90 N’Drower, Sustainable rural tourism practices in Madang Province, PNG

Sustainable Rural Tourism Practices in Madang

Province, Papua New Guinea

Fiona Pisong N’Drower

Abstract
This article explores the level of understanding of tourism operators and
tourism resource owners of the concept of sustainable tourism. It
examines if these operators undertake forms of sustainable tourism in
their operational practices and what influences these practices. This
study focused on the Madang Province in Papua New Guinea involving
six tourism operators/resource owners. The research adopted a
qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews and observation
as the two main primary data sources. The findings suggest that
although some tourism operators/resource owners have limited
knowledge of sustainable tourism, they were still implementing some
aspects of it in their operational practices influenced by the values of
their indigenous culture.

Keywords: Tourism, rural areas, Madang Province, sustainable practices

Introduction

Sustainability is the idea of striking a balance between the consumption of

natural resources, preserving them and, at the same time, creating a positive
social atmosphere for a community through economic benefits, (Lane, 1994).
The notion of sustainable tourism with various definitions and a multi-
dimensional character is a challenge for tourism operators to comprehend and
implement, (Weaver, 2010). Tourism’s contribution to sustainable
development is still under-researched in terms of tourism’s practical and
operational practices, especially in indigenous communities.

Rainford (2007) argued that many tourism operators are not able to implement
sustainable tourism because of the lack of understanding and knowledge on the
notion of sustainable tourism. Hunter (2002, p. 18) claimed that ‘many studies
of sustainable tourism fail to provide an in-depth analysis of precisely how the
term is being used or interpreted’.

This study explored current practices of tourism operators and what their
understanding was of sustainable tourism and the significance of its
implementation. This research on sustainable tourism practices is focused on
Madang Province, Papua New Guinea (PNG) where accessibility and having
an effective transport system is often an issue. Madang Province has a few
small scale tourism operators operating at the local level. Six rural tourism
operators/resource owners were invited to participate in this study.
Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal Vol. 20 May 2014 91

Literature review

Hunter (1995) argued that the operationalization of sustainable tourism is

undertaken and understood with difficulty because of the global nature of
tourism and the complicated network of tourism operating through a rather ill-
defined cluster of various actors and agencies. From a broader perspective and
according to Liu (2003), tourism resources encompass more than just the
natural environment. Tourism requires at least three levels of resources:
natural, cultural and purpose built tourist attractions; the infrastructure and
superstructure to support tourism activities and the physical and social settings
including the hospitality of the host community.

The tourism industry can be defined as ‘the sum of the industrial and
commercial activities that produce goods and services wholly or mainly for
tourist consumption’, (Weaver & Lawton, 2002, p.47). The industry has been
accused of being the destroyer of the environment, deteriorates valued
lifestyles and age-old cultures and an exploiter of poor nations, (Griffin 2002).
The concept of sustainability suggests that there are limits in exploiting natural
capital because of its limited capacity for renewal (Hall, 2011).

The most widely acknowledged instrumental document on sustainability is the

Bruntland Report. The United Nations Commission on Environment and
Development published the Bruntland Report titled, ‘Our Common Future’, in
1987. The report emphasised that sustainability should be the approach taken in
terms of development and defines sustainability as ‘development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs, (WCED 1987). The concept of sustainability has
received much attention since the publication of Our Common Future,
(Harding, 2006).

Hall & Lew (1998) identified the following five basic principles of
sustainability from the Bruntland Report:
• the idea of holistic planning and strategy making
• the importance of preserving essential ecological processes
• the need to protect both human heritage and biodiversity
• to develop in such a way that productivity can be sustained over the
long term for future generations
• achieving a better balance of fairness and opportunity between
nations.

