GCSE

COMBINED
SCIENCE:
TRILOGY
8464
Specification
For teaching from September 2016 onwards
For GCSE exams in 2018 onwards
Version 1.0 22 April 2016
 GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.0 22 April 2016

Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Why choose AQA for GCSE Combined Science:
Trilogy 5
1.2 Support and resources to help you teach 6

2 Specification at a glance 9
2.1 Subject content 9
2.2 Assessments 9

3 Working scientifically 13

4 Biology subject content 19

4.1 Cell biology 20
4.2 Organisation 26
4.3 Infection and response 34
4.4 Bioenergetics 39
4.5 Homeostasis and response 42
4.6 Inheritance, variation and evolution 49
4.7 Ecology 59
4.8 Key ideas 65

5 Chemistry subject content 67

5.1 Atomic structure and the periodic table 67
5.2 Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter 75
5.3 Quantitative chemistry 84
5.4 Chemical changes 88
5.5 Energy changes 95
5.6 The rate and extent of chemical change 98
5.7 Organic chemistry 104
5.8 Chemical analysis 107
5.9 Chemistry of the atmosphere 110
5.10 Using resources 115
5.11 Key ideas 120

6 Physics subject content 121

6.1 Energy 121
6.2 Electricity 127
6.3 Particle model of matter 135
6.4 Atomic structure 138
6.5 Forces 143
6.6 Waves 155

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 6.7 Magnetism and electromagnetism 159
6.8 Key ideas 162

7 Scheme of assessment 163

7.1 Aims and learning outcomes 163
7.2 Assessment objectives 164
7.3 Assessment weightings 165

8 General administration 167

8.1 Entries and codes 167
8.2 Overlaps with other qualifications 167
8.3 Awarding grades and reporting results 167
8.4 Re-sits and shelf life 168
8.5 Previous learning and prerequisites 168
8.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion 168
8.7 Working with AQA for the first time 169
8.8 Private candidates 169

9 Mathematical requirements 171

10 Practical assessment 173

10.1 Use of apparatus and techniques 173
10.2 Required practical activities 175

11 Appendix A: Periodic table 193

12 Appendix B: Physics equations 195

Are you using the latest version of this specification?

• You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at
aqa.org.uk/8464
• We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification.

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1 Introduction
1.1 Why choose AQA for GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy
Our philosophy: science for all
We believe that science has something to offer every student. That’s why we have a suite of
science qualifications for Key Stage 4 – to suit students of all abilities and all aspirations.
The subject content and required practicals in this specification are also in our GCSE Biology,
Chemistry and Physics. So you have the flexibility to co-teach and to move your students between
courses.

Our specification has been developed with teachers

We’ve involved over a thousand teachers in developing our specification, exams and resources.
So you can be confident that our GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy is interesting and relevant to all
types of students. We’ve ensured that:
• the biology, chemistry and physics content is presented clearly, in a logical teaching order.
We’ve also given teaching guidance and signposted opportunities for skills development
throughout the specification
• the subject content and required practicals are also in our biology, chemistry and physics
GCSEs so you have the flexibility to co-teach or to move your students between courses
• all our science qualifications provide opportunities for progression. Combined Science: Trilogy
gives students the option to progress to A-levels in science or other subjects.

Our practicals have been trialled by teachers

There’s no better way to learn about science than through purposeful practical activities as part of
day to day teaching and learning. Our 21 required practicals:
• are clearly laid out in the specification, so you know exactly what’s required
• are deliberately open, so you can teach in the way that suits you and your students
• have already been trialled in schools.
You’ll find even more support and guidance in our practical handbook, which includes
recommendations and advice from teachers in the trial.

Straightforward exams, so students can give straightforward answers

We’ve improved our question papers. You’ll find that our exams:
• use more straightforward language and fewer words so they’re easier to understand
• have fewer contexts so students don’t get confused
• have questions that increase in difficulty so students feel confident
• have been written with our GCSE Maths and A-level science teams, so students have
consistency between content and questions.

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Over 3,000 students have sat our specimen question papers and they agree that they’re clearer
and more straightforward than ever.

We don’t profit from education – you do

We are an educational charity focused on the needs of teachers and students. This means that we
spend our income on improving the quality of our specifications, exams, resources and support.
You can find out about all our Combined Science: Trilogy qualifications at aqa.org.uk/science

1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

We’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide you with a range of resources that will help
you confidently plan, teach and prepare for exams.

Teaching resources
Visit aqa.org.uk/8464 to see all our teaching resources. They include:
• additional practice papers to help students prepare for exams
• schemes of work, written by experienced teachers
• a practical handbook, including recommendations and advice from teachers who’ve trialled our
practicals
• AQA-approved textbooks reviewed by experienced senior examiners
• subject expertise courses for all teachers, from newly qualified teachers who are just getting
started to experienced teachers looking for fresh inspiration.

Preparing for exams

Visit aqa.org.uk/8464 for everything you need to prepare for our exams, including:
• past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports
• specimen papers and mark schemes for new courses
• Exampro: a searchable bank of past AQA exam questions
• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.

Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Find out which questions were the most challenging, how the results compare to previous years
and where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis tool, will help you
see where to focus your teaching. Register at aqa.org.uk/era
For information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our
post-results services, visit aqa.org.uk/results

Keep your skills up-to-date with professional development

Wherever you are in your career, there’s always something new to learn. As well as subject-
specific training, we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills.
• Improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation, teaching literacy and meeting
Ofsted requirements.
• Prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses.

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You can attend a course at venues around the country, in your school or online – whatever suits
your needs and availability. Find out more at coursesandevents.aqa.org.uk

Help and support available

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/8464
If you'd like us to share news and information about this qualification, sign up for emails and
updates at aqa.org.uk/keepinformedscience
Alternatively, you can call or email our subject team direct.
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 756

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 GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.0 22 April 2016

2 Specification at a glance
This qualification is linear. Linear means that students will sit all their exams at the end of the
course.

2.1 Subject content

Biology
1. Cell biology (page 20)
2. Organisation (page 26)
3. Infection and response (page 34)
4. Bioenergetics (page 39)
5. Homeostasis and response (page 42)
6. Inheritance, variation and evolution (page 49)
7. Ecology (page 59)

Chemistry
8. Atomic structure and the periodic table (page 67)
9. Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter (page 75)
10. Quantitative chemistry (page 84)
11. Chemical changes (page 88)
12. Energy changes (page 95)
13. The rate and extent of chemical change (page 98)
14. Organic chemistry (page 104)
15. Chemical analysis (page 107)
16. Chemistry of the atmosphere (page 110)
17. Using resources (page 115)

Physics
18. Energy (page 121)
19. Electricity (page 127)
20. Particle model of matter (page 135)
21. Atomic structure (page 138)
22. Forces (page 143)
23. Waves (page 155)
24. Magnetism and electromagnetism (page 159)

2.2 Assessments
There are six papers: two biology, two chemistry and two physics. Each of the papers will assess
knowledge and understanding from distinct topic areas.

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 Biology Paper 1

What's assessed
Biology topics 1–4: Cell Biology; Organisation; Infection and response; and Bioenergetics.

How it's assessed

• Written exam: 1 hour 15 minutes
• Foundation and Higher Tier
• 70 marks
• 16.7% of GCSE

Questions
Multiple choice, structured, closed short answer, and open response.

Biology Paper 2

What's assessed
Biology topics 5–7: Homeostasis and response; Inheritance, variation and evolution; and Ecology.

How it's assessed

• Written exam: 1 hour 15 minutes
• Foundation and Higher Tier
• 70 marks
• 16.7% of GCSE

Questions
Multiple choice, structured, closed short answer, and open response.

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Chemistry Paper 1

What's assessed
Chemistry topics 8–12: Atomic structure and the periodic table; Bonding, structure, and the
properties of matter; Quantitative chemistry; Chemical changes; and Energy changes.

How it's assessed

• Written exam: 1 hour 15 minutes
• Foundation and Higher Tier
• 70 marks
• 16.7% of GCSE

Questions
Multiple choice, structured, closed short answer, and open response.

Chemistry Paper 2

What's assessed
Chemistry topics 13–17: The rate and extent of chemical change; Organic chemistry; Chemical
analysis; Chemistry of the atmosphere; and Using resources.

How it's assessed

• Written exam: 1 hour 15 minutes
• Foundation and Higher Tier
• 70 marks
• 16.7% of GCSE

Questions
Multiple choice, structured, closed short answer, and open response.

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 Physics Paper 1

What's assessed
Physics topics 18–21: Energy; Electricity; Particle model of matter; and Atomic structure.

How it's assessed

• Written exam: 1 hour 15 minutes
• Foundation and Higher Tier
• 70 marks
• 16.7% of GCSE

Questions
Multiple choice, structured, closed short answer, and open response.

Physics Paper 2

What's assessed
Physics topics 22–24: Forces; Waves; and Magnetism and electromagnetism

How it's assessed

• Written exam: 1 hour 15 minutes
• Foundation and Higher Tier
• 70 marks
• 16.7% of GCSE

Questions
Multiple choice, structured, closed short answer, and open response.

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3 Working scientifically
Science is a set of ideas about the material world. We have included all the parts of what good
science is at GCSE level: whether it be investigating, observing, experimenting or testing out ideas
and thinking about them. The way scientific ideas flow through the specification will support you in
building a deep understanding of science with your students. We know this will involve talking
about, reading and writing about science plus the actual doing, as well as representing science in
its many forms both mathematically and visually through models.
This specification encourages the development of knowledge and understanding in science
through opportunities for working scientifically. Working scientifically is the sum of all the activities
that scientists do. We feel it is so important that we have woven it throughout our specification and
written papers.
Our schemes of work will take this further for you and signpost a range of ways to navigate through
this qualification so your students are engaged and enthused. These free resources support the
use of mathematics as a tool for thinking through the use of mathematical language in
explanations, applications and evaluations.
The tables below show examples of the ways working scientifically could be assessed.

1 Development of scientific thinking

Students should be able to: Examples of what students could be asked to
do in an exam
WS 1.1 Understand how scientific methods and Give examples to show how scientific methods
theories develop over time. and theories have changed over time.
Explain, with an example, why new data from
experiments or observations led to changes in
models or theories.
Decide whether or not given data supports a
particular theory.

WS 1.2 Use a variety of models such as Recognise/draw/interpret diagrams.

representational, spatial, descriptive,
computational and mathematical to solve Translate from data to a representation with a
problems, make predictions and to develop model.
scientific explanations and understanding of Use models in explanations, or match features
familiar and unfamiliar facts. of a model to the data from experiments or
observations that the model describes or
explains.
Make predictions or calculate quantities based
on the model or show its limitations.
Give examples of ways in which a model can
be tested by observation or experiment.

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 Students should be able to: Examples of what students could be asked to
do in an exam
WS 1.3 Appreciate the power and limitations of Explain why data is needed to answer scientific
science and consider any ethical issues which questions, and why it may be uncertain,
may arise. incomplete or not available.
Outline a simple ethical argument about the
rights and wrongs of a new technology.

WS 1.4 Explain everyday and technological Describe and explain specified examples of the
applications of science; evaluate associated technological applications of science.
personal, social, economic and environmental
implications; and make decisions based on the Describe and evaluate, with the help of data,
evaluation of evidence and arguments. methods that can be used to tackle problems
caused by human impacts on the environment.

WS 1.5 Evaluate risks both in practical science Give examples to show that there are hazards
and the wider societal context, including associated with science-based technologies
perception of risk in relation to data and which have to be considered alongside the
consequences. benefits.
Suggest reasons why the perception of risk is
often very different from the measured risk (eg
voluntary vs imposed risks, familiar vs
unfamiliar risks, visible vs invisible hazards).

WS 1.6 Recognise the importance of peer Explain that the process of peer review helps to
review of results and of communicating results detect false claims and to establish a
to a range of audiences. consensus about which claims should be
regarded as valid.
Explain that reports of scientific developments
in the popular media are not subject to peer
review and may be oversimplified, inaccurate or
biased.

2 Experimental skills and strategies

Students should be able to: Examples of what students could be asked to
do in an exam
WS 2.1 Use scientific theories and explanations Suggest a hypothesis to explain given
to develop hypotheses. observations or data.

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Students should be able to: Examples of what students could be asked to

do in an exam
WS 2.2 Plan experiments or devise procedures Describe a practical procedure for a specified
to make observations, produce or characterise purpose.
a substance, test hypotheses, check data or
explore phenomena. Explain why a given practical procedure is well
designed for its specified purpose.
Explain the need to manipulate and control
variables.
Identify in a given context:
• the independent variable as the one that is
changed or selected by the investigator
• the dependent variable that is measured for
each change in the independent variable
• control variables and be able to explain why
they are kept the same.
Apply understanding of apparatus and
techniques to suggest a procedure for a
specified purpose.

WS 2.3 Apply a knowledge of a range of Describe/suggest/select the technique,

techniques, instruments, apparatus, and instrument, apparatus or material that should be
materials to select those appropriate to the used for a particular purpose, and explain why.
experiment.
WS 2.4 Carry out experiments appropriately Identify the main hazards in specified practical
having due regard for the correct manipulation contexts.
of apparatus, the accuracy of measurements
and health and safety considerations. Suggest methods of reducing the risk of harm in
practical contexts.

WS 2.5 Recognise when to apply a knowledge Suggest and describe an appropriate sampling
of sampling techniques to ensure any samples technique in a given context.
collected are representative.
WS 2.6 Make and record observations and Read measurements off a scale in a practical
measurements using a range of apparatus and context and record appropriately.
methods.
WS 2.7 Evaluate methods and suggest possible Assess whether sufficient, precise
improvements and further investigations. measurements have been taken in an
experiment.
Evaluate methods with a view to determining
whether or not they are valid.

3 Analysis and evaluation

Apply the cycle of collecting, presenting and analysing data, including:

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 Students should be able to: Examples of what students could be asked to
do in an exam
WS 3.1 Presenting observations and other data Construct and interpret frequency tables and
using appropriate methods. diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
Plot two variables from experimental or other
data.

WS 3.2 Translating data from one form to Translate data between graphical and numeric
another. form.
WS 3.3 Carrying out and represent For example:
mathematical and statistical analysis.
• use an appropriate number of significant
figures
• find the arithmetic mean and range of a set
of data
• construct and interpret frequency tables and
diagrams, bar charts and histograms
• make order of magnitude calculations
• change the subject of an equation
• substitute numerical values into algebraic
equations using appropriate units for
physical quantities
• determine the slope and intercept of a linear
graph
• draw and use the slope of a tangent to a
curve as a measure of rate of change
• understand the physical significance of area
between a curve and the x-axis and measure
it by counting squares as appropriate.

WS 3.4 Representing distributions of results Apply the idea that whenever a measurement is
and make estimations of uncertainty. made, there is always some uncertainty about
the result obtained.
Use the range of a set of measurements about
the mean as a measure of uncertainty.

WS 3.5 Interpreting observations and other Use data to make predictions.

data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic,
graphical, symbolic or numerical form), Recognise or describe patterns and trends in
including identifying patterns and trends, data presented in a variety of tabular, graphical
making inferences and drawing conclusions. and other forms.
Draw conclusions from given observations.

WS 3.6 Presenting reasoned explanations Comment on the extent to which data is

including relating data to hypotheses. consistent with a given hypothesis.
Identify which of two or more hypotheses
provides a better explanation of data in a given
context.

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Students should be able to: Examples of what students could be asked to

do in an exam
WS 3.7 Being objective, evaluating data in Apply the following ideas to evaluate data to
terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability and suggest improvements to procedures and
reproducibility and identifying potential sources techniques.
of random and systematic error.
• An accurate measurement is one that is
close to the true value.
• Measurements are precise if they cluster
closely.
• Measurements are repeatable when
repetition, under the same conditions by the
same investigator, gives similar results.
• Measurements are reproducible if similar
results are obtained by different investigators
with different equipment.
• Measurements are affected by random error
due to results varying in unpredictable ways;
these errors can be reduced by making more
measurements and reporting a mean value.
• Systematic error is due to measurement
results differing from the true value by a
consistent amount each time.
• Any anomalous values should be examined
to try to identify the cause and, if a product of
a poor measurement, ignored.

WS 3.8 Communicating the scientific rationale Present coherent and logically structured
for investigations, methods used, findings and responses, using the ideas in 2 Experimental
reasoned conclusions through paper-based and skills and strategies and 3 Analysis and
electronic reports and presentations using evaluation, applied to the required practicals,
verbal, diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and and other practical investigations given
symbolic forms. appropriate information.

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4 Scientific vocabulary, quantities, units, symbols and
nomenclature
Students should be able to: Examples of what students could be asked to
do in an exam

WS 4.1 Use scientific vocabulary, terminology The knowledge and skills in this section apply
and definitions. across the specification, including the required
practicals.
WS 4.2 Recognise the importance of scientific
quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm;
kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature
unless inappropriate.
WS 4.4 Use prefixes and powers of ten for
orders of magnitude (eg tera, giga, mega, kilo,
centi, milli, micro and nano).
WS 4.5 Interconvert units.
WS 4.6 Use an appropriate number of
significant figures in calculation.

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4 Biology subject content

This specification is presented in a two column format.
The subject content is split into three sections for each of the subject areas: biology, chemistry and
physics.
The left hand column contains the subject content that all students must cover, and that can be
assessed in the written papers.
The right hand column exemplifies some of the key opportunities for the following skills to be
developed throughout the course: WS refers to Working scientifically (page 13), MS refers to
Mathematical requirements (page 171) and AT refers to Use of apparatus and techniques (page
173). These are not the only opportunities. Teachers are encouraged to introduce all of these skills
where appropriate throughout the course.
Each topic begins with an overview. The overview puts the topic into a broader context and is
intended to encourage an overarching approach to both the teaching and learning of each of the
topic areas. It is not directly assessed. Any assessable content in this overview is replicated in the
left hand column.
It is good practice to teach and develop all of the mathematical skills throughout the course. Some
mathematical skills will only be assessed in certain subject areas. These are detailed in
Mathematical requirements (page 171).
Science is a practical subject. Details of the assessment of required practicals can be found in
Required practical activities (page 175).
Working scientifically (page 13) and Use of apparatus and techniques (page 173) skills will be
assessed across all papers.
Content that is only applicable to Higher Tier is indicated by (HT only) either next to the topic
heading where it applies to the whole topic or immediately preceding each paragraph or bullet
point as applicable.
Fundamental biological concepts and principles
Students should have a basic understanding of the following biological principles and be able to
apply them in either paper:
• The structure and functioning of cells and how they divide by mitosis and meiosis from sections
Cell biology (page 20) and Meiosis (page 50).
• That variation occurs when gametes fuse at fertilisation from section Sexual and asexual
reproduction (page 50).
• The two essential reactions for life on Earth: photosynthesis and respiration from sections
Photosynthetic reaction (page 39) and Aerobic and anaerobic respiration (page 41).
• Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions happening in a cell or organism, in which molecules
are made or broken down from section Metabolism (page 42).
• All molecules are recycled between the living world and the environment to sustain life from
section How materials are cycled (page 63).
Students should be able to recall and use this knowledge in questions that link different areas of
the specification to develop coherent arguments and explanations.

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4.1 Cell biology
Cells are the basic unit of all forms of life. In this section we explore how structural differences
between types of cells enables them to perform specific functions within the organism. These
differences in cells are controlled by genes in the nucleus. For an organism to grow, cells must
divide by mitosis producing two new identical cells. If cells are isolated at an early stage of growth
before they have become too specialised, they can retain their ability to grow into a range of
different types of cells. This phenomenon has led to the development of stem cell technology. This
is a new branch of medicine that allows doctors to repair damaged organs by growing new tissue
from stem cells.

4.1.1 Cell structure

4.1.1.1 Eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Plant and animal cells (eukaryotic cells) have a cell membrane,

cytoplasm and genetic material enclosed in a nucleus.

Bacterial cells (prokaryotic cells) are much smaller in comparison.

They have cytoplasm and a cell membrane surrounded by a cell
wall. The genetic material is not enclosed in a nucleus. It is a single
DNA loop and there may be one or more small rings of DNA called
plasmids.

Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the MS 1b, 2a, 2h

scale and size of cells and be able to make order of magnitude
calculations, including the use of standard form. WS 4.4
Use prefixes centi, milli,
micro and nano.

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4.1.1.2 Animal and plant cells

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how the main sub-cellular WS 1.2

structures, including the nucleus, cell membranes, mitochondria,
Recognise, draw and
chloroplasts in plant cells and plasmids in bacterial cells are related
interpret images of cells.
to their functions.
Most animal cells have the following parts:
• a nucleus
• cytoplasm
• a cell membrane
• mitochondria
• ribosomes.
In addition to the parts found in animal cells, plant cells often have:
• chloroplasts
• a permanent vacuole filled with cell sap.
Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall made of cellulose, which
strengthens the cell.

Students should be able to use estimations and explain when they MS 1d, 3a
should be used to judge the relative size or area of sub-cellular
AT 7
structures.
Images of cells in videos,
bioviewers, photographs
and micrographs can be
used as comparison for
students own drawings.

Required practical activity 1: use a light microscope to observe, draw and label a selection of
plant and animal cells. A magnification scale must be included.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: biology AT 1 and 7.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 176).

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4.1.1.3 Cell specialisation
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate

information, explain how the structure of different types of cell relate
to their function in a tissue, an organ or organ system, or the whole
organism.
Cells may be specialised to carry out a particular function:
• sperm cells, nerve cells and muscle cells in animals
• root hair cells, xylem and phloem cells in plants.

4.1.1.4 Cell differentiation

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the importance of cell

differentiation.
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types
of cells.
• Most types of animal cell differentiate at an early stage.
• Many types of plant cells retain the ability to differentiate
throughout life.
In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and
replacement. As a cell differentiates it acquires different sub-cellular
structures to enable it to carry out a certain function. It has become
a specialised cell.

4.1.1.5 Microscopy
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to: WS 1.1

• understand how microscopy techniques have developed over
time
• explain how electron microscopy has increased understanding of
sub-cellular structures.
Limited to the differences in magnification and resolution.
An electron microscope has much higher magnification and
resolving power than a light microscope. This means that it can be
used to study cells in much finer detail. This has enabled biologists
to see and understand many more sub-cellular structures.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Students should be able to carry out calculations involving MS 1a, 1b, 2h, 3b
magnification, real size and image size using the formula:
WS 4.4
size of image
magnification = size of real object Use prefixes centi, milli,
micro and nano.
Students should be able to express answers in standard form if
appropriate.

4.1.2 Cell division

4.1.2.1 Chromosomes
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes made of DNA WS 1.2

molecules. Each chromosome carries a large number of genes.
Use models and analogies
In body cells the chromosomes are normally found in pairs. to develop explanations of
how cells divide.

4.1.2.2 Mitosis and the cell cycle

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Cells divide in a series of stages called the cell cycle. Students

should be able to describe the stages of the cell cycle, including
mitosis.
During the cell cycle the genetic material is doubled and then
divided into two identical cells.
Before a cell can divide it needs to grow and increase the number
of sub-cellular structures such as ribosomes and mitochondria. The
DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome.
In mitosis one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell
and the nucleus divides.
Finally the cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form two
identical cells.
Students need to understand the three overall stages of the cell
cycle but do not need to know the different phases of the mitosis
stage.
Cell division by mitosis is important in the growth and development
of multicellular organisms.
Students should be able to recognise and describe situations in
given contexts where mitosis is occurring.

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4.1.2.3 Stem cells
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism which is

capable of giving rise to many more cells of the same type, and
from which certain other cells can arise from differentiation.
Students should be able to describe the function of stem cells in
embryos, in adult animals and in the meristems in plants.
Stem cells from human embryos can be cloned and made to
differentiate into most different types of human cells.
Stem cells from adult bone marrow can form many types of cells
including blood cells.
Meristem tissue in plants can differentiate into any type of plant cell,
throughout the life of the plant.
Knowledge and understanding of stem cell techniques are not
required.
Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as
diabetes and paralysis.

In therapeutic cloning an embryo is produced with the same genes WS 1.3

as the patient. Stem cells from the embryo are not rejected by the
Evaluate the practical risks
patient’s body so they may be used for medical treatment.
and benefits, as well as
The use of stem cells has potential risks such as transfer of viral social and ethical issues, of
infection, and some people have ethical or religious objections. the use of stem cells in
medical research and
Stem cells from meristems in plants can be used to produce clones
treatments.
of plants quickly and economically.
• Rare species can be cloned to protect from extinction.
• Crop plants with special features such as disease resistance can
be cloned to produce large numbers of identical plants for
farmers.

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4.1.3 Transport in cells

4.1.3.1 Diffusion
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Substances may move into and out of cells across the cell WS 1.2
membranes via diffusion.
Recognise, draw and
Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles of any substance in interpret diagrams that
solution, or particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from an model diffusion.
area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
WS 1.5
Some of the substances transported in and out of cells by diffusion
Use of isotonic drinks and
are oxygen and carbon dioxide in gas exchange, and of the waste
high energy drinks in sport.
product urea from cells into the blood plasma for excretion in the
kidney.
Students should be able to explain how different factors affect the
rate of diffusion.
Factors which affect the rate of diffusion are:
• the difference in concentrations (concentration gradient)
• the temperature
• the surface area of the membrane.
A single-celled organism has a relatively large surface area to
volume ratio. This allows sufficient transport of molecules into and
out of the cell to meet the needs of the organism.

Students should be able to calculate and compare surface area to MS 1c, 5c

volume ratios.
Students should be able to explain the need for exchange surfaces
and a transport system in multicellular organisms in terms of
surface area to volume ratio.
Students should be able to explain how the small intestine and
lungs in mammals, gills in fish, and the roots and leaves in plants,
are adapted for exchanging materials.
In multicellular organisms, surfaces and organ systems are
specialised for exchanging materials. This is to allow sufficient
molecules to be transported into and out of cells for the organism’s
needs. The effectiveness of an exchange surface is increased by:
• having a large surface area
• a membrane that is thin, to provide a short diffusion path
• (in animals) having an efficient blood supply
• (in animals, for gaseous exchange) being ventilated.

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4.1.3.2 Osmosis
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Water may move across cell membranes via osmosis. Osmosis is WS 1.2
the diffusion of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated
Recognise, draw and
solution through a partially permeable membrane.
interpret diagrams that
model osmosis.

Students should be able to: MS 1a, 1c

• use simple compound measures of rate of water uptake
• use percentiles
• calculate percentage gain and loss of mass of plant tissue.

Students should be able to plot, draw and interpret appropriate MS 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d
graphs.

Required practical activity 2: investigate the effect of a range of concentrations of salt or sugar
solutions on the mass of plant tissue.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: biology AT 1, 3 and 5.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 176).

4.1.3.3 Active transport

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Active transport moves substances from a more dilute solution to a There are links with this
more concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient). This content to Cell
requires energy from respiration. specialisation (page 22).
Active transport allows mineral ions to be absorbed into plant root
hairs from very dilute solutions in the soil. Plants require ions for
healthy growth.
It also allows sugar molecules to be absorbed from lower
concentrations in the gut into the blood which has a higher sugar
concentration. Sugar molecules are used for cell respiration.
Students should be able to:
• describe how substances are transported into and out of cells by
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
• explain the differences between the three processes.

