MATH 223: Calculus II

Dr. Joseph K. Ansong

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Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Review of Calculus I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Maximum & Minimum Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 The Mean Value Theorem and its Applications 9

2.1 The Mean Value Theorem (MVT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Consequences of the MVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Functions with Zero Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Functions with Equal Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Applications of the MVT: Using the MVT to Establish an
Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Inverse Functions 25
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Reflective Property of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Existence of an Inverse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.1 Finding Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4 Continuity and Differentiability of Inverse Functions . . . . . . 31

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Review of Calculus I

1.1.1 Maximum & Minimum Values
Definition 1. A function f has an absolute maximum (or global maximum)
at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in the domain D of f . Similarly, f has an absolute
minimum (global minimum) at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in D. The maximum
and minimum vlaues of f are called the extreme values of f .

Figure 1.1 illustrates these concepts.

Figure 1.1: Schematic plot showing the absolute maximum and minimum
positions.

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Definition 2. A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at

c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in some open interval containing c. Similarly, f has
a local minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x near c.

Figure 1.2: Schematic plot showing intervals of increase and decrease.

Example 1. See Figure 1.2. On the interval (a, c1 ), f (d1 ) is a local minimum
value; similarly f (c2 ) is a local minimum in the interval (d2 , d3 ). On (c1 , c2 ),
f (d2 ) is a local maximum.
Theorem 1 (The Extreme Value Theorem). If f is continuous on a
closed interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute maximum value f (c) for some
number c in [a, b] and an absolute minimum value f (d) for some number d
in [a, b].
NOTE: An extreme value can be taken on more than once, as illustrated
in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: A schematic showing extreme values.

Theorem 2 (Fermat’s Theorem). If f has a local maximum or minimum

at c, and if f 0 (c) exists, then f 0 (c) = 0.

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NOTE: When f 0 (c) = 0, f does not necessarily have a maximum or

minimum at c. For example, the function f (x) = x3 has f 0 (x) = 3x2 . Thus
f 0 (0) = 0, but f has no maximum or minimum value (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Graph of y = x3 .

Definition 3 (Critical Number). A critical number of a function f is

a number c in the domain of f such that either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not
exist.
Theorem 3 (Rolle’s Theorem). Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differ-
entiable on (a, b). If f (a) = f (b), then there exist at least one number c in
(a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
An illustration is given in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Schematic illustrations of Rolle’s Theorem.

Proof. Figure 1.6 gives an illustration of the two cases involved in the proof
of the theorem.

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Figure 1.6: Schematic illustrations of Rolle’s Theorem.

Let f (a) = f (b) = d.

CASE 1:
f (x) = d for x in [a, b]. This implies that f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in [a, b]. Thus
f 0 (x) = 0 for some c in (a, b).
CASE 2:
f (x) 6= d for at least one x in [a, b]. So there must be a number x in (a, b)
where f (x) > d or f (x) < d. Supoose first that f (x) > d. Since f is
continuous on [a, b], then by the Extreme Value Theorem, f has an absolute
maximum value at some number c in [a, b]. The number c cannot be an end
point since f (a) = f (b) = d and we have assumed that f (x) > d for some x
in (a, b). Thus, c must lie in (a, b). Since f is differentiable on (a, b), f 0 (x)
exists and so by Fermat’s Theorem f 0 (c) = 0. The case f (x) < d can be
proved in a similar manner.
Example 2. Verify that the function satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s The-
orem (RT) on the given interval, and find all values of c that satisfy the
conclusion of the theorem
(1) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3; [1, 3]
(2) f (x) = x3 − x; [−1, 1]
(3) f (x) = x3 − 9x; [−3, 3]
Solution. (1) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3; [1, 3].
f (1) = 1 − 4 + 3 = 0
f (3) = 9 − 12 + 3 = 0
The polynomial f (x) is continuous and differentiable on [1, 3]. There-
fore the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem are satisfied.
f 0 (x) = 2x − 4

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f 0 (c) = 0 =⇒ 2c − 4 = 0
=⇒ c = 2.
Sketch:

f (x) = x2 − x − 3x + 3 = x(x − 1) − 3(x − 1)

= (x − 1)(x − 3)
So the zeros are x = 1 and x = 3. See Figure 1.7a.

