Directional Overcurrent and Earth fault Protection

APPS Course 2019

Imagination at work
Directional Protection
Need for Directional Control

Generally required if current can flow in both

directions through a relay location
- Assume two equal sources
- Protection graded w.r.t Source A only
- Fault close to Source B clears as expected

A B

2.1 1.7 1.3 0.9 0.5 0.1

Need for Directional Control

Generally required if current can flow in both

directions through a relay location

Grading is now lost!

A B

2.1 1.7 1.3 0.9 0.5 0.1

Need for Directional Control

Generally required if current can flow in both

directions through a relay location
- Use directional relays
- Graded in each direction

0.9 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.9

Relays operate for current flow in direction indicated

(Typical operating times shown)
Ring Main Circuit
With ring closed :

• Both load and fault current may flow in either direction along
feeder circuits

• Thus, directional relays are required

Note: Directional relays look into the feeder. Need to establish

setting philosophy

51 67 67 67
Load Load

51 67 67 67
Load
Ring Main Circuit
Procedure :
1. Open ring at A
Grade : A' - E' - D' - C' - B'
2. Open ring at A'
Grade : A - B - C - D - E
Typical operating times shown.
Note : Relays B, C, D’, E’ may be non-directional.
A B' B C' C

1.7
0.1 1.3 0.5 0.9
0.9 D'

0.5 D

A' E E'

1.7
0.1 1.3
Ring System with Two Sources

Discrimination between all relays is not possible due to different requirements under
different ring operating conditions.


For F1 :- B’ must operate before A’ Not
For F2 :- B’ must operate after A’ Compatible

F1
A B' B C' C

A'

F2 D D'
Ring System with Two Sources

Option 1
Trip least important source instantaneously then treat as normal ring main.
Option 2
Fit pilot wire protection to circuit A - B and consider as common source busbar.

A 50
Option 1 Option 1 Option 1

PW PW
Option 2 Option 2
Parallel Feeders

Non-Directional Relays :-

51 A 51 C Load

51 B 51 D
F
“Conventional Grading” :- A&B

Operating Time
Grade ‘A’ with ‘C’
C&D
and Grade ‘B’ with ‘D’

Relays ‘A’ and ‘B’ have

the same setting.
Fault level
at ‘F’
Parallel Feeders

Consider fault on one feeder :-

I1 + I2
I1

51 A C 51
I2 LOAD

51 B D 51

Relays ‘C’ and ‘D’ see the same fault current (I2). As
‘C’ and ‘D’ have similar settings both feeders will be
tripped.
Parallel Feeders

Solution:- Directional Control at ‘C’ and ‘D’

I1 + I2
I1

C
51 A I2 67 LOAD

51 B D 67

Relay ‘D’ does not operate due to current flow in the

reverse direction.
Parallel Feeders

Setting philosophy for directional relays

E
51 A C 67 Load

51

51 B D 67

Load current always flows in ‘non-operate’ direction.

Any current flow in ‘operate’ direction is indicative of a
fault condition.
Parallel Feeders

Relays C and D (directional) will usually be set at:-

- 50% of full load current (note thermal rating)
- IDMT rather than DT
- Minimum recommended T.M.S. (0.1)
Parallel Feeder Application

Grade A with B with C at If1

(single feeder in service) If3
P Q

B D
Grade B with D at If3 A C Load

Load B D If1
(upper feeder open at P)
If2

Grade A with B at If2 B

A
C
(both feeders in service) D
M = Margin
- check that sufficient margin exists for bus M
fault at Q when relay A sees total fault M M
current If2, but relay B sees only If2/2.
If2/2 If1 If2 Ifmax
Partial Differential Scheme

Grid supply

P1 67 67
S1
51
S2
P2

S2 S1
P2 P1

51

51 51

Advantage : Reduced number of grading

stages
Establishing Direction
Establishing Direction:- Polarising Quantity

The DIRECTION of Alternating Current may only be

determined with respect to a COMMON REFERENCE.

In relaying terms, the REFERENCE is called the POLARISING

QUANTITY.

The most convenient reference quantity is POLARISING

VOLTAGE taken from the Power System Voltages.
Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (1)

S1 = Reference Direction = Polarising Signal = VPOL

S2 = Current Signal = I

OPERATION when S2 is within ±90° of S1 :-

S 1

S S 2
2 S 2

S 2 S 2

S 2 S 2
Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (2)

RESTRAINT when S2 lags S1 by between 90° and 270° :-

S1

S2 S2

S2 S2

S2 S2
S2
Polarising Voltage for ‘A’ Phase Overcurrent Relay

OPERATE SIGNAL = IA

POLARISING SIGNAL :- Which voltage to use ?