4.2 Organisation
In this section we will learn about the human digestive system which provides the body with
nutrients and the respiratory system that provides it with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. In

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 GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.0 22 April 2016

each case they provide dissolved materials that need to be moved quickly around the body in the
blood by the circulatory system. Damage to any of these systems can be debilitating if not fatal.
Although there has been huge progress in surgical techniques, especially with regard to coronary
heart disease, many interventions would not be necessary if individuals reduced their risks through
improved diet and lifestyle. We will also learn how the plant’s transport system is dependent on
environmental conditions to ensure that leaf cells are provided with the water and carbon dioxide
that they need for photosynthesis.

4.2.1 Principles of organisation

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms. MS 1c

A tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and function. Students should be able to
develop an understanding
Organs are aggregations of tissues performing specific functions.
of size and scale in relation
Organs are organised into organ systems, which work together to to cells, tissues, organs and
form organisms. systems.

4.2.2 Animal tissues, organs and organ systems

4.2.2.1 The human digestive system
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

This section assumes knowledge of the digestive system studied in

Key Stage 3 science.
The digestive system is an example of an organ system in which
several organs work together to digest and absorb food.
Students should be able to relate knowledge of enzymes to
Metabolism (page 42).
Students should be able to describe the nature of enzyme
molecules and relate their activity to temperature and pH changes.

Students should be able to carry out rate calculations for chemical MS 1a, 1c
reactions.
Enzymes catalyse specific reactions in living organisms due to the
shape of their active site.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to use the ‘lock and key theory’ as a WS 1.2
simplified model to explain enzyme action.
Students should be able to
Students should be able to recall the sites of production and the use other models to explain
action of amylase, proteases and lipases. enzyme action.
Students should be able to understand simple word equations but
no chemical symbol equations are required.
Digestive enzymes convert food into small soluble molecules that
can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates to simple sugars.
Amylase is a carbohydrase which breaks down starch.
Proteases break down proteins to amino acids.
Lipases break down lipids (fats) to glycerol and fatty acids.
The products of digestion are used to build new carbohydrates,
lipids and proteins. Some glucose is used in respiration.
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It is alkaline
to neutralise hydrochloric acid from the stomach. It also emulsifies
fat to form small droplets which increases the surface area. The
alkaline conditions and large surface area increase the rate of fat
breakdown by lipase.

Required practical activity 3: use qualitative reagents to test for a range of carbohydrates, lipids
and proteins.
To include: Benedict’s test for sugars; iodine test for starch; and Biuret reagent for protein.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: biology AT 2.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 177).
Required practical activity 4: investigate the effect of pH on the rate of reaction of amylase
enzyme.
Students should use a continuous sampling technique to determine the time taken to completely
digest a starch solution at a range of pH values. Iodine reagent is to be used to test for starch
every 30 seconds. Temperature must be controlled by use of a water bath or electric heater.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: biology AT 1, 2 and 5.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 177).

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4.2.2.2 The heart and blood vessels

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should know the structure and functioning of the human

heart and lungs, including how lungs are adapted for gaseous
exchange.
The heart is an organ that pumps blood around the body in a
double circulatory system. The right ventricle pumps blood to the
lungs where gas exchange takes place. The left ventricle pumps
blood around the rest of the body.
Knowledge of the blood vessels associated with the heart is limited
to the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein and
coronary arteries. Knowledge of the names of the heart valves is
not required.
Knowledge of the lungs is restricted to the trachea, bronchi, alveoli
and the capillary network surrounding the alveoli.
The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells
located in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker. Artificial
pacemakers are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in
the heart rate.
The body contains three different types of blood vessel:
• arteries
• veins
• capillaries.
Students should be able to explain how the structure of these
vessels relates to their functions.

Students should be able to use simple compound measures such MS 1a, 1c

as rate and carry out rate calculations for blood flow.

4.2.2.3 Blood
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Blood is a tissue consisting of plasma, in which the red blood cells, AT 7

white blood cells and platelets are suspended.
Observing and drawing
Students should know the functions of each of these blood blood cells seen under a
components. microscope.
WS 1.5
Evaluate risks related to
use of blood products.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to recognise different types of blood cells WS 3.5

in a photograph or diagram, and explain how they are adapted to
their functions.

4.2.2.4 Coronary heart disease: a non-communicable disease

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to evaluate the advantages and WS 1.4

disadvantages of treating cardiovascular diseases by drugs,
WS 1.3
mechanical devices or transplant.
Evaluate methods of
In coronary heart disease layers of fatty material build up inside the
treatment bearing in mind
coronary arteries, narrowing them. This reduces the flow of blood
the benefits and risks
through the coronary arteries, resulting in a lack of oxygen for the
associated with the
heart muscle. Stents are used to keep the coronary arteries open.
treatment.
Statins are widely used to reduce blood cholesterol levels which
slows down the rate of fatty material deposit.
In some people heart valves may become faulty, preventing the
valve from opening fully, or the heart valve might develop a leak.
Students should understand the consequences of faulty valves.
Faulty heart valves can be replaced using biological or mechanical
valves.
In the case of heart failure a donor heart, or heart and lungs can be
transplanted. Artificial hearts are occasionally used to keep patients
alive whilst waiting for a heart transplant, or to allow the heart to
rest as an aid to recovery.

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4.2.2.5 Health issues

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe the relationship between health

and disease and the interactions between different types of
disease.
Health is the state of physical and mental well-being.
Diseases, both communicable Communicable diseases (page 35)
and non-communicable, are major causes of ill health. Other factors
including diet, stress and life situations may have a profound effect
on both physical and mental health.
Different types of disease may interact.
• Defects in the immune system mean that an individual is more
likely to suffer from infectious diseases.
• Viruses living in cells can be the trigger for cancers.
• Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen can trigger
allergies such as skin rashes and asthma.
• Severe physical ill health can lead to depression and other
mental illness.

Students should be able to translate disease incidence information MS 2c, 2g, 4a

between graphical and numerical forms, construct and interpret
frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms, and use
a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables.

Students should understand the principles of sampling as applied to MS 2d

scientific data, including epidemiological data.

4.2.2.6 The effect of lifestyle on some non-communicable diseases

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to: WS 1.4

• discuss the human and financial cost of these non-
communicable diseases to an individual, a local community, a
nation or globally
• explain the effect of lifestyle factors including diet, alcohol and
smoking on the incidence of non-communicable diseases at
local, national and global levels.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Risk factors are linked to an increased rate of a disease. WS 1.5

They can be: Interpret data about risk
factors for specified
• aspects of a person’s lifestyle
diseases.
• substances in the person’s body or environment.
A causal mechanism has been proven for some risk factors, but not
in others.
• The effects of diet, smoking and exercise on cardiovascular
disease.
• Obesity as a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes.
• The effect of alcohol on the liver and brain function.
• The effect of smoking on lung disease and lung cancer.
• The effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies.
• Carcinogens, including ionising radiation, as risk factors in
cancer.
Many diseases are caused by the interaction of a number of factors.

Students should be able to understand the principles of sampling as MS 2d

applied to scientific data in terms of risk factors.

Students should be able to translate information between graphical MS 2c, 4a

and numerical forms; and extract and interpret information from
charts, graphs and tables in terms of risk factors.

Students should be able to use a scatter diagram to identify a MS 2g

correlation between two variables in terms of risk factors.

4.2.2.7 Cancer
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe cancer as the result of changes

in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division.
Benign tumours are growths of abnormal cells which are contained
in one area, usually within a membrane. They do not invade other
parts of the body.
Malignant tumour cells are cancers. They invade neighbouring
tissues and spread to different parts of the body in the blood where
they form secondary tumours.
Scientists have identified lifestyle risk factors for various types of
cancer. There are also genetic risk factors for some cancers.

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 GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.0 22 April 2016

4.2.3 Plant tissues, organs and systems

4.2.3.1 Plant tissues
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how the structures of plant AT 7

tissues are related to their functions.
Observation and drawing of
Plant tissues include: a transverse section of leaf.
• epidermal tissues
• palisade mesophyll
• spongy mesophyll
• xylem and phloem
• meristem tissue found at the growing tips of shoots and roots.
The leaf is a plant organ. Knowledge limited to epidermis, palisade
and spongy mesophyll, xylem and phloem, and guard cells
surrounding stomata.

4.2.3.2 Plant organ system

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how the structure of root hair AT 3, 4, 5

cells, xylem and phloem are adapted to their functions.
Measure the rate of
Students should be able to explain the effect of changing transpiration by the uptake
temperature, humidity, air movement and light intensity on the rate of water.
of transpiration.
AT 6, 7
Investigate the distribution
of stomata and guard cells.
MS 2a, 2d, 5c
Process data from
investigations involving
stomata and transpiration
rates to find arithmetic
means, understand the
principles of sampling and
calculate surface areas and
volumes.

Students should be able to understand and use simple compound MS 1a, 1c

measures such as the rate of transpiration.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to: MS 2c, 4a, 4c

• translate information between graphical and numerical form
• plot and draw appropriate graphs, selecting appropriate scales
for axes
• extract and interpret information from graphs, charts and tables.

The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for transport
of substances around the plant.
Students should be able to describe the process of transpiration
and translocation, including the structure and function of the
stomata.
Root hair cells are adapted for the efficient uptake of water by
osmosis, and mineral ions by active transport.
Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the
stems and leaves. It is composed of hollow tubes strengthened by
lignin adapted for the transport of water in the transpiration stream.
The role of stomata and guard cells are to control gas exchange
and water loss.
Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the
rest of the plant for immediate use or storage. The movement of
food molecules through phloem tissue is called translocation.
Phloem is composed of tubes of elongated cells. Cell sap can move
from one phloem cell to the next through pores in the end walls.
Detailed structure of phloem tissue or the mechanism of transport is
not required.

4.3 Infection and response

Pathogens are microorganisms such as viruses and bacteria that cause infectious diseases in
animals and plants. They depend on their host to provide the conditions and nutrients that they
need to grow and reproduce. They frequently produce toxins that damage tissues and make us
feel ill. This section will explore how we can avoid diseases by reducing contact with them, as well
as how the body uses barriers against pathogens. Once inside the body our immune system is
triggered which is usually strong enough to destroy the pathogen and prevent disease. When at
risk from unusual or dangerous diseases our body's natural system can be enhanced by the use of
vaccination. Since the 1940s a range of antibiotics have been developed which have proved
successful against a number of lethal diseases caused by bacteria. Unfortunately many groups of
bacteria have now become resistant to these antibiotics. The race is now on to develop a new set
of antibiotics.

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4.3.1 Communicable diseases

4.3.1.1 Communicable (infectious) diseases
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how diseases caused by WS 1.4

viruses, bacteria, protists and fungi are spread in animals and
plants.
Students should be able to explain how the spread of diseases can
be reduced or prevented.
Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious disease.
Pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, protists or fungi. They may
infect plants or animals and can be spread by direct contact, by
water or by air.
Bacteria and viruses may reproduce rapidly inside the body.
Bacteria may produce poisons (toxins) that damage tissues and
make us feel ill.
Viruses live and reproduce inside cells, causing cell damage.

4.3.1.2 Viral diseases

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red

skin rash. Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if
complications arise. For this reason most young children are
vaccinated against measles. The measles virus is spread by
inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs.
HIV initially causes a flu-like illness. Unless successfully controlled
with antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body’s immune cells.
Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body's immune
system becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other
infections or cancers. HIV is spread by sexual contact or exchange
of body fluids such as blood which occurs when drug users share
needles.
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a widespread plant pathogen
affecting many species of plants including tomatoes. It gives a
distinctive ‘mosaic’ pattern of discolouration on the leaves which
affects the growth of the plant due to lack of photosynthesis.

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4.3.1.3 Bacterial diseases
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food, or

on food prepared in unhygienic conditions. In the UK, poultry are
vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread. Fever,
abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea are caused by the
bacteria and the toxins they secrete.
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms
of a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and
pain on urinating. It is caused by a bacterium and was easily treated
with the antibiotic penicillin until many resistant strains appeared.
Gonorrhoea is spread by sexual contact. The spread can be
controlled by treatment with antibiotics or the use of a barrier
method of contraception such as a condom.

4.3.1.4 Fungal diseases

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Rose black spot is a fungal disease where purple or black spots

develop on leaves, which often turn yellow and drop early. It affects
the growth of the plant as photosynthesis is reduced. It is spread in
the environment by water or wind. Rose black spot can be treated
by using fungicides and/or removing and destroying the affected
leaves.

4.3.1.5 Protist diseases

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The pathogens that cause malaria are protists.

The malarial protist has a life cycle that includes the mosquito.
Malaria causes recurrent episodes of fever and can be fatal. The
spread of malaria is controlled by preventing the vectors,
mosquitos, from breeding and by using mosquito nets to avoid
being bitten.

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 GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.0 22 April 2016

4.3.1.6 Human defence systems

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe the non-specific defence

systems of the human body against pathogens, including the:
• skin
• nose
• trachea and bronchi
• stomach.
Students should be able to explain the role of the immune system in
the defence against disease.
If a pathogen enters the body the immune system tries to destroy
the pathogen.
White blood cells help to defend against pathogens by:
• phagocytosis
• antibody production
• antitoxin production.

4.3.1.7 Vaccination
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how vaccination will prevent WS 1.4

illness in an individual, and how the spread of pathogens can be
Evaluate the global use of
reduced by immunising a large proportion of the population.
vaccination in the
Vaccination involves introducing small quantities of dead or inactive prevention of disease.
forms of a pathogen into the body to stimulate the white blood cells
to produce antibodies. If the same pathogen re-enters the body the
white blood cells respond quickly to produce the correct antibodies,
preventing infection.
Students do not need to know details of vaccination schedules and
side effects associated with specific vaccines.

4.3.1.8 Antibiotics and painkillers

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the use of antibiotics and other WS 1.4
medicines in treating disease.
Antibiotics, such as penicillin, are medicines that help to cure
bacterial disease by killing infective bacteria inside the body. It is
important that specific bacteria should be treated by specific
antibiotics.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced deaths from infectious There are links with this
bacterial diseases. However, the emergence of strains resistant to content to Resistant
antibiotics is of great concern. bacteria (page 58).

Antibiotics cannot kill viral pathogens.

Painkillers and other medicines are used to treat the symptoms of
disease but do not kill pathogens.
It is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also damaging
the body’s tissues.

4.3.1.9 Discovery and development of drugs

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe the process of discovery and

development of potential new medicines, including preclinical and
clinical testing.
Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and microorganisms.
• The heart drug digitalis originates from foxgloves.
• The painkiller aspirin originates from willow.
• Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from the
Penicillium mould.
Most new drugs are synthesised by chemists in the pharmaceutical
industry. However, the starting point may still be a chemical
extracted from a plant.

New medical drugs have to be tested and trialled before being used WS 1.6
to check that they are safe and effective.
Understand that the results
New drugs are extensively tested for toxicity, efficacy and dose. of testing and trials are
published only after scrutiny
Preclinical testing is done in a laboratory using cells, tissues and
by peer review.
live animals.
Clinical trials use healthy volunteers and patients.
• Very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical
trial.
• If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried
out to find the optimum dose for the drug.
• In double blind trials, some patients are given a placebo.

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4.4 Bioenergetics
In this section we will explore how plants harness the Sun’s energy in photosynthesis in order to
make food. This process liberates oxygen which has built up over millions of years in the Earth’s
atmosphere. Both animals and plants use this oxygen to oxidise food in a process called aerobic
respiration which transfers the energy that the organism needs to perform its functions.
Conversely, anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen to transfer energy. During vigorous
exercise the human body is unable to supply the cells with sufficient oxygen and it switches to
anaerobic respiration. This process will supply energy but also causes the build-up of lactic acid in
muscles which causes fatigue.

4.4.1 Photosynthesis
4.4.1.1 Photosynthetic reaction
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Photosynthesis is represented by the equation:

light
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Students should recognise the chemical symbols: CO2, H2O, O2
and C6H12O6.

Students should be able to describe photosynthesis as an There are links with this
endothermic reaction in which energy is transferred from the content to Plant tissues
environment to the chloroplasts by light. (page 33), the leaf.

4.4.1.2 Rate of photosynthesis

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the effects of temperature, light

intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and the amount of
chlorophyll on the rate of photosynthesis.

Students should be able to: MS 3d

• measure and calculate rates of photosynthesis Solve simple algebraic
• extract and interpret graphs of photosynthesis rate involving one equations.
limiting factor MS 1a, 1c, 2c, 3d, 4a, 4c
• plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scale for
axes
• translate information between graphical and numeric form.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

(HT only) These factors interact and any one of them may be the
factor that limits photosynthesis.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain graphs of
photosynthesis rate involving two or three factors and decide which
is the limiting factor.

(HT only) Students should understand and use inverse proportion – MS 3a, 3d
the inverse square law and light intensity in the context of
(HT only) WS 1.4
photosynthesis.
Use data to relate limiting
(HT only) Limiting factors are important in the economics of
factors to the cost
enhancing the conditions in greenhouses to gain the maximum rate
effectiveness of adding
of photosynthesis while still maintaining profit.
heat, light or carbon dioxide
to greenhouses.

Required practical activity 5: investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
using an aquatic organism such as pondweed.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: biology AT 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 178).

4.4.1.3 Uses of glucose from photosynthesis

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The glucose produced in photosynthesis may be:

• used for respiration
• converted into insoluble starch for storage
• used to produce fat or oil for storage
• used to produce cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall
• used to produce amino acids for protein synthesis.
To produce proteins, plants also use nitrate ions that are absorbed
from the soil.

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4.4.2 Respiration
4.4.2.1 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe cellular respiration as an

exothermic reaction which is continuously occurring in living cells.
The energy transferred supplies all the energy needed for living
processes.
Respiration in cells can take place aerobically (using oxygen) or
anaerobically (without oxygen), to transfer energy.
Students should be able to compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration with regard to the need for oxygen, the
differing products and the relative amounts of energy transferred.
Organisms need energy for:
• chemical reactions to build larger molecules
• movement
• keeping warm.
Aerobic respiration is represented by the equation:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Students should recognise the chemical symbols: C6H12O6, O2,
CO2 and H2O.
Anaerobic respiration in muscles is represented by the equation:
glucose lactic acid
As the oxidation of glucose is incomplete in anaerobic respiration
much less energy is transferred than in aerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells is represented by the
equation:
glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells is called fermentation and has
economic importance in the manufacture of bread and alcoholic
drinks.

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4.4.2.2 Response to exercise
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

During exercise the human body reacts to the increased demand AT 1, 3, 4

for energy.
Investigations into the effect
The heart rate, breathing rate and breath volume increase during of exercise on the body.
exercise to supply the muscles with more oxygenated blood.
If insufficient oxygen is supplied anaerobic respiration takes place in
muscles. The incomplete oxidation of glucose causes a build up of
lactic acid and creates an oxygen debt. During long periods of
vigorous activity muscles become fatigued and stop contracting
efficiently.

(HT only) Blood flowing through the muscles transports the lactic
acid to the liver where it is converted back into glucose. Oxygen
debt is the amount of extra oxygen the body needs after exercise to
react with the accumulated lactic acid and remove it from the cells.

4.4.2.3 Metabolism
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the importance of sugars, amino

acids, fatty acids and glycerol in the synthesis and breakdown of
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions in a cell or the body.
The energy transferred by respiration in cells is used by the
organism for the continual enzyme controlled processes of
metabolism that synthesise new molecules.
Metabolism includes:
• conversion of glucose to starch, glycogen and cellulose
• the formation of lipid molecules from a molecule of glycerol and
three molecules of fatty acids
• the use of glucose and nitrate ions to form amino acids which in
turn are used to synthesise proteins
• respiration
• breakdown of excess proteins to form urea for excretion.
All of these aspects are covered in more detail in the relevant
specification section but are linked together here.

4.5 Homeostasis and response

Cells in the body can only survive within narrow physical and chemical limits. They require a
constant temperature and pH as well as a constant supply of dissolved food and water. In order to

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 GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.0 22 April 2016

do this the body requires control systems that constantly monitor and adjust the composition of the
blood and tissues. These control systems include receptors which sense changes and effectors
that bring about changes. In this section we will explore the structure and function of the nervous
system and how it can bring about fast responses. We will also explore the hormonal system which
usually brings about much slower changes. Hormonal coordination is particularly important in
reproduction since it controls the menstrual cycle. An understanding of the role of hormones in
reproduction has allowed scientists to develop not only contraceptive drugs but also drugs which
can increase fertility.

4.5.1 Homeostasis
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain that homeostasis is the

regulation of the internal conditions of a cell or organism to maintain
optimum conditions for function in response to internal and external
changes.
Homeostasis maintains optimal conditions for enzyme action and all
cell functions.
In the human body, these include control of:
• blood glucose concentration
• body temperature
• water levels.
These automatic control systems may involve nervous responses or
chemical responses.
All control systems include:
• cells called receptors, which detect stimuli (changes in the
environment)
• coordination centres (such as the brain, spinal cord and
pancreas) that receive and process information from receptors
• effectors, muscles or glands, which bring about responses which
restore optimum levels.

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4.5.2 The human nervous system
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how the structure of the nervous

system is adapted to its functions.
The nervous system enables humans to react to their surroundings
and to coordinate their behaviour.
Information from receptors passes along cells (neurones) as
electrical impulses to the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS
is the brain and spinal cord. The CNS coordinates the response of
effectors which may be muscles contracting or glands secreting
hormones.
stimulus receptor coordinator effector response
Students should be able to explain how the various structures in a
reflex arc – including the sensory neurone, synapse relay neurone
and motor neurone – relate to their function. Students should
understand why reflex actions are important.
Reflex actions are automatic and rapid; they do not involve the
conscious part of the brain.

Students should be able to extract and interpret data from graphs, MS 2c

charts and tables, about the functioning of the nervous system.

Students should be able to translate information about reaction MS 4a

times between numerical and graphical forms.

Required practical activity 6: plan and carry out an investigation into the effect of a factor on
human reaction time.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: biology AT 1, 3 and 4.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 179).

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4.5.3 Hormonal coordination in humans

4.5.3.1 Human endocrine system
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe the principles of hormonal

coordination and control by the human endocrine system.
The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete
chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream. The blood
carries the hormone to a target organ where it produces an effect.
Compared to the nervous system the effects are slower but act for
longer.
The pituitary gland in the brain is a ‘master gland’ which secretes
several hormones into the blood in response to body conditions.
These hormones in turn act on other glands to stimulate other
hormones to be released to bring about effects.
Students should be able to identify the position of the following on a
diagram of the human body:
• pituitary gland
• pancreas
• thyroid
• adrenal gland
• ovary
• testes.

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4.5.3.2 Control of blood glucose concentration
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the WS 1.3

pancreas.
Evaluate information around
If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas the relationship between
produces the hormone insulin that causes glucose to move from the obesity and diabetes, and
blood into the cells. In liver and muscle cells excess glucose is make recommendations
converted to glycogen for storage. taking into account social
and ethical issues.
Students should be able to explain how insulin controls blood
glucose (sugar) levels in the body.
Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce
sufficient insulin. It is characterised by uncontrolled high blood
glucose levels and is normally treated with insulin injections.
In Type 2 diabetes the body cells no longer respond to insulin
produced by the pancreas. A carbohydrate controlled diet and an
exercise regime are common treatments. Obesity is a risk factor for
Type 2 diabetes.
Students should be able to compare Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes
and explain how they can be treated.

Students should be able to extract information and interpret data MS 2c

from graphs that show the effect of insulin in blood glucose levels in
both people with diabetes and people without diabetes.

(HT only) If the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas
produces the hormone glucagon that causes glycogen to be
converted into glucose and released into the blood.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how glucagon
interacts with insulin in a negative feedback cycle to control blood
glucose (sugar) levels in the body.

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4.5.3.3 Hormones in human reproduction

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe the roles of hormones in

human reproduction, including the menstrual cycle.
During puberty reproductive hormones cause secondary sex
characteristics to develop.
Oestrogen is the main female reproductive hormone produced in
the ovary. At puberty eggs begin to mature and one is released
approximately every 28 days. This is called ovulation.
Testosterone is the main male reproductive hormone produced by
the testes and it stimulates sperm production.
Several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman.
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes maturation of an egg
in the ovary.
• Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg.
• Oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the
uterus lining.

(HT only) Students should be able to explain the interactions of

FSH, oestrogen, LH and progesterone, in the control of the
menstrual cycle.

(HT only) Students should be able to extract and interpret data from MS 2c
graphs showing hormone levels during the menstrual cycle.

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4.5.3.4 Contraception
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to evaluate the different hormonal and WS 1.3

non-hormonal methods of contraception.
Show why issues around
Fertility can be controlled by a variety of hormonal and non- contraception cannot be
hormonal methods of contraception. answered by science alone.
These include: WS 1.4
• oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH Explain everyday and
production so that no eggs mature technological applications of
• injection, implant or skin patch of slow release progesterone to science; evaluate
inhibit the maturation and release of eggs for a number of associated personal, social,
months or years economic and
• barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms which environmental implications;
prevent the sperm reaching an egg and make decisions based
• intrauterine devices which prevent the implantation of an embryo on the evaluation of
or release a hormone evidence and arguments.
• spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm
• abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct
• surgical methods of male and female sterilisation.

4.5.3.5 The use of hormones to treat infertility (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the use of hormones in modern WS 1.1

reproductive technologies to treat infertility.
Developments of
This includes giving FSH and LH in a 'fertility drug' to a woman. She microscopy techniques
may then become pregnant in the normal way. have enabled IVF
treatments to develop.
In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) treatment.
WS 1.3
• IVF involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the
maturation of several eggs. Understand social and
• The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm ethical issues associated
from the father in the laboratory. with IVF treatments.
• The fertilised eggs develop into embryos.
• At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells, one or two
embryos are inserted into the mother's uterus (womb).

Although fertility treatment gives a woman the chance to have a WS 1.4

baby of her own:
Evaluate from the
• it is very emotionally and physically stressful perspective of patients and
• the success rates are not high doctors the methods of
• it can lead to multiple births which are a risk to both the babies treating infertility.
and the mother.

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4.5.3.6 Negative feedback (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the roles of thyroxine and

adrenaline in the body.
Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands in times of fear or
stress. It increases the heart rate and boosts the delivery of oxygen
and glucose to the brain and muscles, preparing the body for ‘flight
or fight’.
Thyroxine from the thyroid gland stimulates the basal metabolic
rate. It plays an important role in growth and development.

Thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback. WS 1.2, MS 2c

Interpret and explain simple
diagrams of negative
feedback control.

4.6 Inheritance, variation and evolution

In this section we will discover how the number of chromosomes are halved during meiosis and
then combined with new genes from the sexual partner to produce unique offspring. Gene
mutations occur continuously and on rare occasions can affect the functioning of the animal or
plant. These mutations may be damaging and lead to a number of genetic disorders or death. Very
rarely a new mutation can be beneficial and consequently, lead to increased fitness in the
individual. Variation generated by mutations and sexual reproduction is the basis for natural
selection; this is how species evolve. An understanding of these processes has allowed scientists
to intervene through selective breeding to produce livestock with favoured characteristics. Once
new varieties of plants or animals have been produced it is possible to clone individuals to produce
larger numbers of identical individuals all carrying the favourable characteristic. Scientists have
now discovered how to take genes from one species and introduce them in to the genome of
another by a process called genetic engineering. In spite of the huge potential benefits that this
technology can offer, genetic modification still remains highly controversial.