(2) f (x) = x3 − x; [−1, 1]

f (x) is a polynomial so it’s continuous and differentiable on [−1, 1].

f (−1) = −1 + 1 = 0
f (1) = 1 − 1 = 0
=⇒ f (−1) = f (1)

Thus, Rolle’s Theorem is satisfied.

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 1
f 0 (c) = 0 =⇒ 3c2 − 1 = 0
1
=⇒ c2 =
√3
1 3
=⇒ c = ± √ = ± . (1.1)
3 3

A graph of f (x) = x(x2 − 1) = x(x − 1)(x + 1) is shown in Figure 1.7b.

Example 3 (Real life example). During a test dive of a prototype of a

submarine, the depth in meters of the submarine at time t in minutes is given
by
h(t) = t3 (t − 7)4
where 0 ≤ t ≤ 7.

(a) Use Rolle’s Theorem to show that there is some instant of time t = c
between 0 and 7 when h0 (c) = 0.

(b) Find the number c and interpret your results.

Solution.
h(t) = t3 (t − 7)4 ; 0 ≤ t ≤ 7.

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Figure 1.7: Plot of (a) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 and (b) f (x) = x3 − x.

(a) The polynomial function h(t) is continuous and differentiable on R or

(−∞, ∞).
h(0) = 0; h(7) = 0
=⇒ h(0) = h(7).
So the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem is satisfied.

(b)

h0 (t) = 3t2 (t − 7)4 + 4(t − 7)3 t3

= t2 (t − 7)3 [3(t − 7) + 4t]
= t2 (t − 7)3 (7t − 21)
= 7t2 (t − 7)3 (t − 3)

We find a number c in [0, 7] such that h0 (t) = 0.

h0 (c) = 0 =⇒ 7t2 (t − 7)3 (t − 3) = 0

=⇒ t = 0, 3, 7.
The number c = 3 is in (0, 7).
The submarine is on the surface at t = 0 and returns after 7 minutes,
h(7) = 0. The submarine reaches a maximum depth of h(3) = 6912 at
t = 3 minutes. See Figure 1.8.

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Figure 1.8: (a) Schematic of submarine dive (b) Plot of the submarine func-
tion h(t) = t3 (t − 7)4 .

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Chapter 2

The Mean Value Theorem and

its Applications

2.1 The Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

Theorem 4. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then
there exists at least one number c in (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = ;
b−a

or f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a).

Interpretation:
Case (a): From Figure 2.1, the slope of the secant line is

f (b) − f (a)
S=
b−a
and the slope of the tangent line, T , to the function f at c is f 0 (c). MVT
tells us that there is at least one point (c, f (c)) in the interval (a, b) such that
T is parallel to S.
Case (b): Note that if f (a) = f (b) then we recover Rolle’s Theorem.

Proof. The equation of a line with slope m and passing through (x1 , y1 ) is
given by
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
Now
f (b) − f (a)
m=S= .
b−a

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Figure 2.1: Schematic illustration of the Mean Value Theorem.

Since (b, f (b)) is on S, the equation of the secant becomes

f (b) − f (a)
y − f (b) = (x − b)
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
=⇒ y = f (b) + (x − b)
b−a
Let D(x) be the function for the distance between f (x) and y such that
 
f (b) − f (a)
D(x) = f (x) − f (b) + (x − b)
b−a

Note that D(a) = 0 = D(b). Also, D(x) is continuous on [a, b] and differen-
tiable on (a, b), therefore we can apply Rolle’s Theorem that there is a c in
(a, b) such that D0 (c) = 0. Now,

f (b) − f (a)
D0 (x) = f 0 (x) −
b−a
So, D0 (x) = 0 implies that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) − =0
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a

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Example 4. Show that the function satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean
Value Theorem on the given interval, and find all values of c that satisfy the
conclusion of the theorem.

