]
Vascular; roots and bellow, jointed stems. Small scalelike Most have roots, stems, and leaves. Compound leaves grow
leaves arranged in a circle around each stem joint. Spore from underground stems. Sporophytes dominant genera-
cases borne on stem structures resembling cones. 32 spe- tion, but gametophytes independent. Free-swimming
cies. (Figure 13.27, chapter 13 opener) sperm cells. About 12,000 species. (Figures 10.20a, 13.32)

cinnamon tern

Club Mosses (Division Lycophyta) [Greek: lycos,

wolf, + phyton (so named because the roots of a lycopod
were thought to resemble a wolf's claw)]
Low-growing evergreen vascular plants with roots, hori-
zontal stems, and small leaves. Spore cases borne in var-
ious ways, usually on modified leaves grouped to form adder's tongue
structures something like cones. About 1100 species.

1078
 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 977

Cycads (Division Cycadophyta) [Greek: kyos, a palm, Conifers (Division Coniferophyta) [Latin: conus, cone,
+ phyton] + ferre, to bear, + Greek: phyton)
Tropical and subtropical vascular plants with palmlike or Gametophytes microscopic, within tissues of sporophytes.
fernlike compound leaves. Naked seeds borne in cones; Seeds naked (not enclosed in a fruit), attached to the sur-
unbranched stems. About 100 species. (Figure 13.33b) face of a modifie:loaf. Most have needle-shaped leaves;
many are evergreen. About 700 species. (Figures 2.3, 2.5,
2.12, 13.2, 13.33a, 13.34)
X 1180

/g1

cycad

Ginkgoes (Division Ginkgophyta) [Japanese: gingkyo,

silver apricot, + Greek: phyton)
Ancient division of vascular plants with naked seeds, flag-
ellated sperm, fan-shaped leaves; cultivated world-wide.
(Figure 13.33c)

Gmkgo

Gnetophytes (Division Gnetophyta) [Latin: gnetum

from Moluccan Malay ganemu, a gnetophyte species
found on the island of Ternate, + Greek: phyton]
Vascular plants with naked seeds borne in cones; some
characteristics like those of flowering plants. 70 species.

X1/4

white pine

G
978 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Flowering Plants (Division Anthophyta) Family Cruciferae (Mustard Family). Herbaceous.

Gametophytes microscopic, within tissues of sporophytes. Flowers radially symmetrical, with 4 sepals, 4 petals,
Seeds enclosed in a fruit. Sperm cells in pollen tubes. 2 sets of stamens (4 long and 2 short), 1 pistil, and a
About 200,000 species. (There are more than 300 families superior ovary. (A superior ovary is one that is located
in the division Anthophyta. A few of the common families above the attachment of sepals, petals, and stamens.)
are given in the following classes. Orders are omitted.) They often have a tt'rniplike or cabbagelike odor.

Mots (Class Dicotyledoneae) [Greek: dis, two,

double, + cotyledon, a cavity]
Flowering plants. 2 cotyledons in the seed. Leaves usu-
ally have veins that form a network. Flower parts usu-
ally in fours or fives or multiples of these numbers.
About 166,000 species. (Figures 1.3, 1.17, 3.23, 3.25, field musta:d
6.1, 10.5, 10.20c, 13.14, 13.37c, 13.37d, 13.38, 13.42a,
13.42b, 13.43b, 17.23, chapter 18 opener, 18.25, 18.27,
19.5, 19.29, 20.29a, 22.6, 22.15c, 22.15d) Family Fagaceae (Oak Family). Trees and shrubs.
Pistils and stamens in separate flowers. Flowers radi-
Family Caprifoliaceae (Honeysuckle Family). ally symmetrical, with 4 to 7 sepals, no petals, few to
Flowers radially or bilaterally symmetrical, with 4 or many stamens, 1 pistil, and an inferior ovary.
5 sepals, 4 or 5 petals (united), 4 or 5 stamens, 1 pistil,
and an inferior ovary. (An ovary is the enlarged base -... .
of the pistil. It contains the ovules. An inferior ovary -A.-

is one that is located below the attachment of the se-

pals, petals, and stamens.)

snowberry.

X1/4

X1/2
VnArge white oak

7110:7
Family Lebiatae (Mint Family). Flowers bilaterally
symmetrical, with 5 sepals (united), 5 petals (united),
Family Compositae (Composite Family). Small 2 or 4 stamens, 1 pistil, and a superior ovary. Stems
flowers in dense groups. Each group appears to be a usually square in cross section. (Figure 19.5)
single, large flower. Individual flowers radially or bi-
laterally symmetrical, with sepals reduced to bristles
or scales, 5 petals (united), 5 stamens, 1 pistil, and an
inferior ovary. (Figures 13.37b, 13.42b, 19.29c)

X1/2

scarlet sage coleus

soflower

1 1080
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 979

Family Leguminosae (Bean Family). Flowers bilat- Family Scrophulariaceae (Snapdragon Family).
erally symmetrical, with 5 sepals, 5 petals, 10 stamens, Flowers bilaterally symmetrical, with 5 sepals, 5 petals
1 pistil, and a superior ovary. (Figure 19.21) (2 forming an upper lip and 3 forming a lower lip), 4
stamens (in 2 unlike pairs), 1 pistil, and a superior ovary.

sweet pea

Family Polemoniaceae (Phlox Family). Flowers ra- snapdragon

di :lly s:,e-Nnetrical, with 5 sepals (united), 5 petals
(united), 5 stamens, 1 pistil, and a superior ovary.

Family Umbelliferae (Parsley Family). Herbaceous.

Flowers radially symmetrical, with 5 small sepals, 5
petals, 5 stamens, 1 pistil, and an inferior ovary

Jacob's ladder phlox

Family Ranunculaceae (Buttercup Family). Her-

baceous. Flowers radially symmetrical, with few to Lionocots (Class Monocotyledoneae) [Greek: mcnos,
many sepals and petals, many stamens and pistils, and one, single, + cotyledon]
a superior ovary. (Figure 13.14) Flowering plants. One cotyledon in the seed. Leaves
usually have parallel veins. Flow7,r parts usually in
threes or multiples of three. About 34,000 species.
(Figures 13.9, 13.43a, chapter 20 opener)

Family Alismataceae (Water Plantain Family).

Herbaceous. Aquatic or marsh plants. Flowers radially
symmetrical, with 3 sepals, 3 petals, 6 to many sta-
mens, 6 to many pistils, and a superior ovary.

Family Rosaceae (Rose Family). Flowers radially

symmetrical, with 5 sepals, 5 petals, numerous sta-
mens, 1 to massy pistils, and either a superior or par-
tially inferior ovary. (Figure 19.29b)

1 1 0 91
980 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Family Amaryllidaceae (Amaryllis Family). Her- petals (but scalelike structures present), 1 to 6 sta-
baceous. Flowers radially symmetrical, with 3 sepals, mens, 1 pistil, and superior ovary. Leaves sheath the
3 petals, 6 stamens, 1 pistil, and an inferior ovary. stem.

X 1115

wheat
century plant
narcissus bamboo

F-taaily Gommelinaceae (Spiderwort Family). Her- Family Iridaceae (Iris Family). Herbacous. Flowers
baceous. Flowers 7adiey or somewhat bilaterally radially or somewhat bilaterally symmetrical, with 3
symmetrical, with 3 sepals, :,-petals, 3 or 6 stamens, 1 sepals, 3 petals, 3 stamens, 1 pistil, and an inferior ovary.
pistil, and a superior ovary.

gladiolus X1 /5

Family Cyperaceae (Sedge Family). Herbaceous. Family Liliaceae (Lily Family). Flowers radially
Stems usually solid. Flowers radially symmetrica,, with symmetrical, with 3 sepals, 3 petals (sepals and petals
no sepals or petals (but scalelike structures present), 1 often colored alike, thus appearing to be 6 petals), 3 or
to 3 stamens, 1 pistil, and a superior ovary. Leaves 6 stamens, 1 pistil, and a superior ovary. (Figures 13.9,
sheath the stem. chapter 20 opener)

tulip

XI/8

Family Orchidaceae (Orchid Family). Herbacc4us.

Flowers bilaterally symmetrical, with 3 sepals, 3 petals
(united), 1 or 2 stamens, 1 pistil, and an inferior ovary.
umbrella plant (Figure 13.37a)
X1/2
ask.

Family Gramineae (Grass Family). Stems usually

hollow. Flowers radially symmetrical, with no sepals or

orchid
 Appendix 8 A Catalog of Living Things 981

A Catalog of Living Animals

Eukaryotic, multicellular hetercrophs; most are motile at some stage in the life cycle. Reproduction usually sexual,
with organisms developing from an embryo that has a blastula stage. More than 1 million species.

Sponges (Phylum Porttera) [Latin: porus, pore, Class Scyphozoa (jellyfish) [Greek: skyphos, a cup,
+ ferre] can, + zoion]
Mostly marine. Adults always attached to some solid ob- Single individuals that float or swim. A few species have
jeci. Body wall consists of 2 cell layers. Pores in body wall attached stages in the life history. Digestive cavity di-
connected to an internal canal system. About 10,000 spe- vided. Rather complex sense organs. About 200 spe-
cies. (Figure 14.5) cies. (Figures 14.7b, 20.2)

X1/10
X1/4
jellyfish

sheep's-wool sponge fringed basket

Class Anthozoti (corals and sea anemones) [Greek:
anthos + zoion]
Single individuals or massive colonies. Many species
produce limy skeletons. No floating or swimming stages.
Digestive cavity divided. About 6200 species. (Figures
14.7a, 14.7c)

X1/2

bath sponge
Grantia

Coelenterates (Phylum Cnidaria) [Greek: knide,

nettle]
Mostly marine. Body wall consists of 2 cell layers and sea anemone
jellylike material between. Saclike digestive cavity with a
single opening. Radially symmetrical. Tentacles with
stinging cells, nerve network. About 9500 species. (Figure Comb Jellies (Phylum Ctenophora) [Greek: ktenos,
14.7) comb, -I- phoros]
Marine. Somewhat resembling jellyfish, but without
Class Hydrozoa (hydras) [Greek: hydor, water, stinging cells. Free-swimming, by means of 8 rows of cilia.
+ zoion, animal] About 100 species.
Single individuals or colonies. Digestive cavity undi-
vided. Simple sense organs. About 3100 species. (Fig-
ures 6.1, 12.4a, 14.40) X1/2

sea walnut

Venus's-girdle

u3Cfl,
982 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

MOSOZOEMS (Phylum Mesozca) [Greek: meson, middle, Class Cestoda (tape worms) [Greek: kestos, girdle]
+ zoion] Internal parasites of animals; complex life cycles in-
Parasitic in flatworms, mollusks, and annelids. Minute; volving alte,,,ute hosts. No digestive system. (Figure
worm-shaped. Simple structure; 2 tissue layers; no diges- 14.9c)
tive system. About 45 species.
s-
X20

Pseudicyema

tapeworm
Flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes) [Greek: platys,
flat, + helmins, worm] Ribbon Worms (Phylum Nemertina) [Greek: Nem-
Free-living or parasitic. Usually flat and bilaterally sym- ertes (the name of a water nymph in mythology)]
metrical. Branched or unbranched digestive cavity with a Mostly marine. Flat and unsegmented. Digestive tube with
single opening, or no digestive cavity. Excretion by flame 2 openings (mouth and anus). Circulatory system. About
cells. Bodies consist of 3 cell layers. About 15,000 species. 750 species.
(Figure 14.9)

Class Turbellaria (planarians) [Latin: turba, dis-

X1/4
turbance (so named because the cilia cause tiny cur-
rents in the water)]
Mostly marine, but some freshwater or terrestrial spe-
cies. Free-living. Usually have cilia on the outside. Cerebiatulus
(Figures 6.1, 14.9a)
Rotifers (Phylum Rotifera) [Latin: rota, wheel,
+ ferre]
Microscopic. Freshwater or marine. Bilaterally symmet-
rical. Internal organs lie in a body cavity developed be-
planarian tween endodermal and mesodermal cell layers. Gut with
opening. No circulatory system. Cilia form a wheel around
Class Trematoda (flukes) [Greek: trematodes, mouth. About 2000 species.
having holes]
Parasitic. Na external cilia. Usually possess hooks and
suckers. Digestive system present. (Figures 14.9b,
14.41)

X2

liver fluke
(stained)
 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 983

Gastrotrichs (Phylum Gastrotricha) [Greek: gaster, Roundworms (Phylum Nematoda) [Greek: nema]
belly, + thrix, hair] Free-living or parasitic, especially on roots of plants. About
Freshwater and marine. Free-living. Microscopic. Cilia 30 species known to live in humans. Cylindrical bodies,
on ventral surface. Surface of body covered with cuticular bilaterally symmetrical. Digestive tube with mouth and
scales. 400 species. anus. No circulatory system. Many species are decom-
posers. More than 80,000 species. (Figure 14.11)
Chaetonotus

X22

Kinorhynchs (Phylum Kinorhyncha) [Greek: kinein,

to set in motion, + rhynchos, snout or beak]
Marine. Minute. Protrusible spiny snout. Outer surface
of body covered with cuticular plates arranged in rings. Ascaris X 1/3
100 species.

Mollusks (Phylum Mollusea) [Latin: morns, soft]

Marine, freshwater, or terrestrial. Bilaterally symmet-
rical or asymmetrical. The mantle is a fold of tissue over
Echinoderella the body that secretes a hard, limy shell in most species.
No segmentation; true body cavity. Well-developed diges-
tive, circulatory, and nervous systems. About 110,000 spe-
Spiny-headed Worms (Phylum Acanthocephala) cies. (Figure 14.13)
[Greek: akantha, spine, + kephale, head]
Young parasitic in arthropods. Adults parasitic in intes- Class Monoplacophora [Greek: monos, solitary,
tine of vertebrates. No digestive system. About 600 spe- plax, tablet, flat plate, + phoros]
cies.
Marine. Single shell with a curved apex. Broad, flat-
tened foot. Found in deep ocean trenches. 10 species.

Neopilina

X2
41/C7

Horsehair Worms (Phylum Nematomorpha) [Greek:

nema, thread, + morphe, form] Class Polyplacophora (chitons) [Greek: poly,
Young are parasitic in arthropods. Adults are free-living many, + plax phoros]
and have much reduced digestive tubes. About 230 spe- Marine. Shell composed of 8 overlapping plates (ex-
cies. posed or hidden). No distinct head.

chiton
XI
984 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Class Scaphoda (tooth shells) [Greek: skaphe, boat, Class Cephalopods (octopus and squid) [Greek:
+ pous, foot] kephale + pous]
Marine. Shells form a tapering tube. Food-catching Marine. Small, internal shell. In a few cases shell is
tentacles on head. external, coiled, and internally divided. Several ten-
tacles on head. Locomotion by jet of water. (Figure
Xi/2 14.13c)

tooth shell

Class Gastropoda (slugs and snails) [Greek: gas-

tros, stomach, + pous]
Marine, freshwater, or terrestrial. Shell (if present) X112
coiled. Head usually distinct. (Figures 3.4, 10.21a,
14.13a)

Segmented Worms (Phylum Annelida) [Latin: an-

garden snail ulus, a ring]
Marine, freshwater, or terrestrial. Bilaterally symmet-
X1/2 rical. Body internally and externally segmented. Append-
ages either not jointed or lacking. Main nerve cord ventral.
About 8700 species. (Figure 14.15)
sea slug
Class Oligochaeta (earthworms) [Greek: oligos,
few, + chaite, hair]
Mostly freshwater or terrestrial. Appendages small or
lacking. (Figure 14.15a)

banded tulip snail earthworm

X1
Class Blvalvia (bivalves)
Marine or freshwater. Some attached; others burrow
in mud or sand. Shells in 2 parts, hinged. (Figure
14.13b) Class Hirudinea (leeches) [Latin: hirudo, leech]
X tia Rather flat. Appendages lacking. Suction disks at each
end. (Figure 14.15c)

111111111111.._
leech Xi/2
I ,
clam
scallop

0S'G
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 985

Class Polychaeta [Greek: poly, many, + chaite] Subphylum Mandibulata [Latin: mandibula, to
Mostly marine. Burrowers or tube-builders. Usually chew]
with paddlelike appendages on each body segment. Head with 2 pairs of antennae; jaws.
(Figure 14.15b)
Class Crustacea (crayfish, lobsters) [Latin: crusta,
rind]
2 pairs of antennae. Mostly aquatic; respiration by gills.
(Figures 14.2a, 14.18)

Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) [Greek: arthron,

joint, + pous]
Marine, freshwater, or terrestrial. Bilaterally symmet-
rical. Body segmented, but segments often fused. Jointed
appendages. Body and appendages covered with a jointed
exoskeleton. Main nerve cord ventral. About 800,000 de-
scribed species; there may be as many as 10 million insect
species alone.

Subphylum Chelicerata [Greek: chele, a claw]

1st pair of appendages modified to grasp food. 4 pairs of
legs; no antennae; 2 body parts (head-thorax and ab-
domen).

Class Arachnida (spiders, ticks, and mites) [Greek:

arachne, spider]
No antennae. Segmentation reduced. 4 pairs of legs.
No jaws (feeding appendages may resemble claw-
bearing legs). (Figure 1.2, 14.17) shrimp

Class Diplopoda (millipedes) [Greek: diplos, two,

double, + pous]
1 pair of short antennae. Entire body segmented; round
in cross section. 2 pairs of legs on each segment. Im-
portant forest decomposers.

X1/2

millipede

Class Chilopoda (centipedes) [Greek: cheilos, lip,

+ pous]
1 pair of long antennae. Entire body segmented; flat. 1
pair of legs on cach segment. Predators that mostly prey
on insects.

-- e- t
ti '.iiii .1
1.0 8 7
986 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Class Insecta (insects) [Latin: in, into, + secare, to Order Isoptera [Greek: isos, equal, + pteron]. 4
cut, divide (from the segmented bodies)] wings alike in size, with many fine veins, or wings
1 pair of antennae. Body divided into head, thorax, and lacking. Chewing mouth parts. Social.
abdomen. 3 pairs of legs on thorax. (Figures chapter 2
opener, 14.19) X2
The following are the more common orders in the
class Insecta.

Order Thysanura [Greek: thysanos, tassel, + oura, termites

tail]. Small; wingless; soft scales on the body. 3 long
bristles at posterior end. Order Anoplura [Greek: anoplos, unarmed, + oura].
Wingless; flat. Sucking or piercing mouth parts. Par-
asitic on mammals.

silverfish

Order Ephemeroptera [Greek: ephemeros, tempo-

rary (literally, existing but one day), + pteron]. 2 pairs
of transparent wings; hind wings smaller. 2 or 3 long
tails. Immature forms aquatic. (Figure 23.5) Order Homoptera [Greek: homos, alike, + pteron].
2 pairs of wings, arched above the body, or wings
lacking. Jointed sucking beak at base of head. (Figure
14.19d)

Order Odonata [Greek: odous, tooth]. 2 similar pairs

of long wings. Antennae short. Abdomen long and
slender. Immature forms aquatic. (Figure 10.21b)
Order Hemiptera [Greek: hemi, half. + pteron].
Front wings thick at the base, thin at the tips; hind
wings thin. Jointed beak on front of head.

X1

Order Orthoptera [Greek: orthos, straight,

+ pteron]. Terrestrial. Front wings leathry; hind wings
folded, fanlike. Chewing mouth parts. (Figure 1.1)

water strider

-01108ci
;:J2
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 987

Order Lepidoptera [Greek: lepidos, scale, + pteron]. Order Hymenoptera [Greek: hymen, membrane,
2 pairs of wings covered with soft scales. Coiled sucking + pteron]. Front wings much larger than hind wings,
mouth parts in adults. Young are wormlike (caterpil- with the 2 pairs hooked together, or wings lacking.
lars). (Figures 1.4, 14.0, 14.19c) Chewing or sucking mouth parts. Young are wormlike.
Many social species. (Figures 1.17, 14.19b, 20.29b,
24.1)

wasp

Priapulids (Phylum Priapulida) [Greek: Priapos (a god

moth of gardens and vineyards)]
X1/2 Marine. Free-living. Mouth region with spines. Body cov-
ered with rings of cuticle. About 5 species.
Order Diptera [Greek: dis, twice, + pteron]. 1 pair
of wings (hind wings reduced to small rods). Antennae
short. Sucking mouth parts. Young are wormlike and
either terrestrial (maggots) or aquatic. (Figures 8.10,
9.29, 14.19a, 20.5, 20.31)

Velvet Worms (Phylum Onychophora) [Greek: onyx,

nail, claw, + phoros]
Terrestrial; tropical. Wormlike. Paired legs. Poorly de-
screwworm veloped segmentation. Combine many annelid and ar-
thropod characteristics. About 80 species.

Peripatus

horsefly

housefly
Phoronids (Phylum Phoronida) [Greek: Phoronis (the
Order Coleoptera [Greek: koleos, a sheath, name of a mythological character)]
+ pteron]. Front wings form a hard sheath; hind wings Marine. Living in tubes in mud. A pair of arms bearing
folded beneath them. Chewing mouth parts. Young tentacles. U-shaped digestive tube. About 15 species.
usually wormlike (grubs). (Figures 14.19e)
X1/2

hister beetle cucumber beetle

''0 =,:', C.) 1 l08 a

 988 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Bryozoans (Phylum Ectoprocta) [Greek: ektos, out- Class Asteroidea '(starfish) [Greek: aster, star,
side + proktos, anus] + eidos, form]
Mostly marine, living in attached colonies. U-shaped Usually 5 arms, joined to the body at broad bases.
digestive tube. Mouth encircled in a crown of tentacles. (Figure 6.4)
About 3000 species.

Brachiopods (Phylum Brachiopoda) [Greek: brat Class Ophiuroidea (brittle stars) [Greek: ophis,
chion, arm, + pous] serpent, + oura + eidos]
Marine. Symmetrical, 2-piece shell, enclosing a pair of
Usually 5 long, slim arms (sometimes branched),
arms bearing tentacles. About 120 species. (Figure 21.9) clearly distinguished from the body.

X1/2

Lino la

X1
brittle star

Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) [Greek: Class Echinoldea (sand dollars) [Greek: echinos
echinos, hedgehog, + derma, skin] + eidos]
All marine. Adults radially symmetrical. Radiating sec- Spherical or disk-shaped. No arms; long spines or short,
tions (when present) are called arms. Larvae bilaterally hairlike projections from body. Skeleton of inter-
locking plates.
symmetrical and chordatelike. Internal, limy skeleton,
usually with many projecting spines. A system of water-
filled tubes, acting on the suction principle, catches food sand dollar X1/4
and assists in locomotion. About 6000 species.

Class Crinoidea (crinoids) [Greek: krinon, lily,

+ eidos, appearance]
Attached (at least when young). Many highly branched
arms.
Class Holothuroldea (sea cucumbers) [Greek: ho!-
othourion, a kind of water animal]
Somewhat cylindrical. No arms. Tentacles around
mouth. No spines. Skeleton consists of particles
embedded in the leathery skin.

sea lily Antedon dentate

sea cucumber X1/4

1090
Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 989

ArrOWWOrMS (Phylum Chaetognatha) [Greek: chaite Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancelets)

gnathos, jaw] [Greek: kephale chorde]
Marine; free-swimming or floating. iilaterally symmet- Marine; free-swimming. Translucent. Well-developed
rical. Straight digestive tube. About 50 species. hollow dorsal nerve cord, notochord, and pharyngeal slits
in adults.
X3/4

Sagitta
lancelet

Acorn Worms (Phylum Hemichordata) [Greek: hemi,

chorde, string of a musical instrument]
Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates) [Latin:
vertebra, joint]
Marine; wormlike. Conspicuous proboscis used for bur-
Notochord replaced by a backbone of vertebrae during
rowing in mud and sand. Dorsal nerve cord and pharyn-
development. Enlarged anterior end of the nerve cord
geal slits. Presence of notochord doubtful. About 65
(brain) protected by cartilage or bone. Most species have
species. (Figure 23.22)
appendages in pairs.