Selectable from
VA
VB
VC
VA-B
VB-C
VC-A
Directional Relay

Applied Voltage : VA
Applied Current : IA

VA

IA
Operate
IAF

VAF

Restrain

Question :
- is this comparison suitable for a typical power system ?
Polarising Voltage
Applied Voltage : VBC
Applied Current : IA

VA

IA

IAF

MAXIMUM SENSITIVITY LINE

VBC

IVBC

Polarising voltage remains

ØVBC healthy
Fault current is near centre
ZERO SENSITIVITY
LINE of characteristic
Relay Connection Angle
The angle between the current applied to the relay and the voltage applied to
the relay at system unity power factor.

e.g. 90 (Quadrature) Connection : IA and VBC

IA

VA

90
VBC

VC VB
The 90 connection is now used for all overcurrent relays. 30 and 60°
connections were also used in the past, but are no longer used, as the 90
connection gives better performance.
Relay Characteristic Angle (R.C.A.)
for Electronic Relays

The angle by which the current applied to the relay must be displaced from the
voltage applied to the relay to produce maximum operational sensitivity
e.g. 45°

OPERATE

V IA FOR MAXIMUM OPERATE

RESTRAIN SENSITIVITY
A

RCA
45
VBC
90° Connection - 45° R.C.A.

MAX SENSITIVITY
OPERATE LINE
IA
V VA IA FOR MAX
RESTRAIN SENSITIVITY
A 45
90 45
VBC VBC
135

VC VB

RELAY CURRENT VOLTAGE

A IA VBC
B IB VCA
C IC VAB
90° Connection - 30° R.C.A.

OPERATE
MAX
SENSITIVITY
IA RESTRAIN LINE

VA VA IA FOR MAX
30
SENSITIVITY

90 30
V BC V BC
150

VC VB

RELAY CURRENT VOLTAGE

A IA VBC
B IB VCA
C IC VAB
Selection of the R.C.A.

Three factors affect the choice of an R.C.A.:

- Fault types (ph-ph, 2ph-g, 3ph)

- Relay connection (90o)
- Feeder types - location of the strongest zero sequence source
Selection of the R.C.A.
Plain feeder - zero sequence source behind relay

30° RCA (lead)

Tripping
Direction
Selection of the R.C.A.
Plain feeder - zero sequence source behind relay
Selection of the R.C.A.
Plain or a Transformer feeder – only zero sequence source
in front of the relay
45° RCA (lead)

Plain Feeder – zero sequence in front

Tripping
Transformer Feeder Direction

Tripping
Direction
Selection of the R.C.A.
Plain Feeder – zero sequence source in front
Selection of the R.C.A.
Transformer feeder
Directional Earth Fault
Protection
Directional Earth Fault
Requirements are similar to directional overcurrent
i.e. need operating signal
and polarising signal

Operating Signal
obtained from residual connection of line CT's
i.e. Iop = 3Io

Polarising Signal
The use of either phase-neutral or phase-phase voltage as the reference
becomes inappropriate for the comparison with residual current.
Most appropriate polarising signal is the residual voltage.
Residual Voltage (1)
May be obtained from ‘broken’ delta V.T. secondary.

A
B
C

VA-G VB-G VC-G

VRES = VA-G + VB-G + VC-G = 3V0

VRES
Notes :
1. VT primary must be earthed.
2. VT must be of the '5 limb' construction (or 3 x single phase units)
Residual Voltage (2)
Solidly Earthed System E S R F
ZS ZL

A-G

VA
VA

VC VB VC VB VC VB

VA VRES
VA VRES
VB VB VB

VC VC VC
Residual Voltage at R (relaying point) is dependant upon Z S / ZL ratio.

ZS0
VRES = x 3E
2Z S1 + ZS0 + 2Z L1 + ZL0
 Residual Voltage (3)
Resistance Earthed System
E S R F
ZS ZL
N

ZE
A-G
G
ZS0 + 3Z E
VRES = x 3E
2Z S1 + ZS0 + 2Z L1 + ZL0 + 3Z E
V A-G V A-G
G.F G.F G.F

V C-G V B-G V C-G V B-G V C-G V B-G

Also, VRES VRES VRES

V B-G V B-G V B-G
ZS1 V A-G V A-G
V2 = x E V C-G V C-G V C-G
2ZS1 + ZS0 + 2Z L1 + Z L0 + 3Z E
Relay Characteristic Angle (R.C.A.)