(a) f (x) = x2 + 1; [0, 2]

(b) f (x) = x3 ; [−1, 1]

Solution. (a) f (x) = x2 + 1; [0, 2]

f (x) is a polynomial and so it is continuous on [0, 2] and differentiable on
(0, 2). So the hypotheses of the MVT are satisfied.

f (b) − f (a)
c ∈ [0, 2] : f 0 (c) =
b−a
f (2) − f (0)
=⇒ f 0 (x) = 2x =
2−0
5−1
=⇒ 2x = =2
2
=⇒ x = 1
∴ c = 1 ∈ [0, 2].
See illustration of this in Figure 2.2a.
(b) f (x) = x3 ; [−1, 1]
f (x) is a polynomial so MVT is satisfied.

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
f (1) − f (−1)
=⇒ f 0 (x) = 3x2 =
1 − (−1)
1 − (−1)
=⇒ 3x2 = =1
2
1
=⇒ x2 =
3
1
=⇒ x = ± √ .
3
This is illustrated in Figure 2.2b.

Exercise. Use the graph of f to estimate the values of c that satisfy the
conclusion of the MVT for the given interval shown in Figure 2.3.

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Figure 2.2: Plot of (a) f (x) = x2 + 1 and (b) f (x) = x3

Figure 2.3:

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Example 5 (Real Life Example). The position of a maglev (magnetic

levitation) moving along a straight, elevated monorail track is given by

S = f (t) = 4t2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 30,

where S is measured in meters and t in seconds.

(a) Find the average velocity of the maglev during the first 4 seconds of
the run.

(b) Find the number c in (0, 4) that satisfy the conclusion of the MVT.

(c) Interpret your results.

Solution. S = f (t) = 4t2 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 30

f (b) − f (a)
(a) Average velocity = .
b−a
First 4 seconds implies the interval [0, 4], such that a = 0 and b = 4.
Thus
f (4) − f (0)
Average velocity =
4−0
64 − 0
=⇒ = 16 m/s
4
(b) Find c in (0, 4) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
Now, f 0 (t) = 8t. Thus 8c = 16 =⇒ c = 2.

(c) Since f 0 (t) measures the instantaneous velocity of the maglev at any
time t, the MVT tells us that at t = 2 s (between t = 0 and t = 4),
the maglev must attain an intantaneous velocity equal to the average
velocity over [0, 4].

Example 6. Let
n x2 , if x < 1
f (x) = (2.1)
2 − x, if x ≥ 1

Considering Figure 2.4(a), does f satisfy the hypotheses of the MVT on

[0, 2]? Explain.

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Figure 2.4: Plot of (a) a function, and (b) it’s derivative.

Solution.
n 2x, x<1
0
f (x) = (2.2)
−1, x≥1

Figure 2.4(b) shows the graph of f 0 (x). We note f does not satisfy the
hypothesis of the MVT since f 0 (x) does not exist at x = 1 which lies in [0, 2].
Example 7. Suppose that f (0) = −3 and f 0 (x) ≤ 5 for all values of x. The
inequality gives a restriction on the rate of growth of f , which then imposes
a restriction on the possible values of f . Use the MVT to determine how
large f (4) can possibly be.
Solution. Since we are given f 0 (x) ≤ 5, the function is differentiable and
therefore continuous on [0, 4].
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
f (4) − f (0)
=⇒ f 0 (c) =
4−0
f (4) + 3
=⇒ f 0 (c) =
4
Since f 0 (x) ≤ 5, we have
f (4) + 3
≤5
4
=⇒ f (4) ≤ 17.
So the answer is 17.

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Example 8. At 2 : 00 P.M. a car’s speedometer reads 30 mi/h. At 2 : 10 P.M.

it reads 50 mi/h. Show that at some time between 2 : 00 and 2 : 10 the
acceleration is exactly 120 mi/h.
Solution. At 2 : 00 P.M. let t = 0 and speed be 30 mi/h. This implies that
at 2 : 10 P.M., t = 10 min, and speed is 50 mi/h.
By assumption, the car’s speed, say f (t), is continuous and differentiable
everywhere. Note that acceleration is the derivative of speed. Using the
MVT
f (b) − f (a) f (10) − f (0) 50 − 30 mi/h
f 0 (t) = = =
b−a 10 − 0 10 min
20
= = 120 mi/h2 .
10/60

2.2 Consequences of the MVT

In this section, we examine some consequences of the Mean Value Theorem.
We will especially consider
• Functions with zero derivatives,

• Functions with equal derivatives, and

• Increasing and decreasing functions.