Class Agnatha (jawless fish) [Greek: a, without,

gnathos]
No jaws. No paired fins. Skeleton of cartilage. Heart
with 1 ventricle.

hagfish
Chordates (Phylum Chordata) [Greek: chorde]
Marine, freshwater, or terrestrial. Bilaterally symmet-
rical. Hollow dorsal nerve tube and a stiff notochord be- X1/7
neath it (may be lost or replaced during development). X1/10
Several pairs of pharyngeal pouches in the throat region.
(These may become perforated during development,
forming slits.) Some segmentation, especially in arrange-
ment of muscles and nerves. About 45,000 species. lamprey

Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates) [Greek: Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fishes)

oura chorde] [Greek: chondros, cartilage, + ichthyes, fish]
Marine; larvae free-swimming, adults usually attached. Skeleton of cartilage. 5 or more pharyngeal slits ex-
Notochord and part of nervous system usually disappear ternally visible. Ventral mouth and nostrils. Heart with
during development. 1 ventricle. (Figures 3.8, 14.22)

X1/25

X1/2

stingray
990 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Class Ostelchthyes (Bony Fishes) [Greek: osteon, Class Reptilla (reptiles) [Latin: repere, to creep]
bone, + ichthyes] Both young and adults breathe by lungs. Eggs with
Skeleton of bone (at least in part). Pharyngeal slits leathery shells; nrmbrane in egg encloses water. 2 pairs
covered (not externally visible). Heart with 1 ventricle. of appendages (lacking in some species) with claws.
(Figures 3.3, 9.25, 14.23, 14.39, 21.21, 25.16) Scales on skin. Heart with 2 ventricles but with an
opening in wall separating them (in most species).
X1/3 (Figures 3.3, 3.4, 7.9, 14.25, 16.25)

blacknosed dace

box turtle

tuna

X1/7 alligator
41,X1/10

Class Amphibia (amphibians) [Greek: amphis, rattlesnake

bios, life] "".1111.111/1-

Larvae usualy aquatic, with gills. Adults usually ter-

restrial, with lungs. 2 pairs of appendages (small or X1/6
lacking in some species). No claws. Heart with 1 ven-
tricle. (Figures chapter 6 opener, 9.18, 9.26, 14.24)

X1/3

caecillan

X 1/4 tiger salamander

Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things 991

Class Ayes (birds) [Latin: avis, bird] Order Marsupialia [Greek: marsypos, pouch, bag].
Scales modified as feathers. Eggs as in reptiles, but shell Young born in undeveloped state and transferred to a
always hard. Front appendages usually modified as pouch, where they remain tightly attached to the nip-
wings. Heart with 2 ventricles. (Figures 1.5, 1.16, 2.2, ples. About 250 species. (Figure 14.27c)
3.3, 3.5, 3.7, 3.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.9, 9.21, 9.23, 10.1,
10.21c, 13.39, 14.26, 14.44, 20.4, 20.11, 20.18, 20.21,
22.7c, 22.9, 22.16, 22.33b, 23.30, 25.4) X1/16

opossum

X1/20

AO.
great red kangaroo

koala

Order Insectivore [Latin: insectum, insect, + vorare,

to eat]. Numerous teeth of all 4 mammalian kinds; none
highly specialized. About 400 species.
X1/8

'ND
mourning robin
dove

Class Mamma lia (mammals) [Latin: mamma,

breast]
Scales modified as hairs. Mammary glands of females Order Chiroptera [Greek: cheir, hand, + pteron].
secrete milk. Fewer bones than in reptiles. Teeth usu- Bats. Web of skin between fingers and between front
ally of 4 well-defined types (incisors, canines, premo- limbs and hind limbs, allowing flight. About 900 spe-
lars, molars). Heart with 2 ventricles. About 5000 cies.
species. (Figures 1.16, 14.27, 21.10)

Order Monotremata [Greek: monos, one, + trema,

hole]. Egg-laying. Mammary glands without nipples.
5 species.
X1/4

X1/8
t-
bat

platypus

1093
992 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Order Primates [Latin: primus, first]. Eyes usually To show how complex classification can become, a
directed forward. Nails usually present instead of claws. complete classification of the order Primates is given
Teeth much like those of insectivores. About 200 spe- below.
cies. (Figures chapter 17 opener, 17.21, 21.27, 24.2)

Superfainiiy Topa ioideo

Family Tupoiidoe: tree shrews

Superfomily Lemuroideo

Family Lemuridoe: lemurs

chimpanzee
gores
Family Indriidoe: indOs

Superfamily Daubentooloid.o

Doubentoniidoe: aye-ayes

7:77,77='
"Family

Family Larisidoe: lorises, pottos, go logos

X1/16 Family Torsiidoe: tarsiers

red howler

F up Superfamily Ceboideo

Fami!y Cebidoe: New World monkeys

Family Collithricidoe: marmosets

Superfamily Cercopithecoideo

Family Cercopithecidoe:
Old World monkeys, baboons

Superfamily Hominoideo
marmoset
X1/4 Family Pongidoe: apes

Family Hominidoe: humans

Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things
993

Order Edentate [Latin: edentare, to make toothless]. Order lagomorpha [Greek: logos, hare, + morphe].
No front teeth; molars in some species. About 30 spe- Harelike mammals. Teeth similar to those of rodents,
cies. but with 4 upper incisors instead of 2. Tail very short.
armadillo About 60 species.

X1/15
X1/10

Pik0

cottontail rabbit

Order Cetacea [Greek: ketos, whale]. Marine. Front

limbs modified as flippers; hind limbs absent. No hair
on adults. Eyes small. Head very large. About 80 spe-
cies. (Figure 14.27d)
Order Pholidota (pangolins) [Greek: pholis, scale].
No teeth. Body encased in scales formed from modified
hairs. 8 species. X1/490

blue *tale

Order Carnivore [Latin: cants, flesh, + vorare, to

eat]. Incisors small, canines large, premolars adapted
for shearing. Claws usually sharp. About 280 species.
Order Tubulidentata (aardvarks) [Latin: tubulus, (Figures 3.3, 9.22, 10.2, 10.4, 14.27a, 14.27f, 20.20,
small tube, + dens, tooth]. Teeth few in adults but nu- 22.7b, 24.3)
merous it embryos. Toes ending in nails that are in-
termediate between claws and hoofs.

X1/24

Order Rodentia [Latin: rodere, to gnaw]. Chisel-like X1/32

incisors, growing continually from the roots; no ca-
nines; broad molars. About 1700 species. (Figures striped hyena
chapter 1 opener, 9.24, 10.21d, 20.16, 20.17, 20.28,
22.15a, 22.33a)

squirrel
X1/12
X1/40

cougar

1095
994 Appendix 3 A Catalog of Living Things

Order Proboscidea [Greek: pro, before, in front of, Order Perissodactyla [Greek: perissos, uneven,
boskein, to feed, graze]. Herbivorous. Upper inci- daktylos, finger or toe]. Odd-toed, hoofed mam-
sors modified as tusks; molars produced 2 to 4 at a time mals. 1, 3, or 5 toes, modified as hooves. Herbivorous.
as older ones wear out. Nose and upper lip modified as Well-developed molars. About 15 species. (Figures 10.3,
a trunk. 2 species. (Figure 22.36) 22.36)

N.,

ci

X1/40 American tapir

X1/411,
X1/120

elephant

Order Sirenia [Latin: siren, a kind of mermaid].

Aquatic. Uerbivorous. No hind limbs. Broad, flat tail,
Order Artiodactyla (Greek: artios, even, + dak-
expanded as a fin. Few hairs. 5 species.
tylos]. Even-toed, hoofed mammals, 2 or 4 'Des, mod-
ified as hooves. Herbivorous. Most have complex
*X1/50 stomachs. Many have horns or antlers. About 170 spe-
cies. (Figures 2.29, chapter 8 opener, 8.1, 9.5, 14.27b,
22.7a, 22.10, 22.12, 22.15b)
X1/80

manatee
X1/20

collared peccary

hippopotamus

X1/60

10 ^e;
K.: is 1
 Glossary

a adaptive radiation (uh DAP tiv alternate hosts

rayd ee AY shun) organisms of different species that are
abiotic (AY by OT ik)
evolution of a variety of adaptations in hosts to the same parasites or pathogens
not biotic; nonliving.
descendants of a common ancestor, at different stages in the latter's life
abscisic acid (ab SIS ik) leading to their dispersal into many cycles. Anopheles mosquitoes and
a plant hormone that acts to protect a differing environments. In this way, humans are alternate hosts for malarial
plant in unfavorable environmental different families, genera, and species asites.
conditions, by promoting dormancy in arise from common ancestors.
alternation of generations
buds and seeds, and the closing of
adenosine diphosphate (uh DEN oh in plants, the production of a diploid
stomates. seen dy FOS fayt) sporophyte generation, followed by a
absorption ADP, the compound that remains when haploid gametophyte generation, then a
in photosynthesis, the interception of a phosphate group is transferred from diploid sporophyte generation again, and
light wavelengths by chlorophyll; in ATP to a cell reaction site requiring an so on.
digestion, the passage of digested food energy input.
molecules from the food tract into the altruistic (al troo IS tik)
adenosine triphosphate unselfish; having deep regard for the
circulatory system.
(uh DEN oh seen try FOS fayt) welfare of one's offspring, mate, the
absorption spectrum ATP, a compound used by cells to store young of other members of the group,
(ab SORP shun SPEK trum) energy. AID has three phosphate and sometimes one's peers in the group.
a graph showing the percentage of light groups.
absorbed by a pigment at each alveolus (al VEE oh lus)
ADP one of the millions of tiny air sacs in the
wavelength of visible light.
see adenosine diphosphate. lungs; its membranous wall contains a
acidic (uh SID ik) network of blood capillaries.
adventitious root (ad yen TISH us)
having a pH of less than 7, reflecting
a root that forms in an unusual place, as amino acid (uh MEE noh)
more dissolved hydrogen ions than
on a cut stem placed in water. a biological compound that forms a
hydroxide ions.
aerobi, (ehr ROH bik) subunit of peptides and proteins; it
action spectrum (SPEK trum) contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
occurring or living in the presence of
a representation of the rate of an free or dissolved oxygen. nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
activity, in particular photosynthesis,
under different wavelengths of light at a agglutinate (uh GLOOT in ayt) amnixentesis (AM nee oh sen TEE sus)
given light intensity. to unite in a mass; to combine. A removal and analysis of a sample of the
transfusion with the wrong type of blood amniotic fluid surrounding a fetus;
active site followed by culture and study of the
causes red blood cells to agglutinate.
the part of a large biological molecule, cells (and their chromosomes) found in
particularly an enzyme, most directly agricultural revolution the fluid. Many types of genetic
involved in its characteristic chemical the pattern of permanent human disorders and birth defects can be
functions. settlements that began with fishing detected through amniocentesis.
villages but grew widespread only when
active transport amnion (AM nee on)
selected plants were raised and
a process in which a cell expends energy one of four embryonic membranes of
harvested, requiring extended
to move substances, often against a vertebrate embryos. It surrounds and
occupation of the cropland.
diffusion gradient. A steep diffusion holds the embryo in a cushioned, fluid
gradient that is maintained is indirect alkaline (AL kuh lin) environment.
evidence that a cell is actively basic; having pH greater than 7,
transporting a substance. reflecting more dissolved hydroxide ions
anaerobic (an eh ROH bik)
than hydrogen ions. occurring or living in conditions without
adaptation free oxygen.
in natural selection, a hereditary allantois (uh LANT oh wis)
characteristic of some organisms in a anaphase (AN uh fayz)
one of four embryonic membranes of
population that improves their chances vertebrate embryos. the stage in mitosis in which
for survival and reproduction in their chromosome, strands on the spindle
environment, compared with other allele (uh LEEL) separate and are pulled toward opposite
organisms in the population. one of t"'o or more possible forms of a ends of the cell.
gene, each affecting the hereditary trait
adaptive convergence (uh DAP tiv somewhat differently. animalia (an ih MAYL yuh)
kun VER jents) the kingdom of animals.
evolution of similar species in similar alpine (AL pyn)
environments, but from different an environment above timberline on
ancestors. mountains that is roughly similar to
arctic tundra.

995
1Oj7
996 Glossary

annual archaebacteria (ar kee bak TIR ee uh) atom (AT nm)
occurring each year; in plants, a descendants of ancient bacteria that the smallest particle of an element; in
herbaceous species that must produce differ from other bacteria today in the turn, an atom is made of smaller
new individuals each year from seed, nucleotide sequence of their RNAs, in particles that do not separately have the
because plants of that species live for certain lipids in their transfer RNA, in properties of the element.
only one growing season. certain lipids in their plasma
membranes, and in other ways. ATP
annual ring see adenosine triphosphate.
the ring of xylem cells added each year artery
to a plant stem. a large blood vessel that receives blood atrium (AY tree um)
from the heart or from a still larger a receiving chamber of the heart; it
anorexia (an oh REK see uh) artery and transports it (1) to the lungs receives blood from major veins,
abnormal loss of appetite, usually partly or gills where oxygen and carbon dioxide releasing it into a ventricle when the
induced by self-starvation to reduce are exchanged, or (2) to smaller blood ventricle's muscular walls relax.
body weight.
vessels that serve body-cells and tissues. autoimmune disease
anterior (an TIR ce er) articulation (ar tik yoo LAY shun) a disorder in which antibodies are
situated toward the front; having a head the manner of coming together at a produced against some of the body's
end, as in most animals. own cells.
skeletal joint in animals, or at a node in
anther plants. In particular, articulation applies autonomic nervous system
the enlarged, pollen-producing end of a to movable skeletal joints and how they a division of the nervous system that
stamen in a flower. work. controls unconscious activities of the
artificial selection body such as blood pressure, body
anthropologist (an throh POL uh jist)
selection by humans, usually plant and temperature, and other functions
a scientist who specializes in the study
animal breeders, of other organisms with necessary to the maintenance of
of human groups, their evolution, and homeostasis.
their culture. prized characteristics for reproduction.
Similar organisms under the breeders' autosome (AWT oh sohm)
antibiotic (ant ih by OT ik) control usually are prevented from any chromosome other than a sex
a substance produced by organisms reproducing. chromosome.
(usually microorganisms) that kills or
inhibits the growth of other ascus (AS kus) autotroph (AWT oh trohf)
microorganisms; or, a synthetically- a reproductive structure formed by sac a producer; a photosynthetic or other
produced substance identical to, or fungi when two hyphae conjugate. organism that takes its food materials
closely related to, such a biologically- Spores (ascospores) are formed in the and energy from the nonliving
produced substance. ascus. environment.
antibody asexual reproduction awcin (AWK sin)
a substance produced by specialized reproduction by a single parent, not a plant hormone produced in an actively
cells of the immune system to neutralize involving a gamete; a clone is produced. growing region of a plant and
or destroy an antigen, antibody, or toxin. Some organisms reproduce asexually transported to another part of the plant,
from buds, others by dividing, and still where it produces a growth effect
antigen (ANT ih jen) others by other means. related to the concentration of the auxin
a substance that the body detects as and characteristic of the target cells.
foreign and that activates a response by associative neuron (NYOO rahn)
the immune system. a nerve cell that transmits impulses axial skeleton (AK see ul)
from a sensory to a motor neuron, or the skull, backbone, and ribs of a
anus (AY nus) from a sensory neuron to a part of the vertebrate.
the opening, controlled by a sphincter brain.
muscle, from the large intestine to the
outside of the body. assumption (uh SUMP shun) b
provisional acceptance of an unproved
apex relationship; or, acceptance of an bacteriophage (bak TIR ee oh fayj)
the highest point; in plants, the tip of a oversimplified relationship in a model. a virus that infects bacteria.
growing stem or root. Examples: an animal population
barrier
appendage (uh PEN dij) probably has some pattern of mating
an obstacle to the dispersal of
a structure attached to the main part of preferences (first case) but is
individuals of a population of species.
the b.xly; in animals, a tentacle, a leg, a represented as mating at random in a
An example is a hostile climate or an
flipper, a wing, a fin, etc. simplified model (second case).
ocean or mountain range.
appendicnlar skeleton atherosclerosis
basic
(ap en DIK yuh lar) (ATH uh roh skleh ROH sis)
alkaline; having a pH greater than 7,
the shoulder and hip girdles and the deposition of fatty plaque on the inner
reflecting more dissolved hydroxide ions
appendage bones (arm, wing, flipper, walls of blood vessels, restricting the
than hydrogen ions.
flow of blood.
leg) of a vertebrate.
basidium (buh SID ee um)
arboreal a spore-bearing structure between the
living in trees. gills under a mushroom cap, or between
the gills of the reproductive bodies of
other club fungi.
 Glossary 997

B cell lymphocyte (LIM foh syt) biosphere (BY oh sfir) undifferentiated plant tissue that is
a type of lymphocyte that produces the outer portion of the earthair, grown from identical cells, then induced
antibodies. Memory B cells protect water, and soilwhere life is found. by plant hormones to develop into a
against repeated invasions by the same complete plant.
antigen; along with memory T cells, biosynthesis (by oh SIN :huh sis)
they are the key cells in acquired the process of putting together or calorie (KAL oh ree)
immunity. building up the large molecules the amount of energy required to raise
characteristic of a particular type of cell the temperature of one gram of water
bilateral symmetry (by LAT er ul or tissue. one degree Celsius. The larger food
SBA eh tree) Calorie, o Kilocalorie, is equal to 1000
correspondence in size, shape, and biotic (by OT ik)
calories.
position of parts on each side; close alive or only recently dead, or produced
similarity of the two halves of the body by the living. Calvin cycle
on each side of an imaginary midline blade
the cycle (named for its discoverer) in
drawn from one end to the other. which 3-carbon, 5-carbon, and 6-carbon
the flattened portion of a leaf in grasses
and deciduous trees. sugars of photosynthesis are made.
bile Light is not required, because light
a secretion of the liver, stored in the gall blastocyst (BLAS toh sist) energy has already been converted to
bladder and released through a duct to the mammalian embryonic stage that chemical energy in two kinds of
the small intestine. Bile breaks large fat corresponds to the blastula of other molecules that take part in the cycle.
droplets into smaller ones that enzymes animals.
can act upon more efficiently. cambium (KAM bee um)
blastula (BLAS chuh luh) a layer of living cells near the outer
binomial nomenclature (by NOH mee ul an animal embryo after the cleavage surface of plant stems and roots, which
NOH men klay churl stage, when a pattern of cell movements produces new phloem and xylem cells.
the two-word naming system used in toward the outside of the ball of cells
biology to name each species. canopy
results in a fluid-filled cavity inside.
an overhead covering, usually provided
biocide (BY oh syd) bolt by deciduous trees in a dense forest.
a poisonous substance produced and to produce flowers, seed, and fruit
used to kill forms of life that are capillary (KAP ih lair ee)
prematurely; also, in horses, to become
considered pests to humans or that startled and run. a tiny, thin-walled blood vessel between
spread diseases or attack food crops. _.._ an artery and a vein. Food and oxygen
botanist (BOT un ist) molecules diffuse through the capillary
bioethicad (by oh ETH ih kul) a biologist who specializes in the study walls to body cells, and carbon dioxide
considerations of .;ght and wrong with of plants. and wastes diffuse from the body cells
respect to issues raised by biological into the capillaries.
knowledge or technology. Bowman's capsule
the cup of a nephron, containing a ball carbohydrate (kar boh HY drayt)
biological distance of blood capillaries. an energy-rich biological compound in
the degree of similarity or dissimilarity which the hydrogen and oxygen atoms
in genetic makeup between two species, buffer that occur with the carbon are found in
or in gene fr uencies between two a substance that modifies the pH of a the same ratio as in watertwice as
population. solution by its interactions with many hydrogens as oxygens. Sugars and
hydrogen or hydroxide ions; buffers help starches are examples.
biologist (by OL uh jist) regulate or stabilize pH during reactions
a scientist trained in the study of one or that release large numbers of these ions. carbon cycle
more of the life sciences; for example, a the biological cycle in which carbon
botanist, ecologist, geneticist, bulimarexia (byoo lih muh REK see uh) compounds made by some organisms are
microbiologist, ornithologist, pathologist, alternate overeating and self-starvation, digested and decomposed by others,
paleontologist. a dietary disorder reflecting unbalanced releasing the carbon in small inorganic
attempts to control body weight. molecules that can be used again by
bioluminescent (by oh loo mih NES ent)
producing light as a specialized body bulimia (byoo LIM ee uh) more organisms to synthesize carbon
process. Fireflies on land and many an abnormal craving for food beyond the compounds.
animals of the ocean depths provide body's needs; frequently expressed as cardiac muscle (KARL ee ak)
example... gorging followed by forced vomiting. muscle tissue of the heart in
biomass (BY oh mass) buttress vertebratesa specialized type of
the amount of matter, usually less the a support. In trees, buttresses are nonskeletal, striated muscle.
water content, in organisms under study; thickened vertical parts of the trunk that cardiovascular
the dry mass of organisms. help support the tree in the soil. (KARD ee oh VAS kyoo ler)
biome (BY ohm) relating to the heart (cardio) and blood
the distinctive plant cover, and the rest C vessels (vascular).
of the community of organisms, cardiovascular fitness
callus (KAL us)
associated with a particular physical (KARD ee oh VAS kyoo ler)
thickened or hardened tissue on skin or
environment. Often the biome is named the relative state of health or fitness of
for its plant cover, for example, bark, around a break in a bone, and so
on; also, in tissue culture, a mass of the lungs, heart and blood vessels,
grassland or deciduous forest. especially with regard to their ability to
deliver oxygen to the cells.
 998 Glossary

carnivore (KAR nih vor) centriole (SEN tree ohl) chloroplast (KLOR oh plast)
a meat-eating animal, or another one of a pair of small, tubular structures a cell organelle that carries on
consumer organism that feeds on fellow present in animal and protist cells. The photosynthesis in producer organisms
consumers rather than on plants or other centrioles duplicate before mitosis or with eukaryotic cells; it contains
producers. meiosis and form organizing centers for chlorophyll, the enzymes of electron
the spindle fibers. transfer, and the enzymes for synthesis
carrier
of sugars.
an organism that transmits a pathogen centromere (SEN troh meer)
without acquiring a disease; also a the specialized region of a chromosome cholesterol (koh LES ter ol)
molecule or molecular ion that transmits that holds two replicated chromosomal a lipid associated particularly with
an electron or hydrogen atom in the strands together and that attaches to the animal cells and linked to deposits in
energy-transferring of a cell. spindle in mitosis. blood vessels and corresponding heart
carrying capacity disorders.
cerebellum (ser eh BEL um)
the greatest number of individuals of a the part of the brain in vertebrates that chorion (KOR ee on)
given species that an environment c-n is associated with regulating muscular one of four embryonic membranes of
support with its available resources. coordination, balance, and similar vertebrate embryos. In mammals, it
functions. forms the embryonic part of the
cartilage (KAR tih lej)
a tough, elastic connective tissue that placenta.
cerebral cortex (seh REE brul
makes up the skeleton of a cartilaginous KOR teks) chromatid (KROH muh tid)
fish, but that in other vertebrates is the neuron-rich outer layers, or "gray either of the two strands of a replicated
mostly replaced by bone as the animals matter," of the cerebrum. chromosome before separation at the
mature. centromere.
cerebrum (seh REE brum)
catalyst (KAT uh list) the largest portion of the brain in chromosome (KROH moh sohm)
a compound that speeds up a specific humans and many other animals; it in eukaryotes, a long structure of DNA,
kind of chemical reaction by taking part controls the higher mental functions, with some protein, that contains genetic
in the critical step; afterward it is including learning. information organized in linear
restored to its original condition. sequence.
chaparral (shap uh RAL)
cell body a type of plant cover in a temperate cilia (SIL ee uh)
enlarged part of a nerve cell that region with summer-long droughts. short hairlike cell extensions of many
contains the nucleus. Typically the plants are dense and microorganisms and of certain body cells
cell cycle sometimes large shrubs with small, of animals (including humans). Cilia are
a cycle of events from cell division to waxy, evergreen leaves. used for movement or to create a
normal growth and metabolism between current.
chemical bond
divisions, to the next cell division. the chemical interaction between atoms class
cellular respiration (SEL yoo ler that leads to the formation of molecules in biological classification, the next-
res pih RAY shun) and ionic compounds. larger grouping above order.
the series of chemicalreactions by chemical energy cleavage
which a living cell breaks down food energy stored in the structure of the earliest cell divisions, usually
molecules and obtains energy from molecules, particularly organic without growth, in an animal embryo. A
them; the energy is used in the cell's life molecules. solid ball of cells is produced.
processes, including restructuring other
molecules. cbemoautotrophic bacteria climatogram
(kee moh aut oh TROH fik) a graph of temperature and
cellulose (SEL yoo lohs) bacteria that obtain their energy from precipitation for a given area by month,
a major plant carbohydrate, and the inorganic molecules in the environment. during a year.
most abundant carbohydrate of living
things. Among its functions is semi-rigid chitin (KYT in) climax community
support for plant stems for as long as a horny carbohydrate found in cell walls a stable, self-perpetuating community
the stems are normally supplied with of many fungi and in the exoskeletons of established by succession and considered
water. insects, crustaceans, and certain other semi-permanent. It persists until
arthropods. interrupted or destroyed by fire, flood,
cell wall volcanic activity, human activity, or
a covering enclosing the cells of plants, chlorophyll (KLOR uh fil) change in climate.
many algae, and certain bacteria. It is green pigments of plants and many
located outside the plasma membrane, microorganisms; electrons in chlorophyll clone
and is made of materials secreted by absorb light energy and escape, but are an organism genetically identical to the
each cell through its membrane. captured in biological reactions before donor of the cell from which it was
they can lose (or re-emit) their absorbed produced; or, any of a group of
central nervous system energy. organisms produced from genetically
the brain and spinal cord in vertebrates. identical cells.
 Glossary, 999

