Chapter - 3

Status of Forests in India

 STATUS OF FORESTS IN INDIA

India is endowed with diverse forest types ranging from tropical wet evergreen

forests in the northeast and the southwest, to tropical dry thorn forests in central and

western India. The forests of India can be divided into 16 major types comprising 221

sub-types. Most of these forests are located in the Western Himalayas, East Deccan,

North Eastern region including Himalayas and the Western Ghats (MoEF, 2012).

These forests are important not only for meeting the demands of timber, fuel wood

and fodder, but are also a major repository of biodiversity. They also supply a wide

range of essential ecosystem goods and services, and provide livelihoods to millions

of forest dependent people. However, forests are an almost neglected sector in the

structure of Indian economy and are consistently undervalued in economic and social

terms.

Although India has been able to reduce the rate of deforestation and there has

been an increase in the total forest cover of the country in recent years, it has been

because of increase in the tree plantations (such as agroforestry plantations, coffee

and tea estates with trees, fruit orchards, coconut crops, etc.), which have been treated

as forests since 2001 by Forest Survey of India (FSI). However, the quality of existing

forest stock is still deteriorating due to a number of factors. While India has only 2.4

% of the world geographical area, it has 17% of the world population and 18% of

livestock. Moreover, India's per capita forest cover is 0.064 ha against the world

average of 0.64 ha. Consequently, India's forests are facing biotic pressure resulting

in deterioration in quality of forest cover as well as their productivity. The

unsustainable exploitation of forest resources has resulted in their degradation which

has been estimated as 41% by the National Forest Commission (MoEF, 2006a). The
productivity of India's forests is also low (1.34 m /ha/year) when compared to the

world average (2.1 ur'/ha/year) (The Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-12).

3.1 Relevance of Forests in Indian Economy

There has been increasing realization of the role of forests in social, cultural,

economic and industrial development of the country and in maintaining its ecological

balance. By providing various socio-economic and ecological services, forests help in

achieving equitable and inclusive growth along with protecting natural heritage for

sustainable development of the economy. Forests also provide an opportunity to

optimize broad-based development and poverty reduction of the forest-dependent

communities as well as addressing global concerns of climate change and

conservation of biological diversity (GOI, 2006a). The role of forests in Indian

economy is examined by classifying it into two categories-socio-economic relevance

of forests and ecological role of forests.

3.1.1 Socio-Economic Relevance

Indian Forests account for a number of products such as timber, fuel wood,

fodder, bamboo, gum, resin, tanning material, medicinal herbs, grasses, etc. It is

estimated that about 270 million tonnes of fuel wood, 280 million tonnes of fodder,

over 12 million cubic meter of timber and countless Non-Wood Forest Products

(NWFPs) are provided by forests armually. At a conservative level of pricing, the

value of these commodities will approximately aggregate to over Rs. 27,500 crores

per annum. However, due to the transaction of large extent of these material benefits

outside the market system, their reflected value in national accounts (GDP) is less

than 10% of its real value (GOI, 2006).

58
 Forests also offer huge potential for poverty reduction and rural economic

growth in India. An estimated 275 million rural poor in India (27% of India's

population) depend on forests for at least part of their subsistence and livelihoods

from fuel wood, fodder, and a range of NWFPs such as fruits, flowers, and medicinal

plants. About 70% of India's rural population depends on fuel wood to meet domestic

energy needs (Malhotra and Bhattacharya, 2011). According to an estimate, forests

meet nearly 40%) of the energy needs of the country, of which, more than 80%) is

utilized in rural areas (GOI, 2006a). Half of India's 89 million tribal people, the most

disadvantaged section of society, live in forest fringe areas and tend to have close

cultural and economic links with the forest. For landless families and marginal

farmers, forest related activities have provided the primary source of income (World

Bank, 2008).

Besides, forests provided raw materials to a number of major and minor

industries in India, such as saw mills, pulp and paper, plywood, polyfibres, match,

tannins and to many drug industries. These industries have been a gainful source of

employment in the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors all over the country.