2.2.1 Functions with Zero Derivatives

Theorem 5 (Zero Derivatives). If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b),
then f is constant on (a, b).
Proof. We show that for any pair of numbers in (a, b), f has the same value.
Let x1 and x2 be arbitrary numbers in (a, b) such that x1 < x2 . Since f (x) is
differentiable in (a, b), it is differentiable in (x1 , x2 ) and continuous in [x1 , x2 ].
Thus f satisfies the hypotheses of MVT on [x1 , x2 ]. This implies that there
is a c in (x1 , x2 ) such that

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f 0 (c) =
x2 − x1
=⇒ f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f 0 (c)(x2 − x1 )
But f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b).

=⇒ f 0 (c) = 0

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=⇒ f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = 0
=⇒ f (x2 ) = f (x1 ).

2.2.2 Functions with Equal Derivatives

Theorem 6 (Equal Derivatives). If f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for all x in an interval
(a, b), then f and g differ by a constant on (a, b); that is, there exist a constant
c such that
f (x) = g(x) + c
for all x in (a, b).

Proof. Let h(x) = f (x) − g(x). This implies that

h0 (x) = f 0 (x) − g 0 (x) = 0

for every x in (a, b). By Theorem 5, h(x) is constant. Thus

f (x) − g(x) = c

=⇒ f (x) = g(x) + c.

2.2.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Definition 4. A function f is called increasing on an interval I if f (x1 ) <
f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.
It is called decreasing on I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 on I.

Figure 2.5 gives an illustration of increasing and decreasing functions.

Question: How can we use the derivative of a function to determine if it’s
increasing or decreasing? The following theorem provides the answer.

Theorem 7 (Increasing/Decreasing Test or I/D Test). (a) If f 0 (x) >

0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.

(b) If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval

The theorem is illustrated in Figure 2.6.

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Figure 2.5: (a) Increasing function (b) Decreasing function.

Figure 2.6: Positive and negative slopes of a function.

Proof. (a) Let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in the interval with x1 < x2 .
Given that f 0 (x) > 0, we know f is differentiable in [x1 , x2 ]. So by the
MVT there is a number c between x1 and x2 such that

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f 0 (c) =
x2 − x1

=⇒ f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f 0 (c)(x2 − x1 )

Now f 0 (c) > 0 since f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in the interval. Also x2 −x1 > 0,

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therefore
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0
=⇒ f (x2 ) > f (x1 )
Therefore f is increasing.

(b) Try proving this.

Finding Intervals of Increase and Decrease

Knowing the intervals where a function is increasing or decreasing helps in
sketching a graph of the function. The procedure is outlined below:

1) Find all values x for which f 0 (x) = 0 or f 0 (x) does not exist (the critical
values). Use the critical values to partition the domain of f into open
intervals.

2) In each interval, select a test value c and determine the sign of f 0 (c).

(a) If f 0 (c) > 0, then f is increasing on that interval.

(b) If f 0 (c) < 0, then f is decreasing on that interval.
(c) If f 0 (c) = 0, then f is constant on that interval. That is, it has
no local maximum or minimum at c.

Example 9. Find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing:

(1) f (x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 1.

x2
(2) f (x) = .
x−1
(3) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2.

Solution. (1) f (x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 1

f 0 (x) = −3x2 + 6x = −3x(x − 2)

This implies f 0 (x) is continuous everywhere and has zeros at x = 0

and x = 2. Using the zeros, we now partition the domain (−∞, ∞)
into open intervals as shown in Table 2.1. Figure 2.7 illustrates the
increasing and decreasing parts of the function.