Voltage Polarising Signal

Rotate VRES by 180O to obtain voltage polarisation signal
0O, -45O or -60O R.C.A. applied for maximum sensitivity

OPERATE VA MAX SENSITIVITY

LINE
e.g. -45° RESTRAIN
VF IRES FOR MAX
-45 SENSITIVITY

Rotate VRES by 180

VRES
VC VB
Residual Voltage Polarisation

Relay Characteristic Angle

0° - Resistance/Petersen Coil earthed systems
-45° (I lags V) - Distribution systems (solidly earthed)
-60° (I lags V) - Transmission systems (solidly earthed)
+90° (I leads V) - Insulated systems

Zero Sequence Network :-

ZS0 I0 ZL0

3R V0
(Relay Point)

V0 = 0 - I0 (ZS0 + 3R)
Virtual Current Polarisation
❑The faulted phase voltage is not considered in the residual
voltage calculation.

Faulted Phase Polarising

A VB + VC
B VA + VC
C VA + VC
❑Faulted phase is identified via a phase selector
❑The polarising quantity is in the same direction as
–Vres.
❑Applicable even where solid earthing immediately behind the
IED prevents residual voltage from being developed.
Negative Phase Sequence Voltage Polarisation

Transmission Systems
Directional earth fault used as back-up protection
Can form part of a directional scheme
VRES might be unreliable due to mutual coupling
Unsuitable VT for V RES measurement (i.e. open delta, 3-limb)

Negative Sequence
Z
Network :- ZL2
S2 I2

ZS1=ZS2
V2 ZL1=ZL2
(Relay Point)

V2 = 0 – I2 (ZS2)
Load Encroachment
Load Encroachment

Dealing with Load Encroachment

▪Modern directional relays provide load blinders
▪Blinders block directional element during healthy system conditions
▪Blinders are disabled using typical starters such as undervoltage and neg sequence
current
▪This permits appropriate pick-up settings to be used for the directional element

Typical blinder configuration

Application (1/11)
Typical UK Sub-Transmission Protection System
▪Distance protection (21), without signalling, is commonly used at
sub-transmission levels
▪Inter-tripping is used to supplement the distance protection by
opening the LV breaker

Sub Transmission Network

▪ Faults at F1 cleared by: CB1 CB2

− Distance protection at CB1 and 21

CB2 F1
IT
− Intertripping to CB4
▪ DOC (67) provides back-up in the 67
Intertripping
event of inter-tripping failure CB3 CB4 Channel

LV Network Embedded
generation

LV Load
Application (2/11)
Directional Protection
DOC protection without embedded generation :-
▪Dir. Protection is naturally insensitive to load current (IA-LOAD), by virtue of its
direction
▪Since load current resides in the restraining region, a setting of 0.5In is often
selected

Sub Transmission Network Operate

CB1 CB2
IAF RCA
VA
IAF
Restrain

Normal Load
F1(A-B)
Direction
(IA-LOAD) 45° VBC
IAF (VPOL)

67
VC VB
IA-LOAD
CB3 CB4
Application (3/11)
Impact of Embedded Generation

▪Excess generation is exported back on to the sub-transmission network

▪Exported current (IA-EXP) resides in the operate region
▪Unless measures are taken, the DOC relay mal-operates during peak export
conditions
▪ Increase threshold?

Sub Transmission Network Operate

CB1 CB2
RCA
VA
IA-EXP Restrain IA-EXP

45° VBC
Embedded
Normal Load
Direction
IA-EXP Generation (VPOL)
(IA-LOAD) VC VB
67 IA-LOAD
CB3 CB4
 Application (4/11) Problem….