closed population competition cortex

a population with no entering interaction between organisms for the the outer layers of the cerebrum in the
immigrants and no departing emigrants; same food source, or for the same mate, brain of a vertebrate; also, a layer of
a completely isolated population. and so on. cells under the epidermis or bark of
coacervate (koh AS er vayt) some plant stems.
complement (KOM pleh ment)
a cluster of proteins or proteinlike a protein in blood plasma that destroys cotyledon (kot ih LEE dun)
substances held together in small antigens held in an antigen-antibody a seed leaf, often modified to store large
droplets within a surrounding liquid and complex. amounts of food; it also may carry on
used as a model for a precell to photosynthesis until the first true leaves
investigate the formation of the first life complete proteins
develop. Among flowering plants, the
on earth. proteins that contain all the essential
monocots have one seed leaf in the
amino acids in the proportions needed
codominant embryo, the dicots two.
by humans. The essential amino acids
genes that show complete expression of are those that the body cannot creatine phosphate (KREE uh tin
both alleles in the heterozygote, as in synthesize from other food substances, FOS fayt)
the AB blood type in humans, which is or cannot synthesize in the required an energy storage compound used by
producul by the expression of the IA and amounts. muscle cells of vertebrates to replenish
ID alleles. ATP supplies; when the cells are not
compound (KOM pownd)
codon contracting, they break down glycogen
z substance composed of chemically
a sequence of three nucleotides in to replenish both the creatine phosphate
bonded atoms of two or more elements.
messenger RNA that codes for a single and ATP.
Unlike a simple mixture of these
amino acid. elements, it is a single substance with cuticle
unique chemical properties. a waxy, waterproof coating present in
coevolution
in two interacting groups or species, the differing amounts on the leaves of plants
conifer (KON ih fer)
evolution of each with the other as a of different species; also, certain living
cone-bearing plant that usually grow as
factor in natural selection. The result is or dead tissue around the nails or claws
evergreen trees and shrubs. Pines,
an ever-increasing interdependence of vertebrates.
spruces, firs, and junipers are examples.
between the twofor example, between cyanobacteria
hummingbirds and plants with red conjugation (kon joo GAY shun)
(SY uh noh bak TIR ee uh)
flowers of long, tubular shape. the process by which sexual exchange
the blue-green bacteria, which carry on
and reproduction take place in many
cohesion oxygen-producing photosynthesis much
microscopic organisms, principally
attraction between similar or identical like plants, but without membrane-
protists and fungi.
molecules, or other similar particles. bounded chloroplasts to isolate their
consumer chlorophyll.
cohesion transpiration an organism that obtains its food
the theory that water molecules may be cytokinesis (syt oh kih NEE sus)
materials and energy by feeding on
strongly enough attracted to one another cell division following mitosis (in which
other organisms or their wastes or
(cohesion) to be pulled up through a two cell nuclei have been produced from
remains.
plant from its roots by the continuous one).
loss of water from the leaves continental drift
cytokinin (syt oh KY nin)
(transpiration). Root pressure (absorbed change in distance between continents
one of a group of plant hormones that
water from the soil) and adherence of and in their positions relative to each
promote cell division, stem and root
water to plant cell surfaces may also other, caused by introduction of new
growth, chlorophyll synthesis, and
contribute. crustal material in sea-floor spreading
chloroplast development.
and in land rifts.
coleoptile (koh lee OP til) cytoplasm (SYT oh plaz um)
the first leaf in germination of grasses, control
the contents of a cell between, but not
which forms a sheath around the other the norm (unchanged subject or group)
including, the nucleus and the plasma
developing leaves. in an experiment; it is selected to be like
membrane; cell organelles and cytosol.
the experimental subject or group except
commensalism (kuh MEN suh liz um) for one characteristic or variable being cytosol (SYT oh sol)
an association between two unlike tested. A control helps an investigator the partly gel, partly fluid portion of cell
organisms in which one benefits and the link a planned change with an effect in cytoplasm in which cell organelles are
other is unaffected. An example is a the experimental group (or discover that suspended.
remora that attaches itself to a shark it produced no effect by comparison with
and benefits by a "free ride" and "free the control). cytotoxic (syt oh TOKS ik)
food" (small bits of the shark's food as i.oisonous or injurious to cells. The
they float by). corpus luteum (KOR pus human body produces cytoxic
LOOT ee um) lymphocytes that he'd destroy diseased
community in female mammals, a hormone- cells.
the populations of different organisms producing mass of tissue that develops
that live and interact in the same place in a ruptured ovarian follicle after
or ecosystem at a given time; a release of an egg.
biological neighborhood.
 1000 Glossary

d diaphragm (DY uh fram) discontinuous distribution (dis kun TIN

a sheet of muscle in the body cavit: of yuh wus dis trih BYOO shun)
data (DAY tuh) mammals that divides the cavity into a populations of a species isolated from
observations and experimental evidence chest cavity and an abdominal cavity. one another without "corridors" of
bearing on a biological question or migration and interbreeding. Isolation
problem. The singt.iar is datum diatom (DY uh tom) may be on separate continents, although
(DAY tum), for a single observation. any of a large group of golden algae
at one time the range of the species was
that have intricate, patterned shells
deciduous (dee SID joo us) continuous.
made in two halves, and containing
characterized by loss of leaves each silica. Unusually shaped pores create the dispersal
autumn, followed by new leaf growth patterns. the spreading of organisms from a place
the following spring. of concentration; also, the scattering of
dicot (DY kot) spores and seeds that promotes dispersal
decomposer (de kum POHZ er) a seed plant whose embryo has two
an organism that feeds on the wastes or of otherwise nonmotile organisms.
cotyledons, or seed leaves.
decaying remains of other organisms, DNA
breaking down these wastes or remains differentiation see deoxyribonucleic acid.
for food energy and materials. (dif er en CHEE AY shun)
the process by which different dominant
decomposition (de kom poh ZISH un) specialized cellsgland, muscle, skin, in genetics, exerting a controlling
the process of taking molecules apart. and so ondevelop from less-specialized influence on the expression of a trait; in
Heat and chemical reactions are the parental/cells that are descendants of social behavior, exerting a controlling
chief agents; organisms employ the the same egicell. influence over other individuals.
latter. (
diffusion (,dih FY00 zhun) dormant
deletion random motion of molecules, resulting inactive but alive or viable. Grasses are
in genetics, a missing piece of a overallin dispersal from a place of dormant during long droughts or cold
chromosome with the genes that it concentration. An-odor escaping from a winters, spores and seeds during
carries. bottle is an example. unfr vorabl- conditions, and
denitrifying bacteria microorganisms and even certain
diffusion gradient
(dee NY trih fy ing) animals when conditions are too
a difference in concentration of certain inhospitable.
bacteria that break down nitrogen molecules between two places. The
compounds in the soil and release steepness of the gradient, if maintained, dorsal (DOR sul)
nitrogen gas to the air. *ndicates either an impassable barrier or in animals, situated toward the top or
density an active mechanism that returns the back side.
number of individuals in a population in molecules to one place as rapidly as they
diffuse to the other. duration
proportion to the size of their the time span of an activity, event, or
environment or living space. digestion (dih JES chun) environmental condition.
deoxyribonucleic acid the chemical process of breaking food
(dee OK sih ry boh noo KLEE ik) down into nutrients an organism's cells
can use. e
DNA; the biological molecules that
carry hereditary instructions from digit ecologist (ee KOL uh jist)
parents to offspring during reproduction. a finger or toe. a scientist trained in the study of the
Viruses similarly employ either DNA or interactions of each kind of organism
RNA. dihybrid cross (dy HY brid) with others of its kind, with others of
a cross or mating of two individuals that unlike kinds, and with nonliving parts of
deoxyribose (dee OK sih RY bohs) are purebred for unlike genotypes in its environment.
a sugar used in the structure of DNA; it each of two different traits being
has one fewer oxygen atoms than ribose. studied. The cross extends to a mating ecology (ee KOL uh jee)
of their offspring to produce an F2 the study of the living and nonliving
development parts of the environment and of their
cell division, growth, and differentiation generation.
interactions in affecting life for each
of cells from the embryonic germ layers dipeptide (DY PEP tyd) biological species.
into all the tissues and organs of the two amino acid molecules bonded to one
body; also, later changes with age, as another; the dipeptide may be the start ecosystem (EE koh sis tum)
the organism continues to grow, reaches of a chain for a protein or a product of a biological community in its abiotic
reproductive maturity with its effects on digestion of a protein or polypeptide. environment.
appearance and body functions, and so ectoderm (EK toh derm)
on. diploid (DIP loyal)
containing all the pairs of the outer layer of cells in the gastrula
diabetes (dy uh BEET eez) chromosomesthe full genome-- stage of an animal embryo.
a disease that results from insufficient characteristic of a sexually reproducing effector
insulin secretion or impairment of species. a muscle or a gland, activated by nerve
insulin receptors on cells of the body;
disaccharide (DY SAK uh ryd) impulses or hormones.
normal absorption and use of glucose
from the.bloodstream is then impossible. a double sugar, composed of two egg cell
chemically bonded simple sugars. In an ovum; a female gamete.
solution, a disaccharide forms a double-
ring structure; ,
1.1U 11101
Glossary 1001

electroencephalograph atom's outer electrons; however, far essential nutrient

(ee LEK troh en SEF uh loh graf) greater potential energy is associated a nutrient that an organism cannot
a complex electronic instrument that with an atom's nucleus. synthesize, or not in the quantities it
mos.:lots brain waves. requires. Plants must obtain such a
environment (en VY run ment) nutrient from the soil; animals from the
electron (cc LEK trahn) everything in the surroundings of an food they ingest.
negatively-charged atomic particle organism; living and nonliving
found outside the nucleus of atoms. surroundings and factors including light, estivation (es tih VAY shun)
temperature, air, soil, water, and a state of partial dormancy in which
electron transport system organisms. certain animals survive the summer heat
the process in which electrons are
in their burrows or in the mud of drying
transferred from one carrier molecule to enzyme (EN zym) ponds.
another in photosynthesis and in cellular a catalyst produced by an organism and
respiration. Some of the energy is stored used to speed up a specific kind of estrogen (ES troh jen)
in ATP molecules. chemical reaction. a hormone active in the reproductive
cycles of female mammals, promoting
element (EL uh ment) enzyme-substrate complex development of the inner tissues or the
a substance whose atoms are all an enzyme molecule together with the uterus.
chemically identical. Each atom has the molecules on which it acts, correctly
same number and arrangement of arranged at the active site of the ethics (ETH iks)
protons and electrons; only the number enzyme. principles dealing with what is right or
of neutrons may vary. wrong.
epicotyl (EP ih kot il)
embryo (EM bree oh) the embryonic shoot of a developing ethylene (ETH ih leen)
an early stage in the development of an plant, made up of a stern tip and tiny a gaseous plant hormone that promotes
animal from the fertilized egg, or of a leaves. fruit ripening, while inhibiting further
plant from the fertilized egg nucleus. plant growth in stems and roots.
epidermis (ep ih DER mis)
emigration (em uh GRAY shun) the outer layer of cells in many eubacteria (yoo bak TIR ee uh)
departure by migration; out-migration. organisms, including leaves and younger "true bacteria;" they include the
stems of plants. cyanobacteria but not the
endocast (EN doh kast) archaebacteria. Eubacteria differ from
a plaster or plastic cast of the inside epididymis (ep ih DID ih mus) archaebacteria in their ribosomal RNA,
surface, or the contents, of a covering or in mammals, a coiled duct near a testis, transfer RNA, and in other ways.
enclosing structure. Exa:nples are where sperm are held after they mature.
endocasts of a skull's braincase, a plant's eukaryote (yoo KAIR ee oht)
epinephrine (ep ih NEF rin) an organism whose cells have a
spore case, or a marine microorganism's an adrenal hormone, also called
glasslike shell. membrane-bounded nucleus and
adrenalin, that speeds up heart rate and membrane-bounded organelles such as
endocrine gland (EN doh krin) raises blood sugar level and blood mitochondria, chloroplasts, and
a ductless gland that secretes one or pressure; the "fight or flight" hormone lysosomes; a protist, fungus, plant, or
more hormones into the bloodstream. that is secreted during a sudden fright animal.
or emergency.
endoderm (EN doh derm) eutrophication (yoo troh fih KAY shun)
the inner layer of cells in the gastrula epiphyte (EP ih fyt)
nutrient enrichment of a body of water,
stage of an animal embryo. a plant that takes its moisture and as by sewage, leading to population
nutrients from the air and from rainfall explosions first of photosynthetic
endoplasmic reticulum (en do PLAZ and that is usually supported by growing
mik reh TIK yoo lum) organisms, then of decomposers that
on a branch of another plant. It is not a deplete the dissolved oxygen, causing
a complex membrane network within parasite.
the cell cytoplasm; many ribosomes are fish and other aquatic animals to die.
found along its membranes. ER evolution
see endoplasmic reticulum. change through time that results from
endoskeleton (EN doh SKEL eh ton)
a skeleton that is inside the body, as in erosion natural selection acting on genetic
vertebrates. displacement of soil or rock material by variations present among individuals of
wind and water action and by a species. That process results in the
endosperm (EN doh sperm) temperature/humidity cycles. development of new species.
food-storage cells in a plant ovule, later
enclosed with an embryo plant in a seed. esophagus (ee SOF uh gus) excretion (ek SKREE shun)
in humans, the tube through which food, the elimination of wastes, especially by-
enduspore (EN doh spor) when swallowed, is passed to the products of body metabolism, by
a thick-walled spore of a particular type, stomach in a series of wavelike muscular organisms.
like that produced by the anaerobic contractions (peristalsis); in other
bacterium that causes botulism. exocrine gland (EK soh krin)
vertebrates and many invertebrates, a a gland that delivers its secretion
energy tube identical or at least similar in externally through a tube or duct. A
the active ingredient of all atoms; the function. tear gland and a sweat gland are
characteristic of matter that can change examples.
it. Organisms utilize the readily
available energy associated with an

.,,;013.1103
 1002 Glossary

exon (EKS on) fibrinogen (fy BRIN oh jen) fungi (FUN jy)
a segment of chromosomal DNA that is a soluble blood protein that is changed a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms that
-transcribed into mRNA and translated into its insoluble form as fibrin during develop from spores but not from
in protein synthesis. Exons make up the the blood-clotting process. embryos, often form many-celled
known genes. structures, and live as consumers (often
fibrous-root system
exoskeleton (EK soh SKEL eh ton) decomposers); molds, yeasts,
a root system consisting of many
a skeleton on the outside of the body, or mushrooms, living rusts, smuts, bracket
branching roots of various sizes, with no
separated by a cell layer from the fungi, and related organisms.
one root easily identifiable as the
outside of the body. Insects and other original plant root. fungicide (FUN jih syd)
arthropods are the principal animals a poison produced and used to kill fungi
with exoskeletons. flagellum (fluh JEL um)
that attack food crops and ornamental
a whiplike organelle of many bacteria,
extinct (ek STINKT) plants.
protists, and certain cells of animals
no longer surviving as a species. such as sponges and hydras.
extracellular (ek struh SEL yoo lar) flame cell
outside a cell, or taking place outside in planarians, a cell with cilia in a gamete (GAM eet)
body cells. Often, secretions from cells network connected by tubules; flame a sexual reproductive cell or nucleus; in
are responsible for an extracellular cells absorb fluid and wastes and move animals, a sperm cell or an egg cell, and
process, as in digestion in most animals. the fluid through the tubules, using their in flowering plants, a sperm nucleus or
cilia to create a current. Excess water is egg nucleus.
f removed in this way and eliminated
from the body through pores. gametophyte (guh MEET oh fyt)
family a plant of the gamete-producing
fluctuation (fluk shoo AY shun) generation in a plant species that
in biological classification, the next-
change in numbers or values in both undergoes alternation of generations. In
larger grouping above genus.
directionsup and down. many speciesthe flowering plants, for
famine (FA M in)
follicle
examplethe male and female
severe shortage of food, causing gametophytes are reduced to small
in mammals, any of several different
widespread hunger and starvation within dependant structures that develop in
a population. structuresan ovarian sac from which flowers of the sporophyte plants.
an egg is released; a thyroid tissue that
feces (FEE seez) produces and stores a hormone; and a ganglion (GAN glee un)
undigested food remnants that are tiny skin cavity from which a hair a mass of nerve tissue, or of nerve cell
eliminated from the large intestine grows. Other structures named follicles bodies from which the nerve fibers
through the anus. Mixed with the food also exist. extend.
remnants are mucus, bacteria, and dead
food gastric juice
intestinal cells.
a substance containing energy-rich mixed secretions of the glands in the
female organic compounds made by organisms, stomach wallin humans, principally
an animal with ovaries but not testes; and used by them and other organisms mucus, hydrochloric acid, and protein-
also, a plant that produces en, cells but for the energy and materials for life. fragmenting enzymes.
not sperm, or a plant part that produces
egg nuclei. food chain gastrula (GAS truh luh)
a food relationship beginning with a an animal embryo after the blastula
fermentation (fer men TAY shun) producer, eaten by a consumer, in turn stage, when an infolding of the cells
the incomplete breakdown of food eaten by another consumer, and so on. from one side of the embryo occurs,
molecules, especially sugars, in the The producer is eaten or fed upon by a replacing the blastula cavity with a new
absence of oxygen. herbivore, which is eaten by a carnivore, gastrula cavity bounded by two layers of
which is eaten by still another carnivore; cells.
fertile (FERT il) eventually, decomposers end the chain.
capable of reproducing. gene (JEEN)
food web a portion of DNA that codes for one
fertilization a food scheme of overlapping and hereditary characteristic and occupies a
the production of the first cell of a new interlinking food chains used to specific place on a chromosome.
individual by the union of a sperm with complete a picture of "who eats what"
an ovum; also, the enrichment of soil by for a community of organisms. gene pool
the addition of plant nutrients. all the genes in a population of
foramen magnum interbreeding individuals.
fetus (FEET us) (foh RAY men MAG num)
a vertebrate embryo in later stages of the large opening in the base of the generalization
development, when it has attained the skull, through which the spinal cord a statement summarizing a pattern
recognizable structural plan and maintains its continuity with the brain. observed from an accumulation of
features of its kind. separate observations.
fossil
fibrin (FY brin) a cast of an organism preserved in rock genetic determinism (jeh NET ik
an insoluble blood protein that forms a that formed where it died, or C , de TER mih niz um)
network of fibers around which a clot organism itself in ice or volcanic glass, the belief that an individual's traits,
develops. including behavioral traits, are primarily
or its tracks, seeds, or skeleton preserved
in deposits. determined by the genes rather than by
environmental influence.
 f

Glossary 1003

genome (JEE nohm) guard cells hibernate (HY ber nayt)

the total genetic content or complement a pair of cells that surround a stomate to go into a sta.:: of dormancy, in which
of a cell, other than a gamete, from any in a plant leaf's epidermis. Turgor body processes and metabolism,
given species. pressure in the guard cells regulates the including heartbeat and breathing, slow
opening and closing of a stomate. to a point ordinarily considered near
genotype (JEE noh typ)
the genetic makeup of an organism, as death. Hibernating animals may breathe
distinguished from its observable traits. h as infrequently as once or twice in five
minutes and exist for long periods on
genus (JEE nus) habitat (HAB ih tat) body fat.
in biological classification, the next- the place where an organism lives. Even
larger grouping above species. in the same ecosystem, different homeostasis (hoh mee oh STAY sis)
the tendency for an organism, or a
gertn layer organisms differ in their habitats.
population of organisms, to remain
the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm half-life relatively stable under the range of
cell layers of an early animal embryo. the time required for half a quantity of conditions to which it is subjected; a
By differentiation, cells in these layers a radioactive element to break down. complex process of self or population
give rise to all the different tissues of the The time is independent of how little or regulation.
body. how much of the element is present.
hominid (HOM ih nid)
gibberellin (jib uh REL en) haploid (HAP loyd) an upright-walking primate. Humans
one of a group of plant hormones that containing only one member of each are the only survivors of this group of
promote seed germination, plant growth pair of chromosomes characteristic of a several former species.
in height, and certain other growth- sexually reproducing species. Gametes
related changes. hominoid (HOM ih noyd)
are haploid.
a primate of the group that includes
glomerulus (glah MER yoo lus) hemoglobin (HEE moh gloh bin) humans, apes, and monkeys.
the ban of blood capillaries in the cup, the oxygen-carrying pigment in the
or Bowman's capsule, of a nephron in a homolog (HOH moh log)
blood of vertebrates and certain
kidney. in genetics, either chromosome of a pair
invertebrates; in vertebrates it is found
in red blood cells.
that bear similar genes in identical
glucagon (GLOO kuh gahn) sequences.
a pancreatic hormone that acts to raise herbaceous (her BAY shus)
the blood glucose level. homology (hoh MOL uh jee)
herblike; without woody tissues.
correspondence in structure, biochemical
glycogen (GLY koh jen) herbicide (HER bih syd) make-up, or other features suggesting a
the chief carbohydrate made and used a plant poison produced and used to kill relationship.
by animals for energy storage. In unwanted plants, usually weeds in lawns
mammals, excess sugar (glucose) is or food crops. homozygous (hoh moh ZY gus)
removed from the blood in liver and having identical alleles for a trait in a
muscle tissues and converted to herbivore (HER bih vor) pair of alleles inherited one from each
glycogen. a plant-eating consumer, one of the class parent.
of consumers most closely associated
glycolysis (gly KAWL uh sis) with producers. hormone (HOR mohn)
the initial breakdown of a carbohydrate, a substance secreted by a cell or gland
usually glucose, into smaller molecules hermaphrodite (her MAF roh dyt) that has a regulatory effect on cells and
at the beginning of the cellular an animal that has both ovaries and organs elsewhere in the body; a chemical
respiration process. testes. messenger.