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Interval −3x x − 2 f 0 (x) Description

(−∞, 0) + − − decreasing
(0, 2) − − + increasing
(2, ∞) − + − decreasing

Table 2.1: The intervals of increase and decrease for f (x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 1.

Figure 2.7: Increasing (+) and decreasing (−) parts of the function.

x2
(2) f (x) = .
x−1
(x − 1)(2x) − x2 · 1
f 0 (x) =
(x − 1)2
2x2 − 2x − x2
=
(x − 1)2
x2 − 2x x(x − 2)
=⇒ f 0 (x) = =
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
We note that f 0 (x) does not exist at x = 1. Now,

f 0 (x) = 0 =⇒ x = 0, 2.

So the critical values are 0, 1 and 2. Table 2.2 shows the intervals of
x2
increase and decrease. Figure 2.8a shows the graph of f (x) = ,
x−1

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Interval x x − 2 f 0 (x) Description

(−∞, 0) − − + increasing
(0, 1) + − − decreasing
(1, 2) + − − decreasing
(2, ∞) + + + increasing

x2
Table 2.2: The intervals of increase and decrease forf (x) = .
x−1

confirming the intervals where the function is increasing and decreasing.

x2
Figure 2.8: Plots of (a) f (x) = x−1
and (b) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2.

(3) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2. Try solving this before looking at the solution.

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x

f 0 (x) = 3x(x − 2)
f 0 (x) = 0 =⇒ x = 0, 2
The intervals of increase and decrease are displayed in Table 2.3 The
graph of f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2 is displayed in Figure 2.8b, showing the
intervals where the function is increasing and decreasing.

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Interval 3x x − 2 f 0 (x) Description

(−∞, 0) − − + increasing
(0, 2) + − − decreasing
(2, ∞) + + + increasing

Table 2.3: The intervals of increase and decrease for f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2.

2.3 Applications of the MVT: Using the MVT

to Establish an Inequality
Example 10. Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove the following inequal-
ities

(a) cos x ≥ 1 − x for x ≥ 0

π
(b) tan x > x for 0 < x <
2
Solution. (a) cos x ≥ 1 − x for x ≥ 0. Let f (x) = cos x for [0, x]. f is
continuous and differentiable on the given interval, so by MVT

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
where a = 0 and b = x.
f (x) − f (0)
=⇒ = − sin c
x−0
cos x − 1
=⇒ = − sin c
x
But sin c ≤ 1 =⇒ − sin c ≥ −1
cos x − 1
=⇒ ≥ −1
x
=⇒ cos x − 1 ≥ −x
∴ cos x ≥ 1 − x
π
(b) tan x > x for 0 < x < . Let f (x) = tan x on [0, x] where 0 < x < π2 .
2
By the MVT
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a

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where a = 0 and b = x.
f (x) − f (0) tan x
=⇒ f 0 (c) = =
x−0 x
tan x
=⇒ sec2 c = , x>0
x
Note that
1
sec x = .
cos x
1
Thus, cos x < 1 =⇒ >1
cos x
=⇒ sec x > 1 =⇒ sec2 c > 1
tan x
=⇒ >1
x
π
∴ tan x > x, for 0 < x < .
2
Example 11. Suppose that 1 ≤ f 0 (x) ≤ 4 for all x in [2, 5]. Show that

3 ≤ f (5) − f (2) ≤ 12

Solution. 1 ≤ f 0 (x) ≤ 4 for all x in [2, 5]. Since f 0 (x) is finite, f is differen-
tiable and continuous on the given interval. By the MVT

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = , [2, 5]
b−a

f (5) − f (2) f (5) − f (2)

f 0 (c) = =
5−2 3
But 1 ≤ f 0 (c) ≤ 4. Thus

f (5) − f (2)
1≤ ≤4
3
∴ 3 ≤ f (5) − f (2) ≤ 12

Example 12. (a) Show that ex ≥ 1 + x for x ≥ 0.