Sustainable development has become a worldwide discourse driven by

international governments and international bodies alike, (Kronenberg &
Bergier, 2012). Harding (2006) points out that despite the universal
institutionalisation of sustainability principles through legislation and policy,
progress in the implementation of sustainable development has not been
actually forthcoming, even for tourism.
92 N’Drower, Sustainable rural tourism practices in Madang Province, PNG

Tourism is seen as an industry that could stimulate economic growth as it

provides employment and earns foreign exchange. Post Second World War saw
tourism as a tool that would lead to the modernisation of third world countries
and stimulate their economy, (Liburd & Edwards, 2010). This led to the
provision of a lucrative environment for foreign investors to invest in tourism
on a large scale in third world countries without questioning the negative
impacts of tourism on the environment as well as the society, (Liburd &
Edwards, 2010).

The rise in tourism brought with it concerns such as environmental

degradation, and loss of societal and cultural values, (Smith, 1977& 1989). It
was realised that if the negative impacts of tourism were identified and
addressed, tourism could be modified in order to help sustain the earth’s natural
resources, preserve culture and enhance a society’s economic status (Griffin,
2002; Miller & Twining-Ward, 2005).

Clark (1997) pointed out that there is now a shift from mass tourism to tourists
travelling individually to their destination of choice as a way towards
sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism is a fairly new phenomena derived
from the concept of sustainable development, (Sharpley, 2009). Different
countries that promote tourism have adopted sustainability as part of their
implementation strategy. However, some have not fully succeeded (Kwon &
Vogt, 2010) despite various guiding principles that have been presented by
international organisations governing sustainability.

As specified by Edgell (2006), a conceptual approach to sustainable tourism

development set forth by the World Conservation Union includes four major
principles ecological sustainability, cultural sustainability, economic
sustainability and local sustainability. The World Tourism Organization report
(1993) further stressed that sustainable tourism is designed to benefit local
communities and sustain profits for local businesses.

After the Bruntland Report in 1987, the World Tourism Organisation (WTO)
adopted the concept of sustainability to tourism and created the notion of
sustainable tourism development and defined it as meeting the needs of the
tourists and host community without compromising the needs of the future
generation, (WTO 1993).

The WTO (1997) elaborated further on the definition of sustainable tourism as

tourism development ‘leading to the management of all resources in such a
way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled, while
maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological
diversity and life support systems.’ The later elaboration on sustainable tourism
by WTO came as a result of Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry
(World Travel and Tourism Council, World Tourism Organization and the
Earth Council, 1997).

Agenda 21 recognizes tourism as an economic activity that can improve the

quality of life of the host community and at the same time enhance the quality
Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal Vol. 20 May 2014 93

of the tourist’s experience while preserving the environment and the resources
on which both the tourist and host community depend. As Butler (1993, p. 29)
clarified:
sustainable tourism refers to tourism which is developed and maintained
in an area (community or environment) in such a manner and at such a
scale that it remains viable over an infinite period and does not degrade or
alter the environment (human or physical) in which it exists to such a
degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of
other activities and processes.

The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) further clarified

that sustainable tourism is embedded in the triple bottom line of economic,
environmental and socio-cultural sustainability. UNWTO (2008) emphasised
that sustainable tourism should:
• Make optimal use of environmental resources maintaining essential
ecological processes and helping to conserve natural heritage and
biodiversity
• Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, conserve
their built and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and
contribute to inter-cultural understanding and tolerance
• Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-
economic benefits to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed,
including stable employment and income earning opportunities and
social services to the host communities, and contributing to poverty
alleviation.

Sustainable tourism cannot be really defined within the context of tourism

development (Butler, 1999; Weaver, 2010). Bramwell, et al. (1996), in their
review of the principles and practice of sustainable tourism management,
identified seven dimensions of sustainability. These dimensions are
environmental, cultural, political, economic, social, managerial and
government. These different dimensions can cause varying levels of standards
in sustainable tourism venture implementations. Hunter, (1997) found that such
complexity has caused a series of problems for those involved and especially
those who intend to seek various benefits from sustainable tourism.