Dhyani et al. (2007) have been estimated that in the primary and secondary sectors,

forestry activities generate employment of approximately 240 million person days per

day. According to them, forest-based enterprises generate high level of employment

to the tune of 30 million people in India. Outstanding among the products that create

jobs are oil seeds (36.5 million humandays/year), gums and resins (31.3 million

humandays/year), bamboo (17.5 million humandays/year) and kapok floss (3.6

million humandays/year).

59
 3.1.2 Ecological Relevance

Apart from various socio-economic services (tangible benefits), forests also

provide various ecological and environmental services (intangible benefits) such as

provision of water and its recharge and purification, prevention of soil erosion,

regulation of flood control, provision of nutrients through rivers and streams to

enhance agriculture productivity, storm protection services, particularly by

mangroves, biodiversity conservation, carbon store and carbon sequestration, etc.

Forests as Watersheds

Water and fertile soil are the two most important prerequisites of our food

security. Both are irrevocably linked with forest and watershed conservation. As an

integral part of the watershed, forests regulate the water regime, conserve soil and

control floods. Because of the thick humus layer, loose soil and the soil retaining

power of tree roots, forests are vitally important for maintaining and regulating water-

flows and sub-soil water-regimes. In fact, water flow, both quantitative and

qualitative, may now be regarded as the single greatest product of forests, since most

of our rivers and streams emanate from forests and forests constitute the upper

catchments of these water bodies (MoEF, 2006a).

Conservation of Biological Diversity

A most significant function of forests is that they serve as storehouses of

biological diversity. They provide natural habitat for wildlife and the ecological

conditions for maintenance and natural evolution of genetic diversity of flora and

fauna (MoEF, 2006b). In India, there is great diversity of natural ecosystems. The

country is one among the 12 mega-diversity countries of the world and has a rich

heritage of species and genetic strains of flora and fauna. It has also two global

60
terrestrial biodiversity hot spots- the North Eastern Himalayas and the other is the

Western Ghats. The panorama of Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropical rain

forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the North-

Eastem States, to dry alpine scrub high in the Himalayas to the north. Between the

two extremes, the country has semi-evergreen rain forests, thorn forests, subtropical

pine forests in the lower mountain zone and temperate mountain forests (MoEF,

2009a). Naturally, such a diverse flora provides for a very diverse fauna. The public

forests dedicated to the protection of wildlife habitats include 96 national parks and

509 wildlife sanctuaries. The total area of 21.39 Mha, which covers 27.8% of the total

recorded forest area, is maintained under the protected area network (FSI, 2011).

Forests as Carbon Sinks

The role of forests in carbon sequestration has significantly increased the

importance of forestry as a climate change mitigation strategy. Forests, particularly

tropical contribute more than other terrestrial biomes to climate relevant cycles and

processes (Chaudhry and Arora, 2010). They influence climate and the climate

change process mainly by effecting the changes in the quantum of CO2 in the

atmosphere. They absorb CO2 from atmosphere and store carbon in wood leaves,

litter, roots and soil by acting as 'carbon sink' (FAO, 2006). Globally, forests store

more than 55% of the global carbon stored in vegetation. Recent studies suggest that

about 11 million hectares of forests each year are lost in tropical regions due to

deforestation and conversion of land to agriculture resulting in the emissions of about

3.6 to 4.5 billion tons of CO2, so that deforestation accounts for around 17% of the

global carbon emissions. In Indian context, recent estimates suggest that in a period of

10 years, from 1995 to 2005, there is an annual increment of 37.68 million tons in

61
carbon stocks stored in Indian forests which means an annual removal of 138.15

million tons of COaeq (Kishwan et ah, 2009).

3.2 Forest Cover in India

The forest cover, as reported in ISFRs of Forest Survey of India, refers to all

lands more than one ha in area with a tree canopy density more than 10 percent (FSI,

2011). The first attempt to assess forest cover in India using satellite data was made

by National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) in mid 1984. NRSA interpreted the

Landsat imagery and published two sets of forest cover data, one for 1972-75 and

another for 1980-82. The data revealed that during these seven years, the forest cover

of the country decreased by 91,710 sq. km (from 555,180 sq km in 1972-75 to

463,470 sq km in 1980-82). The annual loss of forest cover worked out at 13,000 sq.

km. According to CSE's Fifth Chizens' Report (1999), most of these forests were

natural forests as there was very limited area under plantations at that time. However,

according to FSI (1989), the NRSA estimates suffered from many inadequacies and

did not represent the correct picture of the forest cover in the country.