golgi complex (GOHL jee) heterotroph (HET eh roh trohf) host

a cell organelle that is involved in a consumer; an organism that obtains its an organism that serves as a habitat or
packaging cell products in vesicles. food materials and energy by feeding on living food source, or both, for another
other organisms or their wastes or organism.
gonad (GOH nad) remains.
an animal organ that produces sperm or human culture
ova; a testis or an ovary. beterotroph hypothesis a way of life in human populations that
(HET eh roh trohf by POTH uh sis) is the outgrowth of intelligence,
granum (GRAY num) the hypothesis that the first life on earth toolmaking, speech, written language,
a stack of thylakoids within a fed on "leftovers"naturally occurring and social communication and
chloroplast. organic compounds like those from cooperation.
which the life evolved. Thus, the first
gravitiopism (gray ih TROH piz um) humus
living things would have been consumers
the response of a plant to the earth's decomposing plant and animal tissues in
or heterotrophs.
gravitational pull. Roots usually react soil.
positively, growing downward, but stems heterozygous (het eh roh ZY gus)
ialy react negatively. hybrid (HY brid)
having different alleles for a trait in a
pal- I* alleles inherited one from each having different alleles for a trait in a
gross primary productivity pair of alleles inherited one from each
parent; hybrid.
the total amount of food energy stored parent; heterozygous.
during a unit of time by photosynthesis
in an ecosystem.
 1004 Glossary

hydrosphere (HY droh sfir) innate (in AYT) k

the bodies of water and the atmospheric genetically determined, as in behavior
water vapor that give earth its blue color that is uniform for a species but is not karyotype (KAIR ee oh typ)
when viewed from space. learned. a photomicrograph of an organism's
chromosomes arranged and labeled in
hyphae (HY fee) inorganic compound (IN or GAN ik) homologous pairs.
threadlike growths of a fungus. In an a compound containing no carbon, or
irregular mass they make up the only one carbon atom per molecule. kingdom
mycelium of many fungi; in an orderly Inorganic compounds do not depend on in biological classification, the next-
and tightly-packed arrangement they living things for their formation; larger grouping above phylum or
make up the body of a mushroom or a however, living things can make some division; the largest grouping used.
bracket fungus. inorganic as well as organic compounds.
Krebs citric acid cycle
hypocotyl (HY poh kot il) insecticide (in SEK tih syd) the cycle in cellular respiration that
the embryonic root of a developing an insect poison produced and used to completes the breakdown of
plant. control insect populations that are pests intermediate products of glycolysis,
to humans or that carry disease releasing electrons and hydrogen to the
hypoglycemia (hy poh gly SEE mee uh) organisms or damage food crops. cell's electron-transport system. The
low blood sugar level. cycle also is a source of carbon skeletons
insulin (IN suh lin) for use in biosynthesis reactions.
hypothalamus (hy poh THAL uh mus)
a pancreatic hormone that promotes cell
a specialized part of the base of the kwashiorkor (kwah shee OR kor)
absorption and use of glucose;
brain that in humans combines neuron a disease of malnourishment from too
impairment4 its secretion or its action
and hormone activity. It links the much starch and not enough protein.
results in diabetesr.*-
autonomic nervous system with the
endocrine system in regulating many interphase (INT er fayz)
body functions. a normal interval between successive cell
divisions wiz, the only evidence of
hypothesis (hy POTH uh sis) larva (LAR vuh)
future division is that genes begin to be
a statement suggesting an explanation an immature stage of development in
replicated; in general, a cell at work,
for an observation or an answer to a rather than a cell dividing. offspring of many kinds of animals.
scientific problem. The hypothesis must
fit the existing data and, if pos,-;1,''' learning
intestinal juice
predict more data that ca..; be in secretions of glands in the small behavior that is modified by experience;
experiments. or, new behavior that is determined by
intestinal wall; they contain enzymes
experience.
that act on dipeptides and disaccharides.
lenticel (LENT ih sel)
intracellular (in truh SEL yoo lar)
inside a cell, or taking place inside cells. an opening in the surface of a plant
immigration (im uh GRAY shun) stem through which air can diffuse.
:Arrival by migration; in- migration. intron
lichen (LY ken)
a segment of chromosomal DNA that is
immune (im YOON) an alga and a fungus living together in a
transcribed into precursor mRNA but
nr,,.,:ted against; in humans the mutualistic relationship as an apparent
then removed before the mRNA leaves
protection.is provided by the various "single" kind of organism, often found
the nucleus. Thus, introns are not
components zf the immune system, on rocks.
ti-rmstated into protein.
including specialized proteins
(antibodies) and cells. life cycle
hreesioni
in genetics, part of a chromosome that the events from appearance of new
inlmtmity (im YOO nit ee) individuals in a species to their
has undergone breakage, end-over-end
disease-resistance, usually specific for reproduction of other new individuals,
turning, and reattachment, reversing its
one disease or the pathogen that causes 'ie span of each generation.
gene sequence.
it.
light-dependent reactions
Wu (EYE un)
impermeable (im PER rnee uh bull) the energy-capturing reactions in
an atom or molecule that has gained or
impassable; impenetrable. A membrane, photosynthesis; also, reactions in the
loci one or more electrons, acquiring a
for example, may be impermeable to human skin leading to production of
not iegative tr positive charge.
some molecules and ions but not others. vitamin D.
ionize (EYE uh nyz)
infectious (in FEK shus) limiting factor
caused by viruses or microorganisms
in an atom, to form an ion by adding or
removing one or more electrons; in an an environmental condition such as food,
that can be transmitted directly from an temperature, water, and so on that
ionic compound, to separate the ions, as
affected individual to a healthy one, restricts types of organisms and
in solution.
CF
affecting that individual in turn. population numbers an environment can
support.
ingestion (in JES chun)
the process of taking a substance from linked
the environment, usually food, into the joint genes that are located on the same
body. a point of movement, or of fixed calcium chromosome.
deposits preventing movement, marking
where two bones meet in the skeleton.
 Glossary 1005

lipid (LIP id) ma!t metaphase (MET uh fayz)

an energy-ricls organic compound an animal with testes but not ovaries; the stage in mitosis in which replicated
formed of carbon, hydrogen, and small also, a plant that produces sperm but chromosomes move to the center of the
amounts of oxygen. Lipids are important not egg cells, or a plant part that spindle and become attached to it.
components of the cell's plasma produces sperm nuclei.
membrane. Fats, oils, and waxes are micronucleus (MY kroh NOO klee us)
examples. malnourished (mal NUR isht) the smaller of two types of nuclei in
undersupplied with certain essential many one-celled protists. One or more
littoral zone nutrients; the food supply may be micronuclei may be present in each
the zone between high and low tides on adequate for energy and some nutrients, organism.
a seashore, submerged part time and but not others.
exposed to air part time. micronutrient
mantle (MANT el) a nutrient required in only small or
lymph (LIMF) in mollusks, two extended lobes of the trace amounts by a plant or other
tissue fluid, similar to blood plasma but body wall that line the two halves of the organism.
with lesser amounts of plasma proteins shell and create a body cavity.
and greater amounts of cell wastes. microorganism
Lymph leaving the intestinal area also MISS (my kroh OR guh niz um)
carries great am" ants of digested food the amount of matter in organisms or an organism too small to be seen with
molecules. objects being studied. the unaided eye.
lymphatic system (lim FAT 1k) medium microsphere (MY kroh stir)
a system of vessels through which body in a laboratory culture, the nutrient a cooling droplet from a hot water
lymph flows, eventually entering the broth that sustains the organisms placed solution of polypeptides; the droplet
bloodstream where the largest lymph in it. forms its own double-layered boundary
duct joins a blood vein. meiosis (my OH sis) as it cools. Microspheres are used as a
the distribution of chromosomes, model for precells to investigate the
lymph node formation of the first life on earth.
a tiny, twisted portion of a lymph vessel following replication, through a
in which white blood cells attack any reduction cell division and a second cell microtubule (MY kroh TOO byool)
pathogenic organisms in the lymph and division, yielding gametes with the a tiny hollow tube made of protein, part
engulf any foreign particles. haploid chromosome number. of a cell's "skeletal" network.
lymphocyte (LIM foh syt) menstrual cycle (MEN stroo ul) microvillus (my kroh VIL us)
a small white blood vessel that produces the monthly cycle of ovarian and uterine a microscopic projection on the surface
antibodies or regulates an immune events in human femalesa biological membrane of an intestinal villus.
response. Lymphocytes are the typical preparation for reproduction.
cellular elements of lymph. mitochondrion (my toh KON dree un)
menstruation (men stroo AY shun) a cell organelle in eukaryotic cells that
lymph vessel the loss of blood and tissue from the carries on cellular respiration, releasing
a vessel in which lymph from body uterus in human females when no energy from food molecules and storing
tissues, or from villi in the intestine, pregnancy has occurred in a menstrual it in ATP.
flows until it enters the largest lymph cycle.
duct, which empties into a blood vein. mitosis (my TOH sis)
meristem tissue (MER ih stem) the. replication of chromosomes and
lysosome (LY soh zohm) plant cells at growing tips of roots and formation of two identical cell nuclei in
a cell vesicle that contains digestive stems, and in buds and cambium, that one cell. Usually mitosis is followed by
enzymes. The membrane of the vesicle divide and produce new cells that can cell division.
protects vital parts of the cell from differentiate into various plant tissues.
model
digestion by the enzymes. mesoderm (MEZ oh derm) a mental picture, or an actual three-
the middle cell layer that forms between dimensional construction, representing a
m the ectoderm and the endoderm of an situation in its essential terms.
early animal embryo.
micronucleus (MAK roh NOO klee us) molecule (MOL uh kyool)
the larger of two types of nuclei in many mesophyll (MEZ oh fil) a particle of matter formed by bonds
one-celled protists. One or more green leaf cells between the upper and between atoms. A molecule may be
macronuclei may be present in each lower epidermis of a leaf; the primary formed from a single element, or from
organism. site of photosynthesis in leaves. different elements, as in a compound.
macronutrient metabolism (meh TAB oh liz um) monera (moh NEHR uh)
a nutrient required in large amounts by a term for all chemical reactions in a a kingdom of prokaryotic organisms, the
a plant or other organism. cell or organism considered in their bacteria.
total.
macrophage (MAK rch fayj) monocot (MON oh kot)
a large white blood cell that engulfs and metamorphosis (met uh MOR phuh sus) a seed plant whose embryo has one
digests antigen. in the life cycles of many animals, cotyledon, or seed leaf.
marked changes in body form and
functions from the newly-hatched young
to the adults. The young and the adults
may differ so greatly that they could be
mistaken for different species.

1107
1006 Glossary

monoculture n neurotransmitter
in farming, single-crop agriculture. Also, (NYOOR oh trans MIT cr)
thc usual condition of a laboratory NAD+ a chemical mcsscngcr, oftcn similar to
culture in or.xlical researcha single see nicotinamide adenine dinucleotidc.
or identical with a hormonc, that
variety of-ofganism from a single NADP+ diffuses across a nerve synapse and
species, nourished by nutrients see nicotinamidc adenine dinucleotidc transmits a ncrvc impulse from one
artificially supplied. phosphate. ncuron to another.
monosaccbaride (MON oh SAK uh ryd) natality (nay TAL ih tee) n eutral solution
a simple sugar, with seven or fewer birthrate, measured as the proportion of ncithcr acidic nor bask; having a pH of
carbon atoms to which hydrogen and new individuals to total population over 7, reflecting approximately equal
oxygen arc bonded. In solution, its a given time period; often expressed as numbers of hydrogen and hydroxidc
structure is single-ring. number of new individuals per 1,000 or ions.

mortality (mor TAL ih tee) 10,000 in the population. n eutron (NOO trahn)
death rate, measured as the proportion native trees a particle with no electric chargc, found
of deaths to total population over a trees that occur naturally in somc stagc in the nucleus of most atoms.
given time period; often expressed as of plant succession in a given place.
number of deaths per 1000 or 10,000 nick (NITCH)
individuals. natural history in ecology, thc way of life of an
the descriptive history of organisms and organism or its role in thc community,
motile (MOH til) thcir ways of life in their respective including its habitat, manner of
capable of movement from place to environments. obtaining food, and so on.
place, a characteristic of most animals.
natural selection n icotinamide adenine dinucleotide
motor neuron (NYOO rahn) the tendency of members of a (nik uh TEF. nuh myd AD uh nem
a specialized neuron that receives population with the most successful Dy NOO klec oh tyd)
impulses from a sensory or associative adaptations to their environment to be NAD+, a hydrogen-carrier molecule
ncuron and transmits them to a muscle the surviving members and parents of that forms NADH in gylcolysis.
or gland. the next generation. nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
multicellular (mul tih SEL yoo Icr) nectar phosphate (nik uh TEE nuh myd
many-celled; composed of dozcns to a secretion, mainly a sugar solution, AD uh neen DY NOO klec oh tyd
billions of cells. produced by small glands in thc petals FOS fayt)
of many flowers. NADP+, a hydrogen-carrier molecule
multiple alleles (uh LEELZ) that forms NADPH in thc light-
three or more different alleles for thc nepbron (NEF rahn) dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
same genetic trait. An individual usually a working unit of a kidney in
can have only two of these alleles one vertebrates; a long, coiled tubule nitrifying bacteria (NY trih fy ing)
on each chromosome of a pair. surroundcd by blood capillaries. Each bacteria that use ammonium ions to
kidney has about a million ncphrons. produce nitrite and nitrate ions.
muscle tone
a state of partial muscle contraction, or nerve nitrogen-fixing bacteria
readiness, in healthy organisms. a bundle of ncrvc fibers. The cell bodies bacteria that take free nitrogcn from thc
from which the fibers extend usually are air and use it to produce ammonia;
mutaiion (myoo TAY shun) subsequent reactions by othcr bacteria
a chemical change in a gene, resulting in located together at one end of the fibers.
produce ammonium ions and nitrates,
,:: new allele; or, a change in the portion nerve fiber from which plants can obtain their
of a chromosome that regulates the an extension from the cell body of a nitrogen.
gene. In either case thc change is neuron, ranging from less than one
hereditary. millimeter to almost one meter in notiule (NOD yool)
length, that transmits nerve impulses. a rounded growth of tissue that usually
mutualistic (myoo choo uh LIS tik) contains microorganisms or some other
mutually beneficial in a close biological nerve impulse agent associated with the growth. In
association, as between the algae and a wave of chemical and electrical certain plants, nitrogen-fixing bacteria
the fungi that make up lichens. changes that passes along a ncrvc fiber live in nodules on the plant roots.
mycelium (my SEE lee um) in response to a stimulus.
nondisjunction
an irregular mass of fungal hyphac. net primary productivity a failure in chromosome separation
mycologist (my KOL oh jist) the amount of food energy available to during mciosis, putting an extra
a biologist who specializes in the study consumers from the total produced by chromosome in one gamete and omitting
of fungi. photosynthesis. it from a second.

mycorrbiza (my koh RY zuh) neuron (NY00 rahn) notochord (NOH toh kord)
a mutualistic association between fungal a nerve cell; a name usually reserved for in chordates, a flexible, dorsal, rodlike
hyphac and a seed plant's roots.
nerve cells in animals that have a structure that extends the length of the
complex brain and specialized body; in vertebrates it is replaced in
associative, sensory, and motor nerves. later stages of development by the
vertebrae, which make up the backbone.

'i
1108
i i ., If
%, si - '-r ) ; ;
 Glossary
1007

nuclear envelope organelle (or guh NEL) pancreatic juice (pan kree AT ik)
the membrane enc'rosing a cell nucleus. an organized structure within a cell, secretions from the pancreas to the
nuclear Wilder
with a specific function; a chloroplast small intestine, delivered through a duct;
and a mitochondrion are examples. the secretions contain enzymes that act
the prediction by some scientists of the
biological conditions that would follow on polypeptides, polysaccharides, and
organic compared (or GAN ik)
nuclear warsunless cold, violent a compound characteristically fats.
windstorms, toxic smog, persistent containing a multiple number of carbon parasite (PAIR uh syt)
radioactivity, and extinction of atoms per molecule; the number may an organism that lives and feeds on
populations of many species. vary from two to thousands. another, host organism.
nucleic add (noo KLEE ik) organism (OR guh niz um) parasitism (PAIR uh sih tiz um)
DNA or RNA; an organic compound a living thing. an ecological niche in which one
comprised of nucleotides and important
organ system organism is the habitat and the food for
in coding instructions for cell processes.
an organized, connected group of organs another, which lives and feeds on the
nucleotide (NOO klee oh tyd) and tissues that carry on a "whole host organism (usually without killing
a subunit or building block of DNA or body" function. For example, the brain,
it).
RNA; it is chemically constructed of a spinal cord, nerves, and the sensory parthenogenesis
5-carbon sugar, a nitrogen base, and a organs and receptors make up the (par thuh noh JEN eh sis)
phosphate group. nervous system. reproduction by development of an
widens (NOO klee us) osmosis (os MOH sis) unfertilized egg.
a membrane-bounded organelle in a movement of water through a pasteurized (PAS tyoor ized)
eukaryote all that containt the DNA differentially permeable membrane. treated by heating in a specified method
and controls the cell's activities; also the to kill unwanted microorganisms.
central body of an atom, composed of ovary
protons and neutrons. an organ in which eggs or egg nuclei arc pathogen (PATH oh jen)
produced. a disease-producing organism.
nutrition
the ways in which an organism obtains, oviduct (OH vih dukt) patholofy (path OL uh jee)
processes, and uses nutrients. in vertebrates, a tube through which the study of climates and the changes
eggs pass after their release from an they produce in organisms.
ovary. The tube leads to the uterus in
0 mammals, or to an enlarged duct pelvis
opening outside the body of egg-laying in vertebrates, the basin-shaped
observation
vertebrates. structure formed by the bones of the hip
an item of knowledge obtained
girdle growing together.
experimentally or by use of one or more ovulation (ohv yoo LAY shun)
of the senses in the natural in vertebrates, the release of one or pads
environmental situation. more eggs from an ovary. in vertebrates, the male organ through
which sperm are passed to the female,
omnivore (OM nih vor) ovule (OHV yool) and through which nitrogenous wastes
a consumer organism that feeds partly a female spore- and egg-producing from the kidneysin the form of
as a herbivore and partly as a carnivore; structure in the ovary of a pistil, within urineare discharged outside the body.
it eats both plants and animals, and a flower.
often fungi as well. perennial (peh REN ee ul)
ovum (OH vum) a herbaceous plant that lives from year
open population a female gamete, or egg cell. to year, becoming dormant after one
a population that gains members by
growing season ("dying back to the
immigration or loses them by
ground") and sending up new shoots the
emigration, or both. next growing season.
optimum paleoecology
(pay lee oh ce KOL uh jee) peristalsis (per ih STAWL sis)
best; most favorable to an individual or
the study of organisms of the past, their wavelike contractions of smooth muscle
a population.
interactions, and their environments that move the contents of a tubelike part
oral cavity from fossil evidence. or organ in the direction of the wavelike
in vertebrates, the entrance chamber to motion.
the digestive tract; the cavity inside the paleoecosystem
(pay lee oh EE koh sis tum) permafrost
mouth.
an ecosystem of the earth's past, frozen sublayers of soil that remain
order reconstructed from fossil evidence in frozen through the summer thaw in the
in biological classification, the next- rock strata. tundra of northern latitudes.
larger grouping above family.
paleontologist (pay lee un TOL uh jist) permeable (PER mee uh bul)
*Ku a biologist who specializes in the study penetrable by molecules below a certain
size.
a body structure of different tissues that of life in the past, as represented by
work together in a major function. fossils.
Examples are the heart, the stomach, a
plant leaf, and a flower.

1109
1008 Glossary

petal evidence of chromosomc changes, or plasmid (PLAZ mid)

one of the leaflike, often brightly biochemical comparisons of living in prokaryotes, a circular strand of
colored, structures within the ring of descendants of different past species. DNA that has become separate from
green sepals in a developing flower. In the overall strand or chromosome.
the mature flower the petals may form *Min (FY lum)
`:air own ring, or fuse to form a cuplike in biological classification, the next- plasmodium (plaz MOHD cc um)
or tubular structure. larger grouping abory class. (However, the malarial parasite; also, the motile,
for plants the term use at this level is shectlike stage of life formed by fusion
petiole (PET cc ohl) division, not phylum.) of many amoebalike slime molds.
the slender structure at the base of a
leaf that attaches the leaf to a plant pbytochrome (FYT oh krohm) platelet (PLAYT let)
stem. a plant pigment involved in a small plate-shaped blood factor that
photoperiodism. Its responses to light contributes to blood clotting at the site
petrified (PEH trih fyd) and darkness affect the activit1e.; of the of a wound. The platelet releases
mineralized and hardened, as in parts of plant. substances that begin formation of a
organisms replaced by minerals in network in which it and other platelets
fossils. phytoplankton (FYT oh PLANK tun) are caught, forming a clot.
very small aquatic organisms, many
PGAL microscopic, that carry on plate tectonics (PLAYT tck TON iks)
see phosphoglyceraldehyde. photosynthesis. the theory and study of the great plates
in the earth's crust and their
phenotype (FEE noh typ) pistil (PIS til) movements, which produce earthquakes,
the obscrv. .,te traits produced in an a female reproductive structure in a sea-floor spreading, continental drift,
individual, as distinguished from the flower.. The enlarged base of the pistil and often mountain building.
alleles that determined it. encloses an ovary.
polar books
phloem (FLOH cm) pith tiny cells formed during meiosis
conducting tissue that transports sap or cells at the center of young stems of development of an egg cell or ovum. A
dissolved sugars in a vascular plant. many pla Is. In some plants the pith polar body contains one of the nuclei
disappears as the stems age. derived from the first or second division
phosphoglyceraldehyde
(fos foh glis uh RAL doh hyd) pituitary gland (pih TY00 ih ter cc) of meo-sis, but almost no cell cytoplasm,
PGAL, a 3-carbon sugar phosphate an endocrine gland at the base of the most of which goes to the one cell that
formed in the Calvin cycle of brain that, along with the becomes the ovum.
photosynthesis. hypothalamus, regulates and coordinates pollen grain
the work of other endocrine glands; it a haploid spore produced by a flowering
photopirlodism also produces hormones with specific
(foh toh PIH ice ud iz um) plant; it gives rise to sperm nuclei.
effects on body tissues.
the responses of plants to seasonal pollen tube
differences in length of daylight, light placenta (pluh SENT uh) a tube that develops from a germinating
intensity, and shorter or longer periods in a pregnant mammal, a structure pollen grain and penetrates the pistil
of darkness. Different species show formed from uterine and embryonic vita it reaches the ovary; sperm nuclei
differences in their most favorable tissue. The developing embryo obtains pass through the tube.
periods for flowering, fruiting, and so on. nourishment from its mother and
disposes of wastes through the placenta. pollination
photosyntbetis (foh toh SIN thuh sis) the transfer of pollen from a stamen to
the process by which organisms that plankton (PLANK tun) the tip of a pistil in a flower, or between
contain chlorophyll convert light energy very small aquatic organisms, many different flowers on one or more plants
to chemical energy to synthesize sugars microscopic, that usually float or feebly of the same species.
and other organic molecules. swim near the surface.
polypeptide (POL cc PEP tyd)
phototropism (foh toh TROH piz um) plantae (PLAN tee) a long chain of amino acids; the basic
the response of a plant to a source of the kingdom of plants. structure found in a protein molecule,
light. Usually the plant grows toward which usually contains two or more such
the light source, but a shade-tolerant plant physiology (fiz cc OL uh jec)
study of the internal functioning, as chains.
plant might not if the light intensity is
too great.
contrasted to the anatomy, of plants. polysaccharide (POL cc SAK uh ryd)
plasma (PLAZ muh) a biological molecule made of many
pH soak (PEE AYTCH) simple sugars (monosaccharides)
a scale from 0 to 14 reflecting the the liquid portion of the blood, 'n which
Wood cells, plasma proteins, and other chemically bor. 'ed in a chain; starch,
concentration of 1.ydrogen ions. The glycc..en, and cellulose arc examples.
lower numbers denote acidic conditions, substances are suspended and still other
7 is neutral, and the upper numbers substances are dissolved.
population
denote basic or alkaline conditions. plasma membrane a group of organisms of one St 4-,7 es that
the membrane that encloses a cell; it is live in the same place or ecosystem at
phylogenetic (fy loh jcn NET ik) the same time.
based on evolutionary relationships as
made of two layers of lipid molecules,
studied in the body form and structure with protein molecules on, and
of fossils and living species, or genetic embedded in, the lipid layers.

