NR401 Dr. A.

Bhattacharya 1

ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
LECTURE 4
Lecture 4
 EM radiation
2

 Electromagnetic (EM) forms the basic source of remote

sensing observation.

 Understanding basic properties of EM waves

 Produced by
 Motion of electric charge
 Changing electrical field are set up by oscillating charged
particles
 Changing electrical fields induces changing magnetic fields in
the surrounding medium.

NR401 Dr. A. Bhattacharya

 EM radiation
3

 Time varying electric field produces a time varying

magnetic fields and vice-versa

 Once generated, the EM wave is self propagating

 Wave energy travels across space

 Waves  Electric + Magnetic fields

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 EM radiation
4

 Propagation in homogenous + isotropic media 

direction of the 2 fields are at right angles to each
other

 Electric and Magnetic fields are right angle to the

propagation direction

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 EM fields and waves
5

 First order Maxwell-Lorentz equation

 Equating  A set of second-order
 
differential
equations for the fields E and B
 Second-order equations  wave equation

 Maxwell equations are postulates

 Axiomatic foundation of classical electrodynamics
 Describe in scalar and vector differential equations in
time t   and x   3

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6

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 Maxwell equations
7

 Maxwell equations are 4 first-order differential

equations that are coupled

2 Scalar equations 3D Euclidean vector

form representing 3
scalar equations
each
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 Maxwell equations
8

 In the process of de-coupling

 the equations,

we obtain one
second-order equation in E and one in B

 These second-order partial differential equations are  wave

equation

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 Maxwell equations
9

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 Maxwell equations
10

 General wave equations for the electromagnetic fields,

generated in regions where there exist sources
and   x, t  of any kind j ( x, t )

 Outside source region   x, t  =0 j ( x, t ) =0

 Uncoupled homogenous equation

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 Maxwell equations
11

 EM waves are vector waves  exhibit wave

polarization

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 Speed of light
12

 Various properties of EM waves can be deduced

from Maxwell’s equations

1
cm 


  0  8.85 x 10-12 Farad/m

   0  4π x 10-7 Henry/m

1
c  3 x 108 m/s
 0 0

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 Refractive index/Dielectric constant
13

    r  and    r 

 r is the relative permittivity (called dielectric constant)

  r is the relative permeability

1 1 1
cm  
 r  0 r 0  r r  00
c c
cm  
 r r n

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 Refractive index/Dielectric constant
14

 n is referred to as refractive index

 The media we consider are generally non-magnetic and

hence  r  1

n  r

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 Permittivity/Permeability
15

 Permittivity:
 The property of a medium which influences the force between
electrical charges.
 The permittivity of a medium/material is usually referred with
respect to permittivity of free space  Relative permittivity
(Dielectric constant)

 Permeability:
 Magnetic property of the material
 Measure of ‘conducting’ the magnetic lines of forces into the
material

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 Propagation of EM waves from one
16
medium to another
 EM wave falls on a boundary between 2 lossless
homogenous media with different refractive
index

 Part reflected back to incident medium (Fresnel

reflection)
 Transmitted on second medium

 Absorbed and emitted by the surface

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 Propagation of EM waves from one
17
medium to another

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 Interaction of EM waves with Earth's
18
surface
 EM on interaction experiences :
 Changes in magnitude

 Changes in direction

 Changes in wavelength

 Changes in phase

 Changes in polarization

 Changes detected by remote sensors

 Interpreter to obtain useful information about the object of
interest

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 Interaction of EM waves with Earth's
19
surface
 Viewpoint of interaction mechanism
 Visible
----------- Infrared wavelengths (0.3µm –
16µm)  3 regions

 0.3µm – 3µm  Reflective region

 3µm – 5.5µm  Reflection/Self emission
 8µm – 14µm  Thermal infrared

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 Reflection
20

 Surface reflection are most useful in RS applications

 The reflection intensity depends on the surface
refractive index/absorption coefficient/angle of
incidence

a. Perfect specular
b. Near perfect specular
c. Lambertian
d. Quasi-Lambertian
e. Complex/Diffused

