Ch.

2: Research Methods

Psychology​ is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes

Assumption: events are governed by some lawful order
Scientific approach: Searching for order
Goals:
1. Measurement and description (what?)
2. Explanation/Understanding (how?)
3. Prediction (when?)
4. Application and control
Stages in the Research Process
1. Initial observation & review of research literature
2. Research question - theory & hypothesis
3. Study Design
4. Data Collection & analysis
5. Evaluation of hypothesis / theory
Principle of Falsifiability
● A theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of
disconfirmation
● Good theory will predict not only what will happen, but may also what predict will not happen
● Bad scientific practice - HARKing (Hypothesizing After Results are Known)
The Scientific Method: Terminology
● Operational definition​ - clarifies precisely what is meant by each variable
● Participants ​or​ subjects​ - organisms whose beh. is systematically observed
● Statistics​ - used to analyze date and decide whether hypothesis are supported
● Findings shared through reports at ​scientific meetings ​and in​ scientific journals
HOMER ​an acronym for scientific method
● Hypothesize (Idea dev. & theory)
● Operationalize
○ Translate concepts into testable measurable ones
● Translate concepts into testable measurable ones
● Measure
 Examine ideas in a research design
● Evaluate - statistics
● Replicate/revise/report
Scientific Methods
● Procedures for gathering & interpreting data in ways that limit sources of error and yield
dependable conclusion
● Two frequent types of methods
○ EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
■ Q. does variable X have a causal effect on variable y
○ CORRELATION METHODS
■ Q. Is there an association between variable X and variable y?
Experimental Methods
● Two features of experiments
○ 1. Manipulation
■ Independent variable
○ 2. Control
■ Extraneous variable
● Thought experiment: effect of beer on memory
○ Hypothesis - people who drink too much beer will suffer impairment in memory
● Independent variable (I.V.)
○ Manipulated by experiment (amount of beer)
● Dependent variable (D.V.)
○ Variable measured by researcher to gauge effects of I.V. (# items recalled on memory
test)
● Extraneous variables
○ Other vars. that put into question the causal relationship between the I.V. and the D.V. by
providing alternative explanations for observed changes in D.V.
○ E.g., beer experience, weight
● I.V.
○ 3 levels or conditions that vary amount of alcohol:​ between-subjects​ design
■ 8 beer cond.​ (10 ​Ss) -​ ​ Ss: ​number of research participants
■ 2 beer cond.​ (10 ​Ss​)
■ 0 beer cond.​ (10 ​Ss​)
 ● Control cond.​ - no exposure to I.V.
● D.V.
○ # of words recalled from a list of 25 words
● Results​ (average scores of D.V.)
○ 8 beer cond. M=5
○ 2 beer cond. M = 12
○ 0 beer cond. M =20
● Conclusion?
○ Increase in alcohol consumption cause impairment in memory
Example Experiment
● BUT, ​WHAT IF​...
○ 0 beer cond. has 10 female​ Ss​ (M = 20)
○ 8 beer cond. has 10 male ​Ss ​(M = 5)
● Does the difference between the 2 conditions reflect effect of alcohol (I.V.) or of gender
(extraneous variable)?
○ Gender is an extraneous var. that provides an alternative explanation for the results
■ Female may be better at this task than males
Controlling for Extraneous Variables
● Random assignment of ​Ss​ to conditions
● Standardized of procedure
○ Liquid volume (​another extraneous var., but also a ​confounding var​.- systematically
changes with the desired I.V., amount of alcohol​), timing, place, experimenter,...
● Keep ​Ss c​ onstant on the extraneous variable
○ E.g., males only
● Include extraneous variable in the experiment
○ Two factor exp: amount of alcohol X gender
Quasi-Experimental Methods
● Different research​: comparison of pre-existing groups (e.g., women vs. men; French vs.
Italians;...)
○ Grouping variable such as gender is called a ​quasi-independent​ variable
○ Missing element of a true exp.?
■ Random assignment
 ● Time series research: ​comparison of same group at different times
○ Within-subjects ​design
■ Pre- and post-treatment
○ Missing element?
○ Less control over effects of time
Correlational Methods
Purpose
● Looks at the extent to which 2 vars. are related
Features
● Same measure given to same Ss
● No manipulation of vars. (no I.V. & D.V.)
○ Predictor & criterion variables
● Less control of extraneous variables
● Cannot draw causal inferences
X→Y
Y→X
But keep in mind...
X←Z→Y
Direction of Relationship?
● As # of storks nesting on roofs in winter increases, # of births 9 months later increases
● Why?
○ Storks → Births
○ Births → Storks
Storks
↗
Severe winters
↘
Births
- cont….
 Direction of rel.​ ​Psychological research
Relationship between viewing violence on TV & agressive beh. in children
Violence on TV → Aggressive beh.
Aggressive beh. → Prefer violent TV