(b) Deduce that

1
ex ≥ 1 + x + x2 for x ≥ 0
2

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(c) Use mathematical induction to prove that for x ≥ 0 and any positive
integer n,
x2 xn
ex ≥ 1 + x + + ··· +
2! n!
Solution. (a) Let f (x) = ex − (1 + x) and show that f (x) ≥ 0. Now
f (0) = e0 − (1 + 0) = 1 − 1 = 0, and f 0 (x) = ex − 1. Note that if x > 0,
ex > 1 =⇒ f 0 (x) > 0. Since f 0 (x) > 0 for x > 0, it implies that f (x) is
increasing for x > 0.

=⇒ f (x) > f (0) for x > 0

=⇒ f (x) > 0
=⇒ ex − (1 + x) > 0
=⇒ ex > 1 + x.
Thus,
ex ≥ 1 + x.

(b)
1
ex ≥ 1 + x + x2 for x ≥ 0
2
 
1
Let g(x) = ex − 1 + x + x2 , and show that g(x) ≥ 0.
2
For x = 0 :

g(0) = e0 − (1 + 0 + 0) = 0 =⇒ g(x) = 0
1
=⇒ ex = 1 + x + x2 when x = 0
2
For x > 0 :

g 0 (x) = ex − (0 + 1 + x)
=⇒ g 0 (x) = ex − (1 + x) = f (x)
from solution to (a). Since f (x) > 0 for x > 0, g 0 (x) > 0 for x > 0.
This implies that g(x) is increasing, and so

g(x) > g(0) for x > 0

 
x 1 2
=⇒ e − 1 + x + x > 0
2

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

1
=⇒ ex > 1 + x + x2
2
Thus,
1
ex ≥ 1 + x + x2 for x ≥ 0
2
(c) Let Sn be a statement about the positive integer n. Let

x2 xn
 
x
Sn (x) = e − 1 + x + + ··· +
2! n!

S1 (x) is true from the solution to problem (a).

S2 (x) is true from the solution to problem (b).
Assume Sk (x) is true. Then

x2 xk
 
x
Sk (x) = e − 1 + x + + ··· + ≥0
2! k!

By mathematical induction, we need to show that Sk+1 (x) is true. Now

x2 xk+1
 
x
Sk+1 (x) = e − 1 + x + + ··· +
2! (k + 1)!

Sk+1 (0) = 0 for x = 0

x2 xk
 
0 x
Sk+1 (x) = e − 1 + x + + ··· + = Sk (x) ≥ 0
2! k!
Thus, Sk+1 (x) is increasing, and so

Sk+1 (x) > Sk+1 (0) = 0

=⇒ Sk+1 (x) > 0

Hence,
Sk+1 (x) ≥ 0.
Thus, Sk+1 (x) is true. Therefore, by mathematical induction, Sn (x) is
true. That is
x2 xn
 
x
Sn = e − 1 + x + + ··· + ≥ 0.
2! n!

24 J.K.A
Chapter 3

Inverse Functions

In this chapter, we examine inverse functions and some of their properties.

We will investigate the reflective property of an inverse function, examine
the existence of an inverse function, and find the derivative of an inverse
function.

3.1 Introduction
Consider the arrow diagrams in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Arrow diagrams. (a) one-to-one function (b) A function, but not
one-to-one (c) Not a function.

(1) f : A → B is a function, and it never takes on the same value twice.

That is, if x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ). It is a one-to-one function
(defined below).

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

(2) g : A → B is a function. However, note that

g(2) = g(4) = c

Thus, g takes on the same value twice. So g is not a one-to-one function.

(3) h : A → B is not a function since h(2) takes on both a and c.

Definition 5. A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes
on the same value twice; that is

f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2

or if
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 .

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph
more than once. Figure 3.2 illustrates the use of the horizontal line test.

Figure 3.2: The horizontal line test shows that (a) y = x3 is a one-to-one
function (b) y = x2 is not a one-to-one function.

Definition 6. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.

Then its inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A and is defined
by
f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

for any y in B. Equivalently, we may reverse x and y such that

f −1 (x) = y ⇐⇒ f (y) = x

This illustrated in Figure 3.3

Figure 3.3: Arrow diagram of a function and its inverse.

