CHAPTER 2

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
(AM)
 Topics
1 : AM Concepts
2 : Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation
3 : Sidebands and the Frequency
Domain
4: Single-Sideband Modulation
2-5 : AM Power
 2-1: AM Concepts
• In the modulation process, the voice, video, or
digital signal modifies another, higher-
frequency signal called the carrier.
• In amplitude modulation (AM) the information
signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine
wave.
• The instantaneous value of the carrier
amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the
modulating signal.
• An imaginary line called the envelope
connects the positive and negative peaks of
the carrier waveform.
 2-1: AM Concepts
Peak amplitude of information signal

Figure 1-1: Amplitude modulation. (a) The modulating or information signal.

 2-1: AM Concepts

Figure 1-2: Amplitude modulation. (b) The modulated carrier.

2-1: AM Concepts
 2-1: AM Concepts

• In AM, it is particularly important that the

peak value of the modulating signal be less
than the peak value of the carrier.
Vm < Vc
• Distortion occurs when the amplitude of the
modulating signal is greater than the
amplitude of the carrier.
• A modulator is a circuit used to produce AM.
Amplitude modulators compute the product of
the carrier and modulating signals.
 2-1: AM Concepts

Figure 1-3: Amplitude modulator showing input and output signals.

 The Mathematical Representation and
Analysis of AM
• Representing both the modulating signal Vm(t) and the
carrier signal Vc(t) in trigonometric functions.
• Modulator must be able to produce mathematical
multiplication of these two analog signals

v m (t)  V m sin (2f m t)

v am (t)  [Vc  Vm sin (2fmt)] sin (2f c t)

v c (t)  Vc sin (2f c t)

9
 2-2: Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation
• The modulation index (m) is a value that
describes the relationship between the
amplitude of the modulating signal and the
amplitude of the carrier signal.
m = V m / Vc
***Vm < Vc for undistorted AM
• index is also known as the modulating factor or
coefficient, or the degree of modulation.
• Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives
the percentage of modulation.
 2-2: Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation
Percentage of Modulation
– The modulation index is commonly computed
from measurements taken on the composite
modulated waveform.
– Using oscilloscope voltage values:
Vmax − Vmin
Vm =
2

▪ The amount, or depth, of AM is then expressed as the

percentage of modulation (100 × m) rather than as a
fraction.
 2-2: Modulation Index and Percentage of
Modulation

Figure 1-5: AM wave showing peaks (Vmax) and troughs (Vmin).

 2-2: Modulation Index and
Cont’d…
Percentage of Modulation
• Mathematically, the modulation index is
m = modulation index
Vm = peak change in the amplitude output
waveform (sum of voltages from upper and Vm
lower side frequencies) m
Vc
Vc = peak amplitude of the unmodulated
carrier

• And the percentage of modulation index is

Vm
% m x 100%
Vc
13
• If the modulating signal is a pure, single-freq
sine wave and the process is symmetrical then
the modulation index can be derived as follows:

1
Vm  (Vmax  Vmin )
2
1
• Therefore, Vc  (Vmax  Vmin )
2

1
(Vmax  Vmin )
(Vmax  Vmin)
m 2 
1 (Vmax  Vmin )
(Vmax  Vmin)
2
14
 Cont’d…
• Since the peak change of modulated
output wave Vm is the sum of the usf
and lsf voltages hence,
Vm  Vusf  Vlsf where Vusf  Vlsf

• Then Vusf = peak amplitude

1
 Vmin ) of the upper side
Vm 2 (V max frequency (volts)
Vusf  Vlsf  
2 2 Vlsf = peak amplitude
1 of the lower side
 (V max  Vmin ) frequency (volts)
4
15
2-2: Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation
Overmodulation and Distortion
– The modulation index should be a number
between 0 and 1.
– If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is
higher than the carrier voltage, m will be
greater than 1, causing distortion.
– If the distortion is great enough, the
intelligence signal becomes unintelligible.
 2-2: Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation
Overmodulation and Distortion
– Distortion of voice transmissions produces
garbled, harsh, or unnatural sounds in the
speaker.
– Distortion of video signals produces a
scrambled and inaccurate picture on a TV
screen.
 2-2: Modulation Index and
Percentage of Modulation