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4.6.1 Reproduction
4.6.1.1 Sexual and asexual reproduction
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should understand that meiosis leads to non-identical cells There are links with this
being formed while mitosis leads to identical cells being formed. content to Mitosis and the
cell cycle (page 23).
Sexual reproduction involves the joining (fusion) of male and female
gametes:
• sperm and egg cells in animals
• pollen and egg cells in flowering plants.
In sexual reproduction there is mixing of genetic information which
leads to variety in the offspring. The formation of gametes involves
meiosis.
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no fusion of
gametes. There is no mixing of genetic information. This leads to
genetically identical offspring (clones). Only mitosis is involved.

4.6.1.2 Meiosis
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how meiosis halves the number WS 1.2
of chromosomes in gametes and fertilisation restores the full
Modelling behaviour of
number of chromosomes.
chromosomes during
Cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes. meiosis.
When a cell divides to form gametes:
• copies of the genetic information are made
• the cell divides twice to form four gametes, each with a single set
of chromosomes
• all gametes are genetically different from each other.
Gametes join at fertilisation to restore the normal number of
chromosomes. The new cell divides by mitosis. The number of cells
increases. As the embryo develops cells differentiate.
Knowledge of the stages of meiosis is not required.

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4.6.1.3 DNA and the genome

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe the structure of DNA and

define genome.
The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell is composed of a
chemical called DNA. DNA is a polymer made up of two strands
forming a double helix. The DNA is contained in structures called
chromosomes.
A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome. Each gene
codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific
protein.
The genome of an organism is the entire genetic material of that
organism. The whole human genome has now been studied and
this will have great importance for medicine in the future.

Students should be able to discuss the importance of WS 1.1, 1.4

understanding the human genome.
This is limited to the:
• search for genes linked to different types of disease
• understanding and treatment of inherited disorders
• use in tracing human migration patterns from the past.

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4.6.1.4 Genetic inheritance
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the terms:

• gamete
• chromosome
• gene
• allele
• dominant
• recessive
• homozygous
• heterozygous
• genotype
• phenotype.
Some characteristics are controlled by a single gene, such as: fur
colour in mice; and red-green colour blindness in humans. Each
gene may have different forms called alleles.
The alleles present, or genotype, operate at a molecular level to
develop characteristics that can be expressed as a phenotype.
A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is
present. A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are
present (therefore no dominant allele present).
If the two alleles present are the same the organism is homozygous
for that trait, but if the alleles are different they are heterozygous.
Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting, rather
than a single gene.

Students should be able to understand the concept of probability in MS 2e

predicting the results of a single gene cross, but recall that most
phenotype features are the result of multiple genes rather than
single gene inheritance.

Students should be able to use direct proportion and simple ratios MS 1c, 3a
to express the outcome of a genetic cross.

Students should be able to complete a Punnett square diagram and MS 2c, 4a

extract and interpret information from genetic crosses and family
trees.

(HT only) Students should be able to construct a genetic cross by MS 2e, WS 1.2
Punnett square diagram and use it to make predictions using the
theory of probability.

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4.6.1.5 Inherited disorders

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Some disorders are inherited. These disorders are caused by the WS 1.3
inheritance of certain alleles.
Appreciate that embryo
• Polydactyly (having extra fingers or toes) is caused by a screening and gene therapy
dominant allele. may alleviate suffering but
• Cystic fibrosis (a disorder of cell membranes) is caused by a consider the ethical issues
recessive allele. which arise.
Students should make informed judgements about the economic,
social and ethical issues concerning embryo screening, given
appropriate information.

4.6.1.6 Sex determination

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

22 pairs control characteristics only, but one of the pairs carries the
genes that determine sex.
• In females the sex chromosomes are the same (XX).
• In males the chromosomes are different (XY).

Students should to be able to carry out a genetic cross to show sex MS 1c, 3a
inheritance.
Students should understand and use direct proportion and simple
ratios in genetic crosses.

4.6.2 Variation and evolution

4.6.2.1 Variation
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe simply how the genome and its
interaction with the environment influence the development of the
phenotype of an organism.
Differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population is
called variation and may be due to differences in:
• the genes they have inherited (genetic causes)
• the conditions in which they have developed (environmental
causes)
• a combination of genes and the environment.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to:

• state that there is usually extensive genetic variation within a
population of a species
• recall that all variants arise from mutations and that: most have
no effect on the phenotype; some influence phenotype; very few
determine phenotype.
Mutations occur continuously. Very rarely a mutation will lead to a
new phenotype. If the new phenotype is suited to an environmental
change it can lead to a relatively rapid change in the species.

4.6.2.2 Evolution
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe evolution as a change in the WS 1.2

inherited characteristics of a population over time through a process
Use the theory of evolution
of natural selection which may result in the formation of a new
by natural selection in an
species.
explanation.
The theory of evolution by natural selection states that all species of
living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed
more than three billion years ago.
Students should be able to explain how evolution occurs through
natural selection of variants that give rise to phenotypes best suited
to their environment.
If two populations of one species become so different in phenotype
that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring they
have formed two new species.

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4.6.2.3 Selective breeding

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the impact of selective breeding WS 1.3, 1.4
of food plants and domesticated animals.
Explain the benefits and
Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which risks of selective breeding
humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic given appropriate
characteristics. Humans have been doing this for thousands of information and consider
years since they first bred food crops from wild plants and related ethical issues.
domesticated animals.
Selective breeding involves choosing parents with the desired
characteristic from a mixed population. They are bred together.
From the offspring those with the desired characteristic are bred
together. This continues over many generations until all the
offspring show the desired characteristic.
The characteristic can be chosen for usefulness or appearance:
• Disease resistance in food crops.
• Animals which produce more meat or milk.
• Domestic dogs with a gentle nature.
• Large or unusual flowers.
Selective breeding can lead to ‘inbreeding’ where some breeds are
particularly prone to disease or inherited defects.

4.6.2.4 Genetic engineering

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe genetic engineering as a

process which involves modifying the genome of an organism by
introducing a gene from another organism to give a desired
characteristic.
Plant crops have been genetically engineered to be resistant to
diseases or to produce bigger better fruits.

Bacterial cells have been genetically engineered to produce useful

substances such as human insulin to treat diabetes.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain the potential benefits and risks WS 1.3, 1.4
of genetic engineering in agriculture and in medicine and that some
people have objections.
In genetic engineering, genes from the chromosomes of humans
and other organisms can be ‘cut out’ and transferred to cells of
other organisms.
Crops that have had their genes modified in this way are called
genetically modified (GM) crops. GM crops include ones that are
resistant to insect attack or to herbicides. GM crops generally show
increased yields.
Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wild
flowers and insects. Some people feel the effects of eating GM
crops on human health have not been fully explored.
Modern medical research is exploring the possibility of genetic
modification to overcome some inherited disorders.

(HT only) Students should be able to describe the main steps in the (HT only) WS 1.4
process of genetic engineering.
Interpret information about
(HT only) In genetic engineering: genetic engineering
techniques and to make
• enzymes are used to isolate the required gene; this gene is
informed judgements about
inserted into a vector, usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus
issues concerning cloning
• the vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells and genetic engineering,
• genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants or including GM crops.
microorganisms at an early stage in their development so that
they develop with desired characteristics.

4.6.3 The development of understanding of genetics and evolution

4.6.3.1 Evidence for evolution
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe the evidence for evolution WS 1.3

including fossils and antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Data is now available to
The theory of evolution by natural selection is now widely accepted. support the theory of
evolution.
Evidence for Darwin’s theory is now available as it has been shown
that characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes. There is
further evidence in the fossil record and the knowledge of how
resistance to antibiotics evolves in bacteria.

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4.6.3.2 Fossils
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Fossils are the ‘remains’ of organisms from millions of years ago, MS 2c, 4a
which are found in rocks.
Extract and interpret
Fossils may be formed: information from charts,
graphs and tables.
• from parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or
more of the conditions needed for decay are absent
• when parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they
decay
• as preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows
and rootlet traces.

Many early forms of life were soft-bodied, which means that they WS 1.3
have left few traces behind. What traces there were have been
Appreciate why the fossil
mainly destroyed by geological activity. This is why scientists
record is incomplete.
cannot be certain about how life began on Earth.

We can learn from fossils how much or how little different WS 1.1
organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.
Understand how scientific
methods and theories
develop over time.

Students should be able to extract and interpret information from MS 2c, 4a

charts, graphs and tables such as evolutionary trees.

4.6.3.3 Extinction
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Extinctions occur when there are no remaining individuals of a

species still alive.
Students should be able to describe factors which may contribute to
the extinction of a species.

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4.6.3.4 Resistant bacteria
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate.

Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strains. Some strains
might be resistant to antibiotics, and so are not killed. They survive
and reproduce, so the population of the resistant strain rises. The
resistant strain will then spread because people are not immune to
it and there is no effective treatment.

MRSA is resistant to antibiotics. There are links with this

content to Antibiotics and
To reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains:
painkillers (page 37).
• doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately, such as
treating non-serious or viral infections
• patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all
bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant
strains
• the agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted.
The development of new antibiotics is costly and slow. It is unlikely
to keep up with the emergence of new resistant strains.

4.6.4 Classification of living organisms

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Traditionally living things have been classified into groups

depending on their structure and characteristics in a system
developed by Carl Linnaeus.
Linnaeus classified living things into kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species. Organisms are named by the binomial
system of genus and species.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Students should be able to use information given to show WS 1.1

understanding of the Linnaean system.
Understand how scientific
Students should be able to describe the impact of developments in methods and theories
biology on classification systems. develop over time.
As evidence of internal structures became more developed due to
improvements in microscopes, and the understanding of
biochemical processes progressed, new models of classification
were proposed.
Due to evidence available from chemical analysis there is now a
‘three-domain system’ developed by Carl Woese. In this system
organisms are divided into:
• Archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme
environments)
• Bacteria (true bacteria)
• Eukaryota (which includes protists, fungi, plants and animals).

Evolutionary trees are a method used by scientists to show how WS 1.2

they believe organisms are related. They use current classification
Interpret evolutionary trees.
data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms.

4.7 Ecology
The Sun is a source of energy that passes through ecosystems. Materials including carbon and
water are continually recycled by the living world, being released through respiration of animals,
plants and decomposing microorganisms and taken up by plants in photosynthesis. All species live
in ecosystems composed of complex communities of animals and plants dependent on each other
and that are adapted to particular conditions, both abiotic and biotic. These ecosystems provide
essential services that support human life and continued development. In order to continue to
benefit from these services humans need to engage with the environment in a sustainable way. In
this section we will explore how humans are threatening biodiversity as well as the natural systems
that support it. We will also consider some actions we need to take to ensure our future health,
prosperity and well-being.

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4.7.1 Adaptations, interdependence and competition
4.7.1.1 Communities
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe: WS 2.6

• different levels of organisation in an ecosystem from individual Recording first-hand
organisms to the whole ecosystem observations of organisms.
• the importance of interdependence and competition in a
community.
Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate
information:
• suggest the factors for which organisms are competing in a
given habitat
• suggest how organisms are adapted to the conditions in which
they live.
An ecosystem is the interaction of a community of living organisms
(biotic) with the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment.
To survive and reproduce, organisms require a supply of materials
from their surroundings and from the other living organisms there.
Plants in a community or habitat often compete with each other for
light and space, and for water and mineral ions from the soil.
Animals often compete with each other for food, mates and territory.
Within a community each species depends on other species for
food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal etc. If one species is
removed it can affect the whole community. This is called
interdependence. A stable community is one where all the species
and environmental factors are in balance so that population sizes
remain fairly constant.

Students should be able to extract and interpret information from MS 2c, 4a

charts, graphs and tables relating to the interaction of organisms
within a community. Extract and interpret
information from charts,
graphs and tables.

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4.7.1.2 Abiotic factors

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how a change in an abiotic WS 1.2

factor would affect a given community given appropriate data or
context.
Abiotic (non-living) factors which can affect a community are:
• light intensity
• temperature
• moisture levels
• soil pH and mineral content
• wind intensity and direction
• carbon dioxide levels for plants
• oxygen levels for aquatic animals.

Students should be able to extract and interpret information from MS 2c, 4a

charts, graphs and tables relating to the effect of abiotic factors on
organisms within a community. Extract and interpret
information from charts,
graphs and tables.

4.7.1.3 Biotic factors

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how a change in a biotic factor WS 1.2

might affect a given community given appropriate data or context.
Biotic (living) factors which can affect a community are:
• availability of food
• new predators arriving
• new pathogens
• one species outcompeting another so the numbers are no longer
sufficient to breed.

Students should be able to extract and interpret information from MS 2c, 4a

charts, graphs and tables relating to the effect of biotic factors on
organisms within a community. Extract and interpret
information from charts,
graphs and tables.

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4.7.1.4 Adaptations
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how organisms are adapted to

live in their natural environment, given appropriate information.
Organisms have features (adaptations) that enable them to survive
in the conditions in which they normally live. These adaptations may
be structural, behavioural or functional.

Some organisms live in environments that are very extreme, such

as at high temperature, pressure, or salt concentration. These
organisms are called extremophiles. Bacteria living in deep sea
vents are extremophiles.

4.7.2 Organisation of an ecosystem

4.7.2.1 Levels of organisation
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should understand that photosynthetic organisms are the

producers of biomass for life on Earth.
Feeding relationships within a community can be represented by
food chains. All food chains begin with a producer which
synthesises molecules. This is usually a green plant or alga which
makes glucose by photosynthesis.
A range of experimental methods using transects and quadrats are
used by ecologists to determine the distribution and abundance of
species in an ecosystem.

In relation to abundance of organisms students should be able to: MS 2b, 2f, 4a, 4c

• understand the terms mean, mode and median

• calculate arithmetic means
• plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scales
for the axes.

Producers are eaten by primary consumers, which in turn may be

eaten by secondary consumers and then tertiary consumers.

Consumers that kill and eat other animals are predators, and those WS 1.2
eaten are prey. In a stable community the numbers of predators and
Interpret graphs used to
prey rise and fall in cycles.
model predator-prey cycles.

Students should be able to interpret graphs used to model these MS 4a

cycles.

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Required practical activity 7: measure the population size of a common species in a habitat. Use
sampling techniques to investigate the effect of a factor on the distribution of this species.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: biology AT 1, 3, 4 and 6.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 179).

4.7.2.2 How materials are cycled

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should: WS 1.2

• recall that many different materials cycle through the abiotic and Interpret and explain the
biotic components of an ecosystem processes in diagrams of
• explain the importance of the carbon and water cycles to living the carbon cycle, the water
organisms. cycle.
There are links with the
All materials in the living world are recycled to provide the building
blocks for future organisms. water cycle to GCSE
Chemistry The Earth's early
The carbon cycle returns carbon from organisms to the atmosphere atmosphere.
as carbon dioxide to be used by plants in photosynthesis.
WS 1.2
The water cycle provides fresh water for plants and animals on land
before draining into the seas. Water is continuously evaporated and
precipitated.
Students are not expected to study the nitrogen cycle.
Students should be able to explain the role of microorganisms in
cycling materials through an ecosystem by returning carbon to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide and mineral ions to the soil.

4.7.3 Biodiversity and the effect of human interaction on ecosystems

4.7.3.1 Biodiversity
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Biodiversity is the variety of all the different species of organisms on WS 1.4

earth, or within an ecosystem.
Explain how waste,
A great biodiversity ensures the stability of ecosystems by reducing deforestation and global
the dependence of one species on another for food, shelter and the warming have an impact on
maintenance of the physical environment. biodiversity.
The future of the human species on Earth relies on us maintaining a
good level of biodiversity. Many human activities are reducing
biodiversity and only recently have measures been taken to try to
stop this reduction.

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4.7.3.2 Waste management
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Rapid growth in the human population and an increase in the There are links with this
standard of living mean that increasingly more resources are used content to GCSE Chemistry
and more waste is produced. Unless waste and chemical materials 5.9.3.1 Atmospheric
are properly handled, more pollution will be caused. pollutants from fuels.
Pollution can occur:
• in water, from sewage, fertiliser or toxic chemicals
• in air, from smoke and acidic gases
• on land, from landfill and from toxic chemicals.
Pollution kills plants and animals which can reduce biodiversity.

4.7.3.3 Land use

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals and
plants by building, quarrying, farming and dumping waste.

The destruction of peat bogs, and other areas of peat to produce WS 1.4, 1.5
garden compost, reduces the area of this habitat and thus the
Understand the conflict
variety of different plant, animal and microorganism species that live
between the need for cheap
there (biodiversity).
available compost to
The decay or burning of the peat releases carbon dioxide into the increase food production
atmosphere. and the need to conserve
peat bogs and peatlands as
habitats for biodiversity and
to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions.
There are links within this
section to Global warming
(page 65) .

4.7.3.4 Deforestation
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Large-scale deforestation in tropical areas has occurred to: WS 1.4

• provide land for cattle and rice fields Evaluate the environmental
• grow crops for biofuels implications of
deforestation.

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4.7.3.5 Global warming

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe some of the biological WS 1.6

consequences of global warming.
Understand that the
Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere are scientific consensus about
increasing, and contribute to ‘global warming’. global warming and climate
change is based on
systematic reviews of
thousands of peer reviewed
publications.
WS 1.3
Explain why evidence is
uncertain or incomplete in a
complex context.

4.7.3.6 Maintaining biodiversity

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe both positive and negative WS 1.4, 1.5
human interactions in an ecosystem and explain their impact on
Evaluate given information
biodiversity.
about methods that can be
Scientists and concerned citizens have put in place programmes to used to tackle problems
reduce the negative effects of humans on ecosystems and caused by human impacts
biodiversity. on the environment.
These include: Explain and evaluate the
conflicting pressures on
• breeding programmes for endangered species
maintaining biodiversity
• protection and regeneration of rare habitats given appropriate
• reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows in agricultural information.
areas where farmers grow only one type of crop
• reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions by
some governments
• recycling resources rather than dumping waste in landfill.

4.8 Key ideas

The complex and diverse phenomena of the natural world can be described in terms of a small
number of key ideas in biology.
These key ideas are of universal application, and we have embedded them throughout the subject
content. They underpin many aspects of the science assessment.
Key ideas in biology:
• life processes depend on molecules whose structure is related to their function

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• the fundamental units of living organisms are cells, which may be part of highly adapted
structures including tissues, organs and organ systems, enabling living processes to be
performed effectively
• living organisms may form populations of single species, communities of many species and
ecosystems, interacting with each other, with the environment and with humans in many
different ways
• living organisms are interdependent and show adaptations to their environment
• life on Earth is dependent on photosynthesis in which green plants and algae trap light from the
Sun to fix carbon dioxide and combine it with hydrogen from water to make organic compounds
and oxygen
• organic compounds are used as fuels in cellular respiration to allow the other chemical
reactions necessary for life
• the chemicals in ecosystems are continually cycling through the natural world
• the characteristics of a living organism are influenced by its genome and its interaction with the
environment
• evolution occurs by a process of natural selection and accounts both for biodiversity and how
organisms are all related to varying degrees.

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5 Chemistry subject content

This specification is presented in a two column format.
The subject content is split into three sections for each of the subject areas: biology, chemistry and
physics.
The left hand column contains the subject content that all students must cover, and that can be
assessed in the written papers.
The right hand column exemplifies some of the key opportunities for the following skills to be
developed throughout the course: WS refers to Working scientifically (page 13), MS refers to
Mathematical requirements (page 171) and AT refers to Use of apparatus and techniques (page
173). These are not the only opportunities. Teachers are encouraged to introduce all of these skills
where appropriate throughout the course.
Each topic begins with an overview. The overview puts the topic into a broader context and is
intended to encourage an overarching approach to both the teaching and learning of each of the
topic areas. It is not directly assessed. Any assessable content in this overview is replicated in the
left hand column.
It is good practice to teach and develop all of the mathematical skills throughout the course. Some
mathematical skills will only be assessed in certain subject areas. These are detailed in
Mathematical requirements (page 171).
Science is a practical subject. Details of the assessment of required practicals can be found in
Required practical activities (page 175) .
Working scientifically (page 13) and Use of apparatus and techniques (page 173) skills will be
assessed across all papers.
Content that is only applicable to Higher Tier is indicated by (HT only) either next to the topic
heading where it applies to the whole topic or immediately preceding each paragraph or bullet
point as applicable.
In chemistry paper 2 students will be expected to know and understand some basic concepts and
principles from topics in paper 1: Atomic structure and the periodic table (page 67), Bonding,
structure, and the properties of matter (page 75) and Quantitative chemistry (page 84).
They should be able to recall and use this knowledge in questions that link and use these
principles as elements of explanations, in either paper. Students should expect to see questions
based on some of these basic principles in the second paper.

5.1 Atomic structure and the periodic table

The periodic table provides chemists with a structured organisation of the known chemical
elements from which they can make sense of their physical and chemical properties. The historical
development of the periodic table and models of atomic structure provide good examples of how
scientific ideas and explanations develop over time as new evidence emerges. The arrangement of
elements in the modern periodic table can be explained in terms of atomic structure which provides
evidence for the model of a nuclear atom with electrons in energy levels.

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5.1.1 A simple model of the atom, symbols, relative atomic mass,
electronic charge and isotopes
5.1.1.1 Atoms, elements and compounds
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

All substances are made of atoms. An atom is the smallest part of

an element that can exist.
Atoms of each element are represented by a chemical symbol, eg
O represents an atom of oxygen, Na represents an atom of sodium.
There are about 100 different elements. Elements are shown in the
periodic table.
Compounds are formed from elements by chemical reactions.
Chemical reactions always involve the formation of one or more
new substances, and often involve a detectable energy change.
Compounds contain two or more elements chemically combined in
fixed proportions and can be represented by formulae using the
symbols of the atoms from which they were formed. Compounds
can only be separated into elements by chemical reactions.
Chemical reactions can be represented by word equations or
equations using symbols and formulae.
Students will be supplied with a periodic table for the exam and
should be able to:
• use the names and symbols of the first 20 elements in the
periodic table, the elements in Groups 1 and 7, and other
elements in this specification
• name compounds of these elements from given formulae or
symbol equations
• write word equations for the reactions in this specification
• write formulae and balanced chemical equations for the
reactions in this specification.
(HT only) write balanced half equations and ionic equations where
appropriate.

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5.1.1.2 Mixtures
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds not WS 2.2, 2.3

chemically combined together. The chemical properties of each
AT 4
substance in the mixture are unchanged.
Safe use of a range of
Mixtures can be separated by physical processes such as filtration,
equipment to separate
crystallisation, simple distillation, fractional distillation and
chemical mixtures.
chromatography. These physical processes do not involve chemical
reactions and no new substances are made.
Students should be able to:
• describe, explain and give examples of the specified processes
of separation
• suggest suitable separation and purification techniques for
mixtures when given appropriate information.

5.1.1.3 The development of the model of the atom (common content with physics)
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

New experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model being WS 1.1, 1.6
changed or replaced.
This historical context
Before the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought to be tiny provides an opportunity for
spheres that could not be divided. students to show an
understanding of why and
The discovery of the electron led to the plum pudding model of the
describe how scientific
atom. The plum pudding model suggested that the atom is a ball of
methods and theories
positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it.
develop over time.
The results from the alpha particle scattering experiment led to the
WS1.2
conclusion that the mass of an atom was concentrated at the centre
(nucleus) and that the nucleus was charged. This nuclear model
replaced the plum pudding model.
Niels Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons
orbit the nucleus at specific distances. The theoretical calculations
of Bohr agreed with experimental observations.
Later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of any
nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller
particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge.
The name proton was given to these particles.
The experimental work of James Chadwick provided the evidence
to show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus. This was
about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific
idea.
Students should be able to describe:

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

• why the new evidence from the scattering experiment led to a WS 1.1
change in the atomic model

• the difference between the plum pudding model of the atom and WS 1.2
the nuclear model of the atom.

Details of experimental work supporting the Bohr model are not

required.
Details of Chadwick’s experimental work are not required.

5.1.1.4 Relative electrical charges of subatomic particles

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The relative electrical charges of the particles in atoms are:

In an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of

protons in the nucleus. Atoms have no overall electrical charge.
The number of protons in an atom of an element is its atomic
number. All atoms of a particular element have the same number of
protons. Atoms of different elements have different numbers of
protons.

Students should be able to use the nuclear model to describe WS 1.2

atoms.

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5.1.1.5 Size and mass of atoms

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 0.1 nm (1 x 10-10 m). WS 4.3, 4
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10 000 of that of the atom Use SI units and the prefix
(about 1 x 10-14 m). nano.
Almost all of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus. MS 1b
The relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons are: Recognise expressions in
standard form.

The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom is its mass

number.
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of
neutrons; these atoms are called isotopes of that element.
Atoms can be represented as shown in this example:

Students should be able to calculate the numbers of protons,

neutrons and electrons in an atom or ion, given its atomic number
and mass number.

Students should be able to relate size and scale of atoms to objects MS 1d

in the physical world.

5.1.1.6 Relative atomic mass

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The relative atomic mass of an element is an average value that

takes account of the abundance of the isotopes of the element.
Students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass of an
element given the percentage abundance of its isotopes.

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5.1.1.7 Electronic structure
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The electrons in an atom occupy the lowest available energy levels WS 1.2
(innermost available shells). The electronic structure of an atom can
Students should be able to
be represented by numbers or by a diagram. For example, the
represent the electronic
electronic structure of sodium is 2,8,1 or
structures of the first twenty
elements of the periodic
table in both forms.
MS 5b
Visualise and represent 2D
and 3D forms including two-
dimensional representations
showing two electrons in the lowest energy level, eight in the of 3D objects.
second energy level and one in the third energy level.
Students may answer questions in terms of either energy levels or
shells.

5.1.2 The periodic table

5.1.2.1 The periodic table
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic

(proton) number and so that elements with similar properties are in
columns, known as groups. The table is called a periodic table
because similar properties occur at regular intervals.
Elements in the same group in the periodic table have the same
number of electrons in their outer shell (outer electrons) and this
gives them similar chemical properties.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• explain how the position of an element in the periodic table is

related to the arrangement of electrons in its atoms and hence to
its atomic number
• predict possible reactions and probable reactivity of elements
from their positions in the periodic table.

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5.1.2.2 Development of the periodic table

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Before the discovery of protons, neutrons and electrons, scientists WS 1.1, 1.6
attempted to classify the elements by arranging them in order of
Explain how testing a
their atomic weights.
prediction can support or
The early periodic tables were incomplete and some elements were refute a new scientific idea.
placed in inappropriate groups if the strict order of atomic weights
was followed.
Mendeleev overcame some of the problems by leaving gaps for
elements that he thought had not been discovered and in some
places changed the order based on atomic weights.
Elements with properties predicted by Mendeleev were discovered
and filled the gaps. Knowledge of isotopes made it possible to
explain why the order based on atomic weights was not always
correct.
Students should be able to describe these steps in the development
of the periodic table.