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 Spectral Signature
21

 Spectral reflectance ρ(λ) is the ratio of reflected

energy to incident energy as a function of
wavelength

E R ( )
 ( )  100
E I ( )

 ( )  Spectral reflectance at a particular wavelength

E R ( )  Energy of wavelength reflected from a object
E I ( )  Energy of wavelength incident upon a object

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 Absorption
22

 In EM domain  materials broadly classified as

conductors and dielectrics (insulators)

 There is no sharp distinction between dielectrics and

conductors

 1  Conductor



 1  Dielectric


 : Conductivi ty
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 Absorption
23

 A lossy dielectric can be characterized by a

complex dielectric constant

   '  i ''

'
 The real part  correspond to the loss-less
component
"
 The real part  correspond to the lossy
component
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 Absorption
24

 Refractive index :

n   Complex quantity

n  n '  in "

  n
'
  n   ( Ulaby,
' 2 " 2

 1986 )
" ' "
  2n n 

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 Absorption
25

 In a lossy medium as the wave propagates

 Amplitude  Intensity gets progressively reduced

 The power density EZ at a point z

E Z  E0 e  K a z

 Kais the power absorption coefficient and has

the unit of inverse of length

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 Absorption
26

 Penetration depth
 Defined as the depth at which the power is reduced
by 1
e

For  "   '

1 0  '
la  
Ka 2 "
0 : Free space wavelength

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 Scattering
27

 If the medium is not homogenous  Dielectric

discontinuities

 EM radiation  Absorbed + Scattered

 Intensity reduced

 Radiation scattered out to other direction  reducing

the amount of radiation in the incident direction

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 Scattering
28

 Scattering coefficient  K S

 Scattering length  ls

 The combined effect of scattering + absorption 

Attenuation

 In RS  Inhomogeneous medium

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 Scattering
29

K e    K a    K s  

Ks
Single scattering albedo : 0 
Ke

0 is essentially the probability that given an interaction

between a photon and a particle, the photon will be scattered
rather than absorbed

0  1 : Attenuation by scattering
0  0 : Attenuation by absorption

NR401 Dr. A. Bhattacharya

 Quantum nature of EM radiation
30

 EM radiation  Dual nature  Wave and Particle

 Wave nature  Interference, diffraction,

polarization

 Particle nature  Photoelectric effect

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 Quantum nature of EM radiation
31

 Quantum theory  EM radiation moves in space

as discrete packets or quanta of energy

 Each quantum of radiation  Photon

 Energy
c
Q  h  h


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 Quantum nature of EM radiation
32

Q  Energy of quanta, joules (J)

h  Planck' s constant, 6.626  10 34 J sec
  Frequency

The longer the wavelength involved, the lower its

energy content.

Naturally emitted long wavelength radiation 

Microwave emission from terrain feature is more
difficult to sense than radiation of shorter
wavelengths  emitted Thermal IR energy

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 Thermal Radiation
33

 Any object above absolute zero (0 K or -273 ˚C)

emits radiation

 An ideal thermal radiator is called a black-body

 emits radiation as per Plank’s law

 2 1
2hc 2  M   Spectral radiant exitance (Wm m )
M  
5  ch    k  Boltzman's constant (1.3805  10 23WsK 1 )
 exp   1
  kT   

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 Thermal Radiation
34

 A blackbody is an ideal surface such that

 It
absorbs all incident radiation regardless of the
wavelength or direction of incident radiation

 Fora given temperature and wavelength, no body

can emit more energy than a black body

 Black body is diffuse emitter

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 Thermal Radiation
35

 The total emission within all the wavelength can

be found out by integrating Planck’s equation

   
2hc 2
 0M   0 5   ch  d
 exp   1
  kT  

M Total  T 4 ;  : Stefan - Boltzman's constant

Stefan-Boltzman’s Law

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 The Sun produces a
continuous spectrum
36 of energy from gamma
rays to radio waves

Various parts of the

EM spectrum may
differentiated using
wavelength (measured
in micrometers or
nanometers, i.e., λm or
nm) or electron volts
(eV).