Figure 1-4: Distortion of the envelope caused by overmodulation where the

modulating signal amplitude Vm is greater than the carrier signal Vc.
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
• Side frequencies, or sidebands are
generated as part of the modulation
process and occur in the frequency
spectrum directly above and below the
carrier frequency.
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
Sideband Calculations
–Single-frequency sine-wave modulation generates
two sidebands.
–Complex wave (e.g. voice or video) modulation
generates a range of sidebands.
– The upper sideband (fUSB) and the lower sideband
(fLSB) are calculated:
fUSB = fc + fm and fLSB = fc − fm
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
Domain

Figure 1-6: The AM wave is the

algebraic sum of the carrier and
upper and lower sideband sine
waves. (a) Intelligence or
modulating signal. (b) Lower
sideband. (c ) Carrier. (d ) Upper
sideband. (e ) Composite AM wave.
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
Domain
Frequency-Domain Representation of AM
– Observing an AM signal on an oscilloscope, you see
only amplitude variations of the carrier with respect
to time.
– A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is referred
to as frequency-domain display.
– A spectrum analyzer is used to display the frequency
domain as a signal.
– Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and
lower sideband frequencies.
– BW = fUSB−fLSB
= [fc + fm(max)] – [fc –fm(max) ]
= 2fm(max)
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain

Figure 1-8: The relationship between the time and frequency domains.
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
Domain
Frequency-Domain Representation of AM
• Example 1:
• For a conventional AM modulator with a carrier freq
of fc = 100 kHz and the maximum modulating signal
frequency of fm(max) = 5 kHz, determine:
a) Freq limits for the upper and lower sidebands.
b) Bandwidth.
c) Upper and lower side frequencies produced when the
modulating signal is a single-freq 3-kHz tone.
d) Draw the output freq spectrum.
Solution: Example 1
 Example 2
• Suppose that Vmax value read from the
graticule on an oscilloscope screen is 4.6
divisions and Vmin is 0.7 divisions.
Calculate the modulation index and
percentage of modulation.

27
 Example 3
• For the AM waveform shown in Figure
below, determine
a) Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side
frequencies.
b) Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier.
c) Peak change in the amplitude of the
envelope.
d) Modulation index.
e) Percent modulation.

29
AM Envelope for Example 3

30
Generation of AM DSB envelope showing the time-domain
of the modulated wave, carrier & sideband signals

32
Voltage spectrum for an AM DSBFC
wave

33
 Example 4
• One input to a conventional AM modulator is a 500-
kHz carrier with an amplitude of 20 Vp. The second
input is a 10-kHz modulating signal that is of
sufficient amplitude to cause a change in the output
wave of ±7.5 Vp. Determine
a) Upper and lower side frequencies.
b) Modulation index and percentage modulation.
c) Peak amplitude of the modulated carrier and the
upper and lower side frequency voltages.
d) Maximum and minimum amplitudes of the envelope.
e) Expression for the modulated wave.

34
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
Pulse Modulation
– When complex signals such as pulses or rectangular
waves modulate a carrier, a broad spectrum of
sidebands is produced.
– A modulating square wave will produce sidebands
based on the fundamental sine wave as well as the
third, fifth, seventh, etc. harmonics.
– Amplitude modulation by square waves or
rectangular pulses is referred to as amplitude shift
keying (ASK).
– ASK is used in some types of data communications.
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain

Figure 1-11: Frequency spectrum of an AM signal modulated by a square wave.

 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain

Figure 1-12: Amplitude modulation of a sine wave carrier by a pulse or rectangular

wave is called amplitude-shift keying. (a) Fifty percent modulation. (b) One hundred
percent modulation.
 2-3: Sidebands and
the Frequency Domain
Pulse Modulation
– Continuous-wave (CW) transmission can be
achieved by turning the carrier off and on -
transmitting of Morse code by using dots and
dashes.
– CW transmission is also referred to as On-Off
keying (OOK).
– Splatter is a term used to describe harmonic
sideband interference.
2-4: Single-Sideband Modulation
• In amplitude modulation, two-thirds of the
transmitted power is in the carrier, which conveys
no information.

• How to improve efficiency of AM ?

• Signal information is contained within the

sidebands.