Remark. Domain of f −1 = range of f , and

Range of f −1 = domain of f .
1
Remark. Warning! f −1 (x) 6= . For reciprocals we write
f (x)
1
= [f (x)]−1
f (x)
Example 13. If f (2) = 7 and f (−10) = −17, find f −1 (7) and f −1 (−17).
Solution.
f −1 (7) = 2, f −1 (−17) = −10

Cancellation Equations
Let g(x) be the inverse of f . That is, g(x) = f −1 (x). Then

g [f (x)] = f −1 [f (x)] = x for all x ∈ A

f [g(x)] = f f −1 (x) = x for all x ∈ B

 

Example 14. Show that f (x) = x1/3 and g(x) = x3 are inverses of each
other.

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

Solution.
1/3
f [g(x)] = f (x3 ) = x3 =x

3
g [f (x)] = g(x1/3 ) = x1/3 =x
This implies that f and g are inverses of each other. That is
f −1 (x) = g(x) and g −1 (x) = f (x).
The graphs of f (x) and g(x) are displayed in Figure 3.4. Note that the graph
of x3 is a reflection of the graph of x1/3 about the line y = x.

Figure 3.4: Plots of y = x3 and y = x1/3 .

3.2 Reflective Property of Inverse Functions

If (a, b) is on the graph of f (x), then b = f (a), and we have
f −1 (b) = f −1 [f (a)] = a
As shown in Figure 3.5, the graph of f −1 is the reflection of the graph of f
about the line y = x and vice versa.
Example 15. Examples of the reflective property of inverse functions are
illustrated in Figure 3.6.

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

Figure 3.5: Schematic of the reflective property of inverse functions.

Figure 3.6: Reflective property of some inverse functions.

3.3 Existence of an Inverse Function

Theorem 8. A function has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one.

Proof. Suppose f : A → B has an inverse function y = g(x). Then

f (y) = f [g(x)] = x

If f (a) = f (b), then

g[f (a)] = g[f (b)] =⇒ a = b

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

Therefore, f is one-to-one.
Now suppose f is one-to-one. For x ∈ B, there exist y ∈ A such that
f (y) = x. There is only one such y since f is one-to-one. Let

y = g(x)

=⇒ g(f (y)) = g(x) = y, (we used f (y) = x)

for any y, and
f [g(x)] = f (y) = x
for any x. So g is an inverse of f and vice versa.

3.3.1 Finding Inverse Functions

Below is a procedure for finding inverse functions:

(1) Write y = f (x)

(2) Solve for x in terms of y (if possible)

(3) Interchange x and y to obtain y = f −1 (x).

Example 16. Find the inverse of the following functions

1
(a) y = √
2x − 3
1 + 3x
(b) y =
5 − 2x
(c) y = ln (x + 3)
1
Solution. (a) y = √
2x − 3
1
=⇒ y 2 =
2x − 3

=⇒ y 2 (2x − 3) = 1 =⇒ 2y 2 x − 3y 2 = 1
1 + 3y 2
=⇒ x =
2y 2
1 + 3x2
∴ f −1 (x) =
2x2

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

1 + 3x
(b) y =
5 − 2x
=⇒ 5y − 2yx = 1 + 3x
=⇒ 3x + 2yx = 5y − 1
=⇒ x(3 + 2y) = 5y − 1
5y − 1
=⇒ x =
3 + 2y
5x − 1
∴ f −1 (x) =
3 + 2x
(c) y = ln (x + 3)
=⇒ x + 3 = ey
=⇒ x = ey − 3
∴ f −1 (x) = ex − 3

3.4 Continuity and Differentiability of Inverse

Functions
Theorem 9. Let f be one-to-one, so that it has an inverse f −1 .
(a) If f is continuous on its domain, then f −1 is continuous on its domain.
(b) If f is differentiable at c and f 0 (c) 6= 0, then f −1 is differentiable at
f (c).
Theorem 10. Let f be differentiable on its domain and have an inverse
function g = f −1 . Then the derivative of g is given by
1
g 0 (x) = ,
f0 [g(x)]
provided that f 0 [g(x)] 6= 0.
Proof. Since f is differentiable, g is also differentiable by Theorem 9. Since
g is the inverse function;
f [g(x)] = x
Differentiating (and using the Chain Rule), we get
f 0 [g(x)]g 0 (x) = 1
1
∴ g 0 (x) = .
f0 [g(x)]

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Example 17. Let g denote the inverse of the function f . Show that the
point (a, b) (shown below) lies on the graph of f . Find g 0 (b).

