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Application on Reuse of Wastewater to Enhance Irrigation Purposes

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Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology
All Rights Reserved Euresian Publication © 2015 eISSN 2249 0256
Available Online at: www.environmentaljournal.org
2015 Volume 5, Issue 2: 72-78

Open Access Short Review

Application on Reuse of Wastewater to Enhance Irrigation Purposes

Anupam Khajuria

Department of Mechanical and Environmental Informatics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract:
Water resource management has become a challenge in developing countries as the infrastructural
development has not kept pace with population growth and urbanization. Even though India is endowed
with a network of rivers, the level of water resource availability is still insufficient to meet national demand.
With the issues of water scarcity, the wastewater reuse is one of the important methods to save water
resource. In the present work, we have discussed the critical issues and opportunities of reusing the
wastewater, which helps to overcome the demand of water supply. We have also suggested the
recommendations and policy implementations for safe consumption of wastewater reuse in irrigation and
various purposes. This article shows the importance of wastewater utilization, and the new and innovative
technology and policies which encourage the use of wastewater as a new or reuse resource. The reusing
wastewater address the problem of water scarcity and other environmental problems, which reflect the
need of environment assessment and able to achieve sustainable management of wastewater.

Keywords: Water resources, Wastewater, Reuse, Management, Water scarcity, Irrigation, India

1.0 Introduction: In other words, the wastewater is defined as a

Continuing population growth, rapid combination of domestic effluent consisting of
industrialization, and expanding and intensifying black water (excreta, urine and faecal sludge) and
food production are all putting pressure on water grey water (kitchen and bathing wastewater), water
resource which causes a significant increase of from commercial establishments and institutions,
wastewater (Corcoran et al., 2010). The including hospitals, industrial effluent, storm water
uncontrolled disposal of the municipal, industrial and other urban runoff, agricultural, horticultural
and agricultural waste constitutes one of the most and aquaculture effluent, either dissolved or as
serious threats to the sustainability by suspended matter (Corcoran et al., 2010; Bagher et
contaminating the water, land and air pollution al., 2013). Here, we exclude the industrial chemical
(Bogner et al., 2007). There are many challenges effluent that can be potentially harmful and must
that developing countries facing i.e., lack of be treated separately. The great challenges in
necessary infrastructure such as electricity, roads removing the different types of wastes from water
and water supply, etc. On the list of priorities, are diverse. The intent of a more sustainable
wastewater drainage, sanitation and treatment wastewater management system is to use less
tend to rank higher (Corcoran et al., 2010). energy (or possibly produce energy), allow for the
According to the United Nations World Water elimination or beneficial reuse of bio-solids, and
Development Report (2006), “providing the water restore natural nutrient cycles (Daigger and
needed to feed a growing population and balancing Crawford, 2005). Wastewater is a secondary water
this with all the other demands on water, is one of resource, especially for water shortage countries
the great challenges of this century”. Wastewater (Bogner et al., 2007). However, the water tables
can be defined as the flow of used water and aquifers are declining (Nilsson et al., 2005;
discharged from homes, industries, commercial Khajuria et al., 2013).
activities and institutions.
India is predominantly an agricultural country with
65-70 percent of the population depends on
agriculture (CGWB, 2011). Irrigation is drawn from

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Anupam Khajuria
Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology

rivers or other natural water bodies. By 2025, wastewater (Angelakis and Bontoux, 2001). In
demand for domestic and industrial water usage China, for example, at least 1.33 million hectares of
may increase and water availability for irrigation is agricultural land are irrigated with untreated or
expected to reduce (Singh, 2004). In metro cities, partially treated wastewater from cities. Irrigation
only 24% of wastewater is treated from households has the advantage of “closing-the-loop”
and industries (Mekala et al., 2008). However, an combination of waste disposal and water supply
estimated 80% of wastewater generated by (Glen, 2008). Irrigation reuse of wastewater could
developing countries, especially India and China, is be the application for agricultural crop and
used for irrigation (Winrock International India, landscape areas. The reuse is conventional and
2007). It is an urgent need of effective water economically viable, particular in agricultural
resource management through enhanced water use purposes as shown in Figure 1. For instance, the
efficiency and wastewater reuse with effective use of reuse wastewater for irrigation of tea-tree
treatment. There is a necessary need of an plantations, which produce tea-tree oil as a cash
innovative technology which helps to reduce the crop and eucalyptus forestry is a major resource
energy demand of wastewater and policies to option followed in Australia (Vigneswaran et al.,
reduce the negative impact of wastewater and 2004). The use of wastewater in agriculture is a
encourage the use of wastewater as a new best possible strategy for addressing water scarcity
resource. and nutrient deficiency in agricultural systems in
the face of climate change (Kanyoka and Eshtawi,
In order to tackle the problem of water resource 2012).
management, it is necessary to first develop a
better understanding and discuss the challenges 3.0 Use of Wastewater for Irrigation: Case
and opportunities of converting urban wastewater of India:
into a managed natural new water resource for In many parts of India, wastewater is disposed into
irrigation and other purposes. In addition, we have rivers and the contaminated river water is used for
also discussed adequate policy recommendations irrigation. The growing cities cannot handle the
for managing wastewater effectively, especially in sewage produced and it is disposed into water
case of India. bodies. More than 80 percent of wastewater is
discharged into natural waste resource without any
2.0 Significance of Wastewater Reuse: treatment because of lack of infrastructure and
Wastewater reuse is not a new concept, although resources for treatment (Corcoran et al., 2010). The
recently, it is receiving a great importance because huge amount of wastewater is produced, whereas
of the global water crisis. The wastewater reuse only one-third amount is collected and less than
may be evaluated through the comparison of that amount of wastewater is treated with the
wastewater reuse potential with total water use. reference of the database of aquastat of year 1998-
Generally, wastewater reuse is small compared 2002 and 2002-2012 as shown in Figure 2. The
with total water, but it is expected to increase untreated urban wastewater is used downstream
significantly (Corcoran et al., 2010). Wastewater for uncontrolled and unrestricted irrigation. The
reuse can be used for many purposes, including increasing scarcity of alternative waters for
agricultural irrigation, industrial processes, irrigation, high cost of artificial fertilizers and
firefighting, aquaculture, domestic use, wetland advanced treatment plants, sociocultural
creation and aquifer recharge (Bogner et al., 2007). acceptance of the practice and the demonstration
In many parts of the world, such as in the United that health risks and soil damage is minimal if
States, Australia and Japan, treated wastewater has necessary precautions are taken (Blumenthal,
been successfully used for various purposes (Crook 2000).
and Surampalli, 2005; Hamilton et al., 2005). In
Japan, wastewater reuse is mainly directed toward The wastewater reuse can make a significant
non-potable urban applications such as toilet difference in peri-urban agriculture, which has
flushing, urban environmental water and industrial evolved to become very important for urban food
reuse (Lu and Leung, 2003). supply. The potential irrigated land from available
municipal waste is estimated 1.1 million hectares
The potential of wastewater reuse depends on the (Amerasinghe et al., 2013). However, there is no
hydraulic and biochemical characteristics of comprehensive estimates of total agricultural area
wastewater, which determine the methods and are using wastewater irrigation. The wastewater
degree of treatment required. While irrigation irrigation in peri-urban farms can be direct or
generally requires a lower quality of treatment of indirect: direct when sewage is used for a sewage

73
Anupam Khajuria
Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology

channel close to/adjacent to the field and indirect however, a continuous quality monitoring of
when sewage flows into a water body and water is treated water would be required (Starkl et al.,
taken from this polluted water bodies. A variety of 2015).
crops are grown through wastewater such as rice,
wheat, fruits, flowers and fodder/grasses, and the
unique case of the East Kolkata wetlands, fish
farming in wetlands. Thousands of livelihoods are
supported by such agriculture (IWMED, 2004),

Figure 1: Positive impact of reuse of wastewater, particular in agricultural purposes

The wastewater has increased over the years as 3.1 Wastewater Irrigation Risk on Agricultural
demand has grown and the water is used from Land:
different sources such as wastewater generation, Wastewater is a reliable water supply for crop
however, the treatment capacities are vary production (cereals and vegetables) in areas where
between cities, and the current treatment freshwater is scarce. However, the wastewater
capacities have been increasing significantly like irrigation poses several threats to agricultural land.
Hyderabad and Ahmedabad cities (Amerasinghe et The effluent discharge is high metals which can
al., 2013). Gujarat is one state which has shown retard the crop growth. Nitrogen is used through
how sewage management can benefit agriculture fertilizers, which is beneficial for the crop under the
called “Smart option”. It reduced the use of limited amount. The wastewater is higher in salts,
groundwater in agriculture, ensured the can affect plants either through causing osmotic
management of sewage, improved yield and earned stress or via direct toxicity. The leaching of soils
financial support. In the Gandhinagar city of below the root zone may cause soil and
Gujarat, wastewater is carried in a 22-km long groundwater pollution. Wastewater irrigation may
underground pipeline from which farmers extract lead to transport of heavy metals to fertile soils,
water and the irrigation department of the state affecting soil flora and fauna and may result in crop
tracks the use and charges farmers for it. However, productivity. High nutrient content usually found in
the sewage supplied to farmers is not treated wastewater helps to reduce input costs and it
properly (Down To Earth, 2015). In another point of provides an ideal medium, e.g., for aquaculture, can
view, the wastewater irrigation is an issue of replenish groundwater reserves and in this way the
concern for public agencies responsible for economic value of municipal wastewater could be
maintaining environmental quality and public gradually recognized (Schmoll et al., 2006; Khajuria
health (Qadir et al., 2010). Taking the step to et al., 2014).
improve the use of wastewater, a start-up policy
document from the government have started which
emphasizing the water conservation and reuse and
recycle the wastewater for utilizing the various
purposes.