Violence on TV
↗
Violent household
↘
Aggressive kids
● Research provides evidence for all three types of relationships
Descriptive Methods
● Broad cat. of method that includes cor. research
● Case study​: close observation of an individual
● Naturalistic Observation
○ Systematic description of beh. of ​Ss
○ In natural settings (e.g., Orangutans)
● Surveys
○ Questionnaires used to assess people's views about different issues
● Tests
○ Can be used to evaluate personality, aptitudes, interests, attitudes, and values
Problems in Psychological Research
● Demand characteristics (subject bias)
○ Participants feel obligated to researcher & may alter their natural beh.
○ Orne (1962) study of persistence
● Experimenter bias
○ Expectancies of the researcher may inadvertently bias the results
○ Rosenthal & Lawson (1964) bright & dull rats in a maze
● Subject & Experiment Biases
○ Solution: ​double-blind procedure
● Placebo Effect
○ Individual changes beh. b/c s/he believes treatment will be effective
 ○ Solution: ​placebo control
● Attention & honesty
WEIRD research participants in psychology Henrich, Heine, 7 Norenzayan (2010)
● Western
● Educated
● Industrialized
● Rich
● Democratic
● ….and Young
Ethics in Studying Humans
● Informed consent
○ Ss​ should receive enough info to decide if they want to participate
● Freedom to withdraw at any time
● Minimize discomfort
● Keep data confidential
● If deception is necessary, debriefing must occur

Ch. 2: Statistics & Research Methods

Graphing date
A. Raw data tallied into a frequency distribution
B. Bar graph called a histogram
C. A frequency polygon is plotted over the histogram
D. Frequency polygon is shown by itself

RESEARCH DEMO
● HYPOTHESIS. Info. that is visually encoded will be better recalled than info. that is auditorily
encoded
● I.V. Encoding strategy
● D.V. Recall score
● EXTRANEOUS VARS?
○ Age
 ○ Mother tongue

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
● Numerical summary measure of data
● Frequency distribution: shows how often each score (or group of scores) occurs
Measures of central tendency
1. Mode​: the most frequently occurring score
2. Median​: the middle score in a distribution (50% below & 50% above)
3. Mean​: average score
● M = ΣX / N
● Mean = Sum of scores / #observations
Measures of variability
● Stats indicating extent to which scores are spread out.
1. Range: ​Highest score - lowest score
2. Standard deviation (SD): ​extent to which scores are dispersed around the mean

Empirical rule for interpreting SD

In a ​normally distributed​ (bell-shaped) set of scores, approximately:
❖ 68% of the scores fall between 土 1 * SD around M
❖ 95% of the scores fall between 土 2 * SD around M
❖ 99% of the scores fall between 土 3 * SD around M
● Represent multiplication
● Example: If M = 100 and SD = 15, then 95% of the scores fall between:
❏ M 土 2 * SD
❏ 100 土 2 * 15
❏ 100 土 30
❏ (100 - 30) and (100 + 30)
❏ 70 & 130
Inferential Statistics
● Is the diff. b/w recall of “auditory” & “visual” encoding groups big enough to be meaningful?
Auditory Visual
N 23 23
Mean 8.95 14.12
SD 3.20 3.72
● What is the prob. of obtaining a diff. of 5.17 (14.12 - 8.95)?
● Null hyp.:​ diff. due to chance fluctuation (not meaningful) -- hyp. that is tested
● Alternative hyp.:​ diff. is meaningful & due to I.V.
● t-test compares difference between 2 means (calculated using Ms, Ns, and SD of both groups)
E.g.: t (44) = 4.99, p < .001
The prob. of obtaining this diff. is less than 1 in a 1,000 by chance
❏ Probable, therefore, that we observed a meaningful difference brought about by manipulation of
I.V.
❏ Reject null hypothesis
Statistics in correlational research
● r ​statistic: measure of association
➢ Correlation coefficient
➢ Can be + or - (direction of rel)
➢ From -1.00 to +1.00
(strength of relationship)
Scatter diagrams of positive and negative correlations.
Scatter diagrams plot paired X and Y scores as single points.
Positive (top) as opposed to negative (bottom) correlations.
Weaker correlations result in more scattered plots of data points
Meta-analysis
● An analysis of accumulated analyses looking at a particular research question (exp. or
cor.)
● First step is to collect all of the research replications of a particular questions
● Combine the statistical results of all studies
● Get an estimate of the size and consistency of an effect (experiments) or relationship
(correlational studies)
Behaviour Measurement
● Operational Definition
 - Definition formulated on the basis of the method used to assess the behaviour of
interest.
● Reliability
- The extent to which a measure provides consistent results
● Standardization
● Multiple observations (multi-item measure)
● Validity
- Does a measure actually assess what is intended to measure