Lu and Nepal (2009) found that sustainable tourism is one of the fastest
growing ventures within the tourism industry. In the process of promoting
sustainable tourism, different branches under the umbrella of sustainable
tourism have emerged, for example, ecotourism, indigenous tourism and
community based tourism. These types of sustainable tourism involve
community participation. However, as Harding (2006) found, not all have
actually achieved the desired outcomes of sustainable tourism. Hall (1994)
further asserted that sustainable indigenous tourism done in good faith can
achieve one of the aims of the WTO definition of sustainable tourism.
However, as Butler & Hinch (1996) cautioned, if tourism is not managed and
implemented well, it can instigate destruction of indigenous communities’
cultures.
94 N’Drower, Sustainable rural tourism practices in Madang Province, PNG

Developing countries can definitely implement the concept of sustainable

tourism. However, as Mowforth and Munt (2003) found, in pursuit of
economic growth, the people who are involved in the industry ignore the
negative impacts of tourism, even those who promote sustainable tourism.
Tosun (2002) illustrated the challenges in sustainable tourism in developing
countries when examining sustainable tourism development in Turkey. He
found that several factors contributed to the challenges faced when
implementing sustainable tourism. These include:
• priorities of the national economic policy
• structure of the public administration
• commercialization
• structure of the international tourism system.
These factors made decisions on sustainable tourism difficult to support and
maintain because they deviated from political and economic plans for progress.

In light of these challenges, Ryan (2002) stressed that literature on

sustainability should change its focus to value creation for the tourists, the
tourism industry and communities. Garrod and Fyall (1998) also suggested that
experts in tourism should retreat from defining sustainable tourism, and focus
their discussions on implementing best practices of sustainable tourism instead.
Ryan (2002) drew attention to the fact that even the international organizations
regulating the tourism industry still do not have clear guidelines for
implementing the principles of sustainable tourism. simply gives lip-service to
the concept of sustainable tourism.

However, despite such lack of clarity, Curtin (2003) noted that a few societies
have managed to implement some aspects of sustainable tourism in terms of
best practices. For example, whale watching in Kaikoura, New Zealand, has
been able to implement and achieve sustainable tourism through its business
practices. In this particular case, the whale watching business portrays
indigenous power through its Maori ownership which results in less economic
leakage. This is because the business is locally owned. Also the workers are
sourced from within the community. Additionally, the use of local suppliers is
preferred and encouraged. As a result, economic benefits from tourism are
maintained within the community. Furthermore, the culture and heritage of the
area has been revitalised through trained guides and interpretation activities.
Visitors are informed on the importance of the environment through
interpretation. These techniques are used to enhance the environment and
protect the whales.

Tip (2009) examined how a rural community in Peru benefited from tourism.
As a result of tourism in the area, the traditional art of weaving and spinning
wool was revived involving sixty women. Finished products were sold to
tourists while the males were employed as porters and tour guides by the tour
operators. Tourism also enhanced agricultural activities which strengthened
sustainable tourism practices.
Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal Vol. 20 May 2014 95

Soh and Omar (2012) also found similar results in their study of tourism in
Malaysia. The tourism industry boosted the revival of the production of keris, a
traditional Malay sword production that signified bravery. This practice was on
the verge of dying out. The tourism industry reinvigorated the locals to revive
their traditional knowledge through the creation of the keris.

The developing world has acknowledged the importance of sustainability in the

tourism industry. For instance, the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea
situated off the south-west coast of India has a fragile environment with a high
population density and physical limitations, as result tourism is organised in a
controlled way. The promotion of tourism is in conjunction with environmental
conservation, which emphasises the high value but low volume tourism
strategy (Kokkranikal, et al., 2003). Lakshadweep Tourism (2009) noted that
the drive towards sustainability had inspired the islands to adopt and implement
the following sustainable practices:
• Electricity is generated by solar plants.
• Islanders are educated to adopt an eco-friendly way of life.
• Biomass plants using coconut and other waste have been set up in
Kavarati to generate electricity.
• A film is shown to tourists arriving on ships to inform them about the
island, its environment, the coral reefs, and their management, the ban
on picking up corals and ways to keep the island clean and enjoy the
beauty without destroying it.
• Islanders are trained in scuba-diving so that, they not only know about
marine wealth but also contribute to maintaining the ecology of the
islands and work as the eyes and ears of the administration.