5.1.2.3 Metals and non-metals

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Elements that react to form positive ions are metals.

Elements that do not form positive ions are non-metals.
The majority of elements are metals. Metals are found to the left
and towards the bottom of the periodic table. Non-metals are found
towards the right and top of the periodic table.
Students should be able to:
• explain the differences between metals and non-metals on the
basis of their characteristic physical and chemical properties.
This links to Group 0 (page 74), Group 1 (page 74), Group 7
(page 75) and Bonding, structure and the properties of matter
(page 75)
• explain how the atomic structure of metals and non-metals
relates to their position in the periodic table
• explain how the reactions of elements are related to the
arrangement of electrons in their atoms and hence to their
atomic number.

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5.1.2.4 Group 0
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are called the noble
gases. They are unreactive and do not easily form molecules
because their atoms have stable arrangements of electrons. The
noble gases have eight electrons in their outer shell, except for
helium, which has only two electrons.
The boiling points of the noble gases increase with increasing
relative atomic mass (going down the group).

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• explain how properties of the elements in Group 0 depend on the

outer shell of electrons of the atoms
• predict properties from given trends down the group.

5.1.2.5 Group 1
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are known as the

alkali metals and have characteristic properties because of the
single electron in their outer shell.
Students should be able to describe the reactions of the first three
alkali metals with oxygen, chlorine and water.
In Group 1, the reactivity of the elements increases going down the
group.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• explain how properties of the elements in Group 1 depend on the

outer shell of electrons of the atoms
• predict properties from given trends down the group.

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5.1.2.6 Group 7
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The elements in Group 7 of the periodic table are known as the AT 6

halogens and have similar reactions because they all have seven
Offers an opportunity within
electrons in their outer shell. The halogens are non-metals and
displacement reactions of
consist of molecules made of pairs of atoms.
halogens.
Students should be able to describe the nature of the compounds
formed when chlorine, bromine and iodine react with metals and
non-metals.
In Group 7, the further down the group an element is the higher its
relative molecular mass, melting point and boiling point.
In Group 7, the reactivity of the elements decreases going down the
group.
A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from
an aqueous solution of its salt.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• explain how properties of the elements in Group 7 depend on the

outer shell of electrons of the atoms
• predict properties from given trends down the group.

5.2 Bonding, structure, and the properties of matter

Chemists use theories of structure and bonding to explain the physical and chemical properties of
materials. Analysis of structures shows that atoms can be arranged in a variety of ways, some of
which are molecular while others are giant structures. Theories of bonding explain how atoms are
held together in these structures. Scientists use this knowledge of structure and bonding to
engineer new materials with desirable properties. The properties of these materials may offer new
applications in a range of different technologies.

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5.2.1 Chemical bonds, ionic, covalent and metallic
5.2.1.1 Chemical bonds
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

There are three types of strong chemical bonds: ionic, covalent and
metallic. For ionic bonding the particles are oppositely charged ions.
For covalent bonding the particles are atoms which share pairs of
electrons. For metallic bonding the particles are atoms which share
delocalised electrons.
Ionic bonding occurs in compounds formed from metals combined
with non-metals.
Covalent bonding occurs in most non-metallic elements and in
compounds of non-metals.
Metallic bonding occurs in metallic elements and alloys.
Students should be able to explain chemical bonding in terms of
electrostatic forces and the transfer or sharing of electrons.

5.2.1.2 Ionic bonding

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When a metal atom reacts with a non-metal atom electrons in the MS 5b

outer shell of the metal atom are transferred. Metal atoms lose
Visualise and represent 2D
electrons to become positively charged ions. Non-metal atoms gain
and 3D forms including two-
electrons to become negatively charged ions. The ions produced by
dimensional representations
metals in Groups 1 and 2 and by non-metals in Groups 6 and 7
of 3D objects.
have the electronic structure of a noble gas (Group 0).
The electron transfer during the formation of an ionic compound can
be represented by a dot and cross diagram, eg for sodium chloride

Students should be able to draw dot and cross diagrams for ionic WS 1.2
compounds formed by metals in Groups 1 and 2 with non-metals in
Groups 6 and 7.
The charge on the ions produced by metals in Groups 1 and 2 and
by non-metals in Groups 6 and 7 relates to the group number of the
element in the periodic table.
Students should be able to work out the charge on the ions of
metals and non-metals from the group number of the element,
limited to the metals in Groups 1 and 2, and non-metals in Groups 6
and 7.

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5.2.1.3 Ionic compounds

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

An ionic compound is a giant structure of ions. Ionic compounds are MS 5b

held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between
Visualise and represent 2D
oppositely charged ions. These forces act in all directions in the
and 3D forms including two-
lattice and this is called ionic bonding.
dimensional representations
The structure of sodium chloride can be represented in the following of 3D objects.
forms:

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• deduce that a compound is ionic from a diagram of its structure MS 4a
in one of the specified forms
MS 1a, 1c
• describe the limitations of using dot and cross, ball and stick, two
and three-dimensional diagrams to represent a giant ionic
structure
• work out the empirical formula of an ionic compound from a
given model or diagram that shows the ions in the structure.
Students should be familiar with the structure of sodium chloride but
do not need to know the structures of other ionic compounds.

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5.2.1.4 Covalent bonding
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When atoms share pairs of electrons, they form covalent bonds. WS 1.2
These bonds between atoms are strong.
Recognise substances as
Covalently bonded substances may consist of small molecules. small molecules, polymers
or giant structures from
Students should be able to recognise common substances that
diagrams showing their
consist of small molecules from their chemical formula.
bonding.
Some covalently bonded substances have very large molecules,
such as polymers.
Some covalently bonded substances have giant covalent
structures, such as diamond and silicon dioxide.
The covalent bonds in molecules and giant structures can be
represented in the following forms:

Polymers can be represented in the form:

where n is a large number.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Students should be able to: MS 5b

• draw dot and cross diagrams for the molecules of hydrogen,

chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, water, ammonia
and methane
• represent the covalent bonds in small molecules, in the
repeating units of polymers and in part of giant covalent
structures, using a line to represent a single bond
• describe the limitations of using dot and cross, ball and stick, two
and three-dimensional diagrams to represent molecules or giant
structures
• deduce the molecular formula of a substance from a given model
or diagram in these forms showing the atoms and bonds in the
molecule.

5.2.1.5 Metallic bonding

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Metals consist of giant structures of atoms arranged in a regular WS 1.2

pattern.
Recognise substances as
The electrons in the outer shell of metal atoms are delocalised and metallic giant structures
so are free to move through the whole structure. The sharing of from diagrams showing
delocalised electrons gives rise to strong metallic bonds. The their bonding.
bonding in metals may be represented in the following form:
MS 5b
Visualise and represent 2D
and 3D forms including two-
dimensional representations
of 3D objects.

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5.2.2 How bonding and structure are related to the properties of
substances
5.2.2.1 The three states of matter
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Melting and MS 5b
freezing take place at the melting point, boiling and condensing
Visualise and represent 2D
take place at the boiling point.
and 3D forms including two-
The three states of matter can be represented by a simple model. In dimensional representations
this model, particles are represented by small solid spheres. of 3D objects.
Particle theory can help to explain melting, boiling, freezing and
condensing.

The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid

and from liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces
between the particles of the substance. The nature of the particles
involved depends on the type of bonding and the structure of the
substance. The stronger the forces between the particles the higher
the melting point and boiling point of the substance.
(HT only) Limitations of the simple model above include that in the
model there are no forces, that all particles are represented as
spheres and that the spheres are solid.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• predict the states of substances at different temperatures given

appropriate data
• explain the different temperatures at which changes of state
occur in terms of energy transfers and types of bonding
• recognise that atoms themselves do not have the bulk properties
of materials
• (HT only) explain the limitations of the particle theory in relation
to changes of state when particles are represented by solid
inelastic spheres which have no forces between them.

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5.2.2.2 State symbols

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In chemical equations, the three states of matter are shown as (s),

(l) and (g), with (aq) for aqueous solutions.
Students should be able to include appropriate state symbols in
chemical equations for the reactions in this specification.

5.2.2.3 Properties of ionic compounds

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Ionic compounds have regular structures (giant ionic lattices) in

which there are strong electrostatic forces of attraction in all
directions between oppositely charged ions.
These compounds have high melting points and high boiling points
because of the large amounts of energy needed to break the many
strong bonds.
When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct
electricity because the ions are free to move and so charge can
flow.
Knowledge of the structures of specific ionic compounds other than
sodium chloride is not required.

5.2.2.4 Properties of small molecules

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Substances that consist of small molecules are usually gases or WS 1.2

liquids that have relatively low melting points and boiling points.
These substances have only weak forces between the molecules
(intermolecular forces). It is these intermolecular forces that are
overcome, not the covalent bonds, when the substance melts or
boils.
The intermolecular forces increase with the size of the molecules,
so larger molecules have higher melting and boiling points.
These substances do not conduct electricity because the molecules
do not have an overall electric charge.
Students should be able to use the idea that intermolecular forces
are weak compared with covalent bonds to explain the bulk
properties of molecular substances.

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5.2.2.5 Polymers
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Polymers have very large molecules. The atoms in the polymer

molecules are linked to other atoms by strong covalent bonds. The
intermolecular forces between polymer molecules are relatively
strong and so these substances are solids at room temperature.
Students should be able to recognise polymers from diagrams
showing their bonding and structure.

5.2.2.6 Giant covalent structures

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Substances that consist of giant covalent structures are solids with MS 5b

very high melting points. All of the atoms in these structures are
Visualise and represent 2D
linked to other atoms by strong covalent bonds. These bonds must
and 3D forms including two-
be overcome to melt or boil these substances. Diamond and
dimensional representations
graphite (forms of carbon) and silicon dioxide (silica) are examples
of 3D objects.
of giant covalent structures.
WS 1.2
Students should be able to recognise giant covalent structures from
diagrams showing their bonding and structure.

5.2.2.7 Properties of metals and alloys

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Metals have giant structures of atoms with strong metallic bonding.

This means that most metals have high melting and boiling points.
In pure metals, atoms are arranged in layers, which allows metals
to be bent and shaped. Pure metals are too soft for many uses and
so are mixed with other metals to make alloys which are harder.

Students should be able to explain why alloys are harder than pure WS 1.2
metals in terms of distortion of the layers of atoms in the structure of
a pure metal.

5.2.2.8 Metals as conductors

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Metals are good conductors of electricity because the delocalised

electrons in the metal carry electrical charge through the metal.
Metals are good conductors of thermal energy because energy is
transferred by the delocalised electrons.

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5.2.3 Structure and bonding of carbon

5.2.3.1 Diamond
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other MS 5b
carbon atoms in a giant covalent structure, so diamond is very hard,
Visualise and represent 2D
has a very high melting point and does not conduct electricity.
and 3D forms including two-
dimensional representations
of 3D objects.

Students should be able to explain the properties of diamond in WS 1.2

terms of its structure and bonding.

5.2.3.2 Graphite
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In graphite, each carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with WS 1.2
three other carbon atoms, forming layers of hexagonal rings which
have no covalent bonds between the layers.
In graphite, one electron from each carbon atom is delocalised.
Students should be able to explain the properties of graphite in
terms of its structure and bonding.
Students should know that graphite is similar to metals in that it has
delocalised electrons.

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5.2.3.3 Graphene and fullerenes
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Graphene is a single layer of graphite and has properties that make WS 1.2, 1.4
it useful in electronics and composites.
MS 5b
Students should be able to explain the properties of graphene in
Visualise and represent 2D
terms of its structure and bonding.
and 3D forms including two-
Fullerenes are molecules of carbon atoms with hollow shapes. The dimensional representations
structure of fullerenes is based on hexagonal rings of carbon atoms of 3D objects.
but they may also contain rings with five or seven carbon atoms.
The first fullerene to be discovered was Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
which has a spherical shape.
Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes with very high length to
diameter ratios. Their properties make them useful for
nanotechnology, electronics and materials.
Students should be able to:
• recognise graphene and fullerenes from diagrams and
descriptions of their bonding and structure
• give examples of the uses of fullerenes, including carbon
nanotubes.

5.3 Quantitative chemistry

Chemists use quantitative analysis to determine the formulae of compounds and the equations for
reactions. Given this information, analysts can then use quantitative methods to determine the
purity of chemical samples and to monitor the yield from chemical reactions.
Chemical reactions can be classified in various ways. Identifying different types of chemical
reaction allows chemists to make sense of how different chemicals react together, to establish
patterns and to make predictions about the behaviour of other chemicals. Chemical equations
provide a means of representing chemical reactions and are a key way for chemists to
communicate chemical ideas.

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5.3.1 Chemical measurements, conservation of mass and the

quantitative interpretation of chemical equations
5.3.1.1 Conservation of mass and balanced chemical equations
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or WS 1.2
made during a chemical reaction so the mass of the products
equals the mass of the reactants.
This means that chemical reactions can be represented by symbol
equations which are balanced in terms of the numbers of atoms of
each element involved on both sides of the equation.
Students should understand the use of the multipliers in equations
in normal script before a formula and in subscript within a formula.

5.3.1.2 Relative formula mass

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the

relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the
formula.
In a balanced chemical equation, the sum of the relative formula
masses of the reactants in the quantities shown equals the sum of
the relative formula masses of the products in the quantities shown.

5.3.1.3 Mass changes when a reactant or product is a gas

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Some reactions may appear to involve a change in mass but this AT 1, 2 ,6

can usually be explained because a reactant or product is a gas
Opportunities within
and its mass has not been taken into account. For example: when a
investigation of mass
metal reacts with oxygen the mass of the oxide produced is greater
changes using various
than the mass of the metal or in thermal decompositions of metal
apparatus.
carbonates carbon dioxide is produced and escapes into the
atmosphere leaving the metal oxide as the only solid product.
Students should be able to explain any observed changes in mass
in non-enclosed systems during a chemical reaction given the
balanced symbol equation for the reaction and explain these
changes in terms of the particle model.

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5.3.1.4 Chemical measurements
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Whenever a measurement is made there is always some WS 3.4

uncertainty about the result obtained.
Students should be able to:
• represent the distribution of results and make estimations of
uncertainty
• use the range of a set of measurements about the mean as a
measure of uncertainty.

5.3.2 Use of amount of substance in relation to masses of pure

substances
5.3.2.1 Moles (HT only)
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Chemical amounts are measured in moles. The symbol for the unit WS 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.5, 4.6
mole is mol.
MS 1a
The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is numerically equal
Recognise and use
to its relative formula mass.
expressions in decimal
One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated form.
particles, atoms, molecules or ions as one mole of any other
MS 1b
substance.
Recognise and use
The number of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole of a given
expressions in standard
substance is the Avogadro constant. The value of the Avogadro
form.
constant is 6.02 x 1023 per mole.
MS 2a
Students should understand that the measurement of amounts in
moles can apply to atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, formulae and Use an appropriate number
equations, for example that in one mole of carbon (C) the number of of significant figures.
atoms is the same as the number of molecules in one mole of
MS 3a
carbon dioxide (CO2).
Understand and use the
symbols: =, <, <<, >>, >, ∝,
~
MS 3b
Change the subject of an
equation.

Students should be able to use the relative formula mass of a MS 1c

substance to calculate the number of moles in a given mass of that
substance and vice versa.

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5.3.2.2 Amounts of substances in equations (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The masses of reactants and products can be calculated from MS 1a

balanced symbol equations.
Recognise and use
Chemical equations can be interpreted in terms of moles. For expressions in decimal
example: form.
Mg + 2HCI MgCI2 + H2 MS 1c

shows that one mole of magnesium reacts with two moles of Use ratios, fractions and
hydrochloric acid to produce one mole of magnesium chloride and percentages.
one mole of hydrogen gas. MS 3b
Students should be able to: Change the subject of an
• calculate the masses of substances shown in a balanced symbol equation.
equation MS 3c
• calculate the masses of reactants and products from the
balanced symbol equation and the mass of a given reactant or Substitute numerical values
product. into algebraic equations
using appropriate units for
physical quantities.

5.3.2.3 Using moles to balance equations (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The balancing numbers in a symbol equation can be calculated MS 3b

from the masses of reactants and products by converting the
Change the subject of an
masses in grams to amounts in moles and converting the numbers
equation.
of moles to simple whole number ratios.
MS 3c
Students should be able to balance an equation given the masses
of reactants and products. Substitute numerical values
into algebraic equations
Students should be able to change the subject of a mathematical
using appropriate units for
equation.
physical quantities.

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5.3.2.4 Limiting reactants (HT only)
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In a chemical reaction involving two reactants, it is common to use WS 4.1

an excess of one of the reactants to ensure that all of the other
reactant is used. The reactant that is completely used up is called
the limiting reactant because it limits the amount of products.
Students should be able to explain the effect of a limiting quantity of
a reactant on the amount of products it is possible to obtain in terms
of amounts in moles or masses in grams.

5.3.2.5 Concentration of solutions

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Many chemical reactions take place in solutions. The concentration MS 1c

of a solution can be measured in mass per given volume of
Use ratios, fractions and
solution, eg grams per dm3 (g/dm3).
percentages.
Students should be able to:
MS 3b
• calculate the mass of solute in a given volume of solution of
Change the subject of an
known concentration in terms of mass per given volume of
equation.
solution
• (HT only) explain how the mass of a solute and the volume of a
solution is related to the concentration of the solution.

5.4 Chemical changes

Understanding of chemical changes began when people began experimenting with chemical
reactions in a systematic way and organizing their results logically. Knowing about these different
chemical changes meant that scientists could begin to predict exactly what new substances would
be formed and use this knowledge to develop a wide range of different materials and processes. It
also helped biochemists to understand the complex reactions that take place in living organisms.
The extraction of important resources from the earth makes use of the way that some elements
and compounds react with each other and how easily they can be ‘pulled apart’.

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5.4.1 Reactivity of metals

5.4.1.1 Metal oxides
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides. The reactions

are oxidation reactions because the metals gain oxygen.
Students should be able to explain reduction and oxidation in terms
of loss or gain of oxygen.

5.4.1.2 The reactivity series

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When metals react with other substances the metal atoms form AT 6
positive ions. The reactivity of a metal is related to its tendency to
Mixing of reagents to
form positive ions. Metals can be arranged in order of their reactivity
explore chemical changes
in a reactivity series. The metals potassium, sodium, lithium,
and/or products.
calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper can be put in order of
their reactivity from their reactions with water and dilute acids.
The non-metals hydrogen and carbon are often included in the
reactivity series.
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from a
compound.
Students should be able to:
• recall and describe the reactions, if any, of potassium, sodium,
lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper with water or
dilute acids and where appropriate, to place these metals in
order of reactivity
• explain how the reactivity of metals with water or dilute acids is
related to the tendency of the metal to form its positive ion
• deduce an order of reactivity of metals based on experimental
results.
The reactions of metals with water and acids are limited to room
temperature and do not include reactions with steam.

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5.4.1.3 Extraction of metals and reduction
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Unreactive metals such as gold are found in the Earth as the metal
itself but most metals are found as compounds that require
chemical reactions to extract the metal.
Metals less reactive than carbon can be extracted from their oxides
by reduction with carbon.
Reduction involves the loss of oxygen.
Knowledge and understanding are limited to the reduction of oxides
using carbon.
Knowledge of the details of processes used in the extraction of
metals is not required.
Students should be able to:
• interpret or evaluate specific metal extraction processes when
given appropriate information
• identify the substances which are oxidised or reduced in terms of
gain or loss of oxygen.

5.4.1.4 Oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of

electrons.
Student should be able to:
• write ionic equations for displacement reactions
• identify in a given reaction, symbol equation or half equation
which species are oxidised and which are reduced.

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5.4.2 Reactions of acids

5.4.2.1 Reactions of acids with metals
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Acids react with some metals to produce salts and hydrogen.

(HT only) Students should be able to:
• explain in terms of gain or loss of electrons, that these are redox
reactions
• identify which species are oxidised and which are reduced in
given chemical equations.

Knowledge of reactions limited to those of magnesium, zinc and

iron with hydrochloric and sulfuric acids.

5.4.2.2 Neutralisation of acids and salt production

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Acids are neutralised by alkalis (eg soluble metal hydroxides) and

bases (eg insoluble metal hydroxides and metal oxides) to produce
salts and water, and by metal carbonates to produce salts, water
and carbon dioxide.
The particular salt produced in any reaction between an acid and a
base or alkali depends on:
• the acid used (hydrochloric acid produces chlorides, nitric acid
produces nitrates, sulfuric acid produces sulfates)
• the positive ions in the base, alkali or carbonate.
Students should be able to:
• predict products from given reactants
• use the formulae of common ions to deduce the formulae of
salts.

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5.4.2.3 Soluble salts
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Soluble salts can be made from acids by reacting them with solid
insoluble substances, such as metals, metal oxides, hydroxides or
carbonates. The solid is added to the acid until no more reacts and
the excess solid is filtered off to produce a solution of the salt.
Salt solutions can be crystallised to produce solid salts.
Students should be able to describe how to make pure, dry samples
of named soluble salts from information provided.

Required practical activity 8: preparation of a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt from an insoluble
oxide or carbonate, using a Bunsen burner to heat dilute acid and a water bath or electric heater to
evaporate the solution.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: chemistry AT 2, 3, 4 and 6.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 180).

5.4.2.4 The pH scale and neutralisation

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solutions. AT 3

Aqueous solutions of alkalis contain hydroxide ions (OH–). This is an opportunity to
investigate pH changes
The pH scale, from 0 to 14, is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity
when a strong acid
of a solution, and can be measured using universal indicator or a
neutralises a strong alkali.
pH probe.
A solution with pH 7 is neutral. Aqueous solutions of acids have pH
values of less than 7 and aqueous solutions of alkalis have pH
values greater than 7.
In neutralisation reactions between an acid and an alkali, hydrogen
ions react with hydroxide ions to produce water.
This reaction can be represented by the equation:

Students should be able to:

• describe the use of universal indicator or a wide range indicator
to measure the approximate pH of a solution
• use the pH scale to identify acidic or alkaline solutions.

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5.4.2.5 Strong and weak acids (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A strong acid is completely ionised in aqueous solution. Examples An opportunity to measure

of strong acids are hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids. the pH of different acids at
different concentrations.
A weak acid is only partially ionised in aqueous solution. Examples
of weak acids are ethanoic, citric and carbonic acids.
For a given concentration of aqueous solutions, the stronger an
acid, the lower the pH.
As the pH decreases by one unit, the hydrogen ion concentration of
the solution increases by a factor of 10.
Students should be able to:
• use and explain the terms dilute and concentrated (in terms of
amount of substance), and weak and strong (in terms of the
degree of ionisation) in relation to acids

• describe neutrality and relative acidity in terms of the effect on MS 2h

hydrogen ion concentration and the numerical value of pH
Make order of magnitude
(whole numbers only).
calculations.

5.4.3 Electrolysis
5.4.3.1 The process of electrolysis
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When an ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the ions

are free to move about within the liquid or solution. These liquids
and solutions are able to conduct electricity and are called
electrolytes.
Passing an electric current through electrolytes causes the ions to
move to the electrodes. Positively charged ions move to the
negative electrode (the cathode), and negatively charged ions move
to the positive electrode (the anode). Ions are discharged at the
electrodes producing elements. This process is called electrolysis.
(HT only) Throughout Section 4.4.3 Higher Tier students should be
able to write half equations for the reactions occurring at the
electrodes during electrolysis, and may be required to complete and
balance supplied half equations.

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5.4.3.2 Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When a simple ionic compound (eg lead bromide) is electrolysed in A safer alternative for
the molten state using inert electrodes, the metal (lead) is produced practical work is anhydrous
at the cathode and the non-metal (bromine) is produced at the zinc chloride.
anode.
Students should be able to predict the products of the electrolysis of
binary ionic compounds in the molten state.

5.4.3.3 Using electrolysis to extract metals

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Metals can be extracted from molten compounds using electrolysis.

Electrolysis is used if the metal is too reactive to be extracted by
reduction with carbon or if the metal reacts with carbon. Large
amounts of energy are used in the extraction process to melt the
compounds and to produce the electrical current.
Aluminium is manufactured by the electrolysis of a molten mixture
of aluminium oxide and cryolite using carbon as the positive
electrode (anode).
Students should be able to:
• explain why a mixture is used as the electrolyte
• explain why the positive electrode must be continually replaced.

5.4.3.4 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The ions discharged when an aqueous solution is electrolysed

using inert electrodes depend on the relative reactivity of the
elements involved.
At the negative electrode (cathode), hydrogen is produced if the
metal is more reactive than hydrogen.
At the positive electrode (anode), oxygen is produced unless the
solution contains halide ions when the halogen is produced.
This happens because in the aqueous solution water molecules
break down producing hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions that are
discharged.

Students should be able to predict the products of the electrolysis of WS 1.2

aqueous solutions containing a single ionic compound.

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 GCSE Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. GCSE exams June 2018 onwards. Version 1.0 22 April 2016

Required practical activity 9: investigate what happens when aqueous solutions are electrolysed
using inert electrodes. This should be an investigation involving developing a hypothesis.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: chemistry AT 3 and 7.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 180).

5.4.3.5 Representation of reactions at electrodes as half equations (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

During electrolysis, at the cathode (negative electrode), positively

charged ions gain electrons and so the reactions are reductions.
At the anode (positive electrode), negatively charged ions lose
electrons and so the reactions are oxidations.
Reactions at electrodes can be represented by half equations, for
example:
2H+ + 2e- → H2
and
4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
or
4OH- – 4e- → O2 + 2H2O

5.5 Energy changes

Energy changes are an important part of chemical reactions. The interaction of particles often
involves transfers of energy due to the breaking and formation of bonds. Reactions in which energy
is released to the surroundings are exothermic reactions, while those that take in thermal energy
are endothermic. These interactions between particles can produce heating or cooling effects that
are used in a range of everyday applications. Some interactions between ions in an electrolyte
result in the production of electricity. Cells and batteries use these chemical reactions to provide
electricity. Electricity can also be used to decompose ionic substances and is a useful means of
producing elements that are too expensive to extract any other way.

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5.5.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
5.5.1.1 Energy transfer during exothermic and endothermic reactions
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Energy is conserved in chemical reactions. The amount of energy in AT 5

the universe at the end of a chemical reaction is the same as before
An opportunity to measure
the reaction takes place. If a reaction transfers energy to the
temperature changes when
surroundings the product molecules must have less energy than the
substances react or
reactants, by the amount transferred.
dissolve in water.
An exothermic reaction is one that transfers energy to the
surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings increases.
Exothermic reactions include combustion, many oxidation reactions
and neutralisation.
Everyday uses of exothermic reactions include self-heating cans
and hand warmers.
An endothermic reaction is one that takes in energy from the
surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings decreases.
Endothermic reactions include thermal decompositions and the
reaction of citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate. Some sports
injury packs are based on endothermic reactions.
Students should be able to:
• distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reactions on the
basis of the temperature change of the surroundings
• evaluate uses and applications of exothermic and endothermic
reactions given appropriate information.
Limited to measurement of temperature change. Calculation of
energy changes or ΔH is not required.