• Single-sideband (SSB) is a form of AM where the

carrier is suppressed and one sideband is
eliminated.
DSB Signals

– The first step in generating an SSB

signal is to suppress the carrier, leaving
the upper and lower sidebands.
–This type of signal is called a double-
sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC)
signal. No power is wasted on the
carrier.
– DSSC signals are generated by a circuit
called balanced modulator.
DSB Signals

– A balanced modulator is a circuit used to

produce the sum and difference frequencies
of a DSSC signal but to cancel or balance
out the carrier.
– DSB (or DSBSC) is not widely used because
the signal is difficult to demodulate
(recover) at the receiver.
– One important application for DSB-
transmission of the color information in a
TV signal.

43
 2-4: Single-Sideband Modulation

Figure 1-16: A frequency-domain display of DSB signal.

 2-4: Single-Sideband Modulation
SSB Signals (WHY SSB?)
In DSB transmission, since the sidebands are
the sum and difference of the carrier and
modulating signals, the information is
contained in both sidebands.
– One sideband is all that is necessary to convey
information in a signal.
– A single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC)
signal is generated by suppressing the carrier
and one sideband.
2-4: Single-Sideband Modulation

SSB Signals
– SSB signals offer four major benefits:
1. Spectrum space is conserved and allows more signals
to be transmitted in the same frequency range.
2. All power is channeled into a single sideband. This
produces a stronger signal that will carry further and
will be more reliably received at greater distances.
3. Occupied bandwidth space is narrower and noise
in the signal is reduced.
4. There is less selective fading (cancellation) over
long distances.
2-4: Single-Sideband Modulation
Disadvantages of DSSC and SSBSC

– Single and double-sideband SC’s are not widely

used because the signals are difficult to recover
(i.e. demodulate) at the receiver.
– A low power, pilot carrier is sometimes transmitted
along with sidebands in order to more easily
recover the signal at the receiver.
– This technique is used in FM stereo transmission
and the transmission of the color information in a
TV signal.
Signal Power Considerations
– In SSB, the transmitter output is expressed in
terms of peak envelope power (PEP), the
maximum power produced on voice amplitude
peaks.

PEP  V 2 / R PEP  VS I max

amplifier supply voltage current peak

During normal speech levels, the input and output

power levels are much less than the PEP level.
The average power = 1/4 to 1/3 of the PEP value.
 2-5: AM Power

• In radio transmission, the AM signal is

amplified by a power amplifier.
• A radio antenna has a characteristic
impedance that is ideally almost pure
resistance.
• The AM signal is a composite of the carrier and
the two sidebands signal voltages.
• Each signal produces power in the antenna.
• Total transmitted power (PT) is the sum of
carrier power (Pc ) and power of the two
sidebands (PUSB and PLSB).
 PT  PC PLSB  PUSB
From the original AM equation, we get a handy formula
for computing the total power in an AM signal :

m2 m2
PT  PC  PC PC
4 4

For 100% modulated AM transmitter,the total

sideband power is always one-half of the carrier power.
What if the percentage of modulation is less than 100%?

50
 2-5: AM Power

• When the percentage of modulation is less than the

optimum 100, there is much less power in the
sidebands.
• Output power can be calculated by using the formula

2 IT  IC (1 m 2 / 2)
PT = (IT) R,

where IT is the current in the load, R is antenna

impedance and Ic is the unmodulated carrier current
in the load
 2-5: AM Power

• The greater the percentage of modulation,

the higher the sideband power and the
higher the total power transmitted.
• Power in each sideband is calculated
PSB = PLSB = PUSB = Pcm2 / 4
• Maximum power appears in the sidebands
when the carrier is 100 percent
modulated.
 2-5: AM Power
AM Power
Review: conventional AM(DSB-FC)

Frequency spectrum:

fc-fm fc+fm
fc

Bandwidth=2 x fmmax
Total Power=Pcarrier +Pusb +Plsb
53
DSB FULL CARRIER
Two major Drawbacks of DSBFC
• Large power consumption, where carrier
power constitutes >2/3 transmitted power.
{remember : carrier does not contain any
information}

• Both the upper and lower sideband actually

contains same information (redundant).