0
 Glossary 1009

population biologist prokaryote (pro KAIR ee oht) pyramid of biomass (BY oh mass)
a biologist who specializes in the an organism whose cells do not have a graphic representation of producers
characteristics and activities of membrane-bounded nucIai or and consumers, in their mass, as a
populations, such as their geographic membrane-bounded organelles such as pyramid: at the bottom, with greater
range, migration, breeding habits, food mitochondria and chloroplasts; a total mass, are the producers, with
cycles, diseases, climatic adaptations, moneran (bacteria). herbivores (of less total mass) above
and so on. them, and carnivores (of still less total
prophase (PROH fayz)
population cycle mass) above the herbivores.
the stage in mitosis during which
fluctuation in population numbers, replicated strands of chromosomes pyramid of numbers
measured from one peak or trough on a condense to become shorter and thicker, a graphic representation of producers
graph to the next. the nuclear envelope begins to disappear, and consumers, in their total numbers,
and a spindle forms. as levels of a pyramid: at the bottom,
posterior (pah STIR ee er)
situated toward the rear, or coming last; protein (PROH teen) with greater total number, are the
a tail end, in most animals. a biological molecule composed of one producers, with herbivores (of smaller
or moreusually two or morechains total number) above them, and
predation (preh DAY shun) carnivores (of still smaller total number)
of amino acids.
the killing of consumer organisms for above the herbivores.
food, by other consumer organisms. prothrombin (proh THROM bin)
predator (PRED uh tor) a blond protein that is converted by an
activator substance to thrombin r
a consumer organism that feeds on other
wt,mever a bleeding tissue wound radial symmetry (RAYD ee ul
consumer organisms that it kills for its
food. occors; the thrombin acts as an enzyme SIM eh tree)
to cocvert fibrinogen to a network of correspondence in size, shape, and
pressure-flow fibrin on-c4hieh a blood clot forms. position of parts as though they all
the hypothesis that the rate of flow of radiated equally from a center point, or
dissolved plant food through the living protista (proh TIST uh)
a kingdom of eukaryotes that are mostly from a center line or axis.
tissue of phloem cells is accounted for
by pressure differences; dissolved sugars aquatic, mostly microscopic, either radioactive (rayd ee oh AK tiv)
flow from an area of higher pressure to autotrophs or heterotrophs, with or emitting nuclear radiation, as in certain
one of lower pressure. without a method of locomotion, and heavier elements and particular isotopes
varied in still other respects. of some of the lighter elements.
prey (PRAY)
a consumer organism that is a food proton (PROH tahn) random genetic drift
organism for another consumer. a positively charged particle within the change in a population's gene pool ty
nucleus of an atom. chance, as in the loss of an allele with
primary growth low frequency because no fertilizations
growth in length of plant roots and protoplast fusion
(PROH toh plast FY00 zhun) of gametes bearing this allele happen to
stems, occur, or as in the increase of frequency
production of a hybrid plant fcnm cells
primary succession of two different species by chemically of nonadaptive alleles that happen to be
a succession of communities beginning removing the cell walls of the "parent" linked to adaptive ones.
in an undisturbed rock or bare soil area cells and inducing the naked cells range
and proceeding without major (protoplasts) to fuse. all the habitats of a given species, or all
interruption. the area in which a given population
pseudopod (S00 doh pod)
prion (PREE ahn) an extension of an amoebalike cell that may sometimes be found; also, the span
a protein particle believed to be the is used for both movement and feeding. of temperatures, or the variations in
disease agent in certain animal diseases. The cell may continue to flow into the other factors, tolerable to a populatior..
How the particle is multiplied is not pseudopod, or two pseudopods may rate
known; no nucleic acids have so far been surround food particles and pull them change per unit of time; the amount of
found associated with it. into the cell. change measured over a period of time,
probability psychoactive (sy koh AK tiv) divided by the length of time.
the investigation and expression of affecting mental functions or behavior. ray cells
uncertain events in mathematical ratios, thin-walled cells that form horizontal
which are used for prediction. punctuated equilibrium
a hypothesis suggested by long periods rays in larger stems of plants.
producer in the fossil record in which there is receptor
an organism that makes it own food WIG change, followed by shorter periods a specialized sensory cell, as in the eye
using materials and energy from the of i apid change. According to the or the skin, that is sensitive to a
nonliving environment. hypothesis, new species arise as a result particular type of stimulus.
of major genetic changes that occur in
progesterone (proh JES teh rohn) small, isolated populations in relatively recessive
a hormone active in the reproductive short periods of time ( thousands of exerting little or no influence on the
cycles of female mammals, promoting years). These changes are separated by determination of a trait, in the presence
build-up of the inner tissues of the long periods (hundreds of thousands or of an unlike allele.
uterus and maintenance of these tissues millions of years), during which very
in the built-up condition. little change occurs.
1010 Glossary

recombinant DNA ribosome (RY boh sohm) secondary succession

DNA to which a new gene has been a cell organelle on which the a succession of communities in an area
spliced in the laboratory. polypeptides of proteins are synthesized; where a previous succession was
Microorganisms have been given new messenger RNA carries the code for the interrupted or destroyo
genetic capabilities by this process. synthesis from a chromosome to the
ribosome. seed
recombination an embryo plant, along with food-
exchange of parts of two homologous RNA storage tissue (endosperm), both
chromosomes, resulting in new linkages see ribonucleic acid. enclosed within protective coatings
of alleles for both chromosomes. formed of tissues from an ovule in the
root cap parent plant.
relative humidity a layer of protective cells that covers the
the moisture content of the air, growing tip of a plant root. seed coat
expressed as a percentage of the a protective covering around the
maximum amount of moisture the air root hair embryonic plant and stored food in a
could hold at that temperature. a thin-walled extension into the soil
seed.
from a single epidermal cell on a plant
replication (rep lih KAY shun) root, greatly increasing the cell surface selective breeding
the process of making a copy of the and promoting absorption of water and sexual breeding in plants and animals
chromosome in a cell nucleus, and of minerals. that is restricted to individuals having
other genes in certain organelles outside particular characteristics in appearance,
the nucleusparticularly chloroplasts rumen (ROO men) food production, tolerance of a specific
and mitochondria. The process is unlike an enlargement of the digestive tract of climate, or disease resistance.
duplication in that each gene and each many herbivorous mammals, in which
chromosome in the double set is partly microorganisms that can digest cellulose semen (SEE men)
new but also includes part of the old live. in mammals, a whitish fluid produced by
gene or chromosome, as a result of the male glands, and in which sperm are
way the process occurs. transported to the female during sexual
S intercourse.
resistance salination (sayl ih NAY shun)
relative immunity; the ability of a host sense:), neuron (NYOO rahn)
salt and mineral buildup in a body of a neuron that receives impulses from a
organism to destroy a pathinen or water, as evaporation occurs.
prevent the disease symptoms it causes. sensory organ or receptor and transmits
salinity /say LIN it ee) these impulses toward the central
resource salt content, as in seawater. nervous system.
in ecology, an environmental supply of
one or more of an organism's nutritional sampling sepal (SEEP ul)
or other requirements (light energy, food determination of characteristics of a one of the leaflike structures that
energy, water, oxygen or carbon dioxide, population from a portion of the enclose and protect a flower bud; in the
living space, protective cover, and so on). population selected as representative. mature flower they are on the underside,
In human society, a resource may have a next to the stem. They often are green.
saturated fat
broader definitionanything useful. a fat containing fatty acids with no sessik (SES il)
respiration (res phi RAY shun) double-bonded carbon atoms; the single- not free to move about in the
the overall process of exchanging gases bonded carbon chains have other single environment. Sessile animals usually are
with the environment, to obtain oxygen bonds to hydrogen atoms at every attached by the base to an object in the
and release carbon dioxide. carbon position. Saturated fats usually environment.
are solids at room temperature. sex chromosomes
rhizoid (RY zoyd)
threadlike structure that in nonvascular savanna (suh VAN uh) the chromosomes that are associated
plants absorbs water and minerals from a dry tropical or subtropical grassland with sex determination; in particular,
the soil and helps hold the plants in with tall grasses and few trees, typical of the X and Y chromosomes of animals.
place. large areas in South America and sexual reproduction
Africa and of smaller areas in Florida. reproduction that involves male and
rhizome (RY zohm)
an underground vascular stem, usually scapula (SKAP yoo luh) female gametes, usually produced by
horizontal and enlarged with stored a shoulder blade in a vertebrate. different parents. The central event is
food; it produces shoots above and roots fertilization of an egg or egg nucleus by
scavenger (SKAV en jer) a sperm or sperm nucleus.
below. The oldest vascular plant fossils
a consumer organism that feeds on the
show rhizomes. small intestine
dead carcasses of other consumer
ribonucleic acid (ry beh coo KLEE ik) organisms that it did not kill. a digestive organ of vertebrates and
RNA; the biological molecules that some invertebrates; in vertebrates it is
scrotum located between the stomach and the
carry instructions for the majority of in male mammals, an outgrowth from
cell processes. DNA codes RNA with large intestine and is the organ in which
the lower abdominal wall, forming a the digestive processes are completed.
the instructions. pouch into which the testes descend.
ribose (RY bohs) smooth muscle
secondary growth muscle tissue in many invertebrates, and
a sugar used in the structure of RNA; it growth in girth or diameter of plant
has one more oxygen atom than of the walls of inner organs except the
roots and stems. ; heart in vertebrates.
deoxyribose.

1112
 Glossary 1011

social behavior stamen (STAY men) succulent (SUK yoo lent)

animal behavior that shows evidence of a male reproductive structure in a a plant with large amounts of stored
differing individual roles in the flower. Its enlarged end, the anther, is a water in fleshy or juicy tissues; or, the
organization ora group, and of mass of specialized pollen-producing plant characteristic of having fleshy or
cooperation or division of labor in tasks. cells. juicy tissues that store water.
sociobiologist (SO see oh by OL uh jist) sterile (STEHR il) synapse (SIN aps)
a biologist who specializes in the study not capable of reproducing. an open junction between neurons,
of animal societies and the genetic and across which an impulse is transmitted
evolutionary influences on them. sternum (STER num)
the breastbone in a vertebrate. by a chemical messenger, a
solute (SOL yoot) neurotransmitter.
a dissolvable substance, usually in water stigma
the tip of a pistil in a flower. It secretes synthesis (SIN thuh sis)
or the cytosol of a cell. the process of putting together or
a sticky substance that traps pollen.
solvent building up ideas, chemical compounds,
a substance, usually liquid, in which stimulus (STIM yoo lus) and so on.
other substances can be dissolved. a change or signal in the internal or
external environment that causes an
speciation (spee shee AY shun) adjustment or reaction by an organism.
t
emergence of species by natural taiga (TY guh)
selection and by reproductive isolation stomach
an organ of the digestive tract that has northern coniferous forests mainly of
from pre-existing species. spruces and firs, bordering the tundra.
specialized functions in digestionin
species (SPEE sheez) humans, the churning of food by taproot system
all individuals and populations of a peristalsis and the fragmenting of a root system consisting of one long,
particular kind of organism, maintained _proteins into shorter segments of their vertical root with short, slender side
by biological mechanisms that result in polypeptides. branches.
their breeding only with their kind.
stomate (STOH mayt) taxonomy (tak SAHN uh mee)
specimen an opening between two guard cells in the classification of fossil and living
a sample, or some part or all of an the epidermis of a plant leaf. Gases are organisms according to knowledge of
organism as the specified example. exchanged with the air through their evolutionary relationships.
sperm cell stomates.
T cell lymphocyte (LIM foh syt)
a male gamete, usually motile in stratum (STRAYT um) one of a team of lymphocytes that
swimming movements. Its motility a layer, usually of deposited earth include cytotoxic or "killer" T cells,
increases its chance of encountering and sediments from erosion. Many strata helper T cells that activate B and T
fertilizing an egg. become mineralized and transformed cells, memory T cells that are specific
sphincter (SFINK ter) into rock layers. for a particular antigen, and suppressor
a circular muscle whose contraction or striated muscle (STRY ayt ed) T cells that help terminate B and T cell
relaxation closes or opens a tubelike activity.
muscle tissue that is banded by cross
passage in an animal. striations where thick and thin filaments telophr .e (TEL oh fayz)
overlap; in particular, skeletal and the final stage in mitosis: two new cell
sporangium (spoh RAN jee um)
in many organisms (but not animals), a certain other muscle in vertebrates. nuclei are completed as nuclear
spore-producing structure formed in one stroma (STROH muh) envelopes form around the two clusters
stage of the life cycle. the pale, semi-liquid substance in a or chromosomes at opposite ends of the
chloroplast in which the chlo..,phyll- cell, and the cell itself divides.
spore (SPOR)
a one-celled reproductive body, usually containing thylakoids and grana occur. tendril
thick-walled and able to resist harsh The enzymes of the Calvin cycle are a modified stem or leaf that grows as a
also in the stroma. whiplike structure; it helps support a
environmental conditions (during which
it is dormant). Soma organisms form subspecies plant by growing around any nearby
asexual spores, others sexual spores that a variety of organisms distinguished upright object.
mess unite to complete reproduction, from other varieties of the same species. testis (plural, testes)
still others zygospores after the union of Often an incomplete tendency toward in animals, a male gonad in which
sexual nuclei. reproductive isolation is a factor in sperm are produced.
sporophyte (SPOR oh fyt) designating and naming a subspecies.
theory
a plant of the spore-producing substrate (SUB strayt) in nonscientific usage, a suggested
generation in a plant species that a molecule on which an enzyme acts. explanation or conjecture; but in sciences
undergoes alternation of generations. In a well-tested'hypothesis that organizes
some speciesmosses, for examplethe succession
replacement of one community by knowledge in a field, fits existing data,
sporophyte is reduced to a dependent explains how events or processes are
structure that grows from the another in a progression to a climax
community. thought to occur, and successfully
gammophyte plant.
predicts future discoveries and events.
1012 Glossary

thermal pollution trade-off urea

pollution by heat, as in a lake whose a "no win" dilemma; an action that a nitrogen-containing waste product of
water is used for an industrial cooling produces both a benefit and a loss. For animal metabolism; the principal
process, then recir:ulated into the lake. example, drainage of marshlands adds nitrogenous waste product of adult
to croplands (the benefit) but eliminates amphibians and of mammals.
thermocline (THER moh klyn) migratory birds and other habitats (the
a layer in a thermally stratified body of ureter (YOOR et er)
loss).
water that separates upper, oxygen-rich a tube that transports urine from a
and nutrient-poor warm water from transpiration (trans pih RAY shun) kidney to the bladder.
lower, oxygen-poor and nutrient-rich the loss of water to the atmosphere by a
urethra (yoo REE thruh)
cold water. plant, through the stomates in its leaves.
a tube that transports urine from the
thrombin (THROM bin) tripeptide (TRY pep tyd) urinary bladder to outside the body.
a blood protein that is important in the three amino acid molecules bonded in a
uric acid (YOOR ik)
clotting process. short chain; the tripeptide may be the
a nitrogen-containing waste product of
start of a chain for a protein or a
thrombus animal metabolism; the principal
product of digestion of a protein or
a blood clot that forms in a blood vessel nitrogenous waste product of insects,
polypeptide.
and remains attached where it formed. reptiles, and birds.
tropism (TROH piz um)
thylakoid (THY luh koyd) uterus
a change in orientation of a plant, or
a flattened sac in a chloroplast. Many of the mammalian organ in which liveborn
part of a plant, in response to light,
the thylakoids are arranged in stacks young develop.
gravity, or other environmental factors.
known as grana. The pigments and
enzymes`for the light-dependent tundra (TUN druh)
arctic land with permanently frozen V
reactions of photosynthesis are
embedded in the sac membrane. subsoil and only low-growing plants. vacuole (VAK yoo ohl)
Only the soil surface thaws in summer. a membrane-enclosed, usually fluid-filled
thyroxin (thy ROK sin) cell organelle. In plant cells it stores
a hormone that regulates the rate of cell turgor pressure (TER ger)
nutrients and waste materials; in animal
metabolism; it is produced in the thyroid pressure exerted by plant cells against
cells it often functions in digestion.
gland. their cell walls whenever the plant is
adequately supplied with water. vagina
tissue in mammals, the muscular passageway
a sheet or group of organized cells of the that connects the uterus to the outside
same type that perform the same U of the body, and in which sperm are
function. Skin tissue covers and protects; deposited during sexual intercourse.
umbilical cord (um BIL ih kul)
muscle tissue contracts; vascular tissue
a tube that connects a mammalian
conducts fluids; mesophyll tissue in a variable (VAIR ee uh bul)
embryo with the placenta in the
leaf carries on p1" tosynthesis; and so on. a condition that varies from one
mother's uterus. The tube is formed
organism to another (size, shape, color)
tissue culture from embryonic membranes and
or is subject to change for an individual
the controlled production of a body encloses blood vessels.
organism (humidity, temperature, light
tissue outside the organism; also, in intensity, fatigue).
undernourished
plants, the production of a tissue or
undersupplied with food or food energy.
callus that is treated with hormones to vascular (VAS kyoo ler)
induce growth into a complete plant. unicellular (yoo nih SEL yoo ler) specialized in conducting fluids through
one-celled. a channel or vessel. Phloem and xylem
tolerance in plants, and arteries and veins in
the ability to withstand or survive a unsaturated fat animals, are vascular tissues.
particular environmental condition. a fat containing fatty acids with one or
more double-bonded carbon atoms; each vas deferens (VAS DEF eh renz)
torpor in male mammals, a duct through which
a state of decreased body metabolism
double bond in the carbon chains
reduces by one the number of hydrogen sperm, protected in semen added by
and activity, usually as an adaptation to
atoms that can be bonded to the glands, pass from the epididymis into
an environmental condition such as heat.
carbons. Unsaturated fats usually are the urethra and penis.
toxin (TOK sin) liquid at room temperature.
vector (VEK tor)
a substance produced by one organism
urban biome in disease transmission, an organism
and poisonous to another.
the largely artificial community of that carries a pathogen from an infected
trachea (TRAY kee uh) humar.s, other animals, plants, and to an uninfected individual. Mosquitoes
the windpipe of an air-breathing microorganisms in and surrounding a are the vectors of malaria in humans.
vertebrate, connecting the air passage in city.
vegetative reproduction
the throat with the lungs; in insects, a asexual reproduction by plants that also
tube in the tracheal system, similarly may reproduce sexually. Examples are
used in obtaining oxygen from air. reproduction of potato plants from
potato "eyes" and reproduction of grass
plants from runners.

1114
Glossary 1013

vein villus (VIL us) xylem (ZY lem)

in many animals, a blood vessel that a fingerlike projection of cells from the conducting tissue that transports water
carries blood to the heart, or toward the chorion of a mammalian embryo into with dissolved minerals in vascular
heart; in plants, a fluid-transmitting the wall of its mother's uterus; also, a plants.
bundle of xylem and phloem tissues in a microscopic bulge of the intestinal wall
leaf. into the cavity of the intestine,
facilitating food absorption. y
ventral (VEN trul)
in animals, situated toward the lower or viroid (VY roid) yolk sac
belly side. a naked particle of RNA similar to the one of four embryonic membranes of
RNA of many plant-infecting viruses, vertebrate embryos. It encloses stored
ventricle (VEN trih kul) and capable of causing certain plant food (yolk).
a pumping chamber of the heart; it diseases.
receives blood from an atrium and
pumps the blood into a large artery. virulence (VIR uh lents)
z
the relative ability of a pathogen to zoologist (zoh OL uh jist)
vertebra (VER teh bruh) overcome body defenses and cause
an articulated bone; the vertebrae make a biologist who specializes in the study
disease. of animals.
up the backbone, or spinal column, of
vertebrates. zooplankton (ZOH oh PLANK tun)
X
vesicle (VES ih kul) very small, feebly swimming aquatic
a membrane-enclosed "package" of cell x-linked trait organisms that are herbivorous or
supplies or cell products. Materials a trait determined by alleles that are carnivorous or both.
frequently make their way from one carried by X chromosomes but are zygospore (ZY goh spor)
compartment of the cytoplasm to absent from Y chromosomes. Recessiv; a zygote that forms a spore. This type of
another in vesicles. X-linked traits can be produced in males spore is produced in some fungi and
(XY) by a single recessive allele. many plants following the union of
sexual cells or nuclei.
zygote (ZY goht)
a fertilized egg, the first cell of a new
individual.

11
 Index

A Agc pyramids. 933 diversity in, 489-507 A.sthma. 373

Agglutinate. 586 environment, 482-83. 520-23 Astrangia, 492
Aardvark. 762 Agnatha, 989 cvolution of, 490 Astrohippus, 765, 766
Abiotic environment. 38. 41, 46. Agricultural revolution, 895-98 life of, 481-89 Athcroscicrosis, 557, 558
64-66. 76 Agriculturc, 909-13. 916-18 life functions of. 508-26 Atomic testing. 737
ABO blood group. 586 AIDS. See Acquired immune and scxual reproduction, 188 Atoms, 17. 95-97
Abortion. 215 deficiency syndrome (AIDS) structure of, 484-89 ATP. See Adenosine triphosphatc
Abscisic acid, 697. 701 Ailanthus glandulosa. 902 Annclida, 337. 495-99 (ATP)
Absorption, 539-40. 540. 660-64 Air. 37. 590-91 Annclids, 490.495 -99, 518 Atrial natriurctic factor (ANF). 627
Absorption spectrum. 681 Alanine. 114 Annual rings. 672 Atrium, 573
Acetabularia, 413 Alaska brown bcar. 314 Annuals, 472. 473 Auk, 87
Acctyl CoA. 548-49, 551 Albatross, 502 Anoplura, 986 Aurelia aurita, 716. 717
Acidianus infernus, 362 Al-ahol, 637. 638. 640 A norcxia. 565. 566 Australopithccincs, 784-86
Acidic. 98. 99 Aldostct one. 627 Ant, 499 Australopithecus afarensis. 790. 792
Acid rain, 76-77, 843-44. 884-87. Alc, 638.640 Antcrior. 482 Australopithecus africanus, 784, 790.
936 Algae. 336. 340. 410-17. 437-39. Anthcrs. 176. 446 792
Acids. 98. 99 440. 972. 973 Anthis pratensis, 735 Australopithecus- robustus, 790
abscisic. 697. 701 Alimcntary canal. 537 A nthoccrotac. 975 Autoimmunc disease". 585-87
amino. See Amino acids Alismataccae. 979 A nthophyta. 440 Automobilcs, 374
ascorbic. 554 Alkaline. 98 Anthopleura xanthogrammica. 492 Autonomic =vow: system, 619-20.
citric, 544, 547, 548 - 49.551, Allantois. 206 Anthozoa, 981 635
552. 689 Andes. 230, 236. 721 Anthrophyta. 336 Autosomcs, 241
folic. 554 Alligators. 85. 344 Anthropods, 337 Autotrophic cells. 351
gibbcrcllic. 697. 699. 700 Aloe two, 443 Anthropologists. 785, 786 Autotrophic protists. 410-17
hydrochloric. 362 Alpine mcadow. 802 Anthus trivialis. 735 Autotrophs, 335
lysergic dicthylamide. See Alpine regions. 838 Antibiotics, 51, 376. 426 Autumn, 815
Lysergic acid dicthylamidc Alpine tundra. 839 Antibodies, 379 Auxins. 697. 698-99. 708-9
(LSD) Alternate host, 376 monoclonal, 583 Avcs. 991
nucicic. See Nucicic acids Alternation of generations, 444-45 Rh, 586
pantothcnic. 554 Altruistic behavior, 925 Antidiuretic hormonc (ADM. 627
pyruvic. 547 Aluminum. 869 Antigens. 581 B
uric, 516 Alveoli. 591. 592 Anus, 538. 541
Acorn worms. 873, 989 Alvin. 874 Apex, 667-68 Baby. 925
Acquired immunc dcficicncy Amanita. 424 Apicomplcxa, 336. 403 prcmaturc and newborn, 213
syndrome (AIDS). 375, 384. Amanita musceria, 426 Appendages, 483 Bacteria. 166. 250. 251. 335. 336.
385. 386-87. 583. 585 Antaryllidaccae. 980 Appendix, 538 358. 359. 361-62, 483
ACTH. See Adrcnocorticotropic Amnon basin rain forest, 820 Applcs, 910 anacrobic ph tosynthclic. 367
hormone (ACTH) Amcrican Heni Association. 613 Aquatic community, 66-68 chcmoautotrophis. 367.71
Action spectrum. 681. 682 Amcrican Sign Languagc. 633 Aquatic ccosystcms. 853-91 control of. 377-78
Active site. 115 American silkworm. 500 and energy flow. 866-68 denitrifying. 371
Activc transport. 145 Amino adds, 114. 564 and humans, 880-88 nitrifying, 370
Adaptation. 269. 436. 520-23 Amita verna, 331 Aquatic organisms. and salinity. nitrogcmfixing, 369, 370
in animals. 489-507. 523-26 Ammonitc, 266 878-80 soil, 367-71
diversity. and evolution. 267-80 Amnioccntcsis, 209. 212 Aqucducts, 900 Bactcriophagcs. 384
and land ;slants, 440-43 Amnion. 206 Arachnida. 985 Badgcr. 825
of leaves, roots, and stcms. Amoco Cadi:, 888 Arborcal animals, 822 Baltica. 772
658-60 Amocbd. 352. 395. 402. 483 Archacbactcria, 337. 361-62. 970 Barbiturates, 637. 638, 640
morphological. 672-74 Amoeba proteus. 340 Archaeohippus, 765. 766 Barghoorn. Elso S.. 345
Adaptive convergence, 763 Amphetamines. 639, 640 Archaeopteryx, 754 Bark. 654. 671. 672
Adaptive radiation. 762 Amphibia. 990 Arctic fox. 811 Ramada. 877
Adcninc, 121. 252. 253. 255 Amphibians. 204, 490. 501. 502. Argemone, 469 Barrcl spongc. 491
Adcnosinc diphosphatc (ADP), 106, 774-75 Argyropelecus hetnigymnus. 873 Barrier. to dispersal, 734-35
545. 549. 611. 686 Anabaena circinalis, 335 Armadillo. 762 BART. See Bay Arca Rapid Transit
Adcnosinc triphosphate (ATP). 106, Anaerobic. 362 Arrowworms. 989 (BART)
143. 395. 541-47. 549. 550. Anacrobic photosynthetic bacteria. Artcries, 572. 573 Base. 98. 99
553. 609-11. 686. 687. 367 Arthrobotrys dactyloides, 429 Basic. 98, 99
688 - 89.691 Anacrobic processes. 616 Arthropoda, 337, 490. 495-99 Basidia. 424
ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone Anaphasc, 154. 155. 177, 178 Arthropods, 495-99, 985 Basidiomycota, 336. 424
(ADH) Anaplocephala. 493 Artificial fcrtili7crs, 917 Bat. 316. 545. 762
Adobt., 898 Anas platyrhynchos. 339 Artificial intelligence, 636 Bay Arca Rapid Transit (BART). 916
ADP. See Adcnosinc diphosphatc Ancestry. rclatcd. 315 Artificial lakes, 880-81 13 MI. 581, 582. 583, 584
(ADP) Anchitherium. 765, 766 Artificial ponds, 880-81 Beaches. 931
Adrcnal cortex, 627 Ancmia, sicklcccII. 721 Artiodactyla. 994 &odic. G. W.. 249
Adrcnal glands. 625. 627 Anemones. 491. 492, 817. 877 Asbcstos, 373 Beagle. H.M.S., 273. 274. 278
Adrenal medulla, 627 ANF. See Atrial natriurctic factor Ascomycota, 336 422 Bcans. 564, 665
Adrcnocorticotropic hormonc (ANF) Ascorbic acid, 554 Bcar Crcck Naturc Ccntcr. 89
(ACTH). 627 Animalia. 321. 337. 339 Ascus, 423 Bcars, 314, 321. 733
Aevcntitious roots, 698 Animals, 481-528 Asexual rcproduction, 167. 169-70, Bccch, 769
Acrobic, 370 arborcal. 822 421. 427. 523 Bccr. 638. 640
Acrobic processes, 616 behavior, field study, 840-41 Aspergillus, 427 Bccs. 22. 23-25. 483, 632, 741, 894
Acrobic respiration. 692-93 brains of. 924 Associative neuron, 617. 618 Bcctics. 28, 499. 822
Africa. 55, 88 catalog of, 931-94 Assortment, independent, 236 Behavior
African sleeping sickness. 376. 377. and communication. 633 Aster. 707 altruistic. 925
400, 401 devclopmcnt. 204-14 Astcroidca, 988 animal. 523-26