2 Visible portion – 0.4 to

0.7 λm (~10-7 m range)
Jensen 2005

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 Spectral Bandwidths of Landsat and SPOT
Sensor Systems
37

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 Thermal Radiation
38

 In addition to computing the total amount of energy

exiting a theoretical blackbody such as the Sun, we
can determine its dominant wavelength (λmax) based
on Wein's displacement law:

k
max 
T

where k is a constant = 2898 mm K, and T is the

absolute temperature in Kelvin

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 Blackbody radiation curves
39

•The area under each curve may

be summed to compute the total
radiant energy exiting each object.

•The Sun produces more radiant

exitance than the Earth because
its temperature is greater.

•As the temperature of an object

increases, its dominant
wavelength (λmax ) shifts toward
the shorter wavelengths of the
spectrum.

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 Radiation curves of the earth and Sun
40

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 Thermal Radiation
41

 The value of the exitance at the peak wavelength

is given by max

M max  bT 5

b  1.286  10-11 Wm 2 m 1 K 5

All the equations assumes that the black body emits radiation
in vacuum. For a medium with refractive index n
k
max 
nT
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 Atmospheric Scattering
42

 Scattering is the process by which small particles suspended

in a medium of a different index of refraction diffuse a
portion of the incident radiation in all directions.

Incident
sunlight

Scattered light

Atmospheric
particles

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 Atmospheric Scattering
43

 Scattering not only reduces the image contrast but also

changes the spectral signature of ground objects seen

 Scatter differs from reflection in that the direction associated

with scattering is unpredictable, whereas the direction of
reflection is predictable.

 With scattering, there is no energy transformation, but a

change in the spatial distribution of the energy.

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 Atmospheric Scattering
44

Type of scattering is a function of:

• The wavelength of the incident radiant energy
• Their abundance
• The size of the particles
• The depth of the atmosphere

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 Rayleigh scattering occurs when the diameter of the matter
Rayleigh (usually air molecules) are many times smaller than the
wavelength of the incident electromagnetic radiation.
scattering
It is impossible to predict the direction in which a specific atom
45 or molecule will emit a photon, hence scattering.

The approximate amount of Rayleigh scattering in the

atmosphere in optical wavelengths (0.4 – 0.7 mm) may be
computed using the Rayleigh scattering cross-section algorithm:

m 

8 3 n 2  1 2


3N 2 4 
where n = refractive index, N = number of air molecules per
unit volume, and λ = wavelength.

The amount of scattering is inversely related to the fourth power

of the radiation's wavelength. For example, blue light (0.4 m)
is scattered 16 times more than near-infrared light (0.8 m).

0.7
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 Rayleigh scattering - effects
46

• Haze in satellite imagery, which diminishes crispness or

contrast of an image.

• Images taken in shorter wavelengths are more strongly

affected by Rayleigh scattering

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 Mie scattering
47

• Mie scattering takes place when there are essentially spherical particles
present in the atmosphere with diameters approximately equal to the
wavelength of radiation being considered.

• For visible light, water vapor, dust, and other particles ranging from a
few tenths of a micrometer (Visible) to several micrometers (NIR) in
diameter are the main scattering agents.

• It influences the entire spectral region from UV  IR regions

• Leads to diffused images, especially in overcast conditions.

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 Non-selective scattering
48

• Non-selective scattering is produced by particles several times the

diameter of the radiation being transmitted.

• This type of scattering is non-selective, i.e. all wavelengths of light are

scattered, not just blue, green, or red  wavelength independent

• For example, water droplets, which make up clouds and fog banks,
scatter all wavelengths of visible light with equal intensity. These
objects therefore appear white  Clouds

• Scattering can severely reduce the information content of remotely

sensed data to the point that the imagery looses contrast and it is
difficult to differentiate one object from another.

NR401 Dr. A. Bhattacharya

 Summary
49

• The sensor to be used for the given remote sensing task

cannot be selected arbitrarily.

• One must consider:

• the spectral sensitivity of the sensor available,

• the presence or absence of atmospheric windows in the

spectral range(s) one wishes to sense,

• the source, magnitude, and spectral composition of the

energy available in these ranges.

NR401 Dr. A. Bhattacharya