Thus, DSBFC is both power and bandwidth

inefficient

55
Double side band suppressed carrier(DSB-SC)

• Frequency spectrum:

fc-fm fc+fm
fc

• Bandwidth:2 x fmmax
• Total Power= Pusb + Plsb
56
Single Side Band Full Carrier (SSB-FC)

Frequency spectrum:

fc-fm fc fc+fm

Bandwidth=fmmax

Total Power=Pcarrier +Pusb

57
AM Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)

• The carrier is totally suppressed and one sideband is

removed

– requires half the bandwidth of DSBFC AM

– Considerably less power than DSBFC and SSBFC schemes
– Sideband power makes up 100% of the total transmitted power

– The wave is not an envelope but a sine wave at frequency equal to the carrier frequency
±modulating frequency (depending on which sideband is transmitted)

58
Single Side band Suppress Carrier
(SSB-SC)
Frequency spectrum:

fc-fm fc+fm
fc
Bandwidth=fm

Total Power=+Pusb
59
AM Single-Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)

• One sideband is totally removed and the carrier voltage is reduced to

approximately 10% of its unmodulated amplitude

– requires half the bandwidth of DSBFC AM

– Less transmitted power than DSBFC and SSBFC but more power than
SSBSC
– As much as 96% of the total transmitted power is in the sideband
– The output modulated signal is similar to SSBFC but with reduced
maximum and minimum envelope amplitudes

60
 Comparison of time domain representation of three common
AM transmission systems:

61
Tomasi
Electronic Communications Systems, 5e
 Example 5
For an AM DSBFC wave with a peak unmodulated carrier
voltage Vc = 10Vp, frequency of 100kHz, a load resistor of
RL = 10  , frequency of modulating signal of 10kHz and
m = 1, determine the following

i) Powers of the carrier and the upper and lower

sidebands.

ii) Total power of the modulated wave.

iii) Bandwidth of the transmitted wave.

iv) Draw the power and frequency spectrum.

62
 Example 5..cont’d
• Solution for DSBFC;

i) 2
V (10) 2

P  (V / 2) 
2

c
c
  5W c

R 2R 210
mP 2

P P 
usb
1.25W
lsb
c

ii) 4
m2 m2
Pt Pc  Pc  Pc
4 4
12 12
 5  (5)  (5)  7.5W
4 4

iii) Bandwidth=2xfmmax=2(10kHz)=20kHz
63
 Example 5..cont’d

• For the same given values, determine

questions (ii)-(iv) for a AM DSB-SC, AM
SSB-FC and AM SSB-SC systems.
Determine also the percentage of power
saved in each of the system design.

64
 Example 5..cont’d
• Solution: For DSB-SC
Power saved
 7.5W  2.5W
ii) m m  5W
2 2

P  P P
t
4 4 c c

5W
%Power  x100%
1 2
1 2
saved
7.5W
 (5)  (5)  2.5W
4 4  66.67%

iii)Bandwidth=2xfmmax=2(10kHz)=20kHz

iv)
90kHz 100kHz 110kHz

65
 Example 5..cont’d
• Solution:For SSB-FC

Powersaved  7.5W  6.25W

ii) P P 
m
P
2

t c
4 c  1.25W
1.25W
1 2
%Powersaved  x100%
 5 (5)  6.25W 7.5W
4 16.67%
iii)Bandwidth=fmmax=10kHz
iv)

fc-fm 100kHz 110kHz

66
 Example 5..cont’d
• Solution:For SSB-SC
Powersaved
 7.5W 1.25W
ii) m 2

P  P  6.25W
t c
4 6.25W
12 %Power saved  x100%
 (5)  1.25W 7.5W
4  83.33%
iii)Bandwidth=fmmax=10kHz
iv)

fc-fm fc 110kHz
67
 Exercises
1. An audio signal 15sin2π (1500t ). Amplitude
modulates a carrier 60sin2π (100000t).

a) Sketch the audio signal

b) Sketch the carrier
c) Construct the modulated wave
d) Determine the modulation index and percent
modulation
e) What are the frequencies of the audio signal and the
carrier
f) What frequencies would show up in the spectrum
analysis of the modulated wave.
Solution
(a)

(b)

(c)
(d) Modulation index

𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 15 1

𝑚= = = = 0.25
𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 60 4
percentage (%) of modulation
𝑀 = 𝑚 × 100 = 0.25 × 100 = 25%