Required practical activity 10: investigate the variables that affect temperature changes in
reacting solutions such as, eg acid plus metals, acid plus carbonates, neutralisations, displacement
of metals.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: chemistry AT 1, 3, 5 and 6.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 181).

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5.5.1.2 Reaction profiles

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide

with each other and with sufficient energy. The minimum amount of
energy that particles must have to react is called the activation
energy.
Reaction profiles can be used to show the relative energies of
reactants and products, the activation energy and the overall
energy change of a reaction.

Students should be able to:

• draw simple reaction profiles (energy level diagrams) for
exothermic and endothermic reactions showing the relative
energies of reactants and products, the activation energy and
the overall energy change, with a curved line to show the energy
as the reaction proceeds
• use reaction profiles to identify reactions as exothermic or
endothermic
• explain that the activation energy is the energy needed for a
reaction to occur

5.5.1.3 The energy change of reactions (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

During a chemical reaction:

• energy must be supplied to break bonds in the reactants
• energy is released when bonds in the products are formed.
The energy needed to break bonds and the energy released when
bonds are formed can be calculated from bond energies.
The difference between the sum of the energy needed to break
bonds in the reactants and the sum of the energy released when
bonds in the products are formed is the overall energy change of
the reaction.
In an exothermic reaction, the energy released from forming new
bonds is greater than the energy needed to break existing bonds.
In an endothermic reaction, the energy needed to break existing
bonds is greater than the energy released from forming new bonds.

Students should be able to calculate the energy transferred in MS 1a

chemical reactions using bond energies supplied.

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5.6 The rate and extent of chemical change
Chemical reactions can occur at vastly different rates. Whilst the reactivity of chemicals is a
significant factor in how fast chemical reactions proceed, there are many variables that can be
manipulated in order to speed them up or slow them down. Chemical reactions may also be
reversible and therefore the effect of different variables needs to be established in order to identify
how to maximise the yield of desired product. Understanding energy changes that accompany
chemical reactions is important for this process. In industry, chemists and chemical engineers
determine the effect of different variables on reaction rate and yield of product. Whilst there may be
compromises to be made, they carry out optimisation processes to ensure that enough product is
produced within a sufficient time, and in an energy-efficient way.

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5.6.1 Rate of reaction

5.6.1.1 Calculating rates of reactions
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The rate of a chemical reaction can be found by measuring the MS 1a

quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of product formed over
Recognise and use
time:
expressions in decimal
mean rate o f  reaction  =   quantit y o f  reactant used form.
time taken
MS 1c
mean rate o f  reaction  =   quantit y otime taken
f   product  f ormed
Use ratios, fractions and
The quantity of reactant or product can be measured by the mass in percentages.
grams or by a volume in cm3. MS 1 d
The units of rate of reaction may be given as g/s or cm3/s. Make estimates of the
For the Higher Tier, students are also required to use quantity of results of simple
reactants in terms of moles and units for rate of reaction in mol/s. calculations.

Students should be able to: MS 4a

• calculate the mean rate of a reaction from given information Translate information
about the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of a product between graphical and
formed and the time taken numeric form.
• draw, and interpret, graphs showing the quantity of product MS 4b
formed or quantity of reactant used up against time
Drawing and interpreting
• draw tangents to the curves on these graphs and use the slope appropriate graphs from
of the tangent as a measure of the rate of reaction data to determine rate of
• (HT only) calculate the gradient of a tangent to the curve on reaction.
these graphs as a measure of rate of reaction at a specific time.
MS 4c
Plot two variables from
experimental or other data.
MS 4d
Determine the slope and
intercept of a linear graph.
MS 4e
Draw and use the slope of a
tangent to a curve as a
measure of rate of change.

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5.6.1.2 Factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions include: the

concentrations of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting
gases, the surface area of solid reactants, the temperature and the
presence of catalysts.

Students should be able to recall how changing these factors This topic offers
affects the rate of chemical reactions. opportunities for practical
work and investigations in
addition to required
practical 11.

Required practical activity 11: investigate how changes in concentration affect the rates of
reactions by a method involving measuring the volume of a gas produced and a method involving a
change in colour or turbidity.
This should be an investigation involving developing a hypothesis.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: chemistry AT 1, 3, 5 and 6.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 182)

5.6.1.3 Collision theory and activation energy

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Collision theory explains how various factors affect rates of

reactions. According to this theory, chemical reactions can occur
only when reacting particles collide with each other and with
sufficient energy. The minimum amount of energy that particles
must have to react is called the activation energy.
Increasing the concentration of reactants in solution, the pressure of
reacting gases, and the surface area of solid reactants increases
the frequency of collisions and so increases the rate of reaction.
Increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions
and makes the collisions more energetic, and so increases the rate
of reaction.

Students should be able to : WS 1.2

• predict and explain using collision theory the effects of changing

conditions of concentration, pressure and temperature on the
rate of a reaction

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

• predict and explain the effects of changes in the size of pieces of MS 5c

a reacting solid in terms of surface area to volume ratio
MS 1c
• use simple ideas about proportionality when using collision
theory to explain the effect of a factor on the rate of a reaction.

5.6.1.4 Catalysts
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Catalysts change the rate of chemical reactions but are not used up AT 5
during the reaction. Different reactions need different catalysts.
An opportunity to
Enzymes act as catalysts in biological systems.
investigate the catalytic
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different effect of adding different
pathway for the reaction that has a lower activation energy. metal salts to a reaction
such as the decomposition
A reaction profile for a catalysed reaction can be drawn in the
of hydrogen peroxide.
following form:

Students should be able to identify catalysts in reactions from their

effect on the rate of reaction and because they are not included in
the chemical equation for the reaction.
Students should be able to explain catalytic action in terms of
activation energy.
Students do not need to know the names of catalysts other than
those specified in the subject content.

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5.6.2 Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium
5.6.2.1 Reversible reactions
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In some chemical reactions, the products of the reaction can react

to produce the original reactants. Such reactions are called
reversible reactions and are represented:
A +B C + D
The direction of reversible reactions can be changed by changing
the conditions.
For example:

5.6.2.2 Energy changes and reversible reactions

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is

endothermic in the opposite direction. The same amount of energy
is transferred in each case. For example:

5.6.2.3 Equilibrium
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When a reversible reaction occurs in apparatus which prevents the WS 1.2

escape of reactants and products, equilibrium is reached when the
forward and reverse reactions occur at exactly the same rate.

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5.6.2.4 The effect of changing conditions on equilibrium (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium

depend on the conditions of the reaction.
If a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to any of the
conditions, then the system responds to counteract the change.
The effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium can
be predicted using Le Chatelier’s Principle.
Students should be able to make qualitative predictions about the
effect of changes on systems at equilibrium when given appropriate
information.

5.6.2.5 The effect of changing concentration (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

If the concentration of one of the reactants or products is changed,

the system is no longer at equilibrium and the concentrations of all
the substances will change until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, more products will be
formed until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of a product is decreased, more reactants will
react until equilibrium is reached again.
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to
predict the effect of a change in concentration of a reactant or
product on given reactions at equilibrium.

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5.6.2.6 The effect of temperature changes on equilibrium (HT only)
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is increased:

• the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an
endothermic reaction
• the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an
exothermic reaction.
If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is decreased:
• the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an
endothermic reaction
• the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an
exothermic reaction.
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to
predict the effect of a change in temperature on given reactions at
equilibrium.

5.6.2.7 The effect of pressure changes on equilibrium (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

For gaseous reactions at equilibrium:

• an increase in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift
towards the side with the smaller number of molecules as shown
by the symbol equation for that reaction
• a decrease in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift
towards the side with the larger number of molecules as shown
by the symbol equation for that reaction.
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to
predict the effect of pressure changes on given reactions at
equilibrium.

5.7 Organic chemistry

The chemistry of carbon compounds is so important that it forms a separate branch of chemistry. A
great variety of carbon compounds is possible because carbon atoms can form chains and rings
linked by C-C bonds. This branch of chemistry gets its name from the fact that the main sources of
organic compounds are living, or once-living materials from plants and animals. These sources
include fossil fuels which are a major source of feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Chemists
are able to take organic molecules and modify them in many ways to make new and useful
materials such as polymers, pharmaceuticals, perfumes and flavourings, dyes and detergents.

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5.7.1 Carbon compounds as fuels and feedstock

5.7.1.1 Crude oil, hydrocarbons and alkanes
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks. Crude oil is the remains WS 1.2
of an ancient biomass consisting mainly of plankton that was buried
Make models of alkane
in mud.
molecules using the
Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of compounds. Most of molecular modelling kits.
the compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbons, which are molecules
made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are hydrocarbons called
alkanes. The general formula for the homologous series of alkanes
is CnH2n+2
The first four members of the alkanes are methane, ethane,
propane and butane.
Alkane molecules can be represented in the following forms:
C2H6 or

Students should be able to recognise substances as alkanes given

their formulae in these forms.
Students do not need to know the names of specific alkanes other
than methane, ethane, propane and butane.

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5.7.1.2 Fractional distillation and petrochemicals
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The many hydrocarbons in crude oil may be separated into WS 1.2

fractions, each of which contains molecules with a similar number of
carbon atoms, by fractional distillation.
The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock for
the petrochemical industry.
Many of the fuels on which we depend for our modern lifestyle,
such as petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and liquefied
petroleum gases, are produced from crude oil.
Many useful materials on which modern life depends are produced
by the petrochemical industry, such as solvents, lubricants,
polymers, detergents.
The vast array of natural and synthetic carbon compounds occur
due to the ability of carbon atoms to form families of similar
compounds.
Students should be able to explain how fractional distillation works
in terms of evaporation and condensation.
Knowledge of the names of other specific fractions or fuels is not
required.

5.7.1.3 Properties of hydrocarbons

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Some properties of hydrocarbons depend on the size of their WS 1.2, 4.1

molecules, including boiling point, viscosity and flammability. These
Investigate the properties of
properties influence how hydrocarbons are used as fuels.
different hydrocarbons.
Students should be able to recall how boiling point, viscosity and
flammability change with increasing molecular size.
The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels releases energy. During
combustion, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuels are oxidised. The
complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide
and water.
Students should be able to write balanced equations for the
complete combustion of hydrocarbons with a given formula.
Knowledge of trends in properties of hydrocarbons is limited to:
• boiling points
• viscosity
• flammability.

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5.7.1.4 Cracking and alkenes

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Hydrocarbons can be broken down (cracked) to produce smaller, WS 1.2

more useful molecules.
Cracking can be done by various methods including catalytic
cracking and steam cracking.
Students should be able to describe in general terms the conditions
used for catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
The products of cracking include alkanes and another type of
hydrocarbon called alkenes.
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and react with bromine
water, which is used as a test for alkenes.
Students should be able to recall the colour change when bromine
water reacts with an alkene.
There is a high demand for fuels with small molecules and so some
of the products of cracking are useful as fuels.
Alkenes are used to produce polymers and as starting materials for
the production of many other chemicals.
Students should be able to balance chemical equations as
examples of cracking given the formulae of the reactants and
products.
Students should be able to give examples to illustrate the
usefulness of cracking. They should also be able to explain how
modern life depends on the uses of hydrocarbons.
(Students do not need to know the formulae or names of individual
alkenes.)

5.8 Chemical analysis

Analysts have developed a range of qualitative tests to detect specific chemicals. The tests are
based on reactions that produce a gas with distinctive properties, or a colour change or an
insoluble solid that appears as a precipitate.
Instrumental methods provide fast, sensitive and accurate means of analysing chemicals, and are
particularly useful when the amount of chemical being analysed is small. Forensic scientists and
drug control scientists rely on such instrumental methods in their work.

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5.8.1 Purity, formulations and chromatography
5.8.1.1 Pure substances
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In chemistry, a pure substance is a single element or compound, WS 2.2, 4.1

not mixed with any other substance.
Pure elements and compounds melt and boil at specific
temperatures. Melting point and boiling point data can be used to
distinguish pure substances from mixtures.
In everyday language, a pure substance can mean a substance
that has had nothing added to it, so it is unadulterated and in its
natural state, eg pure milk.
Students should be able to use melting point and boiling point data
to distinguish pure from impure substances.

5.8.1.2 Formulations
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A formulation is a mixture that has been designed as a useful WS 1.4, 2.2

product. Many products are complex mixtures in which each
chemical has a particular purpose. Formulations are made by
mixing the components in carefully measured quantities to ensure
that the product has the required properties. Formulations include
fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys, fertilisers and
foods.
Students should be able to identify formulations given appropriate
information.
Students do not need to know the names of components in
proprietary products.

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5.8.1.3 Chromatography
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures and can give WS 2.2, 3.1, 2, 3
information to help identify substances. Chromatography involves a
MS 1a
stationary phase and a mobile phase. Separation depends on the
distribution of substances between the phases. Recognise and use
expressions in decimal
The ratio of the distance moved by a compound (centre of spot from
form.
origin) to the distance moved by the solvent can be expressed as its
Rf value: MS 1c

Rf =
distance moved by substance Use ratios, fractions and
distance moved by solvent
percentages.
Different compounds have different Rf values in different solvents,
MS 1d
which can be used to help identify the compounds. The compounds
in a mixture may separate into different spots depending on the Make estimates of the
solvent but a pure compound will produce a single spot in all results of simple
solvents. calculations.
Students should be able to:
• explain how paper chromatography separates mixtures
• suggest how chromatographic methods can be used for
distinguishing pure substances from impure substances
• interpret chromatograms and determine Rf values from
chromatograms

• provide answers to an appropriate number of significant figures. MS 2a

Required practical activity 12: investigate how paper chromatography can be used to separate
and tell the difference between coloured substances. Students should calculate Rf values.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: chemistry AT 1 and 4.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 183).

5.8.2 Identification of common gases

5.8.2.1 Test for hydrogen
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The test for hydrogen uses a burning splint held at the open end of
a test tube of the gas. Hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound.

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5.8.2.2 Test for oxygen
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The test for oxygen uses a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of
the gas. The splint relights in oxygen.

5.8.2.3 Test for carbon dioxide

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The test for carbon dioxide uses an aqueous solution of calcium

hydroxide (lime water). When carbon dioxide is shaken with or
bubbled through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy).

5.8.2.4 Test for chlorine

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The test for chlorine uses litmus paper. When damp litmus paper is
put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and turns white.

5.9 Chemistry of the atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere is dynamic and forever changing. The causes of these changes are
sometimes man-made and sometimes part of many natural cycles. Scientists use very complex
software to predict weather and climate change as there are many variables that can influence this.
The problems caused by increased levels of air pollutants require scientists and engineers to
develop solutions that help to reduce the impact of human activity.

5.9.1 The composition and evolution of the Earth's atmosphere

5.9.1.1 The proportions of different gases in the atmosphere
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

For 200 million years, the proportions of different gases in the MS 1c

atmosphere have been much the same as they are today:
To use ratios, fractions and
• about four-fifths (approximately 80%) nitrogen percentages.
• about one-fifth (approximately 20%) oxygen
• small proportions of various other gases, including carbon
dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.

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5.9.1.2 The Earth's early atmosphere

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Theories about what was in the Earth’s early atmosphere and how WS 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 3.5, 3.6,
the atmosphere was formed have changed and developed over 4.1
time. Evidence for the early atmosphere is limited because of the
time scale of 4.6 billion years.
One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth’s
existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases
that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed
to form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth’s
atmosphere may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and
Venus today, consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no
oxygen gas.
Volcanoes also produced nitrogen which gradually built up in the
atmosphere and there may have been small proportions of methane
and ammonia.
When the oceans formed carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and
carbonates were precipitated producing sediments, reducing the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. No knowledge of other
theories is required.
Students should be able to, given appropriate information, interpret
evidence and evaluate different theories about the Earth’s early
atmosphere.

5.9.1.3 How oxygen increased

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Algae and plants produced the oxygen that is now in the WS 1.2
atmosphere by photosynthesis, which can be represented by the
An opportunity to show that
equation:
aquatic plants produce
oxygen in daylight.

Algae first produced oxygen about 2.7 billion years ago and soon
after this oxygen appeared in the atmosphere. Over the next billion
years plants evolved and the percentage of oxygen gradually
increased to a level that enabled animals to evolve.

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5.9.1.4 How carbon dioxide decreased
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Algae and plants decreased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere by photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide was also decreased by the formation of
sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels that contain carbon.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2, 4.1

• describe the main changes in the atmosphere over time and

some of the likely causes of these changes
• describe and explain the formation of deposits of limestone, coal,
crude oil and natural gas.

5.9.2 Carbon dioxide and methane as greenhouse gases

5.9.2.1 Greenhouse gases
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere maintain temperatures on WS 1.2

Earth high enough to support life. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and
methane are greenhouse gases.
Students should be able to describe the greenhouse effect in terms
of the interaction of short and long wavelength radiation with matter.

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5.9.2.2 Human activities which contribute to an increase in greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Some human activities increase the amounts of greenhouse gases

in the atmosphere. These include:
• carbon dioxide
• methane
Students should be able to recall two human activities that increase
the amounts of each of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and
methane.
Based on peer-reviewed evidence, many scientists believe that
human activities will cause the temperature of the Earth’s
atmosphere to increase at the surface and that this will result in
global climate change.
However, it is difficult to model such complex systems as global
climate change. This leads to simplified models, speculation and
opinions presented in the media that may be based on only parts of
the evidence and which may be biased.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2, 1.3, 1.6

• evaluate the quality of evidence in a report about global climate

change given appropriate information
• describe uncertainties in the evidence base
• recognise the importance of peer review of results and of
communicating results to a wide range of audiences.

5.9.2.3 Global climate change

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

An increase in average global temperature is a major cause of WS 1.5

climate change.
There are several potential effects of global climate change.
Students should be able to:
• describe briefly four potential effects of global climate change
• discuss the scale, risk and environmental implications of global
climate change.

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5.9.2.4 The carbon footprint and its reduction
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide and other WS 1.3
greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product,
service or event.
The carbon footprint can be reduced by reducing emissions of
carbon dioxide and methane.
Students should be able to:
• describe actions to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and
methane
• give reasons why actions may be limited.

5.9.3 Common atmospheric pollutants and their sources

5.9.3.1 Atmospheric pollutants from fuels
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The combustion of fuels is a major source of atmospheric

pollutants.
Most fuels, including coal, contain carbon and/or hydrogen and may
also contain some sulfur.
The gases released into the atmosphere when a fuel is burned may
include carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Solid particles and unburned
hydrocarbons may also be released that form particulates in the
atmosphere.
Students should be able to:
• describe how carbon monoxide, soot (carbon particles), sulfur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are produced by burning fuels

• predict the products of combustion of a fuel given appropriate WS 1.2

information about the composition of the fuel and the conditions
in which it is used.

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5.9.3.2 Properties and effects of atmospheric pollutants

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It is colourless and odourless and

so is not easily detected.
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory problems in
humans and cause acid rain.
Particulates cause global dimming and health problems for humans.

Students should be able to describe and explain the problems WS 1.4

caused by increased amounts of these pollutants in the air.

5.10 Using resources

Industries use the Earth’s natural resources to manufacture useful products. In order to operate
sustainably, chemists seek to minimise the use of limited resources, use of energy, waste and
environmental impact in the manufacture of these products. Chemists also aim to develop ways of
disposing of products at the end of their useful life in ways that ensure that materials and stored
energy are utilised. Pollution, disposal of waste products and changing land use has a significant
effect on the environment, and environmental chemists study how human activity has affected the
Earth’s natural cycles, and how damaging effects can be minimised.

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5.10.1 Using the Earth's resources and obtaining potable water
5.10.1.1 Using the Earth's resources and sustainable development
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Humans use the Earth’s resources to provide warmth, shelter, food

and transport.
Natural resources, supplemented by agriculture, provide food,
timber, clothing and fuels.
Finite resources from the Earth, oceans and atmosphere are
processed to provide energy and materials.
Chemistry plays an important role in improving agricultural and
industrial processes to provide new products and in sustainable
development, which is development that meets the needs of current
generations without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.
Students should be able to:
• state examples of natural products that are supplemented or
replaced by agricultural and synthetic products
• distinguish between finite and renewable resources given
appropriate information.
Students should be able to:

• extract and interpret information about resources from charts, WS 3.2

graphs and tables
MS 2c, 4a

• use orders of magnitude to evaluate the significance of data. MS 2h

Translate information
between graphical and
numeric form.

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5.10.1.2 Potable water

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Water of appropriate quality is essential for life. For humans,

drinking water should have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts
and microbes. Water that is safe to drink is called potable water.
Potable water is not pure water in the chemical sense because it
contains dissolved substances.
The methods used to produce potable water depend on available
supplies of water and local conditions.
In the United Kingdom (UK), rain provides water with low levels of
dissolved substances (fresh water) that collects in the ground and in
lakes and rivers, and most potable water is produced by:
• choosing an appropriate source of fresh water
• passing the water through filter beds
• sterilising.
Sterilising agents used for potable water include chlorine, ozone or
ultraviolet light.
If supplies of fresh water are limited, desalination of salty water or
sea water may be required. Desalination can be done by distillation
or by processes that use membranes such as reverse osmosis.
These processes require large amounts of energy.
Students should be able to:
• distinguish between potable water and pure water
• describe the differences in treatment of ground water and salty
water
• give reasons for the steps used to produce potable water.

Required practical activity 13: analysis and purification of water samples from different sources,
including pH, dissolved solids and distillation.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: chemistry AT 2, 3 and 4.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 183).

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5.10.1.3 Waste water treatment
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Urban lifestyles and industrial processes produce large amounts of

waste water that require treatment before being released into the
environment. Sewage and agricultural waste water require removal
of organic matter and harmful microbes. Industrial waste water may
require removal of organic matter and harmful chemicals.
Sewage treatment includes:
• screening and grit removal
• sedimentation to produce sewage sludge and effluent
• anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge
• aerobic biological treatment of effluent.
Students should be able to comment on the relative ease of
obtaining potable water from waste, ground and salt water.

5.10.1.4 Alternative methods of extracting metals (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The Earth’s resources of metal ores are limited.

Copper ores are becoming scarce and new ways of extracting
copper from low-grade ores include phytomining, and bioleaching.
These methods avoid traditional mining methods of digging, moving
and disposing of large amounts of rock.
Phytomining uses plants to absorb metal compounds. The plants
are harvested and then burned to produce ash that contains metal
compounds.
Bioleaching uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions that
contain metal compounds.
The metal compounds can be processed to obtain the metal. For
example, copper can be obtained from solutions of copper
compounds by displacement using scrap iron or by electrolysis.
Students should be able to evaluate alternative biological methods
of metal extraction, given appropriate information.

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5.10.2 Life cycle assessment and recycling

5.10.2.1 Life cycle assessment
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are carried out to assess the WS 1.3, 4, 5
environmental impact of products in each of these stages:
LCAs should be done as a
• extracting and processing raw materials comparison of the impact
• manufacturing and packaging on the environment of the
• use and operation during its lifetime stages in the life of a
• disposal at the end of its useful life, including transport and product, and only quantified
distribution at each stage. where data is readily
available for energy, water,
Use of water, resources, energy sources and production of some resources and wastes.
wastes can be fairly easily quantified. Allocating numerical values to
pollutant effects is less straightforward and requires value Interpret LCAs of materials
judgements, so LCA is not a purely objective process. or products given
appropriate information.
Selective or abbreviated LCAs can be devised to evaluate a product
but these can be misused to reach pre-determined conclusions, eg MS 1a
in support of claims for advertising purposes. Recognise and use
Students should be able to carry out simple comparative LCAs for expressions in decimal
shopping bags made from plastic and paper. form.
MS 1c
Use ratios, fractions and
percentages.
MS 1d
Make estimates of the
results of simple
calculations.
MS 2a
Use an appropriate number
of significant figures.
MS 4a
Translate information
between graphical and
numeric form.

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5.10.2.2 Ways of reducing the use of resources
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The reduction in use, reuse and recycling of materials by end users

reduces the use of limited resources, use of energy sources, waste
and environmental impacts.
Metals, glass, building materials, clay ceramics and most plastics
are produced from limited raw materials. Much of the energy for the
processes comes from limited resources. Obtaining raw materials
from the Earth by quarrying and mining causes environmental
impacts.
Some products, such as glass bottles, can be reused. Glass bottles
can be crushed and melted to make different glass products. Other
products cannot be reused and so are recycled for a different use.
Metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into
different products. The amount of separation required for recycling
depends on the material and the properties required of the final
product. For example, some scrap steel can be added to iron from a
blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that needs to be
extracted from iron ore.
Students should be able to evaluate ways of reducing the use of
limited resources, given appropriate information.

5.11 Key ideas

The complex and diverse phenomena of the natural world can be described in terms of a small
number of key ideas in chemistry.
These key ideas are of universal application, and we have embedded them throughout the subject
content. They underpin many aspects of the science assessment and will therefore be assessed
across all papers.
Key ideas in chemistry:
• matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms and there are about 100 different naturally
occurring types of atoms called elements
• elements show periodic relationships in their chemical and physical properties
• these periodic properties can be explained in terms of the atomic structure of the elements
• atoms bond by either transferring electrons from one atom to another or by sharing electrons
• the shapes of molecules (groups of atoms bonded together) and the way giant structures are
arranged is of great importance in terms of the way they behave
• there are barriers to reaction so reactions occur at different rates
• chemical reactions take place in only three different ways:
• proton transfer
• electron transfer
• electron sharing
• energy is conserved in chemical reactions so can therefore be neither created or destroyed.

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6 Physics subject content

This specification is presented in a two column format.
The subject content is split into three sections for each of the subject areas: biology, chemistry and
physics.
The left hand column contains the subject content that all students must cover, and that can be
assessed in the written papers.
The right hand column exemplifies some of the key opportunities for the following skills to be
developed throughout the course: WS refers to Working scientifically (page 13), MS refers to
Mathematical requirements (page 171) and AT refers to Use of apparatus and techniques (page
173). These are not the only opportunities. Teachers are encouraged to introduce all of these skills
where appropriate throughout the course.
Each topic begins with an overview. The overview puts the topic into a broader context and is
intended to encourage an overarching approach to both the teaching and learning of each of the
topic areas. It is not directly assessed. Any assessable content in this overview is replicated in the
left hand column.
It is good practice to teach and develop all of the mathematical skills throughout the course. Some
mathematical skills will only be assessed in certain subject areas. These are detailed in
Mathematical requirements (page 171).
Science is a practical subject. Details of the assessment of required practicals can be found in
Required practical activities (page 175) .
Working scientifically (page 13) and Use of apparatus and techniques (page 173) skills will be
assessed across all papers.
Content that is only applicable to Higher Tier is indicated by (HT only) either next to the topic
heading where it applies to the whole topic or immediately preceding each paragraph or bullet
point as applicable.
Questions in paper 2 may draw on an understanding of energy changes and transfers due to
heating, mechanical and electrical work and the concept of energy conservation from sections
Energy (page 121) and Electricity (page 127).

6.1 Energy
The concept of energy emerged in the 19th century. The idea was used to explain the work output
of steam engines and then generalised to understand other heat engines. It also became a key tool
for understanding chemical reactions and biological systems.
Limits to the use of fossil fuels and global warming are critical problems for this century. Physicists
and engineers are working hard to identify ways to reduce our energy usage.