Butler and Menzies (2007) emphasised that for tourism to be sustainable in

indigenous communities, its relationship to and incorporation of traditional
ecological knowledge is critical. Indigenous knowledge such as traditional
conservation, environmental and ecological knowledge is all linked to the
traditional beliefs, customs and way of life of a society (Acharya &
Shrivastava, 2008). In most situations these forms of knowledge have been
orally passed on from one generation to another and some are expressed
through stories, legends, folklore, rituals, songs and even laws (Acharya &
Shrivastava, 2008).

Since the early 1990s, South Pacific countries pledged their support by
declaring their commitment in promoting sustainable tourism (Panakera, et al.,
2011). Harrison (2003) in his discussions on sustainable tourism reasoned that
the lack of facilities and infrastructure for large scale tourism in many Pacific
Islands should prompt Pacific Islands’ nations to develop tourism on a small
scale which is more sustainable.

However sustainable tourism can only be achieved through awareness of the

issues surrounding sustainable tourism and through an effective partnership
between the government, private sector and the local businesses (Panakera, et
al, 2011). Moscardo (2011) argued that many of the barriers to sustainable
96 N’Drower, Sustainable rural tourism practices in Madang Province, PNG

tourism development can be understood by exploring indigenous knowledge on

sustainable, conservation and regeneration practices and how this can be used
to influence decision making on sustainable tourism.

The promotion of awareness and knowledge sharing especially at the local

level can facilitate positive attitudes towards sustainable tourism. Miller and
Twining-Ward (2005) stated that the small scale sustainable tourism approach
would benefit the local community and preserve the environment. It would also
handle traditional cultures with sensitivity and contribute to the stimulation of
the local economy. Small scale tourism is acknowledged for gradual growth,
which allows time for regeneration of environmental life and regulates the
development expansion of tourism ventures.

However in order to make decisions that are in the best interest of sustainable
tourism development, tourism managers must be knowledgeable in the subject
area (Ruhanen, 2008). The implementation of sustainable tourism practices
within the tourism industry presents many challenges, (La Lopa & Day, 2011).
Rainford (2007) states there are growing concerns on environmental
managemen, waste management and energy conservation. Economic benefits
must reach the locals while preserving traditions and cultural knowledge
(Acharya & Shrivastava, 2008; Butler & Menzies, 2007; Tip (2009). Table 1
identifies specific sustainable tourism practices drawn from the literature.

Table 1: Literature sources of sustainable tourism practices

Environmental
Rainford (2007), Recycling, energy efficiency, using biodegradable
products, minimise water usage, fuel efficiency, composting and waste
management systems
Socio-cultural
Butler & Menzies (2007), Integrating traditional ecologicalknowledge
Soh & Omar (2012), Encouraging arts and crafts, reviving traditional
knowledge
Acharya & Shrivastava (2008), Revival of traditional stories, legends,
folklore, song & dance, traditional architecture
Economical
Soh & Omar (2012), Selling traditional crafts for cash to earn extra
income for the families
Tip (2009), Wages for locals employed in tourism

Rainford (2007) claimed that many tourism operators are not able to implement
sustainable tourism practices because of lack of knowledge. This research
seeks to identify if cultural values and practices have an influence on
sustainable tourism practices and will investigate:
• What is the level of knowledge of tourism operators of sustainable
tourism?
• How do tourism operators perceive the importance of implementing
sustainable tourism?
Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal Vol. 20 May 2014 97

• What elements of sustainable tourism are present in the

practices/operations of tourism operators?