Ch. 3: Biology of Behaviour

Communication in the Nervous System
● Neurons​ (nerve cells): ​workers -- t​ ransmit info.
● Glial cells​: ​bodyguards -- ​feed & protect
Structure of a Neuron
● Dendrites
○ Receive info. from other neurons and transmit to cell body
● Cell body (soma)
○ Contains nucleus: decides “to fire or not to fire”
● Axon
○ Conducts impulses (fire signal) away from the cell body
● Myelin Sheath
○ Fatty insulation from glial cells surrounding axon
○ Multiple sclerosis:​ loss of myelin causes erratic signals
Recent views on neurons
● Neurogenesis: ​production of new neurons from immature ​stem cells
○ Immature cells can develop into any cell type in the appropriate environment
● Mirror neurons
○ Neurons activated by performing an action or “seeing another” ​monkey​ perform the same
action
■ Our understanding of the function of mirror neurons is in its infancy
 How Neurons Communicate
● Axon terminals r​ elease neurotransmitters
● Neurotrans. enters ​synaptic gap
● Neurotrans. binds to receptors that it fits
● Excitatory signal (pos) ​Fire!
● Inhibitory signal (neg) ​hold your fire!
Action Potential
● Cell at rest ​(resting potential: stable negative charge): polarized membrane (neg. molecules/ions
inside & pos. outside)
● Cell body averages out signals & decides if it should fire
● Cell in action​ (action potential -- AP): membrane depolarised & pos. sodium ions flood in
● AP ​is an electrical signal that follow an ​all-or-none law (​ same strength); the intensity of
stimulation is determined by the rate of firing
From Postsynaptic Potentials to Neural Networks
● One neuron get signals from thousands of others
● Requires integration of signals
○ PSPs (+ & -) add up
● Neural networks
● Patterns of neural activity: interconnected neurons that fire together or sequentially
● Synaptic connections
○ Elimination and creation: synaptic pruning
Neurotransmitters
● Presynaptic neuron - releases neurotransmitters into ​synaptic gap/cleft​ - binds (lock & key) to
postsynaptic neuron
● Agonist - c​ hemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
● Antagonist ​- opposes action of a neurotransmitter
● Acetylcholine ​(ACh): muscle control, but also attention, arousal, & memory
○ Alxheimer’s disease
○ Agonist - n​ icotine
○ Antagonist​ - curare
Neurotransmitters - The monoamines
● Dopamine​: movement; learning; emotion
 Parkinson’s - ​dopamine degeneration
Schizophrenia -​ dopamine hypothesis
● Norepinephrine: mood & arousal
● Serotonin: sleep & wakefulness; appetite; aggression
Neurotransmitters - The amino acids
● GABA
○ Gamma-aminobutyric acid
○ ​ SPs
Inhibitory P
○ Dysregulations​ associated with anxiety disorders
● ​ ndorphins ​(endogenous opioid peptides)
E
○ Natural opiates -- reduce pain & increase pleasure altering neurotransmitter activity
Other Chemical Messengers
● Hormones​ produced by glands (e.g., pituitary, pineal) in the ​endocrine system​ for (slow) controls
of general systems through bloodstream
○ Oxytocin - ​ reproductive beh., bonding, trust
○ Melatonin - b​ iological rhythms
The Central Nervous System
● Brain (much more to come)
● Spinal cord
○ From the base of the brain down the centre of the back
○ Protected by spinal column
The Withdrawal Reflex ​….cont.
Peripheral Nervous System
● Somatic
○ Nerves connected to sensory receptors & skeletal muscles
○ Afferent (incoming) & efferent (outgoing) nerves
● Autonomic
○ Sympathetic systems ​mobilizes resources & increases energy during emotion and stress
○ Parasympathetic system​ operates during relaxed states & conserves energy
The Autonomic Nervous System ….cont.
 Ch. 4: Sensation & Perception

Genes, evolution & behaviour

Genes and How They Operate
● Genes
○ Functional units of heredity which are composed of DNA
● Chromosomes
○ Rod-shaped structures within cells that carry genes
● DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid ):
○ Genetic characteristics coded in the structure ….cont.
Where do genes come from
● Sperm (23 chromes) + Ovum (23 chromes) = Zygote (23 pairs: XX is females & XY is male)
● About 20,000 genes in the human genome?
● Made up from nucleobases (A, C, T, AND G)
○ Adenine, cytosine, thymine, guanine
● Phenotype (gene expression) vs. genotype
Studying Genetic Material
Early studies: Mendalian genetics
● Identification of ​dominant (​ expressed gene in a pair: brown eyes; tongue roller) & ​recessive g​ enes
(masked gene in a pair: blue eyes; non-roller)

Genetic mapping
● Look across generations for genes lying close together on a chromosome
● Genetic marker​ -- segment of DNA with known physical location (ATGCCGCGATA)

● Single gene effects (e.g., Huntington’s disease)

○ Meet the O’Briens, ​Lisa Genova
○ ‘CRISPR Reverses Huntington’s Disease in Mice”
● Most beh’s are ​polygenic
○ Eye colour: 2 major genes + 14 other genes
○ Skin colour: variants in different regions of genome
 ■ All variants present in our distant ancestors, even before our species evolved in
Africa 300,000 years ago
■ People living with intense ultraviolet light (equatorial regions) benefited from
dark pigment to guard molecules in skin; people needed lighter skin in places
with less sunlight to absorb sunlight to make vitamin D
It’s genetic! -​ ​different meanings
● Portion of a trait is inherited in some way
● Trait controlled by some combination of genes that have been located on a particular
chromosome, and near some other genes
● Length of DNA of the gene responsible for a trait has been identified and its sequence determined
● Gene responsible for a trait has been sequenced & we know the molecular biology of how the
gene works and how it is affected by mutations
Adoption studies: Estimating genetic influence
● Compare correlations between the traits of adopted children and those of their biological and
adoptive relatives
Twin studies: Estimating genetic influence
● Compare monozygotic (splitting of cells, single egg fertilized….cont.) to dizygotic twins (two
diff. cells)
● If identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins, the increased similarity likely due to
genetic influences
Twin Research
● Identical twins who were separated early in life ​and reared apart are of great interest
○ Similarities in traits between these twins should be ​primarily ​genetic
○ Unethical to purposefully separate human twins at birth, but it has been done
Studying genetic material
Epigenetics: the new frontier
Evolution
● Change in gene frequencies within a population over many generations
● Changes occur due to mutations/errors during copying of original DNA sequence
● Natural selection​: ​heritable traits providing a reproductive (survival) advantage are more likely
to be passed on over generations