❑Increasing the current setting ( IS) to, say, 1.2In ensures

stability of the DOC protection during peak export conditions.
But….
❑Reducing the sensitivity creates a potential blind spot for
the DOC protection. This is a problem if :-
▪ The intertripping scheme fails to IF1
Sub Transmission Network
CB1 CB2
function and we are reliant of the
DOC relay to clear the fault IF1+
IF1 Potential
IF2 F Bl i nd Spot
IS > (IF1+ IF2)
▪ The embedded generation is
minimal or none existent during the Embedded
Generation
fault condition
67

CB3 CB4
IF2
Application (5/11)
Solution – DOC with Load Blinding
Load blinding originates from distance protection relays:
❑Relay determines the difference between fault and load conditions by
the change in system impedance
❑DOC protection is:
▪ Inhibited during load conditions, thus permitting export of excess generation
▪ Allowed to operate for faults providing the correct direction
IF1
Z in front jX Fault Impedance
CB1 CB2 VS (F)
of relay
IF1+ IF2 Gen
IF1 Potential
Blind Spot Load Locus
F IS > (IF1+ IF2) (lagging VARs)
R
Load Locus
Embedded (leading VARs)
Generation Z behind
relay
67
CB3 CB4 Load Blinder

VS
Application (6/11)
Load Blinder Characteristic

❑4 main settings denote the shape and behaviour of the blinder

characteristic:-
▪ ZMIN Minimum impedance threshold
▪ Load angle setting
▪ V< Voltage threshold to disable load blinder
▪ I2> Negative sequence threshold to disable load blinder

jX
❑How to set?
Z MIN2 Z MIN1

Load Locus 3 1 Load Locus

R
(Import) 4 2 (Export)
Application(7/11)
Load Blinder Settings
❑ZMIN1 Minimum impedance threshold (Export)
▪ Set below the minimum load impedance
▪ Based upon rated current and rated voltage
▪ Include safety margin if required

Rated Primary Vo ltage (ph - ph)

ZMIN (primary) = − m arg in
3  CT Primary Rating

▪ Example: for a 33kV system with a 600/5 CT (no margin):

33  10 3
ZMIN (primary) = = 31.7
3  600
❑ZMIN2 Import – Not required as imported load is naturally in the restraining
region of the DOC relay
Application (8/11)
Load Blinder Setting

❑ Load angle setting

▪ Set above worst case power factor angle
▪ Include safety margin of typically 15°
▪ Equal in inductive and capacitive reactance regions (1 = 2)
▪ Hence :-
1 =  2 = COS-1(Power Factor ) + 15 

▪ Example: lowest power factor = 0.85:

1 =  2 = COS-1(0.85 ) + 15  = 47 
Application (9/11)
Load Blinder Setting
❑ V< Undervoltage threshold
▪ Designed to disable the load blinder during fault conditions
▪ Must disable load blinder for faults with minimum embedded generation (VFAULT 
0.5VN)
▪ Disabling load blinder for faults with maximum embedded generation less
important due to increase in fault current
▪ Recommended setting = 0.7VN
▪ Hence :-
jX Fault Impedance
(HV fault)
▪ Example: For 33kV system: Import region
ZMIN =
naturally 31.7Ω
 33  10 3  blocked by Restraining
V  = 0.7    = 13 .3kV DOC blinder region
 3  characteristic. 47°
R
47°
Restraining
i.e. Operates if any ph-n region
voltage falls below 13.3kV
Application (10/11)
Load Blinder Characteristic – Setting Criteria (I2>)

I2> Negative sequence current threshold

▪ Designed to disable the load blinder during unbalanced fault conditions where the phase to
neutral voltage collapse is insufficient (common with delta / star transformers)
▪ Phase to Phase to Ground being the worst case
▪ Calculation assumes zero arc resistance to ground resulting in lowest possible I2 component
▪ Sequence analysis gives the following setting guideline :-

I 2  = 0.38ISetting
▪ Example: Assuming IS = 0.5 IFLC
132kV
 0.5  524 
I 2  = 0.38    = 0.166 A sec
 600 
30MVA
▪ i.e. Load blinder turns off if
I2 component is above 0.166A (secondary)
600/1 Full load current (IFLC) =
67
524A at 33kV

33kV
Application (11/11) Hybrid Load Blinder / DOC
Characteristic (A-Phase Element)
Import / Export Load
Conditions Fault Condition
Insulated Systems
Insulated Systems (1)
a b c Where Ica is the capacitive
current for Phase A
Ica
Icb

R
Ic

Ica
Source Icb

R
Ic

Ica
Icb

R
3Ic 2Ic

Location CT's
 Insulated Systems (2)
Faulty Feeder VRES VRES
Healthy Feeders

Post-fault Vac Vbc Post-fault Vac Vbc

Va Vb Va Vb
Ic Ic
0V -3Ic 0V
Icb I Icb I
ca Pre-fault ca Pre-fault
Vc Vc

VRES VRES

Ic = Ica + Icb
-2Ic
RCA RCA

Restrain Operate Restrain Operate

VPOL VPOL
Peterson Coil Earthed Systems (1)
a b c
Ica
Icb

R
Ic

Ica
Source Icb

R
Ic

IL
Ica
Icb

IL 3Ic
R
Ic

2Ic
Location of CT's
IL
 Peterson Coil Earthed Systems (2)
Faulty Feeder VRES VRES
Healthy Feeders