74
Anupam Khajuria
Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology

Figure 2: Percentage of municipal wastewater (Production-Collected-

Treated) in India
Source: Data from Aquastat (1998-2012)
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html

Figure 3: Applications on reuse of wastewater

To
The wastewater irrigation may have long-term Earth, 2015). The proper perspective of reusing
economic impacts on the soil, which in turn may wastewater for economic planning should be
affect market prices and land values of saline and viewing the reuse as a part of the best solution of
waterlogged soils (Hussain et al., 2002). The actual efficient water resource management.
impact of groundwater involved the depth of water
table and quality of groundwater. According to an
3.2 Wastewater Irrigation Risk on Human Health:
IGES report in 2000, 20 million hectares of land in
Wastewater irrigation poses a number of risks to
50 countries was being irrigated with raw or
human health, could be direct or indirect,
partially treated wastewater. This is almost 10
manifesting as short/long term illness. The more
percent of the total irrigated land in the world.
specific risk is pathogenic microorganism including
Countries such as Vietnam, Kuwait, Israel, Tunisia,
bacteria, viruses and worms. The prevalence of
Jordan, Morocco and China extensively use
diarrheal diseases and hookworm infection was very
wastewater for irrigation. Vietnam produces 80
high in farmers working in wastewater irrigated
percent of its vegetables using wastewater (Down
fields, while in children of these farmers the

75
Anupam Khajuria
Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology

prevalence of these diseases was also high. Besides To implement the reuse wastewater program, the
farmers and their families, there is an indication effluent should be treated to a quality acceptable to
that crop consumers might have a higher chance to the end user and agriculture purposes. The cost-
acquire an infection with hookworm (Feenstra et al., benefit relationship in the reuse of wastewater
2000). The high concentration of nitrate causes shows that the public and private investment could
methemoglobinemia, commonly known as ‘Blue be both economically and socially beneficial.
Baby syndrome’ (Amerasinghe et al., 2013).

5.0 Recommendations
4.0 Policies and Economic Opportunities to
1) Adopt multi-sectoral approach to wastewater
Reduce Risk of Wastewater Irrigation: management- The multi-sectoral approach could be
An estimated 80 percent of the sewage generated in beneficial for as a closed loop of nutrients and
the developing countries is discharged untreated enhance the potential of wastewater for reuse in
into the environment, and half of the population is irrigation, or to generate biogas, turning the
exposed to polluted water sources (UNESCO, 2003). nutrients into resources.
Policies are needed to reduce the risks and to 2) Merge the public and private sector at the local
optimize the wastewater management. Policies to and national level- The framework of policies could
reduce the negative effect of wastewater use while involve the local authorities and communities to
supporting the other benefits. The primary task for fulfil the need and capacity of the local
farmers is to boost their productivity with the rich communities.
nutrient use of wastewater and increase their net 3) Forward thinking and innovative planning- The
returns in agriculture. Introduce new and innovative forward thinking and innovative planning of local
policies influence the cost of managing the communities could contribute to the challenges of
wastewater. Effluent standards and taxes can be water scarcity to enable the adoption and increase
used to improve the wastewater management from the opportunities of solutions of wastewater
small scale firms and companies. Policies and problems.
institutional framework could be helpful to raise the 4) Treatment solutions must be economically and
funds for encouraging the water saving and reuse of environmentally- Wastewater treatment technology
wastewater. Maintain and investment in the should be low-cost, with an important approach of
wastewater treatment plants and programs to planning and development to incremental of long
optimize the use of wastewater for various term success. With the emerging of new
purposes. technologies, the scarcity of water and changing
perceptions of wastewater may emerge as a
Pursuit of prudent strategies for water management valuable and beneficial resource.
will be more active if we recognize the resource 5) Develop and implement of wastewater
potential of wastewater, which is a powerful treatment plants- The wastewater treatment
opportunity for sustainable economic development system helps to remove organic, inorganic and
and growth (Corcoran et al., 2010). Wastewater biological pollution without reducing the content of
treatment is a desirable process for mitigating the organic matter in the water. These plants must be
hazards of agricultural, industrial, and municipal by- inexpensive, eco-friendly techniques and follows the
products. The economic valuation indicators will be cost-benefit approach between the use of
used to identify the value of direct and indirect use wastewater and consumer.
of wastewater, which is directly related to cost and 6) Socio-economic benefit- To develop and
benefit in the agricultural purposes. The cost- introduce new policies which protect the
benefit analysis follows the direct /indirect aspects- environment and human health have to adapt an
wastewater effluent, agricultural practice, crop wastewater treatment and management approach,
productivity, policies and institutions and socio- facilitate the government and public participation.
economic conditions, which helps to optimize the
direct and direct cost of wastewater reuse in
6.0 Conclusion:
agriculture.
In conclusion, we have found that the growing
population has dramatically increased the urban
However, investors are wary to finance water
wastewater in developing countries, such as in
infrastructure projects demanding high upfront
India. With the issues of climate change, increases in
costs and long development periods (Hsueh-min
urban population and increases water demand, the
Patrick Hung, 2015). The cost of wastewater
reuse of wastewater has emerged as an important
treatment plant can be divided into investment and
and alternative option to continuously depleting
operational maintenance cost with the public funds.
freshwater supplies as shown in Figure 3. With the
76
Anupam Khajuria
Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology

emerging technologies, the scarcity of fresh water Loughborogh, WELL

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