Natural Selection
 ● Individuals with genetically influenced traits that are ​adaptive ​in a particular environment
○ Tend to survive
○ To reproduce in greater numbers
● These traits become more common over the course of many generations
● Fit​ness​ (≠ fittest)
○ Reproductive success​ (# descendants) of an organism relative to average reproductive
success in pop.
Psychophysics: The measurement of sensation
● Sensation begins with a detectable stimulus
● Fechner ​(1860): concept of the threshold
○ Absolute threshold​: detected 50% of the time (e.g., candle flame at 30 mi/48km)
■ Krisciunas & Carona (2015): astronomers 2.6 km (1.6 miles)
○ Just noticeable difference (JND): ​smallest detectable difference
● WEber’s law
○ Size of JND proportional to size of initial stimulus
○ The more intense the standard stimulus, the larger the increment needed for JND
Just noticeable difference & marketing
● Marketers are concerned that:
○ Negative changes are not discernible: (such as price increase)
○ ….cont.
Psychophysics: Contemporary measurement
● Signal-Detection Theory​: Sensory processes + decision processes
○ Separates sensory processes (stimulus intensity) from decision process ….cont.
Subliminal perception
● Perception of stimuli that are presented at below threshold levels (e.g., too fast to recognize)
● Subliminal ​effects c​ an be found under carefully controlled conditions, but they have little
practical application

● Mid-term October 23, 2019

○ Be on time
○ 2 ½ hr time limit
○ Bring some photo ID
○ Bring your student number
 ○ HB pencils & eraser
● Content
○ Class notes, demos, videos
○ All of ​chapters ​1, 2, 3, ​and ​4
○ Appendix A
○ (A6-A13)
○ Some questions only from lectures or from textbook
● Format
○ About 75-80 multiple choice questions (1 point each)
○ 5 to 9 short answer….cont.
Preparing for an exam…
●

Chapter 5: Consciousness & Mental States

Radiohead-day dreaming
Consciousness in psychology
● Def. ​awareness of oneself & the environment
● A private & personal experience that cannot be directly shared; alertness are in flux
● Wundt​: ​consciousness -​ an inner experience that can be could be broken down to its basic
elements
● Frued​: ​conscious​ (momentary), ​preconscious ​(easily accessible), &​ unconscious​ (must be
inferred, discovered & translated)
Contemporary views
● Conscious (​ momentary & controllable)
● Subconscious (​ easily accessible)
● Nonconscious​ (must be inferred & discovered)
Cannot be aware of all things external & internal at any one time.
Selective attention: ​process that controls awareness of, and readiness to respond to, particular stimuli
(attention is a limited resource)
Biological rhythms
● Regular biological cycles (eg. circadian) related to consciousness & other functions
● Some rhythms are synchronized with external cues (clock, daylight)--process of ​entertainment
 ○ Menstrual synchrony?
● Other rhythms are ​endogenous
Endogenous rhythms
● Ultradian
○ Less than 24hrs
○ Within sleep: 90-120 min. Cycle
○ Within day: waxing & waning of alertness
● Circadian
○ Circa = approx & diem = day (24hrs)
○ Sleep-wake cycle
● Infradian
○ Monthly (menstrual 28 day cycle)
Physiology of ​Circadian rhythms
● Pathway of biological clock: light>level>.ganglion cells> Suprachiasmatic nucleus of
hypothalamus (internal clock)>pineal gland (secretes melatonin)
● Jet lag​ -- external clock & biol. Clock (circadian rhythm) are not out of sync….cont.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
Menstrual (infradian) cycle & mood)
● PMS -- myth or reality?
● Stereotypes ​suggest it is real
○ “​PMS is something that makes a women act once a month like a man acts every day”
● …. Cont.
Research about “PMS” Mc Farlane et al.
● No gender diff. In mood
● No relation b/w stage of menstrual cycle and reported mood
● No support for “PMS”!
Review of research “PMS” & mood
● Romans et al. (2012)
○ 47 studies with rigorous criteria
■ Same women rating their beh. Over all phase of MC
■ Unaware of menstrual focus of the study
■ Mood data collected during all phases
 ○ ….cont.
Menstrual cycles & mood
● Physical symptoms (cramps, bloating, acne) are common, but emotional symptoms (irritability &
depression) are not
● Why ….cont.
Sleep & dreaming
● REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
● Discovered in 1950s
● paradoxical sleep - brain is very active
● Period of dreaming
● REM sleep follows an ​ultradian c​ ycle
Index of consciousness
● Brain waves (​EEG)
○ Frequency ​(cycles per second)
■ Beta ​(13-24 cps) -awake, alert
■ Alpha (​8-12 cps) very relaxed
■ Theta
■ Delta ….cont.
Sleep cycle
● Stage 1: ​brief, transitional (1-7 min.)
○ From alpha to theta
○ Hypnic jerks (​ myoclonic jerks)
● Stage 2:​ sleep spindles (10-25 min.0
● Stages 3 & 4: ​slow-wave sleep (30 min.)
● REM, ​EEG similar to awake, vivid ​dreaming​ ….cont.