1015
1116
1016 Index

and biology. 924-29 Blood groups. 288. 586 Canada geese, 30 structure, 13143
cat. 525 Fllucbirds, 70 Canada warbler, 503 T. 581. 582. 584, 585
and courtship. 521 Fllucgrasses, 330 Canccr, 51, 159. 216-18, 244, 374. trachcid. 656
and drugs. 637-41 Body cavity, 494 555. 583 vessel, 656
field study. 840-41 Body exchanges, 602 Canis famitiaris. 293. 895 walls, 137. 140.418
human Body fluids, 514-16 Canis latrans. 293 yeast, 43. 44, 693
and human brain. 631 Body plan Canis lupus. 895 Cell thcory. 129
innate, 525, 924-25 of coelenterate, 492 Cannabis. 639. 640 Ccllular metabolism, 551
!carnal. 925-26 of sponge, 491 Canopy, 816 allular respiration, 15, 105. 541-54.
and ncrvous system. 630-37 Body symmetry, 481-82 Capacity. carrying, 56 590
of Paramecium. 409-10 Bogs. 455. 813, 858 Capillarics, 572. 573. 597 Cellulose. 107. 112
social. 893. 894. 895. 924-25. Bolt, 700 Caprifoliaccac, 978 Ccnozoic, 758. 762
926-27 Bombus, 741 Carbohydrates, 107. 109, 111-12, Ccntral ncrvous system, 619
Bcnnics. 639. 640 Bonds. chemical, 97 563-64 Ccntriolcs, 136, 140
Bcnzadrinc, 639. 640 Boncs, and muscles, 611-13 Carbon, 18, 52. 96, 107 11.869 Ccntromcres, 154, 155. 173
Biccps. 611 613 Bony fish, 501 Carbon cycic, and ecosystem, 108-9 Ccphalochordata. 989
Bilateral symmetry. 481-32 Bornco rat patrol, 83 Carbon dioxide, 144 aphalopoda. 984
Bilc, 540 Boron. 52. 664 atmospheric, 928 Cerebellum, 619
Bilc duct. 538 Bocsiella, 415 movcmcr of, 645-48 Cerebral cortex, 619
Binomial nomcnclaturc. 329-30 Botanist, 129 and ozonc. 934 Cerebrum. human, 6:9
Biochcmical control, of plant growth. Botulism, 382 transport, 593, 594-95 Ccrvical vcrtcbrac. 612
697-709 Boundary, 75 Carbonifcrous, 457. 758, 772. 775-76 Cervix. 185
Biochcmical reactions. 117-19 Bovcri, Thcodor, 238. 239 Cardiac muscic. 610 Cestoda, 982
Biocidcs, 81. 82. 83 BovcriSutton theory, 238. 239 Cardiovascular discasc. 559-63 Cctacca, 993
Biocthics, 938-40 Bowman's capsule, 596. 597 Cardiovascular fitness, 613-15 Chaffinch, 525
Biological classification. 311-31 Brachiopods, 337. 761, 988 Caribou. 811 Chancc, 225-27
Biological docks. 634 Brackct fungus, 425 Carnation, 329 Chaparral, 832
Biological distance. 794-98 Brains. 500-504 Canivora, 320. 993 Chara. 441
Biological illustrator. 453 of animals, 924 Carnivorcs, 67. 79 Chargaff. E.. 252
Biologists. 5. 131-34 of Homo sapiens, 791-92 Carpals. 612 Chasc, Martha. 251
population. 745 and human behavior, 631-32 Carriers. 544 Chet:sc, 426
socio-. 925-26 and muscic coordination, 621 Carrot, 662 Chcctah, 295
Biology, human, and behavior. 924-29 primatc evolution, 779-82 Carrying capacity, 56 Chcliccratcs, 497, 985
Biology tcachcr, high school. 147 and temperature, 603-5 Cartilagc, 500 Chcmical bonds, 97
Biolumincsccnsc, 874 Bread, 421 Cartilaginous fish, 501 Chcmical cncrgy, 14
Biomass. 80. 865 Brcathing, 591, 592 Caailleja rhexifolia. 315 Chcmical rcactions. 97-98
Bionics. 802. 803-51 Breeding. selective, 708-9 Castilleja sulphurea. 315 Chcmical safety. 957-62
and climate. 803-10 Brominc. 869 Cat. 525. 778 Chcmical scnscs. 534-36
cool. wct. and mountain, 836-41 Brontosaurus. 30 Catalog. of living things. 969-94 Chcmoautmrophic bacteria, 367-71
and firc. 833-36 Broptotherium, 762 Catalysts, 98 Chcrnobyl nuclear plant, 935
and humans. 841-48 Brooks, 863-64 Cataracts, 937 Chick. development in, 198-204
major. 806-7 Brown algae. 414-16, 973 Catcrr '"ars. 7, 284. 480 Chickcn, 171
and prccipitation. S23-29. Browncycd susan. 468 Ccch, Thomas R., 346 Childbirth, 586
830-36 Brophyllum. 166 Cccropia moth, 500 Chilopoda. 985
and radiant cnergy. 810-23 Br) °phyla. 336. 440 Cell body. 617 Chimpanzees, 325. 633. 894
urban. 901-4 Bryophytcs, 454-55, 975 Cell cycic. 153. 154 China. 772
Biosphere. 3.5. 19-21 Bryozoans. 988 Cclls. 128-31 Chiroptcra. 991
continuity in. 125 Buckeye butterfly, 499 animal. 136-37 Chitin, 418
field study. 845-48 Buds, 533. 653 autotrophic. 351 Chlamydomenac, life cycic of, 414
ordcr in. 311-55 Buffalo, 762 B. 581, 582. 583. 584 Chlorella. 391
and procmtion. 918 Buffers, 98. 100-101 blood, 575-77 Chlorella pyrenoidow. 438
Biosynthesis 551. 552 Btrjo punctatus. 164 cancer, 159 Chloride. 97
Fliotcchnology. 937-38 Bulimarcxia. 565 and circulation, 578-79 Chlorinc, 18. 52. 97. 556. 664. 869
Biotic cnvironmcnt. 41 Bulimia. 565 companion, 656 Chlorophyll, 103. 681
Biotin. 554 Bumbic bcc, 741 continuity in, 127-63 Chlorophyta. 336. 412
Bird Bunting. indigo. 312 cork. 129 Chloroplasts. 137. 139. 393-410.
Birds. 7. 21. 70. 73-74. 125-26. 312. Burning. 105 and dcycl, pmcnt. 159 679-80
316. 469. 490. 501. 503. 509. Buteo lineatus. 503 diversity of. 130 Cholesterol. 113
525. 526. 634. 735. 812. 818. Buttcrcup. 446 division of, 152-57 Chondrichthycs, 989
931 Buttcrflics, 284. 480. 499 division in plants. 158 Chordata. 337. 490. 500-504
Birth. human. 211 Buttresscs, 820 cgg. 170. 171. 172 Chordatcs. 337. 500-504. 989
Birth control. 214-16 and enzymes, 115-17 Chorion, 206
Birth defects, 239-43 cukaryotic. 260. 333. 342. 396 Chorionic villi sampling (CVS), 212
Bison bison. 504 C flame. 515 Chromatids. 154. 173. 175. 177-79
Biston Malaria. 282. 283 and flowering plants, 656 Chromatium. 367
Bivalvia. 984 Cabbagc. 472. 700 functions. 143-50 Chromosomcs, 135. 154. 173-74.
Black Dcath, 728 Cactus. 673. 763 guard, 646, 648-49 175-77
Bladder. 182. 185 Caffeine. 635.640 hybridoma. 583 and genes, 238-48
Bladc, 645 Calatnites. 458 lift of. 405-10 scx, 239
Blastocyst, 206. 207 Calcifcrol. 554 mycloma, 583 Chrysophyta, 336.411
Blastula. 195 Calcitonin, 627 and nucleic acids, 119-20 Ciga rates. 639. 640
Blazing star. 47 Calcium, 18, 52, 556. 664. 869 observing. 142-43 Cilia. 403-4
Blight. 372. 373 California. 84 onion, 126 Ciliatcs, 337. 403, 972
Blood Calippus, 765. 766 phloem. 656 Ciliophora. 403-4
circulation, 571-80 Callus. 708-9 plant, 126. 136-37 Cilophora, 337
constitucnts of. 574-77 Caloric. 52 prokaryotic. 333. 342 Circulation, 513- 14.571 -80
drawing. 380 Calothrix, 365 ray. 670 Cirsium foliosum. 741
and gases, 592-94 Calvin cycic. 685, 688-89 rcproduction. 150-60 Cities. and suburbs. 901-9
and hormones. 629. 630 C7lypso hulbosa. 468 rcproductivc. 170, 171, 172 Citric acid, 544. 547. 548-49, 551,
and immuey. 587-90 Cambium. 654, 655.661 root. 430 552
and ncphrons. 597-99 Cambrian, 440, 490. 758. 772. 774 sin of. 150-52 Citric acid cycic. 689
and urine, 600 sperm, 170. 171. 172, 181-83 City forester, 914
'Index 1017

Civil War. 911 Conifers, 338. 461-67, 977 Cystinc, 564 Dioon edule, 464
Classes. 343. 975 Conjugation, 404, 421-22 Cytokinesis, 153. 154 Dioscorea. 683
Classification Conjugation fungi. 974 Cytokinins. 697, 701, 708-9 Dipcptidc. 114
biological. 311-31 Consumcrs, 10. 12. 78-80, 399-401 Cytoplasm, 135 Diploid number, 174
and DNA sequences, 316-20 Continental drift, 770-73 Cytosinc, 121, 252. 253. 255 Diplopoda, 985
and kingdoms. 341 Continuity Cytosol, 135. 137 Diptcra, 987
Icycls of. 323-29 in cells, 127-63 Cytotoxic. 584, 585 Disaccharidcs, 111, 112
Clavicle. 612 and development. 193-221 Discontinuous distributions, 764
Cleavage. 205 and evolution, 267-307 Diseases, 50-51. 81, 82. 83
Climatc, and bionics. 803-10 and heredity, 223-65 D autoimmunc. 585-87
Climatograms. 804. 805, 808-10 and reproduction, 165-91 cardiovascular, 559-63
Climax community, 737-40 Contour farming. 918 Dactylella drec hsleri, 429 heart. 559-63
Clitocybe, 425 Contraction. muscle, 609-11 Dahlia. 662 and microorganisms. 371-82
Clocks, biological. 634 Control, 23 Dams, 880-81 Dispersal, 471. 475-77. 733, 734-35
Clones, 708-9 biochemical and environmental, Dancicl:cr., 32. 471 Dissection, 484-89
Clonorchis sinensis, 493 697-709 Daphnia. 483 Distribution
Closed populations. 726 Convergence, adaptive. 763 Darwin, Charles, 270. 273-76, discontinuous. 764
Clostridium botulinum, 382 Cool biome, 836-41 278-79. 280, 301, 302, 702. of microorganisms. 360-61
Clotting, blood, 577-78 Coordination, 609-43 703. 768. 791 Diversity, 310. 311
Cloud model; 96 Copper, 18, 52. 557, 664, 900 Darwin, Erasmus, 270 adaptation. and evolution. 267-80
Clovcr, 47 Copulation, 525 Dasyatis americana, 501 in animals, 489-507
Club fungi. 424-25. 974 Coral, 62. 491, 492, 876 Data, 23. 729-32 origin of, 343-52
Club 'mosses. 336. 455-57. 976 Cordaites, 458 Data books, 953-54 Division, 321
Cnidaria, 337, 490, 491 Cork, cells. 129 Day neutral plant, 707 DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid
Coaccrvatcs, 349 Corn, 81 DDT, 82, 83. 84, 917, 931 (DNA)
Coal Age. 457 Coronado National Forcst, 914 Deciduous forests, 814-19 Doc:o. 87
Coastal waters. 875-76 Corpus luteum. 184 Dccompwcrs, 11, 12, 359, 417-18, Dogs, 21. 293. 313. 320. 339. 895
Cobalt, 557 Cortex, 619. 654, 661 427-29 Domestication. of wheat, 897
Cocaine, 639. 640 Cortideria selloana. 473 Decomposition, 9? Dominance, principle of, 236
Cocklebur, 471 Cortisol, 627. 629 Dccr, 21. 57, 815, 817 Dominant trait, 229
Codc, genetic. 254 Cotton, 911 Deletion, 243 Donkey. 314
Codeinc, 638. 640 Cotton mouse, 729. 730 Dcmospongiac, 491 Dope, 638. 640
Coding. gene, 248-50 Cotyledons, 232. 470 Dendrocopus pubescent. 503 Dorcn, Russ, 147
Codominant, 236 Counselor. genetic. 244 Dcnitrifying bacteria, 371 Dormant, 449
Codons, 254. 255 Courtship. 521 Density, 47 Dorsal. 482
Cocicntcrats, 489, 518. 981 Cow, 40, 364 Dcnvcr Museum of Natural History, Douglas fir, 465
body plan. 492 Cowper's gland. 186 453 Downers. 638
Ccevolution, 469 Cowpox, 380 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). 119, Down syndrome, 241
Cohesion. 657 Coyotes, 293 120, 121. 135. 177, 178. Downy woodpecker. 503
Cohcsion transpiration, 657 Crab, 497 254-60, 680, 745. 941 Dragonfly, 339. 864
Coke. 639. 640 Crab spider, 497 and classification, 315. 316-20 Drosophila, 744. 745
Colds. 373 Crack, 639, 640 and cukaryotcs, 397 Drosophila heteroneura, 745
Colcoptcra, 987 Crane fly, 499 and genes. 248-62 Drosophila melanogaster. 238. 239.
Colcoptilcs. 703 Crancs, 86 recombinant, 260-62 241, 245. 246, 247, 248, 301.
Coleus. 134, 168-69. 682 Crataegus. 672 replication of, 253 302
Collared peccary. 822 Crayfish, 505. 507 and RNA, 346 Drosophila silsestris, 745
Colonial algae, 410 Creatinc phosphate, 610 and viruses. 383-84 Drought cndurcrs. 828
Colorado. 78 Crcodont, 762 Dcoxyribosc. 120. 121. 253. 255 Drought escapers. 827
Colorado Biology Teachers. 147 Creosote bush, 828 Depressants, 638. 640 Drought evaders, 827
Colorado Science Teachers, 147 Crctaccous, 440, 490. 758. 773 Desert, 50, 714. 826-29 Drought rcestcrs. 826
Coloration, 812 Crick, F. H. C.. 252 Dcscrtification, 843 Drugs. 637-41, 930
Columbia River, 881 Crinoidca, 988 Determinism, genetic. 926 Ducks. 291-92. 293. 339
Columbine, 707 Crocodiles, 316, 344 Dcuteromycota, 336 Dugesia, 493
Comb jellies, 981 Cro-Magnon. 791, 792, 894 Development. 159, 193-204 Dunkcrs, 288
Commclinaccac, 980 Crops, 421-22 animal, 204-14 Duration. of conditions, 716
Commensalism, 70 Crossbreeding, 270 and cancer, 216-18 Dust bowl, 911
Communication, 632. 633 Crossing, 234. 235 in chick, 198-204 Dutchman's breeches, 468
Community, 11 Crossingovcr, 176, 247 and continuity, 193-221
aquatic, 66-68 Crucifcrac, 978 embryo, 449
climax, 737-40 Crustacca, 985 seed, 467
and ecosystems. 63-93 E
Crustaccans, 498, 518 Dcviation, 227
life in, 63-74 Crystal, 352. 639. 640 Devonian, 440, 490, 758. 772, 774-75 Earth, 852, 922. 927-29
and producers and consumers, Ctcnophora, 337 Dexcdrine, 639, 640 Earthworms, 505, 507, 525
78-80 Culture Dcxics, 639. 640 Eating disorders, 565-66
Companion cell, 656 human. 631-32 Diabetes, 555. 630 Echinodcrmata, 337
Comparative embryology. 280 as human trait, 798 Dianthus floribus solitariis, 329, 330 Echinodcrms, 337. 988
Competition, 70, 72-74 mono, 910 Diaphragm, 590-91 Echinoidca, 988
Complement, 584 tissue, 708-9 Diatoms, 336, 411 Ecologists. 8. 13. 744
Complete proteins. 565 Cuticle, 440, 443, 646 Diatryma, 778 Ecology, 8
Complexity, 483 CVS. See Chorionic villi sampling Dicentra rubellus 468 human, 747-48, 930-36
Compositac, 978 (CVS) Dicots, 473, 474, 978 pato:) 746
Composite, 468 Cyanea capillata, 492 Diet. and health, 555-56. 558 Ecosystems
Compounds, 17, 18. 19. 109-11 Cyanobactcria, 335, 336. 356. 364, Differentially permeable membrane, ancient, 770-73
Computers. 942 365 144 aquatic, 853-91
Concentration. water, 146 Cycadophyta, 336. 440 Diffcrcntiation, 159 and carbon cycle. 108-9
Conception, control of, 214-16 Cycads, 336, 464, 977 Diffusion. 144, 145. 146-52 and communities, 63-93
Conduction, and stems, 652-60 Cycling. of nitrogen. 367-71 Diffusion gradient, 144 future, 913-18
Cones, 519 Cyclops, 498 Digcstion, 408, 508-9, 533-41 and humans, 893-920
Ole, 466, 467 Cyclops varicans, 498 Dihybrid cross, 234. 235 long-term changes, 742-43
Conictiophores, 427 Cynomys ludovicianus, 339 Dinoponera grandis. 499 ocean, 869-80
Conifcrophyta, 336, 440;461 Cyperaccac, 980 Dinosaur National Monumcnt, 756 of past, 753-800
Coniferous forest, 813 Cystic fibrosis, 374 Dinosaurs, 344, 756, 776-77 river, 882-83
1018 Index

series of 774-82 Enrymc-substrate complex. 116 Family, 320. 343. 978 and decomposers, 428
stability. 80-90 Eoastrion, 359 Faminc, 52 and energy, 103-6. 533-69,
structurc. 75-80 Eohacterion isolatunt. 345 Farmland, 48-49 542-43
succession and evolution in. Eocenc, 440, 490, 752. 758. 764 Farms, 881. 913. 918 and pscudopod. 402
736-43 Epcot Center, 922 Fast-food restaurant, 72-73 Food chain, 9-12. 428
your. 899-900 Ephcmcroptcra, 986 Fast foods, 567 Food cncrgy pyramid, 79
Ectotheorhodospfra mohilis. 367 Epidermis, 646, 654. 661 Fats, 109. 113, 556-59 Food web, 4, 11, 12
Edentata, 993 Epididymis 183 Fcathcrs, 501 Foot, 325. 326
Effector. 617. 618 Epihippus, 765. 766 Fcccs, 541 Foraminifcran, 402
Egg cells. 170, 171. 172 Epinephrine. 626, 627 Feedback mechanism, 626 Forester, city. 914
Eldridge. N.. 299 Epiphytes. 820, 821 Felis leo, 504 Forests, 84, 775-76. 813. 814-19.
Electroencephalograph, 615 Epochs. 440, 490, 758 Fcmalc, 172. 183 843-44
Electron microscopes. 132 Equidac, 764 Femur, 612 Fossil
Electrons. 96 Equilibrium, punctuated, 299, 300 Fermentation, 692-93 Fossils, 266. 267. 345. 347, 394,
Electron transport systcnt. 544. 550 Equisetum, 436, 457 Ferns, 171, 336, 338, 456, 457, 458, 753-58, 769, 776, 792
Elements. 17. 18 Equus, 765, 766 459. 769. 976 Fox, Sidney, 349
essential. 52 Eras, 758 Fertile offspring. 313 Foxes, 320. 32:, 811
Elephants. 483. 762. 831 Frosion, 911 Fcrtilization, 172, 174, 181-88. Fragaria virginiana chiloensis, 473
Elimination. 408 ER. See Endoplasmic rcticulum (ER) 233-34. 449. 462-63. 466. Franklin, Rosalind, 252
Elk thistle. 741 Eruptions, volcanic, 736 467-70, 522 Frccway, 908
Elodca, 130 Escherichia coil, 261, 386 Fcrtili7crs, 54.516, 917 Fresh waters, standing, 853-63
Embryo. 157. 159. 192. 194-96 Esophagus, 537. 538 Fetal alcohol syndrome, 210 Frogs, 171, 317, 502, 505, 507, 821
development, 449 Esov, 501 Fctus, 207, 484-89 Fruit, 471
human. 208 Essay on the Principle of Population. Fcvcr, 376, 497 FSH. See Follicle stimulating
and mother. 210-11 An, 275 Fibers hormone (FSH)
and seed coat, 664-65 Essential amino acids, 564 and carbohydrates, 563-64 Fungi, 56, 336, 339, 340, 392.
Embryology, comparative. 280 Essential nutrients, 556 nerve, 617, 618 398-99. 417-32. 974
Emigration. 32. 733 Estivation. 828 Fibril, 611 Futurc, 923-48
Emperor penguin. 733 Estrogen, 184. 627 Fibrin, 577, 578
Endangered Species Act, 943 Ethiopia, 55 Fibrinogen, 577
Endocrine glands. 624 Ethylene. 697. 701 Fibrin strands, 577 G
Endocrine systcm. 624-30 Eubactcria, 362. 364-66. 970 Fibrous-root system, 661, 662
Endoderm. 197 Euglena, 400, 401 Fibula, 612 Galapagos Islands, 167, 273, 274, 275
Endodermis. 661 Eukaryotcs, 332. 333. 334, 337, 342. Field data, 729-32 Gall bladder, 538
Endoplasmic rcticuium (ER). 135, 437-79, 481-528 Field sparrow, 717 Gamctcs, 170, 172. 173-74, 175
137. 138. 139-40 evolution of, 396 Field studies Gamctophytes, 444. 445, 447, 459
EndoskcIctons, 520 protists and fungi, 393-434 of animal behavior, 840-41 Ganglion, 517-19
Endosperm. 448 Eukaryotic cells, 260 of biosphere, 845-48 Gar, 67
Endosporcs. 382 Ewnetopins jubala. 504 Fight or flight, 635 Garbage, 888
Energy. 38 Euphorbia, 763 Filamentous algae, 410 Garden pea. 229
and ADP. 106 Eusthenopteron, 760 Filaments. 611 Gases. 440-43
and aquatic ecosystem. 866-68 Eutrophication, 882 Filtration, 600-601 methane. 362-64
and ATP. 106.609 -11 Evaporation, 602-3 Fimbria, 185 oxygen, 686
and biomes. 810-23 Everglades National Park, 85 Finchcs, Galapagos, 274. 275 Gas exchange, 509-12
and carbohydrates. 563-64 Evergreens, 461-67 Fir, 465 and exi etion. 590-601
and cells. 143 Evolution. 345 Firc, 85. 833-36 and photosynthesis, 690-92
and cellular respiration. 541-42 adaptation, and di,crsity. 267-80 Fish, 171. 294, 308. 482, 490. 501. Gasolinc, 931
chemical. 14 of animals. 490 510. 774-75. 873 Gastric juice. 539-40
and exercise. 615 -16 and continuity, 267-307 Fit7roy, Robert, 273 Gastropoda, 984
and food. 103-6. 533-69. 542-43 since Darwin, 301-4 Flagella, 332 Gastrotrichs, 983
and glucose. 544 and digestion, 555 Flagcllatcs, 337, 399-401, 483. 971 Gastrula, 195
for life, 103-6 in ecosystems. 736-43 Flame cell, 515 Gccsc, Canada, 30
and matter. 95-123. 903 of cukaryotic cells, 396 Flatworms, 337, 493. 518, 982 Gcnc coding. 248-50
and o7onc. 934 human, 790 Fleshy fruit, 471 Gcnc maps. 248
and photosynthesis. 103 of land plants. 437-53 Flexors, 613 Gcnc mutation, 258-60
pyramid. 79 and Pangaca, 772-73 Flickcrs, 292 Gcnc pool. 285
in United States, 721 and plants, 440 Flight or fight, 635 Generalizations, and populations, 726
and work, 101-2 and plate tectonics, 769-70 Florida. 66-68, 75, 85 Generations, alternation of, 444-45
Encatina eschcchot:i, 296 primate brain, 779-82 Florist, 683 Gcncs, 135. 172, 247
Environment theory of, 269-71 Flourinc. 869 and chromosomes, 238-48
abiotic. 38. 41. 46. 64-66. 76 Exchanges, 509-12, 602 flowering plants, 336. 338, 445-49, and DNA, 248-62
of animals. 482-83, 520-26 Excrction, 514-16. 590-601 644. 645-76, 679-711. 978 and heredity, 223-24
biotic. 41 Excretory systems, 514-16 life cycle of, 447 stability of, 289-90
built. 893-901 Excrcisc, 613-16 Flowers, 22. 23-25, 229, 310, 452, Gcnctic code, 254
desert, 714 Exhaust, 374 468, 763 Gcnctic counselor, 244
human internal, 571-607 Exocrine glands, 624 structurc. 446 Gcnctic determinism, 926
and human populations. 720-22 Exons, 260, 346 Flowing waters, 863-68 Gcnctic drift, random, 287, 291
and humans, 892 Exoskelmons, 519-29 Fluctuations, in populations, 727 Gcnctic engineering, 941
and morphological adaptations. Extcnsors, 613 Fluids, body, 514-16 Gcnctic information, 172
672-74 External fertilization, 522 Flukc, 493. 524 Gcnctic recombination, 285-87
and politics, 933-36 External oblique, 612 Fluorinc, 557 Genetics, Mcndclian, 228-38
and population. 41-55. 715-25 Extinction, 84-88, 295, 456 Fly, 499, 718 Gcnctic stability, 289-90
and respiration, 694 Extraccllular digestion, 508-9 Flycatchers, 818 Gcnomc, 173
and stimuli, 702 Extrcmcthalophilcs, 337 Folacin, 554 Gcnotypc, 231, 235, 237
study of, 743-44 Folic acid, 554 Gcnus, 320, 343,
Environmental control, of plant Follicle, 184 Geographic ranges, 732-33
growth, 697-709 F Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Gcologic timc scale, 758
Environmental Protection Agency, 627 Gcologists, 757
930 Factors, and populations, 55-56 Food. 19, 37.52 -55, 421-22. 930 Gcranium, 7:6
Environmental tolerance, 718-20 Fagaccac, 978 and adaptation, 269 Gcrmination, 76-77, 232, 448
Enzymes, 98 Fairy slipper, 468 and alimentary canal. 537
and cell reactions, 115-17 Fall, 815 compounds in. 110-11
RNA as, 346
 Index 1019