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6.1.1 Energy changes in a system, and the ways energy is stored
before and after such changes
6.1.1.1 Energy stores and systems
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A system is an object or group of objects. The link between work done

(energy transfer) and
There are changes in the way energy is stored when a system
current flow in a circuit is
changes.
covered in Work done and
Students should be able to describe all the changes involved in the energy transfer (page 146).
way energy is stored when a system changes, for common
WS 4.5
situations. For example:
• an object projected upwards
• a moving object hitting an obstacle
• an object accelerated by a constant force
• a vehicle slowing down
• bringing water to a boil in an electric kettle.
Throughout this section on Energy students should be able to
calculate the changes in energy involved when a system is changed
by:
• heating
• work done by forces
• work done when a current flows

• use calculations to show on a common scale how the overall WS 1.2, 4.3, 4.5, 4.6
energy in a system is redistributed when the system is changed.
MS 1a, c, 3b, c

6.1.1.2 Changes in energy

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to calculate the amount of energy WS 1.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.6
associated with a moving object, a stretched spring and an object
MS 1a, c, 3b, c
raised above ground level.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the MS 3b, c
equation:
Students should be able to
kinetic energ y = 0.5 × mass × s peed 2 recall and apply this
equation.
Ek  =   12  m v2
kinetic energy, Ek, in joules, J
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
speed, v, in metres per second, m/s
The amount of elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring
can be calculated using the equation:

elastic potential energ y = 0.5 × s pring constant × extension 2 MS 3b, c

Students should be able to
Ee   =   12  k e2
apply this equation which is
(assuming the limit of proportionality has not been exceeded) given on the Physics
equation sheet.
elastic potential energy, Ee, in joules, J
spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m
extension, e, in metres, m
The amount of gravitational potential energy gained by an object
raised above ground level can be calculated using the equation:

g . p . e . = mass × gravitational f ield strength × height MS 3b, c

Ep  = m g h Students should be able to

recall and apply this
gravitational potential energy, Ep, in joules, J equation.
mass, m, in kilograms, kg AT 1
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any Investigate the transfer of
calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be energy from a gravitational
given.) potential energy store to a
height, h, in metres, m kinetic energy store.

6.1.1.3 Energy changes in systems

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The amount of energy stored in or released from a system as its

temperature changes can be calculated using the equation:

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

change in thermal energ y = mass × s peci f ic heat ca pacit y MS 3b, c

× tem perature change
Students should be able to
∆ E  = m c  ∆ θ apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
change in thermal energy, ∆E, in joules, J
equation sheet.
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
This equation and specific
specific heat capacity, c, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius, heat capacity are also
J/kg °C included in Temperature
changes in a system and
temperature change, ∆θ, in degrees Celsius, °C
specific heat capacity (page
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy 136).
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance
by one degree Celsius.

Required practical activity 14: an investigation to determine the specific heat capacity of one or
more materials. The investigation will involve linking the decrease of one energy store (or work
done) to the increase in temperature and subsequent increase in thermal energy stored.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 1 and 5.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 184).

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6.1.1.4 Power
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Power is defined as the rate at which energy is transferred or the MS 3b, c

rate at which work is done.
Students should be able to
power =
energ y trans f erred recall and apply both
time
equations.
P  =   Et
work done
power = time

P  =   Wt
power, P, in watts, W
energy transferred, E, in joules, J
time, t, in seconds, s
work done, W, in joules, J
An energy transfer of 1 joule per second is equal to a power of 1
watt.
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the
definition of power eg comparing two electric motors that both lift
the same weight through the same height but one does it faster
than the other.

6.1.2 Conservation and dissipation of energy

6.1.2.1 Energy transfers in a system

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but cannot

be created or destroyed.
Students should be able to describe with examples where there are
energy transfers in a closed system, that there is no net change to
the total energy.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, how in all
system changes energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less
useful ways. This energy is often described as being ‘wasted’.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain ways of reducing unwanted WS 1.4

energy transfers, for example through lubrication and the use of
AT 1, 5
thermal insulation.
Investigate thermal
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material the higher the rate
conductivity using rods of
of energy transfer by conduction across the material.
different materials.
Students should be able to describe how the rate of cooling of a
building is affected by the thickness and thermal conductivity of its
walls.
Students do not need to know the definition of thermal conductivity.

6.1.2.2 Efficiency
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The energy efficiency for any energy transfer can be calculated MS 3b, c
using the equation:
Students should be able to
e f f iciency =
use f ul out put energ y trans f er recall and apply both
total in put energ y trans f er
equations.
Efficiency may also be calculated using the equation:
MS 1a, c, 3b, c
use f ul power out put
e f f iciency = total power in put Students may be required
to calculate or use efficiency
values as a decimal or as a
percentage.

(HT only) Students should be able to describe ways to increase the (HT only) WS 1.4
efficiency of an intended energy transfer.

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6.1.3 National and global energy resources

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The main energy resources available for use on Earth include: fossil WS 4.4
fuels (coal, oil and gas), nuclear fuel, bio-fuel, wind, hydro-
electricity, geothermal, the tides, the Sun and water waves.
A renewable energy resource is one that is being (or can be)
replenished as it is used.
The uses of energy resources include: transport, electricity
generation and heating.
Students should be able to:
• describe the main energy sources available
• distinguish between energy resources that are renewable and
energy resources that are non-renewable
• compare ways that different energy resources are used, the uses
to include transport, electricity generation and heating
• understand why some energy resources are more reliable than
others

• describe the environmental impact arising from the use of WS 1.3, 1.4
different energy resources

• explain patterns and trends in the use of energy resources. WS 3.5

Descriptions of how energy resources are used to generate

electricity are not required.

Students should be able to: WS 1.3, 1.4, 4.4

• consider the environmental issues that may arise from the use of MS 1c, 2c, 4a
different energy resources
• show that science has the ability to identify environmental issues
arising from the use of energy resources but not always the
power to deal with the issues because of political, social, ethical
or economic considerations.

6.2 Electricity
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter everywhere. Understanding the difference in
the microstructure of conductors, semiconductors and insulators makes it possible to design
components and build electric circuits. Many circuits are powered with mains electricity, but
portable electrical devices must use batteries of some kind.
Electrical power fills the modern world with artificial light and sound, information and entertainment,
remote sensing and control. The fundamentals of electromagnetism were worked out by scientists
of the 19th century. However, power stations, like all machines, have a limited lifetime. If we all

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continue to demand more electricity this means building new power stations in every generation –
but what mix of power stations can promise a sustainable future?

6.2.1 Current, potential difference and resistance

6.2.1.1 Standard circuit diagram symbols
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Circuit diagrams use standard symbols. WS 1.2

Students should be able to draw and interpret circuit diagrams.

6.2.1.2 Electrical charge and current

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

For electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit the circuit must
include a source of potential difference.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Electric current is a flow of electrical charge. The size of the electric MS 3b, c
current is the rate of flow of electrical charge. Charge flow, current
Students should be able to
and time are linked by the equation:
recall and apply this
charge f low = current × time equation.
Q   = I t
charge flow, Q, in coulombs, C
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
time, t, in seconds, s
A current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop.

6.2.1.3 Current, resistance and potential difference

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The current (I) through a component depends on both the

resistance (R) of the component and the potential difference (V)
across the component. The greater the resistance of the component
the smaller the current for a given potential difference (pd) across
the component.
Questions will be set using the term potential difference. Students
will gain credit for the correct use of either potential difference or
voltage.

Current, potential difference or resistance can be calculated using MS 3b, c

the equation:
Students should be able to
potential di f f erence = current × resistance recall and apply this
equation.
V   = I R
potential difference, V, in volts, V
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
resistance, R, in ohms, Ω

Required practical activity 15:

Use circuit diagrams to set up and check appropriate circuits to investigate the factors affecting the
resistance of electrical circuits. This should include:
• the length of a wire at constant temperature
• combinations of resistors in series and parallel.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 1, 6 and 7.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 185).

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6.2.1.4 Resistors
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain that, for some resistors, the

value of R remains constant but that in others it can change as the
current changes.
The current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant
temperature) is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the resistor. This means that the resistance remains
constant as the current changes.

The resistance of components such as lamps, diodes, thermistors

and LDRs is not constant; it changes with the current through the
component.
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the temperature of
the filament increases.

The current through a diode flows in one direction only. The diode
has a very high resistance in the reverse direction.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature

increases.
The applications of thermistors in circuits eg a thermostat is
required.
The resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases.

The application of LDRs in circuits eg switching lights on when it WS 1.2, 1.4

gets dark is required.
Students should be able to:

• explain the design and use of a circuit to measure the resistance AT 6

of a component by measuring the current through, and potential
Investigate the relationship
difference across, the component
between the resistance of a
• draw an appropriate circuit diagram using correct circuit thermistor and temperature.
symbols.
Investigate the relationship
between the resistance of
an LDR and light intensity.

Students should be able to use graphs to explore whether circuit WS 1.2, 1.4
elements are linear or non-linear and relate the curves produced to
MS 4c, 4d, 4e
their function and properties.

Required practical activity 16: use circuit diagrams to construct appropriate circuits to investigate
the I–V characteristics of a variety of circuit elements, including a filament lamp, a diode and a
resistor at constant temperature.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 6 and 7.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 186).

6.2.2 Series and parallel circuits

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and

in parallel. Some circuits include both series and parallel parts.
For components connected in series:
• there is the same current through each component
• the total potential difference of the power supply is shared
between the components
• the total resistance of two components is the sum of the
resistance of each component.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Rtotal = R1 + R2 MS 1c, 3b, 3c, 3d

resistance, R, in ohms, Ω
For components connected in parallel:
• the potential difference across each component is the same
• the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the
currents through the separate components
• the total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance of
the smallest individual resistor.
Students should be able to:

• use circuit diagrams to construct and check series and parallel AT 7

circuits that include a variety of common circuit components
• describe the difference between series and parallel circuits
• explain qualitatively why adding resistors in series increases the
total resistance whilst adding resistors in parallel decreases the
total resistance

• explain the design and use of dc series circuits for measurement WS 1.4
and testing purposes

• calculate the currents, potential differences and resistances in dc MS 1c, 3b, c, d

series circuits
• solve problems for circuits which include resistors in series using
the concept of equivalent resistance.
Students are not required to calculate the total resistance of two
resistors joined in parallel.

6.2.3 Domestic uses and safety

6.2.3.1 Direct and alternating potential difference

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Mains electricity is an ac supply. In the United Kingdom the

domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hz and is about
230 V.
Students should be able to explain the difference between direct
and alternating potential difference.

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6.2.3.2 Mains electricity

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains using three- WS 1.5
core cable.
The insulation covering each wire is colour coded for easy
identification:
live wire – brown
neutral wire – blue
earth wire – green and yellow stripes.
The live wire carries the alternating potential difference from the
supply. The neutral wire completes the circuit. The earth wire is a
safety wire to stop the appliance becoming live.
The potential difference between the live wire and earth (0 V) is
about 230 V. The neutral wire is at, or close to, earth potential (0 V).
The earth wire is at 0 V, it only carries a current if there is a fault.
Students should be able to explain:
• that a live wire may be dangerous even when a switch in the
mains circuit is open
• the dangers of providing any connection between the live wire
and earth.

6.2.4 Energy transfers

6.2.4.1 Power
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to explain how the power transfer in any MS 3b, c
circuit device is related to the potential difference across it and the
WS 4.5
current through it, and to the energy changes over time:
Students should be able to
power = potential di f f erence × current
recall and apply both
P  = V  I equations.
2
power = current × resistance

P  =  I 2 R
power, P, in watts, W
potential difference, V, in volts, V
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
resistance, R, in ohms, Ω

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6.2.4.2 Energy transfers in everyday appliances
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Everyday electrical appliances are designed to bring about energy

transfers.
The amount of energy an appliance transfers depends on how long
the appliance is switched on for and the power of the appliance.
Students should be able to describe how different domestic
appliances transfer energy from batteries or ac mains to the kinetic
energy of electric motors or the energy of heating devices.
Work is done when charge flows in a circuit.
The amount of energy transferred by electrical work can be
calculated using the equation:

energ y trans f erred = power × time MS 3b, c

E  = P t Students should be able to
recall and apply both
energ y trans f erred = charge f low × potential di f f erence equations.
E  = Q V WS 1.4
energy transferred, E, in joules, J
power, P, in watts, W
time, t, in seconds, s
charge flow, Q, in coulombs, C
potential difference, V, in volts, V

Students should be able to explain how the power of a circuit device WS 1.2
is related to:
• the potential difference across it and the current through it
• the energy transferred over a given time.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, the
relationship between the power ratings for domestic electrical
appliances and the changes in stored energy when they are in use.

6.2.4.3 The National Grid

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The National Grid is a system of cables and transformers linking

power stations to consumers.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Electrical power is transferred from power stations to consumers WS 1.4

using the National Grid.
Step-up transformers are used to increase the potential difference
from the power station to the transmission cables then step-down
transformers are used to decrease, to a much lower value, the
potential difference for domestic use.
Students should be able to explain why the National Grid system is
an efficient way to transfer energy.

6.3 Particle model of matter

The particle model is widely used to predict the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases and this has
many applications in everyday life. It helps us to explain a wide range of observations and
engineers use these principles when designing vessels to withstand high pressures and
temperatures, such as submarines and spacecraft. It also explains why it is difficult to make a good
cup of tea high up a mountain!

6.3.1 Changes of state and the particle model

6.3.1.1 Density of materials

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The density of a material is defined by the equation: MS 1a, b, c, 3b, c

densit y =
mass Students should be able to
volume
recall and apply this
ρ= m equation to changes where
V mass is conserved.
density, ρ, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
The particle model can be used to explain
• the different states of matter
• differences in density.

Students should be able to recognise/draw simple diagrams to WS 1.2

model the difference between solids, liquids and gases.

Students should be able to explain the differences in density WS 1.2

between the different states of matter in terms of the arrangement
of atoms or molecules.

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Required practical activity 17: use appropriate apparatus to make and record the measurements
needed to determine the densities of regular and irregular solid objects and liquids. Volume should
be determined from the dimensions of regularly shaped objects, and by a displacement technique
for irregularly shaped objects. Dimensions to be measured using appropriate apparatus such as a
ruler, micrometer or Vernier callipers.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 1.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 188).

6.3.1.2 Changes of state

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe how, when substances change

state (melt, freeze, boil, evaporate, condense or sublimate), mass is
conserved.
Changes of state are physical changes which differ from chemical
changes because the material recovers its original properties if the
change is reversed.

6.3.2 Internal energy and energy transfers

6.3.2.1 Internal energy

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and

molecules) that make up the system. This is called internal energy.
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all
the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system.
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing
the energy of the particles that make up the system. This either
raises the temperature of the system or produces a change of state.

6.3.2.2 Temperature changes in a system and specific heat capacity

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

If the temperature of the system increases:

The increase in temperature depends on the mass of the substance
heated, the type of material and the energy input to the system.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The following equation applies: MS 1a, 3b, 3c, 3d

change in thermal energ y = mass × s peci f ic heat ca pacit y Students should be able to
× tem perature change apply this equation, which is
given on the Physics
∆ E  = m c  ∆ θ
equation sheet, to calculate
change in thermal energy, ∆E, in joules, J the energy change involved
when the temperature of a
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
material changes.
specific heat capacity, c, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius,
This equation and specific
J/kg °C
heat capacity are also
temperature change, ∆θ, in degrees Celsius, °C. included in Energy changes
in systems (page 123) .
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance
by one degree Celsius.

6.3.2.3 Changes of heat and specific latent heat

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

If a change of state happens:

The energy needed for a substance to change state is called latent
heat. When a change of state occurs, the energy supplied changes
the energy stored (internal energy) but not the temperature.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy
required to change the state of one kilogram of the substance with
no change in temperature.

energ y f or a change o f state = mass × s peci f ic latent heat MS 1a, 3b, c, d

E  = m L Students should be able to
apply this equation, which is
energy, E, in joules, J given on the Physics
mass, m, in kilograms, kg equation sheet, to calculate
the energy change involved
specific latent heat, L, in joules per kilogram, J/kg in a change of state.
Specific latent heat of fusion – change of state from solid to liquid MS 4a
Specific latent heat of vaporisation – change of state from liquid to AT 5
vapour
Perform an experiment to
measure the latent heat of
fusion of water.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to interpret heating and cooling graphs that WS 3.5
include changes of state.
Students should be able to distinguish between specific heat
capacity and specific latent heat.

6.3.3 Particle model and pressure

6.3.3.1 Particle motion in gases

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The molecules of a gas are in constant random motion. The WS 1.2

temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of
the molecules.
Changing the temperature of a gas, held at constant volume,
changes the pressure exerted by the gas.

Students should be able to: WS 1.2

• explain how the motion of the molecules in a gas is related to
both its temperature and its pressure
• explain qualitatively the relation between the temperature of a
gas and its pressure at constant volume.

6.4 Atomic structure

Ionising radiation is hazardous but can be very useful. Although radioactivity was discovered over
a century ago, it took many nuclear physicists several decades to understand the structure of
atoms, nuclear forces and stability. Early researchers suffered from their exposure to ionising
radiation. Rules for radiological protection were first introduced in the 1930s and subsequently
improved. Today radioactive materials are widely used in medicine, industry, agriculture and
electrical power generation.

6.4.1 Atoms and isotopes

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6.4.1.1 The structure of an atom

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 1 × 10-10 metres. MS 1b

The basic structure of an atom is a positively charged nucleus WS 4.4
composed of both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively
Students should be able to
charged electrons.
recognise expressions
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10 000 of the radius of an given in standard form.
atom. Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
The electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus
(different energy levels). The electron arrangements may change
with the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (move further from
the nucleus; a higher energy level) or by the emission of
electromagnetic radiation (move closer to the nucleus; a lower
energy level).

6.4.1.2 Mass number, atomic number and isotopes

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In an atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of

protons in the nucleus. Atoms have no overall electrical charge.
All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons.
The number of protons in an atom of an element is called its atomic
number.
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its
mass number.
Atoms can be represented as shown in this example:

Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of

neutrons; these atoms are called isotopes of that element.
Atoms turn into positive ions if they lose one or more outer
electron(s).

Students should be able to relate differences between isotopes to WS 4.1

differences in conventional representations of their identities,
charges and masses.

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6.4.1.3 The development of the model of the atom (common content with chemistry)
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

New experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model being WS 1.1, 1.6
changed or replaced.
This historical context
Before the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought to be tiny provides an opportunity for
spheres that could not be divided. students to show an
understanding of why and
The discovery of the electron led to the plum pudding model of the
describe how scientific
atom. The plum pudding model suggested that the atom is a ball of
methods and theories
positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it.
develop over time.
The results from the alpha particle scattering experiment led to the
WS1.2
conclusion that the mass of an atom was concentrated at the centre
(nucleus) and that the nucleus was charged. This nuclear model
replaced the plum pudding model.
Niels Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons
orbit the nucleus at specific distances. The theoretical calculations
of Bohr agreed with experimental observations.
Later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of any
nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller
particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge.
The name proton was given to these particles.
The experimental work of James Chadwick provided the evidence
to show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus. This was
about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific
idea.
Students should be able to describe:

• why the new evidence from the scattering experiment led to a WS 1.1
change in the atomic model

• the difference between the plum pudding model of the atom and WS 1.2
the nuclear model of the atom.

Details of experimental work supporting the Bohr model are not

required.
Details of Chadwick’s experimental work are not required.

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6.4.2 Atoms and nuclear radiation

6.4.2.1 Radioactive decay and nuclear radiation
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Some atomic nuclei are unstable. The nucleus gives out radiation
as it changes to become more stable. This is a random process
called radioactive decay.
Activity is the rate at which a source of unstable nuclei decays.
Activity is measured in becquerel (Bq)
Count-rate is the number of decays recorded each second by a
detector (eg Geiger-Muller tube).
The nuclear radiation emitted may be:
• an alpha particle (α) – this consists of two neutrons and two
protons, it is the same as a helium nucleus
• a beta particle (β) – a high speed electron ejected from the
nucleus as a neutron turns into a proton
• a gamma ray (γ) – electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus
• a neutron (n).

Required knowledge of the properties of alpha particles, beta WS 1.4, 1.5

particles and gamma rays is limited to their penetration through
materials, their range in air and ionising power.
Students should be able to apply their knowledge to the uses of
radiation and evaluate the best sources of radiation to use in a
given situation.

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6.4.2.2 Nuclear equations
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Nuclear equations are used to represent radioactive decay. WS 1.2, 4.1

In a nuclear equation an alpha particle may be represented by the MS 1b, c, 3c
symbol:

and a beta particle by the symbol:

The emission of the different types of nuclear radiation may cause a

change in the mass and /or the charge of the nucleus. For example:

So alpha decay causes both the mass and charge of the nucleus to
decrease.

So beta decay does not cause the mass of the nucleus to change
but does cause the charge of the nucleus to increase.
Students are not required to recall these two examples.
Students should be able to use the names and symbols of common
nuclei and particles to write balanced equations that show single
alpha (α) and beta (β) decay. This is limited to balancing the atomic
numbers and mass numbers. The identification of daughter
elements from such decays is not required.
The emission of a gamma ray does not cause the mass or the
charge of the nucleus to change.

6.4.2.3 Half-lives and the random nature of radioactive decay

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Radioactive decay is random.

The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the
number of nuclei of the isotope in a sample to halve, or the time it
takes for the count rate (or activity) from a sample containing the
isotope to fall to half its initial level.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Students should be able to explain the concept of half-life and how WS 1.2
it is related to the random nature of radioactive decay.

Students should be able to determine the half-life of a radioactive MS 4a

isotope from given information.

(HT only) Students should be able to calculate the net decline, (HT only) MS 1c, 3d
expressed as a ratio, in a radioactive emission after a given number
of half-lives.

6.4.2.4 Radioactive contamination

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Radioactive contamination is the unwanted presence of materials WS 1.5

containing radioactive atoms on other materials. The hazard from
contamination is due to the decay of the contaminating atoms. The
type of radiation emitted affects the level of hazard.
Irradiation is the process of exposing an object to nuclear radiation.
The irradiated object does not become radioactive.

Students should be able to compare the hazards associated with WS 1.5

contamination and irradiation.

Suitable precautions must be taken to protect against any hazard WS 1.5

that the radioactive source used in the process of irradiation may
present.

Students should understand that it is important for the findings of WS 1.6

studies into the effects of radiation on humans to be published and
shared with other scientists so that the findings can be checked by
peer review.

6.5 Forces
Engineers analyse forces when designing a great variety of machines and instruments, from road
bridges and fairground rides to atomic force microscopes. Anything mechanical can be analysed in
this way. Recent developments in artificial limbs use the analysis of forces to make movement
possible.

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6.5.1 Forces and their interactions
6.5.1.1 Scalar and vector quantities
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Scalar quantities have magnitude only.

Vector quantities have magnitude and an associated direction.
A vector quantity may be represented by an arrow. The length of
the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow
the direction of the vector quantity.

6.5.1.2 Contact and non-contact forces

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A force is a push or pull that acts on an object due to the interaction

with another object. All forces between objects are either:
• contact forces – the objects are physically touching
• non-contact forces – the objects are physically separated.
Examples of contact forces include friction, air resistance, tension
and normal contact force.
Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force, electrostatic
force and magnetic force.
Force is a vector quantity.
Students should be able to describe the interaction between pairs
of objects which produce a force on each object. The forces to be
represented as vectors.

6.5.1.3 Gravity
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The force of

gravity close to the Earth is due to the gravitational field around the
Earth.
The weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength
at the point where the object is.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The weight of an object can be calculated using the equation: MS 3b, c

weight = mass × gravitational field strength Students should be able to
recall and apply this
 W   = m g  equation.
weight, W, in newtons, N
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any
calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be
given.)
The weight of an object may be considered to act at a single point
referred to as the object’s ‘centre of mass’.

The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly MS 3a

proportional.
Students should recognise
Weight is measured using a calibrated spring-balance (a and be able to use the
newtonmeter). symbol for proportionality, ∝

6.5.1.4 Resultant forces

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A number of forces acting on an object may be replaced by a single

force that has the same effect as all the original forces acting
together. This single force is called the resultant force.
Students should be able to calculate the resultant of two forces that
act in a straight line.
(HT only) Students should be able to:
• describe examples of the forces acting on an isolated object or
system

• use free body diagrams to describe qualitatively examples where WS 1.2

several forces lead to a resultant force on an object, including
balanced forces when the resultant force is zero.
(HT only) A single force can be resolved into two components
acting at right angles to each other. The two component forces
together have the same effect as the single force.

(HT only) Students should be able to use vector diagrams to MS 4a, 5a, b
illustrate resolution of forces, equilibrium situations and determine
the resultant of two forces, to include both magnitude and direction
(scale drawings only).

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6.5.2 Work done and energy transfer
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When a force causes an object to move through a distance work is

done on the object. So a force does work on an object when the
force causes a displacement of the object.

The work done by a force on an object can be calculated using the MS 3b, c
equation:
Students should be able to
work done = force × distance recall and apply this
moved along the line of action of the force equation.
 W   = F s 
work done, W, in joules, J
force, F, in newtons, N
distance, s, in metres

One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes a WS 4.5
displacement of one metre.
1 joule = 1 newton-metre
Students should be able to describe the energy transfer involved
when work is done.

Students should be able to convert between newton-metres and MS 1c

joules.
WS 4.5
Work done against the frictional forces acting on an object causes a
rise in the temperature of the object.

6.5.3 Forces and elasticity

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to:

• give examples of the forces involved in stretching, bending or
compressing an object
• explain why, to change the shape of an object (by stretching,
bending or compressing), more than one force has to be applied
– this is limited to stationary objects only
• describe the difference between elastic deformation and inelastic
deformation caused by stretching forces.
The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly
proportional to the force applied, provided that the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

f orce = s pring constant × extension MS 3b, c, 4a

 F  = k e  Students should be able to
recall and apply this
force, F, in newtons, N equation.
spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m
extension, e, in metres, m

This relationship also applies to the compression of an elastic MS 3b, c, 4a

object, where ‘e’ would be the compression of the object.
A force that stretches (or compresses) a spring does work and
elastic potential energy is stored in the spring. Provided the spring
is not inelastically deformed, the work done on the spring and the
elastic potential energy stored are equal.
Students should be able to:
• describe the difference between a linear and non-linear
relationship between force and extension
• calculate a spring constant in linear cases

• interpret data from an investigation of the relationship between WS 3.5

force and extension

• calculate work done in stretching (or compressing) a spring (up MS 3c

to the limit of proportionality) using the equation:
Students should be able to
elastic potential energ y = 0.5 × s pring constant × extension 2 apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
Ee   =   12  k e2 equation sheet.
This equation is also given
in Changes in energy (page
122).

Students should be able to calculate relevant values of stored MS 3c

energy and energy transfers.

Required practical activity 18: investigate the relationship between force and extension for a
spring.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 1 and 2.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 189).