1,2,3,4,3,2,REM,2,3,4,3,2,REM…
● REM periods ….cont.
Comparative studies of sleep
Birds short periods of NREM and REM (9 seconds)
- Waterfowl can sleep while swimming
- Transoceanic migrations can sleep while flying
Retiles have no REM
The amazing bottle-nosed dolphin: each hemisphere takes turns sleeping
Sleep deprivation
Effect of total​ sleep deprivation ….cont.
Do we need REM sleep?
● Dement (1960): REM deprivation study (time series -- quasi-experimental)- ​selective deprivation
study
● Pre-deprivation night 19.4% REM
● Manipulation:reduce 80% of REM by waking Ss for 5 nights (need 11 awakening on 1st night &
22 on 5th)
● Recovery night: 27.3% REM
● Conclusion: we need REM (same rebound effect in animal studies)
Why REM.1 -wish fulfillment
Dreams as unconscious wishes- freud
● Dreams are a place where forbidden (e.g., sexual) desires can gain expression
● Dreams permit wish fulfillment
● Must distinguish the ​manifest c​ ontent (surface) from the l​ atent content (h​ idden)
Why REM . 2? - problem solving
● Cognitive, problem solving view- ​cartwright
● Symbols in dreams express the true meaning (non-Freudian) of one’s problems
Why REM.3? - brain activity
Dreams as interpreted brain activity
● Activation-synthesis model (​hobson)
● Starts ….cont.
Brain activity in sleep
● Brain structure
○ Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)
○ Pons, medulla, thalamus….cont.
Sleep problems
● Insomnia ​- difficulty falling or staying asleep
● Narcolepsy​ - falling asleep uncontrollably
● Sleep apnea​ - reflexive gasping for air that awakens the sleeper
● Nightmares​ - anxiety-arousing dreams (REM)
● Night terror​ - intense arousal & panic (stage 4)
 ● Somnambulism ​- sleepwalking (stages 3-4 earlier in a night’s sleep)
Different sleep problems tend to occur at different points in the sleep cycle
Altering consciousness with drugs
● Psychoactive drugs: chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioural
functioning
Alcoholism - substance use disorder
● Alcohol use disorder identification test (AUDIT): 10-item screening tool from world health
organization (WHO)
● Memory loss, alcohol related injury; unable to stop, morning drink; missing activities, …
Cannabis
● >100 cannabinoids (chemicals)
● THC
○ Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
○ Main psychoactive (gives the high)
○ Leads to release of endorphins & activation of dopamine reward circuits
● CBD
○ Cannabidiol
○ Used for treatment of pain & nausea
General psychoactive drug categories
● Psychoactive drugs -- alter consciousness (perception, mood, thinking, memory) by altering
biochemistry (neurotransmission)
○ Alcohol & THC
Narcotics ​(opiates) (​opium, morphine, heroin)
● Decrease pain (inhibitory effect) & ….cont.
opioid/fentanyl crisis
● 2018: 4588 opioid related deaths, Canada
○ % increases every year
○ ….cont.
Sedatives
● Tranquilisers & barbiturates (downers)
● Slow down activity in CNS
Stimulants -- ​cocaine (crack), amphetamines (uppers), crystal meth, nicotine & caffeine
● Increase activity in CNS ….cont.
Hallucinogens (psychedelics
● LSD​, ​psilocybin, ayahuasca
● Disruption in perceptual experiences (e.g., hallucinations)
The psychology of drug effects
● Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on:
○ Physical factors (body weight, metabolism, initial emotional state)
○ Experience with drug (tolerance)
○ Environmental factors--where and with whom
○ Mental set or expectations of drug’s effects
Hypnosis & altered consciousness
● Procedure of ​suggestion ​used to change perceptions, thoughts, feelings
● Not a state of sleep
● Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the person being hypnotized than….cont.
Altered consciousness or role playing?
● Hypnotic susceptibility​: individual differences
● Effects produced through hypnosis:
○ Anesthesia (lower sensation)
○ Sensory distortions and hallucinations
○ Disinhibition
○ Posthypnotic suggestions and amnesia
Hypnosis
● Does not increase accuracy of memory
● Does not produce a re-experiencing of events….cont.
Theories of hypnosis
● Dissociation theory (hilgard)
○ Split in consciousness (e.g., highway hypnosis)
○ Dissociation between an executive control system (frontal lobes) and other systems
involved in thinking and acting
● Social Cognitive theory (role playing)
○ Interaction between influence of the hypnotist (socio) and expectations of the subject
(cognitive)
○ “Alien abduction” & past-life regression
 Chapter 6:Learning
A relatively durable change in immediate or potential behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience
Models of Learning
1. Classical conditioning
a. Ivan Pavlov
b. John B. Watson
2. Operant or Instrumental Conditioning
a. B.F. Skinner
3. Social learning theory
a. Albert Bandura
Classical conditioning
● Pavlov
○ Physiologist (salvation)
○ 1904 nobel prize: study digestion
○ Reflex: unlearned automatic response to a stim. (e.g., salvation at sight of food)
● UCS​ = ​Unconditioned stimulus
○ Stim. eliciting auto. (reflexive) resp.
● UCR​ = ​Unconditioned response
○ Automatic response to USC
● CS ​= ​Conditioned stimulus
○ Neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a CR after being ​paired ​with a UCS
● CR​ = ​condition response
○ Response elicited by CS
Learning​ occurs when a neutral stim. is ​regularly paired​ with a UCS and the neutral stim. Because a
CS, that elicits a CR​ similar​ to originals resp.
Before conditioning
UCS (food) → UCR (salvation)
CS (bell → (orienting reflex)
During conditioning​ (learning/acquisition)
UCS (food) → UCR(salvation’)
+CS (bell)
After Conditioning
CS (bell) → CR (salvation)
Conditioning of “A Love Song”
Ucs (Genevieve) → UCR (feeling gaga)
+
CS (A Love Song)
CS (A Love Song) → CR (feeling gaga)
Advertising & evaluate conditioning
Advertising- bringing out positive feelings
Evaluative conditioning - bring out a positive feeling associated with the product
Conditioning of a phobia
● Watson & Rayner ( 1920) & little Albert
○ UCS (loud noise), UCR (fear)
+
○ CS (white rat), CR (fear)
● Phobia​: intense irrational fear that leads to avoid the feared object, activity, or situation
Unlearning Fear
● Counterconditioning.
○ Pairing a cond. stim. with a stimulus that elicits an incompatible response
○ A child’s fear of rabbits was removed by pairing the stimulus which elicited fear with a
stimulus that elicited happiness
Unlearning anxiety
● Pairing what elicits anxiety with an incompatible response
○ relaxation/meditation
Learning in classical conditioning
● Preparedness :​ species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways but not others
○ Phobias: snakes vs. cellphones
○ Predisposed to make taste-nausea and smell-nausea associations (survival value)
■ Easy to condition taste aversions with nausea
● To be most effective, the stimulus to be conditioned should just precede the unconditioned
stimulus
● We learn that the first event (stimulus) predicts the second
 Some principles of Classical Cond.
● Extinction:​ disappearance of CR when CS occurs repeatedly without the UCS
● Reconditioning:​ relearing of CR after extinction; need fewer trails (pairing of UCS with CS) than
before
● Spontaneous recovery:​ sudden reappearance of CR after extinction
● Stim. generalization​: a stim. that is similar to a CS may produce a similar (usually weaker)
response (e.g, wite rabbit for Albert)
● Higher-order conditioning:​ a CS functions as if it were a UCS (bell paired with light with
Pavlov’s dogs)
Operant conditioning
● Thorndike (turn of the 20th century)
○ Resp. ​instrumental i​ n getting reward
○ Trial & error learning (puzzle box)
○ Law of effect: ​rewarded response tend to be repeated (association between stimulus and
response)
● B.F. Skinner
○ Rat​ operates o​ n environment to get a reward
○ Radical behaviourism — beh. explained by looking outside the individual (determinism),
not inside
○ Beh. becomes more or less likely depending on its consequences
Skinner’s Air Crib
Pigeons and missile, world war II
Reinforces
● Increase (strengthens) probability of behaviour
● Positive reinforcement​: response strengthened by ​p​resenting something ​p​ositive ($$$ for work)
● Negative reinforcement:​ response strengthened by r​ ​emoval of something​ n​egative (running to get
out of the rain)
Punishers
● Decrease (​ weakens) probability of behaviour
● Positive punishment - response weakened by presentation of an unpleasant stimulus (strap)
● Negative punishment - response weakened by removal of something pleasant (use of car)
● Therefore neg. Reinforcement ≠ punishment
 Primary & secondary reinforcers
Schedules of Reinforcement
● Continuous
● Partial or intermittent
Fixed Ratio:​ set # of responses (FR-5) (e.g., pricework)
Variable Ratio​: average # of responses (VR-5: 1,2,3,4,5 / 6,7,8,9,10 / 11,12,13,14,15/…) (e.g., slot
machine)
Fixed Interval:​ set time to next reward (FI-30:payday)
Variable Interval​: time varies between rewards (VI?: Leaf’s win the Stanley cup)
● Steeper lines — faster learning
● Ratio (number) better than interval (time) schedules
Some principles of Operant Cond.
● Extinction:​ learned response stops because it is no longer reinforced
● Spontaneous recovery:​ return of a response that was extinguished
● Stim. generalization​: a response occurs to stim. That are similar to stim. during the original
learning
Immediate consequences are more effective than delayed consequences
Shaping
● To teach complex behaviours, need to reinforce successive approximations of desired response
When punishment works
● Immediately​ punishing a beh. Is more likely to eliminate it
● Milder punishments appear to work as well as harsh ones
● Consistency is important
● Explain the punishment
Problems with physical punishment
● Often conveys little info.
● Often administered inappropriately
● May learn to associate (CC) punisher with pain; punisher then evokes anxiety or fear
● Many behs hard to punish immediately
 Chapter 7: Memory
What is memory?
● Capacity to store, retain, & retrieve information
● Stored pattern of connections between neurons in the brain
● Memory isn’t perfect, deeply flawed, by studying the imperfections of learning (you learn more
about learning?)
● Reconstructive process
● Imperfect process