Germ layers. 197-98 H antidiuretic. See Antidiuretic Impermeable. 145

GIL See Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ADH) Independent assortment, principle of.
Gibbercllic acid. 697. 699. 700 Habitat. 68 follicle stimulating. See Follicle 236
Gibberellins, 697. 699. 700 Hadrurus arizonensis. 497 stimulating hormone (FSH) Indian paintbrush. 315
Gibbon. 783 Hair color. 793 growth. See Growth hormone Indigo bunting. :412
Gigantactis macronema. 873 Half-life, 757 (GH) Individuals, and populations. 29-40
Gills. 510. 511 Hallucinogens. 639. 640 luteinizing. See Lutcinizing Industrial wastes, 882-83
Ginglymostoma cirratum. 501 Halobacteria, 363 hormone (LH) Infants. 213
Ginkgo biloba, 464 Hamster. 483 origins and effects. 627 Influenza, 51, 373
Ginkgoes. 336. 977 Haploid number, 174 parathyroid. 627 Ingestion. 408. 508-9. 533-41
Ginkgophyta. 336. 440 Hardin. Garrett. 896 plant. 697-98 Inheritance. 236-37
Giraffes. 222. 271. 831 Hares. 729. 812 and stress, 628-29 Innate behavior, 525. 924-25
Glands Harvester. 38 thyroid stimulating. See Thyroid Innoculation. 360
adrenal. 625. 627 Harvestman, 497 stimulating hormone (TSH) Innominate, 612
Cowper's. 186 /larvey. William. 573 Horsehair worms. 983 Inorganic compound. 18. 19
endocrine. 624 Hashish. 639, 640 Horses, 314. 638. 640, 762. 764. 765 Insecta, 986
exocrine, 624 Hawaiian Islands. 269 Horseshoe crab. 497 Insectivora, 991
parathyroid. 625. 627 Hawk. 503 Horsetails, 336. 455-57, 976 Insectivores, 818
prostate, 182. 186 Hawthorn. 672 Hosts, 69. 375. 376 Insects, 81. 82. 83. 498. 499
salivary, 538 Health, and diet. 555-56. 558 Houses, suburban. 909 Instinct. 525
thyroid. 625. 627 Heart. 327. 573 Hudson's gay Company, 729.812 Insulin, 627. 630
Gleditsia, 672 Heart attack, 578 Human culture. 631-32 Intelligence, artificial. 636
Gleocapsa, 365 Heart disease, 51, 559-63 Humans. 483 Interactions. 5-14
Glomerulus, 570. 596 Heart rate. c79-80 and aquatic ecosystems. 880-88 Internal environment, human,
Glossopteris, 769. 770 Heath hen. 131 behavior, and nervous system. 571-607
Glucagon. 627. 630 Helix pomata. 495 630-37 Internal fertilization, 522
Glucose. 544. 601. 629. 630 Helper T cells, 582. 584 biology and behavior, 924-29 Internodes. 659
Glycine, 114 Hemichordata, 337 and biomes. 841-48 Interphase. 154
Glyclalanine, 114 Hemichordates, 337 bones. 316 Intestinal juice. 539-40
Glycogen. 611 Hemiptera, 986 cells of, 171 Intestines, 538. 539-40
Glycolysis, 544-47 Hemlock. 330 and classification, 317. 325 Intracellular digestion. 50G-9
Gnetophyta, 336 Hemoglobin, 575-77. 592-94 and ecosystems, 80-90, 893-920 Introns, 260. 346
Gnetophytes, 977 Hens, 731 emergence of. 782-98 Inversion, 243
GNSI. See Guild of Natural Science Hepaticae, 975 and enviromnent, 892 Investigations, supplementary, 957-68
Illustrators (GNSI) Herbaceous plants. 472 and food and energy, 533-69 Iodine. 18. 557, 869
Golden algae. 972 Herbivores, 66-67. 815. 828 in future, 923-48 Ion. 96
Goldenrod. 47 Heredity, 223-65 and movement. 609-16 Ionize, 98
Golgi complex. 137. 139-40. 141 Hermaphrodite, 522 population. 34-40 Ireland, 372
Gonads. 175. 627 Hermissendra crassicornis, 339 reproductive system. 182. 185 I ridame. 980
Gondwana. 772 Heroine, 638. 640 and technol )gy, 937-46 Iris. 30
Conorrhea, 375 Heron. 67.69 and wastes. 888 Iron. 18. 52. 557. 664
Gwf balls. 638 Hershey, Alfred, 251 Humerus. 612 Irrigation. 58
Gorilla. 317. 325. 782 Hervibores, 79 Humidity, relative, 64 Islets of Langerhans, 625
Gould. S. J.. 299. 300 Hessian fly, 718 Hummingbird. 469 Isolation, 291
Grabowski, Paula J., 346 Hetcrotroph hypothesis. 350 Humus. 837 Isoptera. 986
Gradient, diffusion. 144 Heterotrophic protists, 398-410 Hunter. 55
Gramineac, 980 Heterotrophs, 335.349 -5I Huwa, Pat. 147
Grana. 680 Heterozygous, 231 Hyacinth. 173
Grapes. 701 Hibernation, 814
J
Hyacinthus orientalis, 173
Graphocephala coccinea. 499 Hinnites giganteus. 495 Hybrid. 228 Jackrabbit, 825
Grass. 67. 473. 639. 640. 824. 825 Hirudinea, 984 Hybridization. 318. 320 Jamesia americana, 338
Grasshopper. 5. 6. 510 History Hybridoma cells, 583 Jeffrey pine, 41
Grasslands. 802. 823 830-32. and agriculture. 911-13 Hydra. 166. 397. 505, 506. 508. 510 Jellies, 337
843 natural. 743 Hydracarina, 497 Jellyfish. 491. 492, 716. 717
Gravitropism, 697. 704 Hodgkin's disease. 88 Hydra viridis. 397 Jenner, Edward, 380
Great auk. 87 Hoffman, Mike, 785 Hydrochloric acid. 362 Joints, 612. 639. 640
Great homed owl, 829 Holothuroidea, 988 Hydrodictyon retkulatum, 413 Joshua tree. 714
Great Plains. 292 Homeostasis, 57, 570. 595-96, Hydrogen. 18. 52. 96. 98. 347 Juniper. 464. 465
Green algae. 412-13. 437-39. 972 599-601 Hydrosphere, 853 Juniperus chinenses, 465
Grvenhouse effect. 934 Hominidae, 786 Hydroxide. 98 Juniperus monosperma. 464
Gregarina, 403 Hominids. 784-86, 786 Hydrozoa, 981 Jurassic, 440, 490, 758, 762
Gross primary productivity, 78 Hominoid. fossils, 792 Hygrophorus coccineus, 392
Ground sloth. 778 Hominoids. 784 - 86.786 Hymenoptera. 987
Growing point. 659 Homo, 784, 789-91 Hypertension. 555
Growth K
Homo erectus, 789-91 Hyphae. 417
plant, 664-72. 667-68. 670-72 Homo habilis, 790. 792 Hypoglycemia. 630 Kangaroo, 504. 762
population. 32-35 Homologies. 315-16 Hypohippus, 765. 766 Kangaroo rat. 829
root. 669-70 Homologs, 173. 176 Hypothalamus. 620. 624-27. 629 Karyotype. 239. 240. 243-45
Growth hormone (GH). 627 Homoptera, 986 Hypothesis. 21-25 Katydid. 317
Grunions, 522 Homo sapiens, 316. 900 Hyracotherium, 764, 765 Kazakstania, 772
Guanine. 121. 252. 253. 255 Homo sapiens neanderthalensls. 790. Keats. 566-68
Guard cells. 646. 648-49 791,792 Kidneys. 182. 185. 570. 595-96. 597.
Guild of Natural Science Illustrators Homo sapiens sapiens. 790. 791. 792, 599-601
(GNSI), 453 793-94 Killer T cells. 584. 585
Gulls. 526 Homozygous, 230 lchthyostega, 760 Kingdoms. 321. 332-43
Gut. 493. 494-95 Honeybees. 894 Iguana lizard. 502 Kinorhynchs, 983
Gymnastics. 608 Hooke. Robert, 129. 132. 140 Iguanidne, 502 Kirtland's warbler, 734
Gypsy moth, 7 Horizon, 872 Illustrator, biological. 453 Kneecap. 612
Hormones. 183-84. 624 Immigration. 32 Knowledge, 942-43
adrenocorticotropic. See Immune system, 580-85 Kohler, Georges. 583
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Immunity. 379. 580-90
(ACTH) Imperfect fungi. 426-27, 974
1020 Index

Krcbs citric acid cycic, 544. 547, Liliaccac, 980 Marigold, 472 Mioccnc. 440. 490, 758
548-49, 551, 552, 689 What,. 176 Marijuana, 639. 640 Afinhippits, 765, 766
Kuru, 388 Lily. 447 Marshall. Dam 89 Mississippian. 440. 490
Kwashiorkor. 53 Limiting factor. 41 Marsupialia, 991 Mississippi dclta, 853, 854
Limulus polyphemus, 497 Mass, 78, 956 Mistictoe, 69
Linkagc. 236 Mastodon. 762 Mitcs, 497
L Linnacan Socicty,t279 Matcrials, use of, 953 Mitochondria. 137, 13w 139, 141,
Linnacus, Carolus. 330 Mating. 164 545
Labiatac, 978 Lions. 504, 762 Mattcr. 17-19 origin of, 393-410
Laboratory proccdurcs, 951-56 Lipids. 107. 113 and atoms, 95-97 Mitosis, 153-57, 158, 179
Laboratory reports. 954-55 Liquors. 638, 640 and cncrgy. 95-123, 903 Molarity, 651
La Brca tar pits, 778 Litoptcrn, 762 organization of, 351-52 Molds, 336. 340. 398-99
Lactarius fulvissfnaus. 340 Littoral 7onc, 876-78 Mattcrncs. Jay H.. 752 Molc, 316. 762
Lady bird bectIcs, 28 Livcr, 538, 589-90 Mcadow, 802 Molcculcs, 17, 97
Lagomorpha, 993 Livcr flukc, 493 Mcadowcroft. 911 and digcstion. 539-40
I.akcs, 813, 857-59, 880-81 Livcrworts, 336. 454 Mcadowlark, 825 of lifc, 111-21
Lakc succcssion. 858 Lizards, 344, 502. 603 Mcadow pipit, 735 Mollusca, 490, 494
Lamarck, John Baptistc. 270, 271 Lobstcrs, 498 Mcaslcs, 582 Mollusks, 337. 494-95. 983
Laminaria, 415 Locomotion, 483. 519-20 Mcasurcmcnt. 955-56 Molybdcnum. 52, 557, 664
Land plants. major groups, 439 Locust trccs, 672, 673 Mcdicinc man. 372 Moncra. 335, 336, 342
LANDSAT, 748 Long-day plant 707 Megahippus, 765. 766 Moncrans, 969-70
I.angcrhans. islets of. See Islcts of Long-horncd bc,.itic, 822 Megalela rufa, 504 Monkcys. 320, 762, 822
Langcrhans Long Island Sound, 82 Mega:ostrodon. 760 Monoclonal antibodics, 583
Languagc. 632, 633 Lowcr Monument Dam, 881 Mciosis. 174, 175-81, 194. 260. 447 Monocots, 979
Largc intcstincs, 538 LSD. See Lyscrgic acid dicthylamidc and fcmalcs. 183 Monoculturc, 910
Larva, 499 (LSD) and mitosis. 179 Monoplacophora. 983
Latcral buds, 653 Lubs. Mark-Louisc. 244 modcl of. 180-81 Monosaccharidcs. III , 112
Laurcntia. 772 Lucanidac, 499 Mclatonin, 627 Monots, 473, 474
Lcaf. See Lcavcs Lucy, 790. 792 Mcmbrancs Moosc, 814
Lcalhopper, 499 Lulu. 874 diffcrentially permcablc. 144 Morchella augustIceps. 422
Lcaf littcr, 819 Lumbar vcrtcbrac. 612 and diffusion, 148-50 Morcl, 422
Lcarncd behavior, 925-26 Lu abrlcus. 496 plasma. 134, 136, 141 Morgan, T. H., 238. 245, 247
Lcavcs. 130, 454-55, 457, 458. 473 Lungfish, 777 Mcmory 13 Mk. 582 Morning glorics, 237
adaptations of. 658-60 Lungs. 590-91, 592 Mcndcl. Grcgor. 228-38. 279. 281 Morphinc. 638, 640
functions, 673-74 Lutcinizing hormonc (LII), 627 Mcndclian gcnctics, 228-38 Morphological adaptations, 672-74
and photosynthcsis. 645-52 I.ycoperdon perlatum, 425 Mcnstrual cycic, 184 Morrow, Ron, 914
simplc and compound, 646 Lycophyta. 336. 440, 456 Mcnstruation. 184 Mortality. 31. 723
and stcms. 652-53 Lycopodfunt. 457 Mcristcm, 667 Mosquitoes, 83
Lccchcs. 496 Lycll, Charles. 274 Merychippus. 765, 766 Mocscs. 336, 338. 432, 4.!0.441, 444.
Lccuwcnhock, Antony van. 128-29. Lymph, 579. 581 Mcsa Vcrdc National Park, 785. 898 451, 454, 455-57, 976
132 Lymphatic systcm. 540, 581 Mcscalinc. 639, 640 lifc cycic of, 445
Leggitt, Marjorie. 453 Lymph nodcs, 579. 581 Mcsodcrm, 197 Moth, 7, 282, 590
Lcguminotac. 979 Lymphocytcs. 581. 582 Mesohippus. 765.766 Mothcr, and cmbiyn. 210-11
Lemming, 729 Lymph vcsscls. 579. 581 Mcsophyll. 647 Motilc organisms. 46
Lcagth. 955 Lynx. 812 Mcsozoans, 982 Motor ncurons. 617, 618
Lcnticcls. 652 Lyscrgic acid dicthylamidc (LSD). Mcso7oic. 758 Mountain biomc. 802.836 -41
Leopard frog, 502 639, 640 Mosquito, 827 Mount St. thins. 736
Lepidodendron. 458 Lysichltum americanum. 472 Mcsscngcr RNA (mRNA). 254. 255. Moucc. See Micc
Lcpidopfcra, 987 Lysine. 564 256. 260. 346 Movcmcnt
Lotucc. 719 Lysosomes. 136, 140, 141 Mctabolism. 143. 551 and animals, 481-82
I.cukcmia. 244 Mctacarpals. 612 human. 609-16
Leuresthes tenufs, 522 Mctamorphosis. 499 and Paramecium, 407
LH. See Lutcinking hormonc (LII) M Mctaphasc. 154, 155. 173. 176. 178 mRNA. See Mcsscngcr RNA
Librium. 638. 640 Mctatarsals, 612 (mRNA)
Libullarfa. 339 Macaws. 822 Mcthanc gas, 362-64 Mulcdecr. 57
Lichcns. 71. 336, 431-32, 974 Macron ucici. 404 Methanobacterium runtinatum. 363 Mullcr, Ilcrmann J., 281
Life Macronutricnts. 663-64 Methanogens, 337. 362-64 MulticcIlular grccn algac. 437-39
of animals. 481-89 Macrophagcs. 582, 584 Methanospirillum hungatii. 363 Multiccllular organisms, 134
and carbon. 107-11 Macropharynx longlcaudatus. 873 Mcthcdrinc, 639. 640 Multiplc alIck. 236
catalog of. 969-94 Madagascar. 88 Mcthioninc, 564 Mucci. 975
of cc11. 405-10 Magma, 771 Micc, 4.48, 138, 250. 294, 729. 730, Muscics
and ccll division. 161 Magncsium, 18. 52. 556. 664. 869 740 and bones, 611-13
foundations of. 14-19 Maidcnhair trcc. 464 Micron ucici, 404 and brain pathways. 621
molcculcs of, 111-21 Main. 699 Micronutricnts. 663-64 cardiac. 610
quality of. 904-6 Malacostut indicus. 873 Microorganisms, 10. 360 - 61.371 -82 and contractions. 609-11
and rcproduction, 165-67 Malaria, 376. 403. 483. 721 Microscopes. 130, 131-34 and cxcrcise. 615-16
wcb of, 5-27 Malc. and sperm, 172 introduction to, 962-68 human. 612
Lifc cycic, 165 Malnourishcd, 53. 54 Microsphcrcs, 349 skcIctal, 610
of Cccropia moth, 500 Malthus. Thomas. 275 Microtubulcs, 136. 140 and skcIcton. 519-20
of Chlamydontonas, 414 Mammalia, 991 Microvilli. 540 smooth. 609, 610
of flowcring plant, 447 Maxmalians, 206-10 Migration, 291, 634 striatcd. 609. 610
of flukc, 524 Mammals, 4Q0. 504, 518 tslildcw, 422 Muscic tone. 613
limiting factors in. 722-23 and brains. IN Milkwccd, 733 Muscular systcm, human. 612
of moss, 445 hcart rate. 579-80 Miller. Stanley, 349 Mushrooms. 1 I. 340, 392. 420. 424,
and rcprnductivc structures, in Plcistoccnc. 777-78 Milstcin. Ccsar. 583 425. 426
450-52 Manatcc, 762 Miltown. 638, 640 Muskcilungc. 501
of slime mold, 400 Mandibulata, 985 Mimosa. 702 Musk ox. 813
Lifc functions, of animals. 508-26 Mangancsc, 18, 52, 557. 664 Mimosa pudica, 702 Mussel. 864
Light, 519. 680-82. 703 Manomctric asscnibly, 695-96 Alimulus rubellus, 468 Mutations. 245. 258-60. 281,
Light-dcpendcnt rca7.1ions. 685, Mantle. 495 Mincrals, 109, 442 285-87, 291. 302
686-87 Maps. gcnc, 248 and huh.ans. 556-57 Mutualism. 71
Marchantla polymorphrt, 454 and plants, 663-64 Mycclium. 417. 418
and seawatcr. 869
 Index 1C21

Mycologists, 426 Nom'''. 365 Oxygen, 18. 52, 96. 144 p11, 76- 77.885, 886
Mycophycophyta, 336 Noihogagus, 769, 770 dissolved. 862-63 and acid ram, 936
Mycoplasrna, 483 Notochord, 500 gas. 686 and organisms, 99-101
Mycorrhizac, 429-31 Nuclear envelope, 135 transport, 593 scale, 98. 99
Mycorrhizal fungi. 429-31 Nuclear winter, 935, 944 Oxytocin. 627 and stater, 99-100
Myclon,a cells, 583 Nuclei. 96, 135, 136, 141, 403 Oysters, 169 Phacophyta, 336, 414
Myxomycota, 336 polar, 448 Ozone, 934 Phases. 251
Nucleic acids. 107 Phalanges, 612
and cell activity, 119-20 Phase contrast microscope, 133
N and viruses. 383-84 Pheasants. ringnccked, 730
Nucleotides. 119, 252 p
Phenotypc, 231-33, 235. 237
NAD. See Nicotinamidc adcninc Nucleus. See Nuclei Paintbrush, Indian. 315 Phcnylkctonuria (PKU). 941
dinucicotidc (NAD) Numbers, pyramid of, 80 Paleocene. 440, 490, 758 Phloem, 442, 654, 657, 661
NADP. See Nicotinamidc adcninc Nurse shark, 501 Palcoccology, 746 Phlocm cells, 656
dinucleotide phosphate Nat 'cots, 52, 556, 663-64 Palcoccosystems, 770 Pholidota. 993
(NADP) Nutrition, 532, 533. 555-68, 673 74 Paleontologic comparison, 764-68 Phoronids, 987
Nannippus, 765, 766 Nymph, 857, 864 Paleontologists, 756, 757, 758-59 Phosphates. 120, 121, 253, 255
Natality, 31, 50 Paleozoic, 758 Phosphoglyeeraldehyde (PG AL), 688,
National Association of Biology Palidadc layer, 646 689
Teachers, 147
National Association of Science 0 Pampas grass, 473
Pancreas, 538, 625, 627
Phosphorus, 18, 52, 556, 664, 869
Photoperiodism, 706-7
Teachers, 147 Obesity, 555 Pancreatic juice, 539-40 Photosynthesis, 16-17, 78, 351, 357,
Native trees, 913 Obscrvation, 8-9, 21-25 Paigaca, 770, 772-73 672, 678, 679-711
Natural history, 743 Ocean, 869, 871, 872-75, 877, 888 Pangolin, 762 and energy, 103-6
Naturalist/interpreter, 89 Ocean ecosystems, 869-80 Pantothcnic acLI, 554 nd gas exchange, 690-92
Natural selection, 273-76, 278-79 Octopus. 495 Panulkus argus, 498 and leaves, 645-52
and natural variation, 281-85 Octopus vulgaris, 495 Parahippus, 765, 766 and protists, 410-11
simulation. 277 Odonata. 986 Paramecium, 402, 407, 408. 409, 508 rate, 694-96
Natural variation. 281-85 Offspring, 313 Paramecium caudatum, 405 Photosystcms I and II, 686
Navaho medicine man, 372 Oil, 58, 931 Paramecium muldmicronudeaium. Phototropism, 702-6
Nectar, 469 Oil spill, 888 405 Phylogcnctic trees, 303
Needles, 465 Oligocene, 440, 490, 758 Parasites, 69, 401, 403, 483. 493, 494 Phylum, 321, 322
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 375 Oligochacta, 984 Parasitism, 69 Physarunt, 340, 399
Nematoda, 337, 494 Omnivores, 71, 79 Parasympathetic nervous system, 620 Physicians Task Force, 930
Ncmatods, 490 Onion, 126, 156 Parathormonc, 627 Physiology, plant, 679
Neohipparion, 765, 766 Oniscus, 498 Parathyroid glands, 625, 627 Phytochromc, 707
Ncphrons, 596, 597-99 Oparin, A. I., 349 Parathyroid hormone. 627 Phytoplankton. 857
Nerve fibers, 617, 618 Open populations. 726 Parry primrose, 644 Picea ables. 338
Nerve impulses, 617-18 Ophiuroidea, 988 Parthenogenesis, 522 Pig. fetal, 484-89
Nerves, 611, 617, 618 Opiates, 637, 638, 640 Passenger pigeon, 87 Pigeon. 87
Nervous system, 328, 517-19 Opium, 638, 640 Pasteur, Louis, 150 Pigments, 682, 684
humr : 617-24 Optimum conditions, 716 Pasteurization, 382 Pilobolus, 340
and t aman behavior, 630-37 Opuniia polyacaniha, 443 Patella, 612 Pine, 31, 41, 69, 330, 430, 461, 465.
Net primary productivity. 78 Oral cavity, 533-34 Pathogen, 375 467
Neurons, 617-18 Orange. 427 Pathogens, 378-82 Pineal body, 625, 627
Neurospora erassa, 249 Orchards, 47, 912 Pathology, 371 Pine cone, 466, 467
Neurotransmitter, 617, 618 Orchid, 468 Pea, 229 Pinus ponderosa, 465
Neutral, 98 Orchidaccca, 980 Peccary, 822 Mims sirobus, 330
Neutrons, 96 Order, 311, 320, 343 Pectoralis major, 612 Pistils, 229, 446
Newborn babies, 213 Ordovician, 440, 490, 758 Pelecanus occident ails carolinensis, Pith, 654
New Jersey, 56 Orcgon, 90 503 Pituitary, 624-27, 629
Newt, 502 Organ, 209 Pclican, 503 Placenta, 206, 209
Niacin, 554 Organelles, 131, 136-37, 141, 393-94 Pelonsyxa palusirus, 395 Placobdella, 496
Niche, 68 Organic compound, 18, 19 Penguins, 502, 733, 735 Planaria, 505, 506
Nicotinamidc adcninc dinucleotide Organisms, 5 Penh-1111m 427, 974 Planarian, 166. 493, 515
(NAD) 547, 549, 551, 553, aquatic, and salinity. 878-80 Penicillium camemberili, 426 Plankton, 856, 863, 872
686 kingdoms of, 332-43 Penkilllum notatum, 426 Plantac. 336, 338
Nicotinamidc adenine dinucicotidc motile, 46 Penicilllum roquefortil, 426 Plant physiology, 679
phosphate (NADP), 687, multicellular, 134 Penis, 181 Plants, 437-39, 975-80
688-89 and pH, 99-101 Pennsylvanian, 440, 490 and carbon, 107-8
Night crawler, 496 unicellular, 134 Pentobarbital, 638 cells, 126
Nile delta, 853 Organ system. 209 Perennials, 472 and essential elements, 52
Nitrifying bacteria, 370 Origin, of diversity, 343-52 Pericycle, 661 and evolution, 440
Niirobacier winogradskyl, 370 Origin of Species by Means of Periods, 758 flo%cring, 445-49, 644, 645-76,
Nitrogen, 18. 52, 664 Natural Selection, On the, Pcrissodactyla, 994 679-711, 978
cycling of, 367-71 274, 279. 304, 768, 791 Peristalsis, 537 growth, 667-68. 664-72,
Nitrogen fixing bacteria, 335, 369, Orohippus, 765. 766 Periwinkle, 88
370
697-709
Orthoptera, 986 Permafrost, 810 hormones, 697-98
Nitrogenous wastes, 516 Oscillaioria, 356 Permeable, 145 land, 437-53
Nikosomonas, 370 Osmosis, 146 Permeable mcmbranc, 144 and mitosis, 158
Nociiluca sciniillans, 401 Ostcichthycs, 990 Permian, 440, 490, 758 nonvascular, 454-55
Nodes, 659 Ostcrich, 831 Peromyscus leucopus, 4 and nutrients, 663-64
lymph, 579, 581 Ovaries, 175, 185, 625, 627 Peromyscus mankulaius, 293 primitive vascular, 455-61
Nodules. 369 of flowering plant. 470-74 Pesticides, 81, 32, 84 and respiration, 692-96
Nomenclature, binomial, 329-36 Ovary. See Ovaries Petals, 446 seed, 461-77
Nondisjunction, 242 Oviduct. 184, 185 Petiole, 645 and sexual reproduction, 188
Nonvascular plants. 454-55 Ovulation, 183 Petri dish, 360 Plasma, 575-77
Norcpincphrinc, 627 Ovules. 447, 446 Petrification, 753-58 Plasma membrane, 134, 136, 141
Northern sea lion, 504 Ovunt, 170, 171. 172 Pe:ka, 422 Plasmids. 332
Norway rats, 727 Owen, Raylcnc, 147 Ffii:erii, 465 Plasmodium, 376. 398, 483
Norway spruce, 338 Owls, 811, 829 :'GAL. See Phosphoglyeeraldehyde Plasmodium tivax, 403
Nose candy. 639. 640 Ox, 813 (PGAL) Platelets, 577