6.5.4 Forces and motion

6.5.4.1 Describing motion along a line

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6.5.4.1.1 Distance and displacement

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Distance is how far an object moves. Distance does not involve MS 1, 3c

direction. Distance is a scalar quantity.
Throughout this section
Displacement includes both the distance an object moves, (Forces and motion),
measured in a straight line from the start point to the finish point students should be able to
and the direction of that straight line. Displacement is a vector use ratios and proportional
quantity. reasoning to convert units
and to compute rates.
Students should be able to express a displacement in terms of both
the magnitude and direction.

6.5.4.1.2 Speed

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Speed does not involve direction. Speed is a scalar quantity.

The speed of a moving object is rarely constant. When people walk,
run or travel in a car their speed is constantly changing.
The speed at which a person can walk, run or cycle depends on
many factors including: age, terrain, fitness and distance travelled.
Typical values may be taken as:
walking ̴ 1.5 m/s
running ̴ 3 m/s
cycling ̴ 6 m/s.
Students should be able to recall typical values of speed for a
person walking, running and cycling as well as the typical values of
speed for different types of transportation systems.
It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of
sound and the speed of the wind also vary.
A typical value for the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.

Students should be able to make measurements of distance and MS 1a, c, 2f

time and then calculate speeds of objects.
For an object moving at constant speed the distance travelled in a
specific time can be calculated using the equation:

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

distance travelled = s peed × time MS 3b, 3c

s  = v t Students should be able to
recall and apply this
distance, s, in metres, m equation.
speed, v, in metres per second, m/s
time, t, in seconds, s

Students should be able to calculate average speed for non-uniform MS 3b, 3c

motion.

6.5.4.1.3 Velocity

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction. Velocity is

a vector quantity.
Students should be able to explain the vector–scalar distinction as it
applies to displacement, distance, velocity and speed.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively, with
examples, that motion in a circle involves constant speed but
changing velocity.

6.5.4.1.4 The distance–time relationship

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can MS 4a, b, c, d, f
be represented by a distance–time graph.
The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its
distance–time graph.
(HT only) If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time
can be determined by drawing a tangent and measuring the
gradient of the distance–time graph at that time.
Students should be able to draw distance–time graphs from
measurements and extract and interpret lines and slopes of
distance–time graphs, translating information between graphical
and numerical form.
Students should be able to determine speed from a distance–time
graph.

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6.5.4.1.5 Acceleration

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the

equation:

acceleration =
change in velocit y MS 1d, 3b, 3c
time taken
Students should be able to
a  =   ∆tv recall and apply this
equation.
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
change in velocity, ∆v, in metres per second, m/s
time, t, in seconds, s
An object that slows down is decelerating.
Students should be able to estimate the magnitude of everyday
accelerations.

The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of MS 4a, b, c, d, f

a velocity–time graph.
(HT only) The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an
object) can be calculated from the area under a velocity–time
graph.
Students should be able to:

• draw velocity–time graphs from measurements and interpret WS 3.3

lines and slopes to determine acceleration
• (HT only) interpret enclosed areas in velocity–time graphs to
determine distance travelled (or displacement)

• (HT only) measure, when appropriate, the area under a velocity– WS 3.3
time graph by counting squares.

The following equation applies to uniform acceleration: MS 3b, 3c

f inal velocit y 2
− initial velocit y 2
= 2 × acceleration × distance Students should be able to
apply this equation which is
v2  −  u2  = 2 a s given on the Physics
equation sheet.
final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
distance, s, in metres, m
Near the Earth’s surface any object falling freely under gravity has
an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force

of gravity. Eventually the resultant force will be zero and the object
will move at its terminal velocity.

6.5.4.2 Forces, accelerations and Newton's Laws of motion

6.5.4.2.1 Newton's First Law

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Newton’s First Law:

If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and:
• the object is stationary, the object remains stationary
• the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same
speed and in the same direction. So the object continues to
move at the same velocity.
So, when a vehicle travels at a steady speed the resistive forces
balance the driving force.
So, the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object will only
change if a resultant force is acting on the object.
Students should be able to apply Newton’s First Law to explain the
motion of objects moving with a uniform velocity and objects where
the speed and/or direction changes.
(HT only) The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest
or of uniform motion is called inertia.

6.5.4.2.2 Newton's Second Law

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Newton’s Second Law:

The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force MS 3a

acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the
Students should recognise
object.
and be able to use the
As an equation: symbol for proportionality, ∝

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

resultant f orce = mass × acceleration MS 3b, c

F  = m a WS 4.2
force, F, in newtons, N Students should be able to
recall and apply this
mass, m, in kilograms, kg equation.
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2

(HT only) Students should be able to explain that: MS 3a

• inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the
velocity of an object
• inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.

Students should be able to estimate the speed, accelerations and MS 1d

forces involved in large accelerations for everyday road transport.
Students should recognise and be able to use the symbol that
indicates an approximate value or approximate answer, ̴

Required practical activity19: investigate the effect of varying the force on the acceleration of an
object of constant mass, and the effect of varying the mass of an object on the acceleration
produced by a constant force.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 1, 2 and 3.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 190).

6.5.4.2.3 Newton's Third Law

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Newton’s Third Law:

Whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other WS 1.2
are equal and opposite.
Students should be able to apply Newton’s Third Law to examples
of equilibrium situations.

6.5.4.3 Forces and braking

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6.5.4.3.1 Stopping distance

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of the distance the

vehicle travels during the driver’s reaction time (thinking distance)
and the distance it travels under the braking force (braking
distance). For a given braking force the greater the speed of the
vehicle, the greater the stopping distance.

6.5.4.3.2 Reaction time

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

Reaction times vary from person to person. Typical values range

from 0.2 s to 0.9 s.
A driver’s reaction time can be affected by tiredness, drugs and
alcohol. Distractions may also affect a driver’s ability to react.
Students should be able to:
• explain methods used to measure human reaction times and
recall typical results

• interpret and evaluate measurements from simple methods to WS 3.5, 3.7

measure the different reaction times of students

• evaluate the effect of various factors on thinking distance based WS 1.5, 2.2
on given data.
MS 1a, c
AT 1
Measure the effect of
distractions on reaction
time.

6.5.4.3.3 Factors affecting braking distance 1

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

The braking distance of a vehicle can be affected by adverse road

and weather conditions and poor condition of the vehicle.
Adverse road conditions include wet or icy conditions. Poor
condition of the vehicle is limited to the vehicle's brakes or tyres.
Students should be able to:
• explain the factors which affect the distance required for road
transport vehicles to come to rest in emergencies, and the
implications for safety

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

• estimate how the distance required for road vehicles to stop in MS 1c, 1d, 2c, 2d, 2f, 2h,
an emergency varies over a range of typical speeds. 3b, 3c

6.5.4.3.4 Factors affecting braking distance 2

Content Key opportunities for skills

development

When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, work done by the

friction force between the brakes and the wheel reduces the kinetic
energy of the vehicle and the temperature of the brakes increases.
The greater the speed of a vehicle the greater the braking force
needed to stop the vehicle in a certain distance.
The greater the braking force the greater the deceleration of the
vehicle. Large decelerations may lead to brakes overheating and/or
loss of control.
Students should be able to:

• explain the dangers caused by large decelerations WS 1.5

• (HT only) estimate the forces involved in the deceleration of road (HT only) MS 1d
vehicles in typical situations on a public road.

6.5.5 Momentum (HT only)

6.5.5.1 Momentum is a property of moving objects
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Momentum is defined by the equation: WS 1.2

momentum = mass × velocit y MS 3b, c
p  = m v Students should be able to
recall and apply this
momentum, p, in kilograms metre per second, kg m/s equation.
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s

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6.5.5.2 Conservation of momentum

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to AT 1, 2, 3

the total momentum after the event.
Investigate collisions
This is called conservation of momentum. between laboratory trollies
using light gates, data
Students should be able to use the concept of momentum as a
loggers or ticker timers to
model to describe and explain examples of momentum in an event,
measure and record data.
such as a collision.

6.6 Waves
Wave behaviour is common in both natural and man-made systems. Waves carry energy from one
place to another and can also carry information. Designing comfortable and safe structures such
as bridges, houses and music performance halls requires an understanding of mechanical waves.
Modern technologies such as imaging and communication systems show how we can make the
most of electromagnetic waves.

6.6.1 Waves in air, fluids and solids

6.6.1.1 Transverse and longitudinal waves
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Waves may be either transverse or longitudinal.

The ripples on a water surface are an example of a transverse
wave.
Longitudinal waves show areas of compression and rarefaction.
Sound waves travelling through air are longitudinal.

Students should be able to describe the difference between WS 1.2

longitudinal and transverse waves.

Students should be able to describe evidence that, for both ripples WS 1.2, 2.2
on a water surface and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not
the water or air itself that travels.

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6.6.1.2 Properties of waves
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their MS 1c, 3b, c
amplitude, wavelength, frequency and period.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point
on a wave away from its undisturbed position.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave
to the equivalent point on the adjacent wave.
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point
each second.

period =
1 MS 1c, 3b, c
f requency
Students should be able to
T =   1f apply this equation which is
given on the Physics
period, T, in seconds, s equation sheet.
frequency, f, in hertz, Hz
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or
the wave moves) through the medium.
All waves obey the wave equation:

wave s peed = f requency × wavelength MS 1c, 3b, 3c

v  = f  λ Students should be able to
recall and apply this
wave speed, v, in metres per second, m/s equation.
frequency, f, in hertz, Hz
wavelength, λ, in metres, m
Students should be able to:
• identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams

• describe a method to measure the speed of sound waves in air AT 1

WS 2.3, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 3.1,
3.5

• describe a method to measure the speed of ripples on a water AT 1, AT 4

surface.
WS 2.3, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 3.1,
3.5

Required practical activity 20: make observations to identify the suitability of apparatus to
measure the frequency, wavelength and speed of waves in a ripple tank and waves in a solid and
take appropriate measurements.
AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 4.

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This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 191).

6.6.2 Electromagnetic waves

6.6.2.1 Types of electromagnetic waves
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy

from the source of the waves to an absorber.
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum and all types of
electromagnetic wave travel at the same velocity through a vacuum
(space) or air.
The waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped in
terms of their wavelength and their frequency. Going from long to
short wavelength (or from low to high frequency) the groups are:
radio, microwave, infrared, visible light (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-
rays and gamma rays.

Our eyes only detect visible light and so detect a limited range of
electromagnetic waves.
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the transfer
of energy by electromagnetic waves.

6.6.2.2 Properties of electromagnetic waves 1

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

(HT only) Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or

reflect electromagnetic waves in ways that vary with wavelength.
(HT only) Some effects, for example refraction, are due to the
difference in velocity of the waves in different substances.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the
refraction of a wave at the boundary between two different media.

(HT only) Students should be able to use wave front diagrams to WS 1.2
explain refraction in terms of the change of speed that happens
when a wave travels from one medium to a different medium.

Required practical activity 21: investigate how the amount of infrared radiation absorbed or
radiated by a surface depends on the nature of that surface.

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AT skills covered by this practical activity: physics AT 1 and 4.
This practical activity also provides opportunities to develop WS and MS. Details of all skills are
given in Key opportunities for skills development (page 191).

6.6.2.3 Properties of electromagnetic waves 2

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

(HT only) Radio waves can be produced by oscillations in electrical

circuits.
(HT only) When radio waves are absorbed they may create an
alternating current with the same frequency as the radio wave itself,
so radio waves can themselves induce oscillations in an electrical
circuit.
Changes in atoms and the nuclei of atoms can result in
electromagnetic waves being generated or absorbed over a wide
frequency range. Gamma rays originate from changes in the
nucleus of an atom.

Ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous WS 1.5
effects on human body tissue. The effects depend on the type of
radiation and the size of the dose. Radiation dose (in sieverts) is a
measure of the risk of harm resulting from an exposure of the body
to the radiation.

1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv) WS 1.5

Students will not be required to recall the unit of radiation dose.
Students should be able to draw conclusions from given data about
the risks and consequences of exposure to radiation.
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase
the risk of skin cancer. X-rays and gamma rays are ionising
radiation that can cause the mutation of genes and cancer.

6.6.2.4 Uses and applications of electromagnetic waves

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

Electromagnetic waves have many practical applications. For

example:
• radio waves – television and radio
• microwaves – satellite communications, cooking food
• infrared – electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras
• visible light – fibre optic communications
• ultraviolet – energy efficient lamps, sun tanning
• X-rays and gamma rays – medical imaging and treatments.

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Content Key opportunities for skills

development

(HT only) Students should be able to give brief explanations why (HT only) WS 1.4
each type of electromagnetic wave is suitable for the practical
application.

6.7 Magnetism and electromagnetism

Electromagnetic effects are used in a wide variety of devices. Engineers make use of the fact that
a magnet moving in a coil can produce electric current and also that when current flows around a
magnet it can produce movement. It means that systems that involve control or communications
can take full advantage of this.

6.7.1 Permanent and induced magnetism, magnetic forces and fields

6.7.1.1 Poles of a magnet

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The poles of a magnet are the places where the magnetic forces
are strongest. When two magnets are brought close together they
exert a force on each other. Two like poles repel each other. Two
unlike poles attract each other. Attraction and repulsion between
two magnetic poles are examples of non-contact force.
A permanent magnet produces its own magnetic field. An induced
magnet is a material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in a
magnetic field. Induced magnetism always causes a force of
attraction. When removed from the magnetic field an induced
magnet loses most/all of its magnetism quickly.
Students should be able to describe:
• the attraction and repulsion between unlike and like poles for
permanent magnets
• the difference between permanent and induced magnets.

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6.7.1.2 Magnetic fields
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet WS 2.2
or on a magnetic material (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel) is called
the magnetic field.
The force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always one
of attraction.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the distance from the
magnet. The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet.
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by the
direction of the force that would act on another north pole placed at
that point. The direction of a magnetic field line is from the north
(seeking) pole of a magnet to the south(seeking) pole of the
magnet.
A magnetic compass contains a small bar magnet. The Earth has a
magnetic field. The compass needle points in the direction of the
Earth’s magnetic field.
Students should be able to:
• describe how to plot the magnetic field pattern of a magnet using
a compass
• draw the magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet showing how
strength and direction change from one point to another
• explain how the behaviour of a magnetic compass is related to
evidence that the core of the Earth must be magnetic.

6.7.2 The motor effect

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6.7.2.1 Electromagnetism
Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is

produced around the wire. The strength of the magnetic field
depends on the current through the wire and the distance from the
wire.
Shaping a wire to form a solenoid increases the strength of the
magnetic field created by a current through the wire. The magnetic
field inside a solenoid is strong and uniform.
The magnetic field around a solenoid has a similar shape to that of
a bar magnet. Adding an iron core increases the strength of the
magnetic field of a solenoid. An electromagnet is a solenoid with an
iron core.
Students should be able to:

• describe how the magnetic effect of a current can be WS 2.2

demonstrated
• draw the magnetic field pattern for a straight wire carrying a
current and for a solenoid (showing the direction of the field)
• explain how a solenoid arrangement can increase the magnetic
effect of the current.

6.7.2.2 Fleming's left-hand rule (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field

the magnet producing the field and the conductor exert a force on
each other. This is called the motor effect.
Students should be able to show that Fleming's left-hand rule
represents the relative orientation of the force, the current in the
conductor and the magnetic field.
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of
the force on the conductor.

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Content Key opportunities for skills
development

For a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field and carrying a MS 3b, c

current:
Students should be able to
f orce = magnetic f lux densit y × current × length apply this equation which is
given on the physics
F  = B I l equation sheet.
force, F, in newtons, N
magnetic flux density, B, in tesla, T
current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere)
length, l, in metres, m

6.7.2.3 Electric motors (HT only)

Content Key opportunities for skills
development

A coil of wire carrying a current in a magnetic field tends to rotate.

This is the basis of an electric motor.
Students should be able to explain how the force on a conductor in
a magnetic field causes the rotation of the coil in an electric motor.

6.8 Key ideas

The complex and diverse phenomena of the natural and man-made world can be described in
terms of a small number of key ideas in physics.
These key ideas are of universal application, and we have embedded them throughout the subject
content. They underpin many aspects of the science assessment and will therefore be assessed
across all papers.
Key ideas in physics:
• the use of models, as in the particle model of matter or the wave models of light and of sound
• the concept of cause and effect in explaining such links as those between force and
acceleration, or between changes in atomic nuclei and radioactive emissions
• the phenomena of ‘action at a distance’ and the related concept of the field as the key to
analysing electrical, magnetic and gravitational effects
• that differences, for example between pressures or temperatures or electrical potentials, are the
drivers of change
• that proportionality, for example between weight and mass of an object or between force and
extension in a spring, is an important aspect of many models in science
• that physical laws and models are expressed in mathematical form.

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7 Scheme of assessment
Find past papers and mark schemes, and specimen papers for new courses, on our website at
aqa.org.uk/pastpapers
This specification is designed to be taken over two years.
This is a linear qualification. In order to achieve the award, students must complete all
assessments at the end of the course and in the same series.
GCSE exams and certification for this specification are available for the first time in May/June 2018
and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
All materials are available in English only.
Our GCSE exams in Combined Science: Trilogy include questions that allow students to
demonstrate:
• their knowledge and understanding of the content developed in one section or topic, including
the associated mathematical and practical skills or
• their ability to apply mathematical and practical skills to areas of content they are not normally
developed in or
• their ability to draw together different areas of knowledge and understanding within one answer.
A range of question types will be used, including multiple choice, short answer and those that
require extended responses. Extended response questions will be of sufficient length to allow
students to demonstrate their ability to construct and develop a sustained line of reasoning which is
coherent, relevant, substantiated and logically structured. Extended responses may be prose,
extended calculations, or a combination of both, as appropriate to the question.

7.1 Aims and learning outcomes

Courses based on this specification should encourage students to:
Science should be taught in progressively greater depth over the course of Key Stage 3 and Key
Stage 4. GCSE outcomes may reflect or build upon subject content which is typically taught at Key
Stage 3. There is no expectation that teaching of such content should be repeated during the
GCSE course where it has already been covered at an earlier stage.
GCSE study in combined science provides the foundations for understanding the material world.
Scientific understanding is changing our lives and is vital to the world’s future prosperity, and all
students should be taught essential aspects of the knowledge, methods, processes and uses of
science. They should be helped to appreciate how the complex and diverse phenomena of the
natural world can be described in terms of a small number of key ideas relating to the sciences
which are both inter-linked, and are of universal application. These key ideas include:
• the use of conceptual models and theories to make sense of the observed diversity of natural
phenomena
• the assumption that every effect has one or more cause
• that change is driven by differences between different objects and systems when they interact
• that many such interactions occur over a distance and over time without direct contact
• that science progresses through a cycle of hypothesis, practical experimentation, observation,
theory development and review

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• that quantitative analysis is a central element both of many theories and of scientific methods of
inquiry.
These key ideas are relevant in different ways and with different emphases in the three subjects as
part of combined science: examples of their relevance are given for each subject in the
introductions: Biology subject content (page 19), Chemistry subject content (page 67) and Physics
subject content (page 121).
GCSE specifications in combined award science should enable students to:
• develop scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding through the specific disciplines of
biology, chemistry and physics
• develop understanding of the nature, processes and methods of science, through different types
of scientific enquiries that help them to answer scientific questions about the world around them
• develop and learn to apply observational, practical, modelling, enquiry and problem-solving
skills, both in the laboratory, in the field and in other learning environments
• develop their ability to evaluate claims based on science through critical analysis of the
methodology, evidence and conclusions, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Biology, chemistry and physics should be studied in ways that help students to develop curiosity
about the natural world, insight into how science works, and appreciation of its relevance to their
everyday lives. The scope and nature of such study should be broad, coherent, practical and
satisfying, and thereby encourage students to be inspired, motivated and challenged by the subject
and its achievements.

7.2 Assessment objectives

Assessment objectives (AOs) are set by Ofqual and are the same across all GCSE Combined
Science: Trilogy specifications and all exam boards.
The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives.
• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: scientific ideas; scientific techniques and
procedures.
• AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of: scientific ideas; scientific enquiry, techniques and
procedures.
• AO3: Analyse information and ideas to: interpret and evaluate; make judgments and draw
conclusions; develop and improve experimental procedures.

7.2.1 Assessment objective weightings for GCSE Combined Science:

Trilogy
Assessment Component weightings (approx %) Overall
objectives (AOs) weightin
Biology Biology Chemistry Chemistry Physics Physics
g (approx
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper Paper
%)
1 2
AO1 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 40
AO2 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 37‒43 40
AO3 17‒23 17‒23 17‒23 17‒23 17‒23 17‒23 20
Overall weighting of 16.6 16.6 16.6 16.6 16.6 16.6 100
components

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7.3 Assessment weightings

The marks awarded on the papers will be scaled to meet the weighting of the components.
Students’ final marks will be calculated by adding together the scaled marks for each component.
Grade boundaries will be set using this total scaled mark. The scaling and total scaled marks are
shown in the table below.

Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark

Biology Paper 1 70 x1 70
Biology Paper 2 70 x1 70
Chemistry Paper 1 70 x1 70
Chemistry Paper 2 70 x1 70
Physics Paper 1 70 x1 70
Physics Paper 2 70 x1 70
Total scaled mark: 420

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8 General administration
You can find information about all aspects of administration, as well as all the forms you need, at
aqa.org.uk/examsadmin

8.1 Entries and codes

You only need to make one entry for each qualification – this will cover all the question papers,
non-exam assessment and certification.
Every specification is given a national discount (classification) code by the Department for
Education (DfE), which indicates its subject area.
If a student takes two specifications with the same discount code:
• further and higher education providers are likely to take the view that they have only achieved
one of the two qualifications
• only one of them will be counted for the purpose of the School and College Performance tables
– the DfE's rules on 'early entry' will determine which one.
Please check this before your students start their course.

Qualification title Tier AQA DfE

entry discount
code code
AQA GCSE in Combined Science: Trilogy Foundation 8464F TBC
Higher 8464H TBC

This specification complies with:

• Ofqual General conditions of recognition that apply to all regulated qualifications
• Ofqual GCSE qualification level conditions that apply to all GCSEs
• Ofqual GCSE subject level conditions that apply to all GCSEs in this subject
• all other relevant regulatory documents.
The Ofqual qualification accreditation number (QAN) is 601/8758/X.

8.2 Overlaps with other qualifications

There are no overlaps with any other AQA qualifications at this level.

8.3 Awarding grades and reporting results

The qualification will be graded on a 17-point scale: 1–1 to 9–9 – where 9–9 is the best grade.
A student taking Foundation Tier assessments will be awarded a grade within the range of 1–1 to
5–5. Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade 1–1 will be recorded as U
(unclassified) and will not receive a qualification certificate.

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A student taking Higher Tier assessments will be awarded a grade within the range of 4–4 to 9–9.
A student sitting the Higher Tier who just fails to achieve grade 4–4 will be awarded an allowed
grade 4–3. Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for the allowed grade 4–3 will be
recorded as U (unclassified) and will not receive a qualification certificate.

8.4 Re-sits and shelf life

Students can re-sit the qualification as many times as they wish, within the shelf life of the
qualification.

8.5 Previous learning and prerequisites

There are no previous learning requirements. Any requirements for entry to a course based on this
specification are at the discretion of schools and colleges.

8.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion

General qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations and
further study. Therefore our qualifications must assess a wide range of competences.
The subject criteria have been assessed to see if any of the skills or knowledge required present
any possible difficulty to any students, whatever their ethnic background, religion, sex, age,
disability or sexuality. If any difficulties were encountered, the criteria were reviewed again to make
sure that tests of specific competences were only included if they were important to the subject.
As members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) we participate in the production of the
JCQ document Access Arrangements and Reasonable Adjustments: General and Vocational
qualifications. We follow these guidelines when assessing the needs of individual students who
may require an access arrangement or reasonable adjustment. This document is published on the
JCQ website at jcq.org.uk

8.6.1 Students with disabilities and special needs

We can make arrangements for disabled students and students with special needs to help them
access the assessments, as long as the competences being tested are not changed. Access
arrangements must be agreed before the assessment. For example, a Braille paper would be a
reasonable adjustment for a Braille reader but not for a student who does not read Braille.
We are required by the Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen
any disadvantage that affects a disabled student.
If you have students who need access arrangements or reasonable adjustments, you can apply
using the Access arrangements online service at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

8.6.2 Special consideration

We can give special consideration to students who have been disadvantaged at the time of the
assessment through no fault of their own – for example a temporary illness, injury or serious
problem such as the death of a relative. We can only do this after the assessment.
Your exams officer should apply online for special consideration at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

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For more information and advice about access arrangements, reasonable adjustments and special
consideration please see aqa.org.uk/access or email [email protected]

8.7 Working with AQA for the first time

If your school or college has not previously offered any AQA specification, you need to register as
an AQA centre to offer our specifications to your students. Find out how at aqa.org.uk/
becomeacentre

8.8 Private candidates

A private candidate is someone who enters for exams through an AQA-approved school or college
but is not enrolled as a student there.
If you are a private candidate you may be self-taught, home-schooled or have private tuition, with a
tutor or distance learning organisation. You must be based in the UK.
All GCSE science students need to complete practical experiments as part of their learning. A
minimum of eight experiments are required for single science qualifications and 16 for double
science qualifications. This equips students with essential practical knowledge and experiences,
enables them to put theory into practice and helps them develop skills for higher education.
Private candidates wishing to study GCSE sciences need to find a school or college who will let
them carry out the required practicals. Schools and colleges accepting private candidates must
make provision for them to carry out all of the required practical activities as specified in Practical
assessment (page 173). This is likely to incur a cost. We recommend you contact your local
schools and colleges to organise this as early as possible.
Students won’t be assessed whilst conducting their practical work, but the written exam will include
questions on it. Therefore, candidates lacking hands on experience will be at an immediate
disadvantage.
If you have any queries as a private candidate, you can:
• speak to the Exams officer at the school or college where you intend to take your exams
• visit our website at aqa.org.uk/exams-administration
• email: [email protected]

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9 Mathematical requirements
Students will be required to demonstrate the following mathematics skills in GCSE Combined
Science assessments.
Questions will target maths skills at a level of demand appropriate to each subject. In Foundation
Tier papers questions assessing maths requirements will not be lower than that expected at Key
Stage 3 (as outlined in Mathematics programmes of study: Key Stage 3 by the DfE, document
reference DFE-00179-2013). In Higher Tier papers questions assessing maths requirements will
not be lower than that of questions and tasks in assessments for the Foundation Tier in a GCSE
Qualification in Mathematics.

1 Arithmetic and numerical computation

a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form
b Recognise and use expressions in standard form
c Use ratios, fractions and percentages
d Make estimates of the results of simple calculations

2 Handling data
a Use an appropriate number of significant figures
b Find arithmetic means
c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms
d Understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data (biology questions only)
e Understand simple probability (biology questions only)
f Understand the terms mean, mode and median
g Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables (biology and physics
questions only)
h Make order of magnitude calculations

3 Algebra
a Understand and use the symbols: =, <, <<, >>, >, ∝ , ~
b Change the subject of an equation
c Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for physical
quantities (chemistry and physics questions only)
d Solve simple algebraic equations (biology and physics questions only)

4 Graphs
a Translate information between graphical and numeric form
b Understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship

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 4 Graphs
c Plot two variables from experimental or other data
d Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph
e Draw and use the slope of a tangent to a curve as a measure of rate of change (chemistry
and physics questions only)
f Understand the physical significance of area between a curve and the x-axis and measure it
by counting squares as appropriate (physics questions only)

5 Geometry and trigonometry

a Use angular measures in degrees (physics questions only)
b Visualise and represent 2D and 3D forms including two dimensional representations of 3D
objects (chemistry and physics questions only)
c Calculate areas of triangles and rectangles, surface areas and volumes of cubes

Mathematical skills references are taken from the DfE subject criteria.