Scratching the surface

● Case studies
● Encoding
● Storage (3 box model)
● Retrieval
○ Errors of retrieval
● Physiology
● Eyewitness memory

Case studies in memory

● Studying one person (ex. sensation perception, blind man using echolocation, visual cortex is
active)
● Brenda milner’s study of HM: Henry Molaison
○ History
■ Belief: most of the hippocampus was removed (epilepsy)
■ 2014: analysis of brain slices - removal of ​entorhinal​ ​cortex​ in temporal lobe:
connects the hippocampus to cortex
■ Couldn’t form any new typical memories (explicit memory)
■ Observes differences in ​explicit​ memory (conscious & intentional) and ​implicit
(unconscious) memory
■ Remembering things without knowing, performance improves
■ Different underlying memory systems
● Declarative (recall of facts)
 ● Nondeclarative (actions, skills)
Clive Wearing - absence of ability to form new memories (​anterograde amnesia​: after onset) or to recall
old memories (​retrograde amnesia:​ prior to onset)
● Herpes simplex encephalitis destroyed hippocampus
● Can still play piano
AJ -- hyperthymestic syndrome (​hyper + thymestic)
● Near perfect recall of events related to her life (​autobiographical memory) ​or events of interest to
her
● Difficulty with rote memorization
● Case study - Jill Price
● Rebecca Sharrock - HIghly Superior Autobiographical Memory (H-SAM: about 60 people
identified)
3 box model
Human memory is a dynamic process -- memories change over time & are rough reconstructions rather
than exact copies of past events

