28 Jan 2020

Arguments and Euler Diagrams

Many arguments involve sets whose
elements are described using the quantifiers all,
some, and none. The following figures show Euler
diagrams that illustrate the four possible
relationships that can exist between two sets.

Arguments
and Euler Diagrams
All Ps are Qs. Some Ps are Qs. No Ps are Qs. Some Ps are not Qs.

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Example Example
Determine if the argument is valid or Determine if the argument is valid or invalid.
invalid.
IP
college courses Some Impressionist paintings are Renoirs.
All college courses are fun. Dance at Bougival is an Impressionist painting. D D
This course is a college course. ∴ Dance at Bougival is a Renoir.
C
∴ This course is fun.
U R
Invalid
U fun courses
(Conclusion does not necessarily follow from the
Valid premises. D may be placed in 2 places.)

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Example
Determine if the argument is valid or invalid.

No psychologist can juggle. All clowns can

juggle. Therefore, no psychologist is a clown.

P C
Mathematical Reasoning
Ps

U J Valid

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Inductive versus Deductive Reasoning Inductive versus Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of making Deductive reasoning is the process of making
general conclusions based on specific examples. specific conclusions based on general principles.

Examples: Examples:
1. Every object that I release from my hand falls to
the ground. Therefore, the next object I release 1. All men are mortal. I am a man. Therefore, I am
from my hand will fall to the ground. mortal.
2. Every crow I have seen is black. Therefore, all 2. If 6x = 12, then x = 2.
crows are black.

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Inductive versus Deductive Reasoning Rules of Inference

Science is the application of inductive Arguments can be shown to be valid if they
reasoning to build knowledge based on have the same symbolic form as an argument that is
observable evidence. That is why every statement known to be valid. The rules of inference tie together
in science is considered a theory. The only way to
prove it is to collect more evidence. However, the steps of a proof.
there is always the probability that future
evidence could prove the statement false.
Mathematics is deductive reasoning
applied to relations among patterns, shapes,
forms, structures, and even changes. Deductive
reasoning is always valid.

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Rules of Inference Examples

Rule of Inference Name Rule of Inference Name What rule of inference is used in each of the following
~q arguments?
p Modus tollens
___________ Addition 𝑝→𝑞
∴𝑝∨𝑞
_________ (the mode of denying) 1. Anna is a human resource management major.
∴ ~𝑝
Therefore, Anna is either human resource
𝑝→𝑞
𝑝∧𝑞 management major or a computer application major.
_________ Simplification q→𝑟 Hypothetical syllogism
_________
∴𝑝 2. Ben is a designer and a game developer. Therefore,
∴𝑝→𝑟
p 𝑝∨𝑞 Ben is a game designer.
q Conjunction ~p Disjunctive syllogism
_________ _________ 3. If it rains today, the college will be closed. The college
∴𝑝∧𝑞 ∴𝑞 is not closed today. Therefore, it did not rain today.
p
𝑝→𝑞 Modus ponens
_________ (the mode of affirming)
∴𝑞

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Examples Fallacies
What rule of inference is used in each of the following Fallacies are incorrect reasoning which appear to follow the
arguments? rules of inference but are based on contingencies rather than
tautologies. These are invalid arguments.
4. If it is rainy, then the oval will be closed. It is rainy.
Therefore, the oval is closed.
Some types of fallacies:
5. If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If
I stay in the sun too long, then I will get burned.
1. The fallacy of affirming the conclusion is based on the compound
proposition [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑞] → 𝑝.
Therefore, if I go swimming, then I will get burned.
2. The fallacy of denying the hypothesis is based on the compound
proposition 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑝 → ~𝑞.
3. Circulus in Probando or circular reasoning is an argument that uses a
premise as the conclusion.

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Examples Some Methods of Proof

Determine if the following arguments are valid. If not,
what fallacy was committed? Method of Proof Description
1. If I have a cold, then I find it difficult to sleep. I find it A proof that the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true by showing that q must be
difficult to sleep. Therefore, I have a cold. Direct Proof
true if p is true.
2. Golden State Warriors is the best basketball team Indirect Proof
A proof that the implication 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true by showing that p must be
because there is no basketball team that is better false when q is false.
than the Golden State Warriors. Let P(n) be a proposition for each positive integer n. If the following
two conditions are satisfied, then P(n) is true for all positive integers n:
3. If you do every problem in a math book, then you will Proof by Mathematical
• The proposition P(1) is true.
learn mathematics. You did not do every problem in Induction
• The implication P(n) → P(n+1) is shown to be true for every positive
the book. Therefore, you did not learn mathematics. integer n.

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Examples Examples
Give a direct proof of the statement, “If n is odd, then 𝑛2 is Give an indirect proof of the theorem, “If 3n +2 is odd,
odd.” then n is odd.”

Suppose n is odd. Then, n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. It Assume that n is even (negation of odd). Then n = 2k for
follows that 𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1 some integer k. It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2= 6k + 2
= 2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1. Therefore, 𝑛2 is odd. = 2(3k + 1). Hence, 3n + 2 is even. Since the negation of
the conclusion of the implication implies that the
hypothesis is false, the original implication is true.

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Examples Examples
𝑛(𝑛+1) If n = 3, verify if P(3) is true.
Prove: 1 + 2 + 3+ … + n = for every positive integer n.
2 3(3 + 1)
1+2+3 =
I. Verification 2
3(4)
If n = 1, verify if P(1) is true. 6=
2
1(1+1) 1(2)
1= = =1 ∴ 𝑃 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒. 6=6 ∴ 𝑃 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.
2 2
If n = 2, verify if P(2) is true. II. Hypothesis of Induction
2(2 + 1) Assume that the statement is true for n = k, that is, P(k) is
1+2= true.
2
2(3) 𝑘(𝑘+1)
3= 1 + 2 + 3+ … + k = (eq. 1)
2 2
3=3 ∴ 𝑃 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.

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Examples Examples
Prove that the statement is true for n = k + 1, that is, P(k + 1) is 𝑘+1 [ 𝑘+1 +1] 𝑘(𝑘+1)
= + (k + 1)
true. 2 2
𝑘+1 𝑘+2 𝑘(𝑘+1) 2(𝑘+1)
𝑘+1 [ 𝑘+1 +1] = +
1 + 2 + 3+ … + k + (k + 1) = 2
(eq. 2) 2 2 2
𝑘 2 +𝑘 2𝑘+2
Since eq. 1 is 1 term away from eq. 2 = 2
+ 2
𝑘(𝑘+1) 𝑘 2+𝑘+2𝑘+2
1 + 2 + 3+ … + k + (k + 1) = 2
+ (k + 1) (eq. 3) =
2
Substituting the LHS of eq. 3 with that of eq. 2 𝑘 2 +3𝑘+2
𝑘+1 [ 𝑘+1 +1] 𝑘(𝑘+1)
= 2
= + (k + 1)
2 2 𝑘+1 𝑘+2 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
=
2 2
∴ 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.

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Examples
III. Conclusion
Since the statement is true for n = k + 1, then
it must be true for all higher natural number.

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