The objectives of this research are to gain an insight on the level of knowledge
of tourism operators on sustainable tourism and its importance to society and to
gain an insight on the current sustainable tourism practices of tourism
operators.

Research methodology

Six small tourism operators were the focus of the study. Their names have not
been disclosed in this writing in order to protect their identity. Semi-structured
interviews were conducted and observations were recorded during the
collection data. Individual interviews were employed. This method of data
collection was informed by Jennings (2004) who stated that interviews are used
to gain an understanding and make sense of a people’s way of life and the
reasons for their actions and behaviour. The interviews were recorded then
transcribed using the thematic analysis.

This study was small and the results captured sustainable tourism practices of
only those who participated in the study. Therefore the findings cannot be
generalised about other tourism operators and their tourism ventures.

Findings

Table 2 presents information about the six tourism operator participants in the
study. Approximately 67% of the sustainable tourist ventures were clan owned,
while 16.5% were family owned, and a further 16.5% were individually owned.
The data also shows that only 33% of the participants had modern or
introduced knowledge about sustainable tourism practices. This knowledge was
gained through their involvement with non-government organisations such as
the World Wildlife Fund and The Nature Conservancy. Seventeen percent had
only partial knowledge, while 50% had no knowledge about modern
sustainable tourism practices at all.

However, the other sets of data in Table 2 shows that 100% of the participants
were of the view that sustainable tourisms practices were important and were
actually engaged in sustainable tourism practices. This shows that all the
operators had knowledge about sustainable practices which they applied in
their tourism venture operations. This also shows that the participants were
applying their indigenous sustainable knowledge practices in their tourism
venture operations as shown by the qualitative data in the study.
98 N’Drower, Sustainable rural tourism practices in Madang Province, PNG

Table 2: Profiles of tourism operators

ST ST ST
Operator Attraction Ownership Years knowledge practices important
1 Traditional Clan 50 No Yes Yes
pottery
2 Traditional Clan 48 No Yes Yes
singsings
3 Wildlife Clan 38 Some Yes Yes
Bird watching
Sulphur creek
4 Wildlife Family 15 Yes Yes Yes
Marine
conservation
5 Home stay Clan 3 No Yes Yes
Village
accommodation
6 Butterflies Individual 20 Yes Yes Yes
ST = Sustainable Tourism

The tourism operators were asked to provide examples of sustainable tourism

practices. Table 3 presents information on the various forms of sustainable
practices used by the sustainable tourism operators.

Table 3: Examples of sustainable tourism practices by the operators

Food debris and ash used as fertilizer: Operators 3, 4. 5 & 6

Well and tank for drinking water: Operator 5
Creeks for laundry and bathing: Operators 5 & 6
Use of traditional fire for cooking: Operators 5 & 6
Traditional housing: Operators 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 & 6
Pit toilet: Operators 1, 2, 3, 4. 5 & 6
Rubbish pit: Operators 3, 4. 5 & 6

This data shows that the rural sustainable tourism venture operators commonly
used traditional houses for accommodation, pit toilets, while drinking water
were stored in water tanks or obtained from wells in. Creeks, rivers and fresh
waterholes were used for bathing and laundry purposes and food debris and
ashes were used for garden fertilizer while rubbish pits were used for
indecomposable rubbish. Income was generated from gate fees for singsing
activities, rented accommodation, sale of various arts and crafts products and
sing-sing groups hire. In most parts of Madang, rural areas do not have council
waste management systems operators, or have access to piped water supply and
electricity. This can be viewed as an advantage for the rural people because
they are not burdened with various government taxes for the provision of such
services. Rural dwellers do not rely on piped water supply and electricity for
their daily needs. This is of advantage to sustainable tourism ventures in rural
areas because low operation costs are maintained and therefore the people can
Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal Vol. 20 May 2014 99

make good profits from their ventures and expand further if the income is
managed well.