Encoding: getting info into memory

● Attention ​-- focusing awareness
● Selective attention ​= selection of input
○ Negative effects of divided attention (memory, driving performance,...)
○ Change blindness (miss large changes)

Studying attention -- example

● Dichotic listening​:l listen to 1 of 2 dif messages that are presented simultaneously to each ear
● Shadowing procedure​: repeating verbal material as soon as it is heard (attended ear)
● Shadowing require most of our attention & unattended message is turned off (e.g., may not notice
shift to a different language)
● Can info, in unattended ear ….cont.
Example study - McKay (1973)
● Attended ear​: ​they threw stones toward the bank yesterday
● Unattended ear​: ​I.v. ​river OR money
● D.V.​ Which sentences did you hear?
They threw stones toward the side of the river yesterday
They threw stones towards the saving….cont
● Ss do not recall words presented in unattended ear
● Unattended words ​primed​ the meaning of info. Presented in attended ear
● Interpretation​: Stimuli we are not paying attention to, still within a ​limited range ​of
non-conscious awareness
● Practical implications?
● Selective attention & ​the cocktail-party phenomenon
● Subliminal messages: ​no effect on effortful beh.

Levels of Processing: Lockhart & Craig

● Incoming info. Processed at different levels
● Deeper processing = longer lasting memory
● Encoding levels:
○ Structural​ = shallow
■ Physical structure
○ Phonemic ​= intermediate
■ Word sounds
○ Sematic ​= deep
■
Demo - 7 dwarves
Wrong answers ​in ​recall​ indicates memory based in
● Sound: 2 syllables & ends with “ee” (shallow processing)
● Letter: begins….cont.

Better encoding, better memory

● Elaboration: ​link new info. To other info. at time of encoding
○ Think of examples
● Visual Imagery​: visual image are more easily remembered
○ Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory (semantic & visual codes)
● Self-Referent Encoding​: make info. personally meaningful

Storage: three-box model of memory

● Sensory memory: fleeting impressions
 ● Short-term memory: scratch pad
● Long-term memory: final destination

Sensory memory
● Sensory input held briefly in separate ​registers ​for each sense (visual ~ ¼ sec)
● Waiting for attention
● Info that is not paused to STM is gone
STM - Memory demonstration

Short term memory

● Limited capacity system involved in retention of info (~ 20 secs)
● Also holds info retrieved from LTM long-term for temporary use (i.e., part of working memory)
● 7 ± 2 chunks of info (or 4 ± 1)
○ XIBMCIAFBICTVNDP
● Chunking
○ Using meaningful units of info
○ X IBM CIA RBI CTV NDP
Baddeley’s model of working memory (STM)
● Central executive -- system controlling cognitive processes (attention, coordination ….cont.
(Processing info by sound, Get image of what you are trying to learn, Try to build a story of what you
learn?)

Types of long-term memories

● Semantic
○ General knowledge (e.g., facts, rules, concepts…)
● Procedural memories
○ Performance of actions/skills (knowing how)
● Episodic memories
○ Personally experienced events (e.g., first first kiss)
○ Flashbulb memories -- l​ ong lasting vivid mem associated with intense emotions

Serial-Position Effect
Tendency for better recall of first (LTM) and last (STM) items on a list & forgetting the middle items
Retrieval
● Memories are sketchy reconstructions of the past that are often distorted
● Better encoding (deeper processing), better retrieval
● Many errors associated with retrieval
● Need to engage in ​reality monitoring
○ Did I experience or imagine that event?

Schachter’s 7 sins of remembering

● Transience: ​loss of memory over time
● Absent-mindedness:​ breakdown of attention-memory link
● Blocking:​ failed search of info. That we know we have
Sins of commission (memory present, but incorrect or unwanted)
● Misattribution​: assigning memory to wrong source (person x told me)
● Suggestibility:​ implanted memories (e.g., leading questions)
● Bias​: current views influence how we remember past
● Persistence:​ remembering what we cannot forget (haunting)
● MiSuPerBi

Confabulation
● Confusing an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you
● Remembering something when it never actually happened (loftus - Lost in the Mall or Bugs
Bunny)
● Most likely when
○ Thought about event many times
○ Image of event contains many details
○ Event is easy to imagine
○ Focus on emotional reactions ….cont.
Wilbert Jones
● Falsely convicted of rape at 19
● Released at age 64….cont.