(e) frequencies of the audio signal and the carrier

(f) frequencies would show up in the spectrum

analysis of the modulated wave
 Exercises
2. The total power content of an AM wave is 1500 W.
For a 100 percent modulation, determine
(i) Power transmitted by carrier,
(ii) Power transmitted by each side band
 Exercises

3. Determine the power content of the carrier

and each of the sidebands for an AM signal
having a percent modulation of 80% and the
total power of 2500W
Solution:
Power content of the carrier:
2 2
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑇 = 2500 ( ) =1893.9 W
2+𝑚2 2+0.82
Power for each sidebands:
𝑚2 0.82
𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = × 𝑃𝐶 = × 1893.9=303 W
4 4
 Methods of Generating SSB

i) Filtering method
• A filter removes the undesired sideband producing
SSB.
• Quartz crystal filters are the most widely used
sideband filters since they are very selective and
inexpensive.

ii) Phasing method

▪ A balanced modulator eliminates the carrier and

provides DSB.
70
 Filtering method
Antenna
DSB SSB
Carrier signal signal
oscillator
Balanced Sideband
modulator filter
Linear
amplifier
Filter
Audio
Microphone response
amplifier
curve
Lower Upper
sidebands sidebands
71
 Phasing methods-using two balance modulator

• Another way to produce SSB uses a phase shift

method to eliminate one sideband.

• Two balanced modulators driven by carriers and

modulating signals 90º out of phase produce DSB.

• Adding the two DSB signals together results in one

sideband being cancelled out.

72
 An SSB generator using the phasing method.

Modulating
signal Balanced
Vm sin 2 fmt modulator
1

Carrier
oscillator
Vc sin 2 fct
SSB
+ output
90 90
phase phase
shifter shifter

Balanced
modulator
2

73
 An SSB generator using the phasing method.

The carrier signal = Vc sin 2 fct

The modulating signal = Vm sin 2 fmt
Balanced modulator 1 produces the product
of these two signals.
Applying a common trigonometric identity
sin Asin B  0.5[cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)]
we have (Vcsin 2 f ct ) (Vm sin 2 fmt)
=
0.5VcVm[cos(2 fc  2 fm )t  cos(2 fc  2 fm )t]

Noted that these are the sum and difference frequencies /

upper and lower sidebands 74
 An SSB generator using the phasing method.

The carrier signal shifted by phase shifter = Vc cos 2 fct

The modulating signal shifted by phase shifter = Vm cos 2 fmt
Balanced modulator 2 produces the product of these two
signals.
Applying a common trigonometric identity
cos Acos B  0.5[cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)]

we have (Vc cos 2 fct ) (Vm cos2 fmt)

0.5VcVm[cos(2 fc  2 fm )t  cos(2 fc  2 fm )t]

WHEN THE OUTPUT FROM BALANCED MODULATOR 1 + BALANCED MODULATOR2

PRODUCING ONLY THE LOWER SIDEBAND cos(2 fc  2 fm )t

75
 Advantages/Disadvantages of SSB

Advantages
• Power consumption - Much less total transmitted power is necessary to
produce the same quality signal as achieved with DSBFC AM

• Bandwidth conservation
• Selective fading - carrier phase shift and carrier fading can not occur, thus
smaller distortion is expected.
• Noise reduction - thermal noise power is reduced
Disadvantages
• Complex receivers
• Tuning difficulties – requires more complex and
precise than DSB
76
 VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VSB)

• VSB is similar to SSB but it retains a small

portion (a vestige) of the undesired
sideband to reduce DC distortion.
• VSB signals are generated using standard
AM or DSBSC modulation, then passing
modulated signal through a sideband
shaping filter.
• Demodulation uses either standard AM or
DSBSC demodulation.
77
 Cont’d
➢Also called asymmetric sideband system.
➢Compromise between DSB & SSB.
➢Easy to generate.
➢Bandwidth is only ~ 25% greater than SSB
signals.
➢Derived by filtering DSB, one pass band is
passed almost completely while just a trace
or vestige of the other sideband is included.

78
 Cont’d
➢AM wave is applied to a vestigial sideband
filter, producing a modulation scheme –
VSB + C
➢Mainly used for television video
transmission.
➢VSB Frequency Spectrum VSB
Carrier

LSB MSB

ffc
c

79