All the participants in the study were indigenous. As shown in Tables 1 and 2
they were able to incorporated aspects of their indigenous knowledge into their
tourism venture operations as shown in the traditional architectural designs,
use of open fires for cooking, food gardening, waste disposal methods and
preservation of the natural environment. This shows sustainable tourism
practices.

Given this information, it can be suggested that rural areas within Madang
Province have the potential to promote sustainable tourism ventures because
the rural people’s way of life already supports the concept of sustainable
tourism. It can also be suggested that other rural communities who practice
similar sustainable living and conservation of their environments can use
sustainable tourism ventures as a form of income and still maintain their
traditional values, practices and customs, as well as conserve their
environments.

Conclusion

This study found that sustainable tourism ventures was successfully

implemented in the rural areas of Madang Province primarily because
operational costs were low. Furthermore, sustainable tourism was integrated
into the people’s daily lives in the local communities. This is because the
people in rural areas still apply traditional environmental conservation and
management practices in their everyday lives. This ensures the ecosystems are
kept in balance which allows for natural preservation of lands, rivers and seas
which allows for natural regeneration of plants, animals, fish and birds which
can be sustained for future generations. Furthermore because accessibility to
rural tourism sites is difficult due to the lack of transport infrastructure, it
minimises the influxes of tourists into the rural communities. This promotes
only individual or smaller group tourists travel to rural tourist destinations,
which minimised mass tourism. Studies have shown that mass tourism influxes
have contributed to destruction of environments and traditional values and
customs when tourist activities are not managed well.

It can be suggested that the creation of awareness on sustainable tourism will

equip rural tourism operators to strengthen further sustainable tourism practices
in their operations. Awareness on other sustainable tourism practices can assist
rural tourism operators to enrich their sustainability and conservation
knowledge which may assist them to progress further in their ventures.

As Ritchie and Crouch (2003) emphasised sustainable tourism should not just
be viewed as a strategy to only control development but also as a platform to
encourage other forms of tourism that will enhance the environment, social and
cultural well-being of peoples in tourist destinations that can increase their
economic prosperity. Therefore, it can be suggested that other forms of tourism
can be created under the banner of sustainable tourism in Madang such as bird
100 N’Drower, Sustainable rural tourism practices in Madang Province, PNG

watching, ecotourism, cultural and indigenous tourism. These can be operated

at small scale levels as a form income generating activity for the rural people.