CH…
 Language -- Hierarchical Structure
● Phonemes ​-- smallest speech units
○ About 100 posible, English - about 40
● ​Morphemes ​-- smallest unit of meaning
○ Root words (bio), prefixes (sub), suffixes (less) (50,000)
● ​Semantics ​-- meaning of words & word combinations
○ Context gives meaning
■ Pho
● Syntax​-- system of rules for arranging words into sentences
○ ….cnt.
Individual language development milestones
● Initial vocalizations similar across languages
○ Crying, cooing, laughing
● 6 months
○ Recognize their names & repetitive words
○ Babbling ​sounds begin to resemble surrounding language
Laura-Ann Petitto & Nim Chimsky = 1975
Babbling in american sign language, petito & marentette (1991)
- Signed phonemes
- Filmed infants (sample size, N=5)
● 1 year
○ 1st words similar cross-culturally (papa)
○ More ​receptive t​ han ​expressive ​language
● 18-24 months
○ Naming explosion & fast mapping (1 trail)
○ Telegraphic speech (Né ​bus)​
● End of 3rd year ​- rules, complex ideas, tenses
○ Overregularization ​(​he hitted me)​
● Age 6​: vocab between 8000 & 14 000 words
○ Metalinguistics awareness (reflecting on language)

Do other animals have language

 ● Not spoken human language
● Gardners (1969)
○ Chimpanzee -- washoe - signing
○ 160 word vocabulary
● Sue savage-rumbaugh
○ Bonobo chimpanzee - kanzi 938 yrs old)
■ Uses symbols on computer
■ Good receptive language - 72% of 660 requests
Darewin project (freedivers record dolphins and whales)
Theories of language acquisitions
● Behaviourist ​(skinner)
○ Learn specific verbal responses through reinf. & imitation
● Nativist ​(Noam Chomsky) - video with Steven Pinker
○ Evidence of innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that helps learning of language
■ Children cannot imitate what they do not hear (good)
● Overregularization (​ generalization of grammatical rules to irregular
case)
■ Adults do not consistently correct children’s syntax
■ Critical period for normal language dev.
Sensitive period for language development
● Ability to ​discriminate​ between sounds (where a word ends/begins, how many syllables)
○ Most languages use about half of existing phonemes
○ Adults have difficulty discriminating some phonemes from another language
■ WW2 - shibboleth - “Lollapalooza”
● Hapanese difficulty
○ Age of immigration & SL ability
Nicaraguan sign language
● Nicaraguan revolution 1979
○ Deaf children go to school
○ New sign language school
Interactionist theories of language acquisition. ​Nature & nurture both important to language
acquisition
Bilingualism -- benefits
● Practical
○ Range of expression, access to culture, employability
● Psychological research
○ Greater metalinguistic awareness
■ Ability to view language as a thing, process, & system
○ Facilities acquisition of a 3rd language
○ Child’s ability to control attention & avoid distraction (Bialystok)
○ Defense against age related cognitive decline
Bilingualism teaching strategies
● One parent, one language
● Home language, outside language
● Both parents, both languages
● Second language schooling
○ Immersion
○ Saturday school
○ Language classes
Cognition & problem solving
● Active effort….cont
Thinking & problem solving
● Problems of inducing structure
○ Discovering relationships
■ Series completion & analogy problems
● ​Problems of arrangement
○ Looking for a correct sequence
■ Anagrams (e.g., BERLOMP); building a house
○ Solved sometimes through ​insight
● Problems of transformation
○ E.g. ….cont
Inductive thought -string problem
A. 120 99 ? 57 78 (99-​21)​
B. 1 4 16 ? 256 64 (16x​4)​
Inductive thought - analogy problem
● GERM: DISEASE
 A. War: destruction
Germ ….cont.
Barriers to effective problem solving
● Irrelevant information
○ Are all the numbers in a math problem necessary?
● Functional fixedness
○ Tendency to see all of the items only in terms of their more common use Fanbelt fix?
● Mental set
○ Continued use of strategies that have worked in the past
○ Can lead to setting ….cont
Approaches to problem solving
● Algorithms ​(systematic trial-and-error)
○ Should eventually lead to a solution
● Heuristics ​(cognitive shortcuts)
○ Rule of thumb that guides thinking
○ Does ​not guarantee b​ est solution
● Dialectical reasoning
○ Opposing facts or ideas are weighed and compared, with a view to determine best
solution
….cont
Availability Heuristic
● Tendency to judge the probability of an event by how easy it is to think of examples
● E.g., people overestimate the odds of dying in a plane crash even though risk higher by driving in
cars
Representativeness Heuristic
Tendency to ignore base rates
Anchoring
1. Ss witness a number on spin of wheel of fortune
2. Is number of african countries is . or, than number on the wheel?
3. Guess the number of African countries in U.N.
Result: those who got higher numbers….cont.
Overconfidence effect
● Tendency for people to be too certain that their beliefs, decisions, & estimates are correct
 ○ E.g., trump on just about everything
○ E.g., hillary clinton had no concession speech
● Minimize effect by collecting a lot of information (variability & diversity) & evaluating it
carefully before making a decision
Group think (irving janis)
● Group thinking or decision making in a cohesive group discourage creativity and critical
thinking
● Common norm-- remaining loyal
○ Sticking with the policies to which group is committed, even when they are
working out badly
The difficulty of making choices
● Simon (1957) ​-theory of bounded rationality
○ We can juggle only so much info at one time
○ End up using simple strategies that often result in less optimal decisions
○ “Irrational decisions”
■ Impulse buying
Why go with default options?
● Decision-makers might believe defaults are suggestions by policy-makers
● Making a decision often involves effort, whereas accepting the default is effortless
● People about donation, because it can be unpleasant and stressful
● Defaults often represent the status quo, and change….cont.