(a) f (x) = 2x + 1; (2, 5)

(b) f (x) = x5 + 2x3 + x − 1; (0, −1)

Solution. (a) f (x) = 2x + 1; (2, 5)

=⇒ f (2) = 2(2) + 1 = 5

Therefore (2, 5) lies on the graph of f . Also f −1 (5) = g(5) = 2. Now

1 1
g 0 (b) = =⇒ g 0 (5) =
f 0 [g(b)] f 0 [g(5)]
1
=⇒ g 0 (5) =
f 0 (2)
Now, f 0 (x) = 2 =⇒ f 0 (2) = 2
1
∴ g 0 (5) =
2

(b) f (x) = x5 + 2x3 + x − 1; (0, −1).

f (0) = 0 + 0 + 0 − 1 = −1

Thus, (0, −1) lies on f . And f −1 (−1) = g(−1) = 0.

1 1
g 0 (−1) = =
f 0 [g(−1)] f 0 (0)

f 0 (x) = 5x4 + 6x + 1

=⇒ f 0 (0) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1

∴ g 0 (−1) = 1

Exercise. (1) Suppose f (x) = x2 for x ∈ [0, ∞), and let g be the inverse
of f .
1
(a) Compute g 0 (x) using g 0 (x) =
f 0 [g(x)]
(b) Find g 0 (x) by first computing g(x).

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

(2) Suppose that g is the inverse of a function f . If f (2) = 4 and f 0 (2) = 3,

find g 0 (4).

(3) Find f −1 (a) for the function f and the real number a.

(a) f (x) = x3 + x − 1; a = −1
(b) f (x) = 2x5 + 3x3 + 2; a = 2.

(4) The graph of f is given in Figure 3.7

(a) Why is f one-to-one?

(b) State the domain and range of f −1 .
(c) Estimate the value of f −1 (1).

Figure 3.7: Plot of a function.

Solution to Selected Exercises

Solution. (1) f (x) = x2 for x ∈ [0, ∞).
1
(a) g 0 (x) =
f 0 [g(x)]
√
y = x2 =⇒ x = y, x≥0

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Math 223 : Calculus II J.K.A

√
∴ f −1 (x) = g(x) = x
0
√0
f (x) = 2x =⇒ f [g(x)] = 2 x
1
=⇒ g 0 (x) = √
2 x
√
(b) From g(x) = x
1 1
=⇒ g 0 (x) = x−1/2 = √
2 2 x
(2)
1
g 0 (4) =
f 0 [g(4)]
f (2) = 4 =⇒ f −1 (4) = g(4) = 2. From the first equation, we get
1 1
g 0 (4) = =
f 0 (2) 3

(3) f (x) = x3 + x − 1; a = −1.

(a) Let f −1 (−1) = x
=⇒ f (x) = −1
=⇒ x3 + x − 1 = −1
=⇒ x3 + x = 0 =⇒ x(x2 + 1) = 0
But (x2 + 1) > 0, thus x = 0.
∴ f −1 (−1) = 0
(b) f (x) = 2x5 + 3x3 + 2; a = 2. Let f −1 (2) = x
=⇒ f (x) = 2
2x5 + 3x3 + 2 = 2
=⇒ 2x5 + 3x3 = 0 =⇒ x3 (2x2 + 3) = 0
=⇒ x = 0
∴ f −1 (2) = 0.
(4) (a) Using the horizontal line test; any horizontal line through the
graph of f intersects it at only one point.
(b) Domain of f −1 = [−4, 2]. (The range of f −1 = [−3, 3]).
(c) Let f −1 (1) = x. Thus f (x) = 1. From the graph, we have
f −1 (1) ≈ −2.5

34 J.K.A