References

Acharya, D. & Shrivastava, A. (2008). Indigenous herbal medicines: Tribal

formulations and traditional herbal practices. Jaipur, India: Aavishkar Publishers
Aronson, J. (1994). A pragmatic view of thematic analysis. The Qualitative Report,
2(1), 1-3. Retrieved from: http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/BackIssues/QR2-
1/aronson.html
Bramwell, B., Henry, I., Jackson, G., Prat, A.G., Richards, G., & van der Straaten, J.
(Eds.). (1996). Sustainable tourism management: Principles and practice.
Tilburg, Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.
Butler, C. F., & Menzies, C. R. (2007). Traditional ecological knowledge and
indigenous tourism. In R. Butler, & T. Hinch (Eds.),. Tourism and indigenous
peoples: Issues and implications (pp.15-27.). Oxford, United Kingdom:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Butler, R. W. (1999). Sustainable tourism: A state-of-the-art review . Tourism
Geographies, 1(1), 7–25. doi 10.1080/14616689908721091
Butler, R. W., & Hinch, T. (1996). Tourism and indigenous peoples. London, England:
International Business Press.
Clark, J. (1997). A framework of approaches to sustainable tourism. Journal of
Sustainable Tourism, 5(3), 224-233. doi: 10.1080/09669589708667287
Curtin, S. (2003) Whale-watching in Kaikoura: Sustainable destination development.
Journal of Ecotourism, 2(3), 173-194. doi: 10.1080/14724040308668143
Edgell, D. L. (2006). Managing sustainable tourism: A legacy for the future. Madison
Avenue, NY: Routledge.
Garrod, B., & Fyall, A. (1998). Beyond the rhetoric of sustainable tourism? Tourism
Management, 19(3), 199-212. doi: 10.1016/S0261-5177(98)00013-2
Griffin, T. (2002). An optimistic perspective on tourism sustainability. In R. Harris, T.
Griffin, & P. Williams, Sustainable tourism: A global perspective (pp. 24-32).
Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Hall, C. M. (1994). Tourism in the Pacific Rim: Development, impacts and markets.
Melbourne, VIC, Australia: Longman.
Hall, C. M. (2011). Policy learning and policy failure in sustainable tourism
governance: From first-and second-order to third-order change? Journal of
Sustainable Tourism, 19(4-5), 649-671. doi: 10.1080/09669582.2011.555555
Hall, C. M., & Lew, A. A. (Eds.). (1998). Sustainable tourism: A geographical
perspective. Harlow, England: Longman.
Harding, R. (2006). Ecological sustainable development: Origins, implementation and
challenges. Desalination, 187(1), 229-239. doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2005.04.082
Harrison, D. (Ed). (2003). Pacific Islands Tourism. Elmsford, NY: Cognizant
Communication
Hesse-Biber, S. N., & Leavy, P. (2011). The practice of qualitative research (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Hunter, C. (1995). On the need to reconceptualise sustainable tourism development.
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 3 (3), 155–165.
Hunter, C. (1997). Sustainable tourism as an adaptive paradigm. Annals of Tourism
Research, 24(4), 850-867. doi: 10.1016/S0160-7383(97)00036-4
Hunter, C. (2002). Aspects of the sustainable tourism debate from a natural resources
perspective. In R. Harris, T. Griffin, & P. Williams (Eds.),. Sustainable tourism: A
global perspective (pp.3-23). Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal Vol. 20 May 2014 101

Jennings, G. R. (2004). Interviewing: A focus on qualitative techniques. In B. W.

Ritchie, P. Burns & C. Palmer (Eds.), Tourism research methods: Integrating
theory with practice (pp.99-117). Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: CABI
Kokkranikal, J., Baum, T., & MacLellan, R. L. (2003). Island tourism and
sustainability: A case study of the Lakshadweep Islands. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 11(5), 426-447. doi: 10.1080/09669580308667214
Kronenberg, J., & Bergier, T. (2012). Sustainable development in a transition economy:
Business case studies from Poland. Journal of Cleaner Production, 26 (05/2012),
18-27. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.12.010
Kwon, J., & Vogt, C. A. (2010). Identifying the role of cognitive, affective, and
behavioural components in understanding residents’ attitudes toward place
marketing. Journal of Travel Research, 49(4), 423–434. doi:
10.1177/0047287509346857
La Lopa, J., & Day, J. (2011). Pilot study to assess the readiness of the tourism industry
in Wales to change to sustainable tourism business practices. Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 130-139. doi:
10.1375/jhtm.18.1.130 99
Lane, B. (1994). What is rural tourism? In B. Bramwell, & B. Lane (Eds.),. Rural
tourism and sustainable rural development: Proceedings of the Second
International School on rural development, 28 June-9 July 1993 University
College Galway, Ireland (pp. 7-21). Adelaide, SA, Australia: Channel View
Publications.
Liburd, J. J. (2010). Introduction to sustainable tourism development. In J. J. Liburd &
D. Edwards (Eds.),. Understanding the sustainable development of tourism (pp. 1-
18). Oxford, England: Goodfellow.
Liu, Z. (2003). Sustainable tourism development: A critique. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 11(6), 459-475. doi: 10.1080//09669580308667216
Lu, J., & Nepal, S.K. (2009). Sustainable tourism research: An analysis of papers
published in the Journal of Sustainable Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism,
17(1), 5–16. doi: 10.1080/09669580802582480
Miller, G,. & Twining-Ward. L. (2005). Monitoring for a sustainable tourism
transaction: The challenge of developing and using indicators. Cambridge, MA:
CABI.
Moscardo, G. (2011). The role of knowledge in good governance for tourism. In E.
Laws, H. Richins, J. Agrusa & N. Scott (Eds.),. Tourist destination governance:
Practice, theory and issues (pp. 67-80). Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: CABI.
Mowforth, M., & Munt, T. (2003). Tourism and sustainability: Development and new
tourism in the third world (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Panakera, C., Wilson, G., Ryan, C., & Liu, G. (2011). Considerations for sustainable
tourism development in developing countries: Perspectives from the South
Pacific. An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism, 6(2), 241-262.
Retrieved from http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/6159
Rainford, S. (2007). Environmental management in micro and small tourism
enterprises: An owner-manager perspective (Master’s thesis, University of
Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand). Retrieved from
http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/browse?value=Rainford%2C+Sophie+Eliz
abeth&type=author 102
Ritchie, J. R. B., & Crough, G. I. (2003). The competitive destination: A sustainable
tourism perspective. Cambridge, CA: CABI.
Ruhanen, L. (2008). Progressing the sustainability debate: A knowledge management
approach to sustainable tourism planning. Current Issues in Tourism, 11(5), 429-
455. doi: 10.1080/13683500802316030
102 N’Drower, Sustainable rural tourism practices in Madang Province, PNG