Post-fault Vac Vbc Vac Vbc

Va Vb Va Vb

N N
Pre-fault Pre-fault
Vc Vc

Assuming no neutral or feeder Assuming no feeder resistance,

resistance, resultant current is at resultant current is at the
the boundary Restrain boundary Restrain

Ic Icb Ica
Ic
IL -3Ic
Ica Icb

Operate Operate

VPOL
VPOL
 Peterson Coil Earthed Systems (3)
Faulty Feeders VRES VRES
Healthy Feeders

Post-fault Vac Vbc Vac Vbc

Va Vb Va Vb

N N
Pre-fault Pre-fault
Vc Vc

With neutral resistance, resultant With feeder resitance, resultant

current is in the Operate current is in the Restrain
region Restrain region Restrain

Ic Icb Ic Ica

IL -3Ic
Ica Icb

Operate Operate

VPOL
VPOL
Current Polarisation
Current Polarising
A solidly earthed, high fault level (low source impedance) system may result
in a small value of residual voltage at the relaying point. If residual voltage is
too low to provide a reliable polarising signal then a current polarising signal
may be used as an alternative.

The current polarising signal may be derived from a CT located in a suitable

system neutral to earth connection.
e.g.

OP
POL
DEF Relay
Current Polarising (1)

OP
POL
DEF RELAY

Direction of current depends on fault

position

Current direction in the neutral can INCORRECT

change for a fault on the left feeder
Current Polarising (2)

OP
POL
DEF RELAY

Current will always be up through

the neutral. No zero seq. CORRECT
contribution from the right side for a
fault on the left side.
Current Polarising (3)

OP
POL
DEF RELAY

For faults on either side,

combined current direction is CORRECT IF

upwards, or in one direction. ZL0 + ZS0 IS POSITIVE

Current Polarising (4)
Need earth CT for current
polarisation on each
circuit.

OP

CORRECT
POL DEF RELAY
Auto Transformers (1)

ZT

ZH ZL
SOURCE

ZS SOURCE

DEF
RELAY

Neutral connection is suitable for current polarising if

earthfault current flows ‘up’ the neutral for faults on both
H.V. & L.V. sides.
For LV Faults

IH H L IL

IN = 3 (IL0 – IH0)
For HV Faults

IH H L IL

IN = 3 (IH0 – IL0)
Auto-Transformer Example

ZS
H L

IN = 3 (IH0 – IL0)

IH0 ZH0 ZL0 IL0 ZS0

I0

ZT0
Auto-Transformer Example

ΙH0 = Ι 0 in p.u.

MVAbase
= Ι0 x in kA
3 x kVH

Z T0
ΙL0 = . Ι 0 in p.u.
Z T0 + Z S0 + ZL0

Z T0 MVAbase
= . Ι0 x in kA
Z T0 + Z S0 + ZL0 3 x kVL
Auto-Transformer Example

3 Ι 0 .MVA base  1 1  Z T0 
 ΙN =  -   
3 kVH kVL  Z T0 + Z S0 + ZL0  

1 1  Z T0 
 ΙN is + ve if 
kVH kVL  Z T0 + Z S0 + ZL0 

kVH  Z T0 
or Z + Z + Z   1
kVL  T0 S0 L0 
Auto-Transformer Example

ZS
H L

IN = 3 (IL0 – IH0)

IH0 ZH0 ZL0 IL0 ZS0

I0

ZT0

❑ IH0 = 0
❑  IN = 3IL0 which is +ve.
Directional Control

Static Relay (MCGG + METI)

Characteristic Selectable M.T.A. Selectable

51 I

67 I

Overcurrent Unit Directional Unit

(Static) (Static)
Numerical Relay Directional Characteristic

Characteristic angle Øc Zone of

Øc = -95° 0° 95° forward start
in 1° steps forward operation
+Is

(Øc - 90°) Øc (Øc + 90°)

Polarising thresholds -Is
Vp ≥ 2V to 320V
in 2V steps Reverse start

VT supervision
selectively block operation