1212
1022 Index

Plate tectonics, 769-70 Primrose parryi. 644 Rana pipiens. 284. 502 Ribose, 120, 255
Platyhelminthes, 337. 490. 493 Principle of dominance. 236 Random genetic drift, 287. 291 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 254-55.
Pleistocene, 440. 490, 758. 762. 773. Principle of Geology. 274 Range. of tolerance. 716 362
777-78 Principle of independent assortment. Ranunculaeceae, 979 Ribosomes, 135, 141, 254-55
Pliocene. 440, 490, 758 236 Rate, 30 Ribs, 612
Pliohippus, 765. 766 Principle of segregation. 236 Rats, 171, 727, 829 Rice. 910
Plymouth Colony. 897 Prions, viruses, and viroids. 383-88 Rattlesnake. 825 Rickets. 373
Pneumonia, 51, 250 Probability. 225-27 Ray, 501 Rig& Carol, 683
Poo. 330 Probelesodon. 760 Ray cells. 670 Rim, Rick, 683
Pocket mouse, 740 Proboseidea, 994 Reabsorption. 600-601 Rh gneeted pheasants, 730
Polar bears, 314. 733 Prochloron. 365, 366 Reactions. 623-24 River cox ystems. 88?-st1
Polar bodies. 187 Procyon lora.. 504 biochemical, 117-19 Rivers..-68, 75, 8, 31
Polar nuclei. 448 Producers. 10, 12, 7. 80, 399-401 chemical, 97-98 RNA. See Ribonuclek acid (RNA)
Polemoniaceae, 979 Productivity, 78 and temperature, 601-2 Rocky Mountains. 89, 838
Polio, 352 Progesterone. 184, 627 Recent epoch, 440. 490, 758 Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 376.
Pollen. 176 Prokaryotes. 332, 333. 334, 337, 342. Recvptors. 519. 617, 618 497
Pollen grain, 443. 448 357-71 sensory, 622-24 Rodentia, 993
Pollen tube. 448 Prolactin, 627 taste, 534-36 Rods, 519
Pollination. 448. 462-63.466. 467-70 Prophase, 154. 155. 176. 178 Recessive trait, 229 Roe v. Wade. 930
Pollution. 74G. 882-83. 933 Prostate gland, 182, 186 Recombinant DNA, 260-62 Root, growth, 669-70
Polychaeta, 985 Proteins. 107. 109. 256. 315, 564-65. Recombination, 176, 291. 941 Root cap, 661. 668
Polypeptide, 114 601 genetic. 285-87 Root hairs, 661, 662-63
Polyplacophora, 983 Protein synthesis. 244-50 Record keeping, 953-55 Roots, 369. 430, 442, 454-55.
Polysaccharides. 112 Prot hrombin. 577 Rectum. 538 658- 64,698
Polytrichium, 4144 454 Protista, 336. 341 Rcctus abdominis, 612 Root tip. 156. 173
Pomacanthus, 501 Protists, 340, 971-73 Rect us femoris, 612 Rosa. 330
Ponderosa pine, 31.69, 465 autotrophic. 410-17 Red algae, 414-16. 973 Rosaccae. 979
Ponds. 356, 813. 854, 855-57, heterotroph ic. 398-410 ;led devils, 638 Roses, 707
880-81 Protons. 96 Red kangaro o. 504 Rotifera, 337
Pongids, 786 Protoplast fusion. 709 Red monkey flower, 468 Rotifers, 337, 982
Poplar, 399 Protoplasts, 709 Red shouldered hawk. 503 Roundworms. 494-95. 508, 983
Poppy, 7, 469, 471 Protozoa. 340, 398-99 Red sponge, 491 rRNA. See Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Population biologist, 745 Protozoan. 394 Redspotted toads, 164 Rudbeckia triloba, 468
Population cycles. 728-29 Pseudomonas, 941 Reefer, 639, 640 Rumen, 363
Populations. 29-61. 301 Pseudomonas flourescens. 941 Reefs, 62, 876 Russian thistle, 737
change model, 723-25 Pseudopod. 402 Reindeer. 33-34 Rust, 425
changes in, 726-35 Pseudotriton rube,. 502 Reindeer moss, 432
and dispersal. 733 Pseudotsuga memiesil. 465 Related ancestry, 315
and environments. 41-55. 715-25 Psilocybin, 639, 640 Relative humidity, 64 S
and evolution, 281 Psilophyta, 336 Remoras, 71
and factors. 55-56 Psilophytes, 975 Replication. 153. 253 Sabellastarte, 496
and field data, 729-32 Psilotunt, 456 Reproduction, 165-70 Sabertooth cat. 778
and fluctuations. 727. 812 Psychoactive drugs, 640-41 asexual. 167. 169-70, 421. 427. Sac fungi, 422, 423, 514
future. 932-33 Psychoactive substances. 637-39. 523 Sacrymyces palmatus, 140
and generalizations. 726 640-41 cell. 150-60 Safety, chemical, 957-62
graph, 723 Ptarmifian, 812 and continuity, 165-91 Safety guidelines, 951-52
growth, 32-35 Ptcrophyta, 336. 440. 457 sexual, 167. 169-74. 421. 423. Salamander, 296, 316
human. 720-22 Puffballs. 425 523 Salination, 860
and individuals. 29-40 Punctuated equilibrium. 299, 300 and vegetative. 167. 169-70 Salinity, 869, 878-80
open and closed. 726 Pure Food and Drug Act, 930 Reproductive structures, and life Salivary glands, 538
and size. 287-88. 727-28 Pyramid of biomass. 80 cycles. 450-52 Sallx, 469
study of, 42-45, 743-48 Pyramid of timbers, 80 Reproductive systems, 182. 185, Salmon, 294
tagged. 746 Pyramids 520-23 Sampling, 45
world and cities. 905 age, 933 Reptiles, 205, 344. 490, 502 Sanitation, 50-51
world and United States. 728 food energy. 79 !loin's. 990 Sarcodines, 337, 402, 971
Porifera, 337, 489, 490 Pyridoxine. 554 Resistence, 378-80 Saturate.: fats, 557
Porpoise. 504 Pyrococcus furiosus. 362 Resources. 35-40, 56, 900 Savannas, 830-32
Posterior. 482 Pyrodictium occultum. 362 Respiration Scallop, 495
Posture. ns Pyruvic acid, 547 aerobic. 692-93 Scanning electron microscope (STEM),
Pot. 639. 640 cellular, 15. 105.541 -54, 590 133. 134. 159. 172, 395, 401,
Potassium. 18.52, 556, 601. 664. 869 and environment, 694 402. 404, 412. 443. 647
Potato blight. 372. 373
Prairie. 824. 825
0 in plants, 692-96 Cca phoda. 984
Respiratory pathway, 552 Scapula, 612
PreCamurian, 440. 490. 758 Quality, of life, water, 904-8 Restaurant. fast-food. 72-73 Scavengers. 71
Precipitation, and biomes. 823-29. Quaternary. 758 Retinol, 554 Schistosoma haematobium, 524
830-36 Queen angelfish. 501 Rh antibodies, 586 Schleiden, Matthias, 129
Precis lavinia coenla. 499 Quinlan. Karen Ann, 938 Rh disease, 586 Schwann, Theodor. 129, 130
Predation. 68 Rhinocheitus lecontef. 502 Scientific Amerkan, 346
Predators. 68.831 Rhi:oblum, 369 Scorpio, 497
Premature babies. 213 R Rhizoids, 454 Scripps Institution of Oceanogra:hy.
Prenatal diagnosis. 212 Rhizome. 456 872
Pressure-flow. 657 Rabbit. 762. 825 Rhi:opus stolnnifer. 421 Scrophulariaco, 979
Prey, 68 Raccoon. 504 Rhodomicrobium vanielli, 367 Scrotum, 181
Priapulids, 987 Radial symmetry. 482 Rhodophyta, 336, 414 Scurvy. 373
Primary growth. 667-68 Radiation. 602-3, 762 Rhodospirillum rubrum, 335 Scyphozoa. 981
Primary succession. 737-40 Radioactivity, 251, 757 Rhynia major. 456 Sea anemones. 491. 492, 877
Primates. 320. 992 Radiolarian, 402 Ribbon worms. 982 Seagulls. 526
brain evolution. 779-82 Radius, 612 Riboflavin, 554 Sea lettuce, 413
classification of, 782-84 Rain, acid. See Add rain Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 119. 120, Sea !ion, 504
Primitive vascular plants. 455-61 Rainbow trout, 864 254-55, 680 Sea slug, 339
Primrose. 644 Rain forests. 275. 425, 819 - 23.842 and classification, 315 Sea urchin, 171
as enzyme, 346 Seawater, 869, 870
and viruses. 383-84

112 3
 Index 1023

Scanbarbital, 638 Social behavior. 893. 924-25. 926-27 Subunit. 112 Thymosin, 627
Secondary growth. 667-68, 670-72 Sociobiologists. 925-26 Suburbs. and cities. (0. 9 Thyms. 581
Secondary succession. 737-40 Sodium. 18. 96. 97. 556.401. 869 Succession. 736 - 43.848 Thyroid gland. 625.627
S-action. 600-601 Soil. 427-29. 494. 911 Succulent. 673 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TS' I).
Sediments, 864 Soil bacteria. 367-71 Sucrose. 651 627
Sedum. 673 Soil Conservation Act. 930 Sugar, and water. 654-56 Thyroxin. 625. 626.627
Seed coat 664-65 Solutes. 146 Sugars. 120. 657 Thy sanu ra. 986
Seed germination. 76-77 Solvent. 146 and Calvin cycle. 688-89 Tibia. 612
Seedling. 31. 231-33. 665-67 South Dakota. 57 and stems. 652-53 Tide (o)1.877
Seed plants, 461-77 Southcrn Impart, frog. 317 Sulfur. 52, 664. 869 Time scale. geologic. 7511
Seeds. 449. 466. 467. 475-77. 733 Sow bug. 498 Sulfur cycle. 884 Tipulidac. 499
and plant ovaries. 470-74 Soybean. 369 Sulphur. 18. 556 Tissue culture, 708-9
and seedlings. 665-67 Space. 56-58 Sumatra. 459 Tissues. and Ili. 100
Segmented worms, 984 Spaceship Earth. 922 Summer. h.5 Toads. 164
Segregation. principle of. 236 Sparrow. 717 Sunflowe s. 910 Tobacco. 232. 374. 637. 639. 640
Selection. 291 Spawning, 294 Sunlight. 104.678 Tocophcrol. 554
natural. See Natural selection Speciation, 296-300 Supplementary investigations. 957-68 Tolerance. 716-20
and survival, 715-51 Species. 68. 72-74. 291, 343 Support. 519 - 20.673 -74 Tontato..56. 470. 663-64. 719
Selective breeding. 708-9 and classification, 313-14 Suppressor T cells. 584. 585 Tongue. 538
Selenium. 18 Spectrum. 68I.682 Survival. and selection. 715-51 Tonsils. 581
Semen. 186 Speed. 639. 640 Sutton. Walter S.. 238. 239 Torpor. 829
minal vesicle. 186 Spcnophyta. 336 Swallowtail butterfly, 480 Touch. 622-23
4 See Scanning electron Sperm cells. 170. 171. 172. 181-83 Swaim S.111y. 147 Touchmcnot. 471
microscope (SEM) Sphagnum. 454. 455 Symmetry, 481-82 Toxics. 424.884 -87
Senate Select Committee on Sphenophyta, 440. 456 Sympathetic nervous system 620. 635 Trachea. 591. 592
Nutrition and Human Needs. Sphincter. 538 Synapse. 617. 618 Tracheid cells. 656
555 Spider monkcys. 822 Synedra. 412 Tracheids. 655
Senses. chemical. 534-36 Spiders. 5. 6. 497. 641 Synthesis. 97. 116.248 -50 TradsolTs, 880
Sensory neurons. 617. 618 Spindle fibers. 154 Synrheroceras, 778 Traffic. 908
Sensory receptors. 622-24 Spines. 672. 673, 763 Traits. Xnked. 245-46
Sepals. e 16 Spiny.hcadcd worms. 983 Tranquilizers. 637. 638. 640
Sequok rempervirens. 329. 438 Spiny lobster. 498
Sessile. 482.489 Spiralshelled snails. 67
T Transfer RNA (t RNA). 254. 255.
256. 257
Sewage. 882-83 Spirits, 638. 640 Tagetes. 472 Transmission cler:ron microscope
Sc x chromosomes, 239 Spirogyra, 410 Tagged population. 746 (TEM). 133. 138. 360. 3A2
Sexual reproduction. 167. 169-70. Spkella pufilla.717 Ta:sa, 802, 813-14 Transpiration, 648-49. 656-57. 672
421. 423. 523 Splash, 639, 640 Tape grass, 67 Transplant. liver. 589-90
Shark. 71. 501 Spleen, 581 Tapeworm. 493 Transport. 14S.509 -12
Shelter. 37 Sponges. 337. 489. 981. 508 'Taproot system. 661. 662 Trcc. 71
877 body plan. 491 Tar pits. 778 Trcc frog. 821
9day plant. 707 Sporangia. 398. 456. 458 Tarsals. 612 Trcc pipit. 735
'9.772 Spores. 359. 372. 456. 457 Tarsier. 783 Trcc rings. 671
Sicklecell anemia. 721 Sporephytes, 444, 445. 459 Taste. 534-36 Trees. 735. 902. 913
Sieve plate, 656 SporozIans, 336. 403. 971 Taste buds. 533 Tranatoda. 982
Sieve tutee. 656 Spring. 815 Tatum. E. 1... 249 Triassic. 440. 490. 753. 773, 776-77
Sight. 623 Spruce. 31. 338 Taung baby. 784 Tribonenta aequale. 340
SIgillarla. 458 Squid. 874 Taxonomy. 311. 315. 320. 322. 342 Triceps. 612. 613
Silicon, 18.869 Squirrel. 762. 817 TaySaehs disease. 224. 2A. 244. 374 Trichinella spiralis. 494
Silicon Valley. 912 Stability T cell. 581. 582. 584. 585 Trillium. 817
Silkworm. 500 ecosystem. 80-90 Technology. and future. 937-46 Trilobite. 761
Silurian. 440. 490, 758 genetic. 289-90 Teeth. 325, 326. 538. 766 Tripeptide 114
Sirenia, 994 Stag beetle. 499 Telophase, 154. 155, 177 tRNA. See Transfer RNA ((RNA)
Size Stamens. 446 Temperature. 64. 327. 513-14. Tropical rain forest. 819-23
of animals. 483-84 Stand:as fresh waters. 853-63 601 -5.936 Tropisms. 702-6
and population, 287 - 88.727 -28 Starch. 112 TEM. See Transmission electron Trout. 864
variation in. 271-72 Starfish. 169. 754. 876. 877 microscope (TEM) Trypanotoma gamblense. 401
Skag, 638. 640 Starlings. 70 Tendril. 674 Tsetse flies. 376. 377
Skcictal muscle. 610 Stars. 347-49 Terminal bud. 653 TSIi. See Thyroid stimulating
Skcictal system. human. 612 Stegosaurus. 759 Terrestrial animals. 483 tiormone (TSII)
Skeletons. 326. 328. 500-504 Stems. 454 - 55.65' 'CO Tertiary. 758 Two. 330
and muscles. 519-20 Stentor. 394 Testes. 175. 18: -83. 625. 627 Tubal ligation, 215
study of. 786-88 Sterile. 314 Testis. See Testes Tuberculosis, 51
Skin color. 793 Sternum. 612 Testosterone. 627 Tube worms. 875
Skull. 325.612 Stewards. 918 Tetrahymena. 483 Tubules. 570
Skunk. 67 Stigma. 446 Tetrahymena pyrfformis. 404 Tubulidcntata. 993
Slash and burn agriculture. 917 Stimulants. 638.-39. 640 Tetrahymena thermophIla. 346 Tumors. 218, 219. 785
Sleeping sickness. 376. 377. 400. 401 Stimuli. 517-19. 623-24. 629. 702 Thalidomide. 211 Tundra, 802. 810-13. 839
Slime molds. 336. 340. 395-99, 972 Sting ray. 501 Theory. 279 Turbellaria, 982
Sloth. 778 Stomach. 537. 538 Thermal pollution. 746 Turgor pressure. 649-52
Slug. 339 Stomata. 134. 443. 646 Thermoacidophiles. 337 Turncr syndrome. 242
Smack. 638.640 Storage. and leaves. 673-74 Thermoacidophilic rchaebactcria. Tursiops, 504
Small intestine. 538 Strata. 756 362 Turtles. 67-68, 205. 206. 344
Smell. 535-36 Stratification. 756 Thermoclinc. 859-61
Smog. 84 Strawberry. 166.473 Thiamine. 554
Smooth muscle. 609.610 Streams. 356. 441. 863-64. 884 Thlopedla. 367
Snail darter. 943 Stress. 628-29 Thlosplrillunt, 367
Snails. 67 Striat,s1 muscle. 619.610 Thistle. 737 141 L'intarherhon. 762
Snakes, 171, 344. 502 Stroke 555 Three Sisters. 90 Ulna. 612
Sneeze. 381 Stroma, 680 Thrombin. 577 Ulm 413
Snow. 639. 640 Strontium. 869 Thrombus. 578 Umbelliferae. 979
Snowshoe hare. 729.812 Subspecies. 291 Thylakoids, 680 Umbilical cord. 207
Snowy owl. 811 Substrates. 115. 116 Thymine, 121. 252. 253. 255 Undernourished. 52

1124
1024 Index

Unicellular organisms. 134 Vasoprcssin. 627 and intestines. 540 Woody stem, growth. 671
Unitcd States history, and agriculture, Vector. 376 and ncphrons, 601 Work, and energy. 101-2
911-13 Vegetative reproduction. 167. 168-69 and pH. 99-100 World Ilealt Organiration. 83
Unitcd Statcs Olympic Training Veins. 572. 573. 646 and prokaryotes. 357-60 Worms, 337. 429. 873. 875
Ccntcr, 614 Velvet worms, 987 quality of. 906-8
Unsaturatcd fats. 557 Ventral. 482 sea. 869. 870
Uppers. 639. 640 Ventricle. 573 standing fresh. 853-63
Uracil, 255 Vertebrae. 500.612
X
and sugar. 654-56
Urban biome. 901-4 Vertebrata, 989 and turgor pressure. 649-52 Xestospongia mum. 491
Urban planning. 913 Vertebrates. 280. 316 Water cycle. 861 Xlinked traits. 245-46
Urchin. sca. 172 Vesicles. 13S Water mite. 497 X rays. 281
Urea. 516. 601 Vessel cells. 656 Watson. J. D.. 252 Xylem. 442. 654, 656-57. 661
Uredinales, 425 Vessels. 579. 581. 655 Wavelengths. 681. 682 Xysireus. 497
Ureter. 182. 185. 596 Vireos. 818 Waves. 94
Urethra. 182. 596 Viroids, viruses, and prions, 383-88 Waxflowcr. 338
Um, Harold. 349 Virulence, 378-80 Weasel. 321
Uric acid. 516 Viruses. 251. 352. 357, 584. 383-88 Weather, 46
Urinary system. 596 Vitatnins, 109. 373, 554 Web. of life. 5-27 Yeast. 43.44. 424
Urine. 598. 600 Volcanic eruption. 736 Weed, 639. 640 Yeast cells. 693
Urochordata, 989 Volume. 956 Weger.
cr. Alfred. 770 Yellow jackets. 638
Uterus. 184. 185. 207 Vokoz. 410 Western longnosed snake. 502 Yellow skunk cabbage. 472
Vorticella canzpanzua. 404 Wet biome. 836-41 Yellowstone National Park. 366
Vulpes, 320 Whales. 316, 394. 483. 762. 874 Yolk. 194
V Whcat, 78, 897 Yolk sac. 206
Whisk ferns. 336. 456 Yucca bretifolia. 714
Vaccination, 380 W Whitefish. 157. 187
Vaccines, 51 White-tailed deer, 817
Vacuoles. 137. 139 Wallace. Alfred Russel, 278. 279
Vagina. 184. 185 Warblers. 503. 634, 734
Whooping cranes. 86
Wildebeest. 831
z
Valium. 638. 640 Washingtonia, 330 Wilderness, 918 ?Aug. Arthur J.. 346
Valves. heart. 574 Washoc. 633 Wilkins, M. H. F.. 252 Zebras, 831
Varattops. 760 Wastes. 516. 882-83. 888 Willow. 469. 810 Zinc. IL 52. 557. 664
Variables, 23 Water. 37. 39-40, 49-50. 58, 96. 97. Wilsonia canadensis, 503 Zone, littoral. 876-78
Variation. 271-72 98,440 -43 Wine. 638. 640 Zoologist, 129
natural. See Natural variation coastal. 875-76 Winter. 815 Zooplankton, 857
Vascular cylinder. 661 and diffusion. 146-48 nuclear. See Nuclear winter Zygomyeota, 336, 421
Vascular plants, primitive. 455-61 and excretion, 5i4 -I6 Winternitr. Barbara. 13 Zygospores, 421
Vas dcfcrcns. 182, 184 flowing, 863-68 Wolves. 320, 321. 895 Zygotes. 172. 193-94. 280.414
Vasectomy. 215 Woodpeckers, 503. 818