Ryan, C. (2002). Equity, management, power sharing and sustainability-issues of the

new tourism. Tourism Management, 23(1), 17-26. doi: 10.1016/S0261-
5177(01)00064-4
Sarantakos, S. (2005). Social research (3rd ed.). Houndsmill, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sharpley, R. (2009). Tourism development and the environment: Beyond sustainability?
London, England: Earthscan.
Tip, B.P. (2009). Sustainable tourism: By integrating social and environmental
principles in their business model, tourism operators can lead the way in
promoting positive development with enduring benefit for all. International Trade
Forum. Accessed
http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.waikato.ac.nz/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA21410215
5&v=2.1&u=waikato&it=r&p=ITOF&sw=w
Tosun, C. (2002). Challenges of sustainable tourism development in the developing
world: The case of Turkey. Tourism Management, 22(3), 289-303. doi:
10.1016/S0261-5177(00)00061-01
UNWTO. (2008). Conceptualization of sustainable tourism development. Word Tourism
Organization. Retrieved from www.unwto.org/sdtmission/en/mission.php.
Weaver, D. (2010). Sustaianble tourism: Theory and practice. Oxford, United
Kingdom: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Weaver, D., & Lawton, L. (2002). Tourism management (2nd ed.). Milton, QLD,
Australia: Wiley.
World Tourism Organization (1993). Sustainable Tourism Development: Guide for
Local Planners. Madrid, Spain: Author.
World Tourism Organization. (1997). Agenda 21 for travel and tourism: Towards
environmentally sustainable tourism. WTO, WTTC and the Earth Council.
Retrieved from academic research Library database.
World Tourism Organization. (2003). Sustainable development of ecotourism: A
compilation of good practices in SMEs. Madrid, Spain: Author.

Author

Ms Fiona Pisong N’Drower is a tutor with the Tourism and Hospitality

Management Department of the Faculty of Business and Informatics at Divine
Word University. She tutors in the areas of marketing, tourism research and
small business management. Her research interests include sustainable tourism,
protecting indigenous communities and engaging in community based projects.
Fiona has a Bachelor of Tourism and Hospitality Management Degree from
Divine Word University in Papua New Guinea and a Master of Management
Studies in Tourism and Hospitality from the University of Waikato in
Hamilton, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]