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10 Practical assessment
Practical work is at the heart of science, so we have placed it at the heart of this specification.
There are three interconnected, but separate reasons for doing practical work in schools. They are:
1. To support and consolidate scientific concepts (knowledge and understanding).
This is done by applying and developing what is known and understood of abstract ideas and
models. Through practical work we are able to make sense of new information and
observations, and provide insights into the development of scientific thinking.
2. To develop investigative skills. These transferable skills include:
• devising and investigating testable questions
• identifying and controlling variables
• analysing, interpreting and evaluating data.
3. To build and master practical skills such as:
• using specialist equipment to take measurements
• handling and manipulating equipment with confidence and fluency
• recognising hazards and planning how to minimise risk.
By focusing on the reasons for carrying out a particular practical, teachers will help their students
understand the subject better, to develop the skills of a scientist and to master the manipulative
skills required for further study or jobs in STEM subjects.
Questions in the written exams will draw on the knowledge and understanding students have
gained by carrying out the practical activities listed below. These questions will count for at least
15% of the overall marks for the qualification. Many of our questions will also focus on investigative
skills and how well students can apply what they know to practical situations often in novel
contexts.
The practical handbook will help teachers plan purposeful practical work that develops both
practical and investigative skills and encourages the thinking behind the doing so that they can
reach their potential.
Teachers are encouraged to further develop students’ abilities by providing other opportunities for
practical work throughout the course. Opportunities are signposted in the right-hand column of the
content section of this specification for further skills development.
Our Combined Science: Trilogy scheme of work will provide ideas and suggestions for good
practical activities that are manageable with large classes.

10.1 Use of apparatus and techniques

All students are expected to have carried out the required practical activities in Required practical
activities (page 175). The following list includes opportunities for choice and use of appropriate
laboratory apparatus for a variety of experimental problem-solving and/or enquiry-based activities.
Safety is an overriding requirement for all practical work. Schools and colleges are responsible for
ensuring that appropriate safety procedures are followed whenever their students undertake
practical work, and should undertake full risk assessments.

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Use and production of appropriate scientific diagrams to set up and record apparatus and
procedures used in practical work is common to all science subjects and should be included
wherever appropriate.

10.1.1 Biology
Apparatus and techniques
AT 1 Use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements accurately,
including length, area, mass, time, temperature, volume of liquids and gases, and pH
(links to A-level AT a).
AT 2 Safe use of appropriate heating devices and techniques including use of a Bunsen
burner and a water bath or electric heater (links to A-level AT a).
AT 3 Use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for the observation and measurement of
biological changes and/or processes.
AT 4 Safe and ethical use of living organisms (plants or animals) to measure physiological
functions and responses to the environment (links to A-level AT h).
AT 5 Measurement of rates of reaction by a variety of methods including production of gas,
uptake of water and colour change of indicator.
AT 6 Application of appropriate sampling techniques to investigate the distribution and
abundance of organisms in an ecosystem via direct use in the field (links to A-level AT
k).
AT 7 Use of appropriate apparatus, techniques and magnification, including microscopes, to
make observations of biological specimens and produce labelled scientific drawings
(links to A-level AT d and e).

10.1.2 Chemistry
Apparatus and techniques
AT 1 Use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements accurately,
including mass, time, temperature, and volume of liquids and gases (links to A-level AT
a).
AT 2 Safe use of appropriate heating devices and techniques including use of a Bunsen
burner and a water bath or electric heater (links to A-level AT b).
AT 3 Use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for conducting and monitoring chemical
reactions, including appropriate reagents and/or techniques for the measurement of pH
in different situations (links to A-level AT a and d).
AT 4 Safe use of a range of equipment to purify and/or separate chemical mixtures including
evaporation, filtration, crystallisation, chromatography and distillation (links to A-level
AT d and g).
AT 5 Making and recording of appropriate observations during chemical reactions including
changes in temperature and the measurement of rates of reaction by a variety of
methods such as production of gas and colour change (links to A-level AT a and l).
AT 6 Safe use and careful handling of gases, liquids and solids, including careful mixing of
reagents under controlled conditions, using appropriate apparatus to explore chemical
changes and/or products (links to A-level AT a and k).

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Apparatus and techniques

AT 7 Use of appropriate apparatus and techniques to draw, set up and use electrochemical
cells for separation and production of elements and compounds (links to A-level AT d
and j).

10.1.3 Physics
Apparatus and techniques
AT 1 Use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements accurately,
including length, area, mass, time, volume and temperature. Use of such
measurements to determine densities of solid and liquid objects (links to A-level AT a
and b).
AT 2 Use of appropriate apparatus to measure and observe the effects of forces including
the extension of springs (links to A-level AT a).
AT 3 Use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for measuring motion, including
determination of speed and rate of change of speed (acceleration/deceleration) (links
to A-level AT a, b and d).
AT 4 Making observations of waves in fluids and solids to identify the suitability of apparatus
to measure speed/frequency/wavelength. Making observations of the effects of the
interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter (links to A-level AT i and j).
AT 5 Safe use of appropriate apparatus in a range of contexts to measure energy changes/
transfers and associated values such as work done (links to A-level AT a, b).
AT 6 Use of appropriate apparatus to measure current, potential difference (voltage) and
resistance, and to explore the characteristics of a variety of circuit elements (links to A-
level AT f).
AT 7 Use of circuit diagrams to construct and check series and parallel circuits including a
variety of common circuit elements (links to A-level AT g).

10.2 Required practical activities

The following practical activities must be carried out by all students taking GCSE Combined
Science: Trilogy.
Following any revision by the Secretary of State of the apparatus or techniques specified, we will
review and revise the required practical activities as appropriate.
Schools and colleges will be informed of any changes in a timely manner and the amended
specification will be published, highlighting the changes accordingly.
Teachers are encouraged to vary their approach to these practical activities. Some are more
suitable for highly structured approaches that develop key techniques while others allow
opportunities for students to develop investigative approaches.
This list is not designed to limit the practical activities carried out by students. A rich practical
experience will include more than the 21 required practical activities. The explicit teaching of
practical skills will build students’ competence. Many teachers will also use practical approaches to
introduce content knowledge in the course of their normal teaching.

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Schools and colleges are required to provide a practical science statement to AQA, that is a true
and accurate written statement, which confirms that it has taken reasonable steps to secure that
each student has:
• completed the required practical activities as detailed in this specification
• made a contemporaneous record of such work undertaken during the activities and the
knowledge, skills and understanding derived from those activities.
We will provide a form for the head of centre to sign. You must submit the form to us by the date
published at aqa.org.uk/science. We will contact schools and colleges directly with the deadline
date and timely reminders if the form is not received. Failure to send this form counts as
malpractice/maladministration, and may result in formal action or warning for the school or college.

10.2.1 Required practical activity 1

Use a light microscope to observe, draw and label a selection of plant and animal cells. A
magnification scale must be included.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Biology AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to record length and area.
Biology AT 7 – use a microscope to make observations of biological specimens and produce
labelled scientific drawings.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
MS 1d, 3a – use estimations to judge the relative size or area of sub-cellular structures.

10.2.2 Required practical activity 2

Investigate the effect of a range of concentrations of salt or sugar solutions on the mass of plant
tissue.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Biology AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to record mass and time.
Biology AT 3 – use appropriate apparatus and techniques to observe and measure the process of
osmosis.
Biology AT 5 – measure the rate of osmosis by water uptake.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – use the theory of osmosis to create hypotheses on plant tissue.
WS 2.2 – plan experiments to test hypotheses.
WS 2.4 – have due regard for accuracy of measurements and health and safety.

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WS 2.6 – make and record observations and measurements of mass.

WS 2.7 – evaluate the method and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
WS 3.1 – present observations and other data in graphical form.
WS 3.2 – translate mass data into graphical form.
MS 1a, 1c – use simple compound measures of rate of water uptake.
MS 1c – use percentiles and calculate percentage gain and loss of mass of plant tissue.
MS 2b – find mean mass of plant tissue.
MS 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d – plot, draw and interpret appropriate graphs.

10.2.3 Required practical activity 3

Use qualitative reagents to test for a range of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. To include:
Benedict’s test for sugars; iodine test for starch; and Biuret reagent for protein.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Biology AT 2 – safe use of a Bunsen burner and a boiling water bath.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, and health and safety considerations.

10.2.4 Required practical activity 4

Investigate the effect of pH on the rate of reaction of amylase enzyme.
Students should use a continuous sampling technique to determine the time taken to completely
digest a starch solution at a range of pH values. Iodine reagent is to be used to test for starch
every 30 seconds. Temperature must be controlled by use of a water bath or electric heater.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Biology AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to record the volumes of liquids, time and pH.
Biology AT 2 – safe use of a water bath or electric heater.
Biology AT 5 – measure the rate of reaction by the colour change of iodine indicator.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – use scientific theories and explanations and hypothesis on how pH affects amylase
activity.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements, and health and safety.

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WS 2.5 – describe the appropriate sampling technique to ensure samples are representative.
WS 2.6 – make and record observations and measurements of time.
WS 3.1 – present a graph of amylase activity against pH.
WS 3.2 – translate numeric data into graphical form.
MS 1a, 1c – carry out rate calculations for chemical reactions.

10.2.5 Required practical activity 5

Investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis using an aquatic organism
such as pondweed.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Biology AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to record the rate of production of oxygen gas produced;
and to measure and control the temperature of water in a large beaker that acts as a 'heat shield'.
Biology AT 2 – use a thermometer to measure and control temperature of water bath.
Biology AT 3 – use appropriate apparatus and techniques to observe and measure the process of
oxygen gas production.
Biology AT 4 – safe and ethical use and disposal of living pondweed to measure physiological
functions and responses to light.
Biology AT 5 – measuring rate of reaction by oxygen gas production.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses on how light intensity
affects the rate of photosynthesis.
WS 2.2 – plan experiments to test hypotheses.
WS 2.5 – recognise that multiple samples will be needed at each light intensity.
WS 2.6 – make and record observations of gas production.
WS 3.1 – present a graph of light intensity against rate of photosynthesis.
WS 3.2 – translate numeric data into graphical form.
MS 1a, 1c – measure and understand the rate of photosynthesis reactions.
MS 4a, 4c – plot and draw appropriate graphs of rate of photosynthesis against light intensity
selecting appropriate scale for axes.
MS 3a, 3d (HT) – understand and use inverse proportion: the inverse square law and light intensity
in the context of photosynthesis.

10.2.6 Required practical activity 6

Plan and carry out an investigation into the effect of a factor on human reaction time.

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Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Biology AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to record time.
Biology AT 3 – selecting appropriate apparatus and techniques to measure the process of reaction
time.
Biology AT 4 – safe and ethical use of humans to measure physiological function of reaction time
and responses to a chosen factor.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
MS 4a – translate information between numerical and graphical forms.

10.2.7 Required practical activity 7

Measure the population size of a common species in a habitat. Use sampling techniques to
investigate the effect of a factor on the distribution of this species.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Biology AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to record length and area.
Biology AT 3 – use transect lines and quadrats to measure distribution of a species.
Biology AT 4 – safe and ethical use of organisms and response to a factor in the environment.
Biology AT 6 – application of appropriate sampling techniques to investigate the distribution and
abundance of organisms in an ecosystem via direct use in the field.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – develop hypotheses regarding distribution of a species as a consequence of a factor.
WS 2.2 – plan experiments to test hypotheses on distribution.
WS 2.3 – apply a range of techniques, including the use of transects and quadrats, and the
measurement of an abiotic factor.
MS 1d, 3a – estimates of population size based on sampling.
MS 2b – calculate arithmetic means.
MS 2d – understand principles of sampling.
MS 2f – understand the terms mean, mode and median as applied to ecological data.
MS 4c – plot and draw appropriate graphs selecting appropriate scales for the axes.

10.2.8 Required practical activity 8

Preparation of a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt from an insoluble oxide or carbonate, using a
Bunsen burner to heat dilute acid and a water bath or electric heater to evaporate the solution.

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Apparatus and techniques
In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Chemistry AT 2 – safe use of appropriate heating devices and techniques including use of a
Bunsen burner and a water bath or electric heater.
Chemistry AT 3 – use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for conducting chemical reactions,
including appropriate reagents.
Chemistry AT 4 – safe use of a range of equipment to purify and/or separate chemical mixtures
including evaporation, filtration, crystallisation.
Chemistry AT 6 – safe use and careful handling of liquids and solids, including careful mixing of
reagents under controlled conditions.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.3 – apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.

10.2.9 Required practical activity 9

Investigate what happens when aqueous solutions are electrolysed using inert electrodes. This
should be an investigation involving developing a hypothesis.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Chemistry AT 3 – use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for conducting and monitoring
chemical reactions.
Chemistry AT 7 –use of appropriate apparatus and techniques to draw, set up and use
electrochemical cells for separation and production of elements and compounds.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.

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10.2.10 Required practical activity 10

Investigate the variables that affect temperature changes in reacting solutions such as, eg acid
plus metals, acid plus carbonates, neutralisations, displacement of metals.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Chemistry AT 1 – use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements
accurately, including mass, temperature, and volume of liquids.
Chemistry AT 3 – use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for conducting and monitoring
chemical reactions.
Chemistry AT 5 – making and recording of appropriate observations during chemical reactions
including changes in temperature.
Chemistry AT 6 – safe use and careful handling of gases, liquids and solids, including careful
mixing of reagents under controlled conditions, using appropriate apparatus to explore chemical
changes.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1– use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
MS 1a – recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
MS 2a – use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2b – find arithmetic means.
MS 4a – translate information between graphical and numeric form.
MS 4c – plot two variables from experimental or other data.

10.2.11 Required practical activity 11

Investigate how changes in concentration affect the rates of reactions by a method involving
measuring the volume of a gas produced and a method involving a change in colour or turbidity.
This should be an investigation involving developing a hypothesis.

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Apparatus and techniques
In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Chemistry AT 1 – use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements
accurately, including mass, temperature, and volume of liquids and gases.
Chemistry AT 3 – use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for conducting and monitoring
chemical reactions.
Chemistry AT 5 – making and recording of appropriate observations during chemical reactions
including the measurement of rates of reaction by a variety of methods such as production of gas
and colour change.
Chemistry AT 6 – safe use and careful handling of gases, liquids and solids, including careful
mixing of reagents under controlled conditions, using appropriate apparatus to explore chemical
changes.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
MS 1a – recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
MS 1c – use ratios, fractions and percentages.
MS 1d – make estimates of the results of simple calculations.
MS 2a – use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2b – find arithmetic means.
MS 4a – translate information between graphical and numeric form.
MS 4b – understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship.
MS 4c – plot two variables from experimental or other data.
MS 4d – determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph.
MS 4e – draw and use the slope of a tangent to a curve as a measure of rate of change.

10.2.12 Required practical activity 12

Investigate how paper chromatography can be used to separate and tell the difference between
coloured substances. Students should calculate Rf values.

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Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Chemistry AT 1– use of appropriate apparatus to make and record a range of measurements
accurately.
Chemistry AT 4 – safe use of a range of equipment to purify and/or separate chemical mixtures
including chromatography.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.

10.2.13 Required practical activity 13

Analysis and purification of water samples from different sources, including pH, dissolved solids
and distillation.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Chemistry AT 2 – safe use of appropriate heating devices and techniques including use of a
Bunsen burner and a water bath or electric heater.
Chemistry AT 3 – use of appropriate apparatus and techniques for the measurement of pH in
different situations.
Chemistry AT 4 – safe use of a range of equipment to purify and/or separate chemical mixtures
including evaporation, distillation.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.3 – apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.5 – recognise when to apply a knowledge of sampling techniques to ensure any samples
collected are representative.
WS 2.6 – make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.

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10.2.14 Required practical activity 14
An investigation to determine the specific heat capacity of one or more materials. The investigation
will involve linking the decrease of one energy store (or work done) to the increase in temperature
and subsequent increase in thermal energy stored.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT 1 - use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements of mass, time and
temperature accurately.
Physics AT 5 – use, in a safe manner, appropriate apparatus to measure energy changes/transfers
and associated values such as work done.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus, and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – Make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
WS 3.1 – Present observations and other data using appropriate methods.
WS 3.2 – Translate data from one form to another.
WS 3.3 – Carry out and represent mathematical and statistical analysis.
WS 3.4 – Represent the distribution of results and make estimations of uncertainty.
WS 3.5 – Interpret observations and other data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic, graphical,
symbolic or numerical form), including identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and
drawing conclusions.
WS 3.6 – Present reasoned explanations including relating data to hypotheses.
WS 3.7 – Be objective, evaluate data in terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability and
reproducibility and identify potential sources of random and systematic error.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.2 – Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 – Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature unless
inappropriate.

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WS 4.6 – Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation.

MS 2a – Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2b – Find arithmetic means.
MS 3b – Change the subject of an equation.
MS 3c – Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for physical
quantities.

10.2.15 Required practical activity 15

Use circuit diagrams to set up and check appropriate circuits to investigate the factors affecting the
resistance of electrical circuits. This should include:
• the length of a wire at constant temperature
• combinations of resistors in series and parallel.
.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to measure and record length accurately.
Physics AT 6 – use appropriate apparatus to measure current, potential difference and resistance.
Physics AT 7 – use circuit diagrams to construct and check series and parallel circuits.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus, and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.5 – Recognise when to apply a knowledge of sampling techniques to ensure any samples
collected are representative.
WS 2.6 – Make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
WS 3.1 – Present observations and other data using appropriate methods.
WS 3.2 – Translate data from one form to another.
WS 3.3 – Carry out and represent mathematical and statistical analysis.
WS 3.4 – Represent the distribution of results and make estimations of uncertainty.

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WS 3.5 – Interpret observations and other data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic, graphical,
symbolic or numerical form), including identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and
drawing conclusions.
WS 3.6 – Present reasoned explanations including relating data to hypotheses.
WS 3.7 – Be objective, evaluate data in terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability and
reproducibility and identify potential sources of random and systematic error.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.2 – Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 – Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature unless
inappropriate.
WS 4.6 – Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation.
MS 2a – Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2b – Find arithmetic means.
MS 4b – understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship.
MS 4c – Plot two variables from experimental or other data.
MS 4d – Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph.

10.2.16 Required practical activity 16

Use circuit diagrams to construct appropriate circuits to investigate the I–V characteristics of
variety of circuit elements including a filament lamp, a diode and a resistor at constant
temperature.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT 6 – use appropriate apparatus to measure current and potential difference and to
explore the characteristics of a variety of circuit elements.
Physics AT 7 – use circuit diagrams to construct and check series and parallel circuits including a
variety of common circuit elements.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus, and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.

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WS 2.5 – Recognise when to apply a knowledge of sampling techniques to ensure any samples
collected are representative.
WS 2.6 – Make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
WS 3.1 – Present observations and other data using appropriate methods.
WS 3.2 – Translate data from one form to another.
WS 3.3 – Carry out and represent mathematical and statistical analysis.
WS 3.4 – Represent the distribution of results and make estimations of uncertainty.
WS 3.5 – Interpret observations and other data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic, graphical,
symbolic or numerical form), including identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and
drawing conclusions.
WS 3.6 – Present reasoned explanations including relating data to hypotheses.
WS 3.7 – Be objective, evaluate data in terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability and
reproducibility and identify potential sources of random and systematic error.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.2 – Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 – Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature unless
inappropriate.
WS 4.6 – Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation.
MS 2a – Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2g – Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables.
MS 4b – understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship.
MS 4c – Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

10.2.17 Required practical activity 17

Use appropriate apparatus to make and record the measurements needed to determine the
densities of regular and irregular solid objects and liquids. Volume should be determined from the
dimensions of regularly shaped objects and by a displacement technique for irregularly shaped
objects. Dimensions to be measured using appropriate apparatus such as a ruler, micrometrer or
Vernier callipers.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements of length, area,
mass and volume accurately. Use such measurements to determine the density of solid objects
and liquids.

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Key opportunities for skills development
In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 1.2 – Use a variety of models such as representational, spatial, descriptive, computational and
mathematical to solve problems, make predictions and to develop scientific explanations and
understanding of familiar and unfamiliar facts.
WS 2.1 – Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus, and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – Make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
WS 3.1 – Present observations and other data using appropriate methods.
WS 3.5 – Interpret observations and other data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic, graphical,
symbolic or numerical form), including identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and
drawing conclusions.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.2 – Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 – Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature unless
inappropriate.
WS 4.6 – Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation.
MS 2a – Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2b – Find arithmetic means.
MS 5c – Calculate areas of triangles and rectangles, surface areas and volumes of cubes.

10.2.18 Required practical activity 18

Investigate the relationship between force and extension for a spring.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT 1 - use appropriate apparatus to make and record length accurately.
Physics AT 2 - use appropriate apparatus to measure and observe the effect of force on the
extension of springs and collect the data required to plot a force-extension graph.

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Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus, and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – Make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 3.1 – Present observations and other data using appropriate methods.
WS 3.2 – Translate data from one form to another.
WS 3.3 – Carry out and represent mathematical and statistical analysis.
WS 3.5 – Interpret observations and other data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic, graphical,
symbolic or numerical form), including identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and
drawing conclusions.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.6 – Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation.
MS 2a – Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2b – Find arithmetic means.
MS 4a – Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
MS 4b – understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship.
MS 4c – Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

10.2.19 Required practical activity 19

Investigate the effect of varying the force on the acceleration of an object of constant mass and the
effect of varying the mass of an object on the acceleration produced by a constant force.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to make and record measurements of length, mass and
time accurately.
Physics AT 2 – use appropriate apparatus to measure and observe the effect of force.
Physics AT 3 – use appropriate apparatus and techniques for measuring motion, including
determination of speed and rate of change of speed (acceleration/deceleration).

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Key opportunities for skills development
In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.1 – Use scientific theories and explanations to develop hypotheses.
WS 2.2 – Plan experiments or devise procedures to make observations, produce or characterise a
substance, test hypotheses, check data or explore phenomena.
WS 2.3 – Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus, and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.4 – Carry out experiments appropriately having due regard for the correct manipulation of
apparatus, the accuracy of measurements and health and safety considerations.
WS 2.6 – Make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 2.7 – Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements and further investigations.
WS 3.1 – Present observations and other data using appropriate methods.
WS 3.2 – Translate data from one form to another.
WS 3.3 – Carry out and represent mathematical and statistical analysis.
WS 3.4 – Represent the distribution of results and make estimations of uncertainty.
WS 3.5 – Interpret observations and other data (presented in verbal, diagrammatic, graphical,
symbolic or numerical form), including identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and
drawing conclusions.
WS 3.6 – Present reasoned explanations including relating data to hypotheses.
WS 3.7 – Be objective, evaluate data in terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability and
reproducibility and identify potential sources of random and systematic error.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.2 – Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 – Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature unless
inappropriate.
WS 4.6 – Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation.
MS 2a – Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
MS 2b – Find arithmetic means.
MS 2g – Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables.
MS 4a – Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
MS 4b – understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship.
MS 4c – Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

10.2.20 Required practical activity 20

Make observations to identify the suitability of apparatus to measure the frequency, wavelength
and speed of waves in a ripple tank and waves in a solid and take appropriate measurements.

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Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT4 – make observations of waves in fluids and solids to identify the suitability of
apparatus to measure speed, frequency and wavelength.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 2.3 – Apply a knowledge of a range of techniques, instruments, apparatus, and materials to
select those appropriate to the experiment.
WS 2.6 – Make and record observations and measurements using a range of apparatus and
methods.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.2 – Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 – Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature unless
inappropriate.

10.2.21 Required practical activity 21

Investigate how the amount of infrared radiation absorbed or radiated by a surface depends on the
nature of that surface.

Apparatus and techniques

In doing this practical students should cover these parts of the Apparatus and Techniques
requirements.
Physics AT 1 – use appropriate apparatus to make and record temperature accurately.
Physics AT 4 – make observations of the effects of the interaction of electromagnetic waves with
matter.

Key opportunities for skills development

In doing this practical there are key opportunities for students to develop the following skills.
WS 3.8 – Communicate the scientific rationale for investigations, methods used, findings and
reasoned conclusions through written and electronic reports and presentations using verbal,
diagrammatic, graphical, numerical and symbolic forms.
WS 4.2 – Recognise the importance of scientific quantities and understand how they are
determined.
WS 4.3 – Use SI units (eg kg, g, mg; km, m, mm; kJ, J) and IUPAC chemical nomenclature unless
inappropriate.
WS 4.6 – Use an appropriate number of significant figures in calculation.
MS 2c – Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.

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11 Appendix A: Periodic table

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12 Appendix B: Physics
equations
In solving quantitative problems, students should be able to recall and apply the following
equations, using standard SI units.
Equations required for Higher Tier papers only are indicated by HT in the left-hand column.

Equation Word equation Symbol equation

number

1 weight = mass × gravitational field strength g W =mg

2 work done = force × distance W =F s

along the line of action of the force

3 force applied to a spring = spring constant × extension F=k e

4 distance travelled = speed × time s=vt

5 acceleration =
change in velocity
a= ∆v
time taken t

6 resultant force = mass × acceleration F=ma

7 HT momentum = mass × velocity p=mv

8 kinetic energy = 0.5 × mass × speed 2

Ek = 1
m v2
2

9 gravitational potential energy = mass Ep = m g h

× gravitational field strength g × height

10 power =
energy transferred
P= E
time t

11 power =
work done
P= W
time t

12 efficiency =
useful output energy transfer
total input energy transfer

13 efficiency =
useful power output
total power input

14 wave speed = frequency × wavelength v= f λ

15 charge flow = current × time Q=I t

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 Equation Word equation Symbol equation
number

16 potential difference = current × resistance V =I R

17 power = potential difference × current P=V I

18 power = current 2
× resistance P = I2 R

19 energy transferred = power × time E=Pt

20 energy transferred = charge flow × potential difference E=QV

21 density =
mass
ρ= m
volume V

Students should be able to select and apply the following equations from the Physics equation
sheet.
Equations required for higher tier papers only are indicated by HT in the left-hand column.

Equation Word equation Symbol equation

number

1 final velocity 2
– initial velocity 2
= 2 × acceleration × distance v2 – u2 = 2 a s

2 elastic potential energy = 0.5 × spring constant × extension 2

Ee = 1
k e2
2

3 change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity ∆E = m c ∆θ

× temperature change

4 period =
1
frequency

5 HT force on a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field F=BI l

carrying a current = magnetic flux density × current × length

6 thermal energy for a change of state = mass E=m L

× specific latent heat

7 HT potential difference across primary coil × current in primary coil V s Is = V p I p

= potential difference across secondary coil
× current in secondary coil

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Get help and support
Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/8464
You can talk directly to the Combined Science: Trilogy subject team:
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 756

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