Almost simultaneously, the FSI, an organization under the Ministry of

Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India, also developed capability of

interpreting satellite data for assessment of forest cover. The first assessment of forest

cover by FSI was brought out in the State of Forest Report, 1987. Its initial estimate

of forest cover of the country was 64.87 million ha (19.70%) of the land area. A

reconciliation exercise between NRSA and FSI led to the final figure of 64.20 million

ha (19.52%) of forest cover in India. After this, FSI started assessing forest cover

status of the country on a biennial basis and the findings are reported in the

subsequent SFRs.

62
 The assessments are principally based on interpretation of satellite data. The

techniques of assessment have changed and improved over time due to progress in

technology in the field of remote sensing, data acquisition and processing and

improvement in the method of interpretation. For instance, in the first assessment,

reported in SFR 1987, the satellite data was interpreted visually at the scale of 1:1

million. The minimum mappable area of forest in this assessment was 400 ha.

Subsequent assessments till 1999 were based on visual interpretafion of satellite data

at the scale of 1:250,000 with the minimum mappable area of 25 ha. From 2001, the

interpretation of satellite imageries became fully digital and the scale of mapping was

improved to 1:50,000. With the adoption of digital method of interpretation, FSI has

been able to delineate and record all the forest areas down to 1 ha in extent. The

technological and methodological changes in the forest cover assessment of India,

since the first report of 1987, are summarized in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Forest Cover Mapping in India (1987-2011)

Cycle of Year Data Sensor Resolution Scale Minimum Mode of

Assessment Period mappable Inter-
area (ha) pretation
First 1987 1981-83 LANDSAT-MSS 80 m 1:1 million 400 Visual
Second 1989 1985-87 LANDSAT-TM 30 m 1:250,0000 25 Visual
Third 1991 1987-89 LANDSAT-TM 30 m 1:250,0000 25 Visual
Fourth 1993 1989-91 LANDSAT-TM 30 m 1:250,0000 25 Visual
Fifth 1995 1991-93 IRS-IBLISSII 36.25 m 1:250,0000 25 Visual &
Digital
Sixth 1997 1993-95 IRS-IBLISSII 36.25 m 1:250,0000 25 Visual &
Digital
Seventh 1999 1996-98 IRS-IC/IDLISS 23.5 m 1:250,0000 25 Visual &
III Digital
Eighth 2001 2000 IRS-lC/lDLlSS 23.5 m 1:50,000 Digital
111

Ninth 2003 2002 IRS-lDLlSSlll 23.5 m 1:50,000 Digital

Tenth 2005 2004 IRS-lDLlSSlll 23.5 m 1:50,000 Digital
Eleventh 2009 2006 1RS-P6 LISS 111 23.5 m 1:50,000 Digital
Twelfth 2011 2008-09 1RS-P6 LlSS 111 23.5 m& 1:50,000 Digital
&1RS-P6 '
56 m
Source: State of Forest Report, 2011, Forest Survey of India

63
 3.2,1 Current Status of Forest Cover

As per the latest assessment of Forest Survey of India in 2011, total forest

cover of India is 692027 km^ which works out as 21.05% of the total geographical

area of the country. The forest cover has been further classified on the basis of tree

canopy density into Very Dense Forest (more than 70% crown density), Moderate

Dense Forest (40% to 70% crown density) and Open Forest (10%i to 40% crown

density). They account for about 12.06 %, 46.35 % and 41.95 % of the total forest

cover respectively and also include mangrove cover of the corresponding density

class. However, they comprise only 2.54 %, 9.76% and 8.75%) respectively as far as

their contribution in the total land area of the country is concerned. Of the total forest

cover, only 404207 km (12.3%)) of area comprises dense forest (very dense and

moderately dense forest) with more than 40%) crown density. Thus, only 12.3%) of the

total land area of the country has adequate forest cover. Scrub, though shown

separately, is not counted in the forest cover. The country level forest cover is

summarized in Table 3.2 and their proportion is depicted in a pie chart in percentage

terms in Figure 3.1.

Table 3.2 Forest Cover of India in 2011

Class Area (sq.km.) % of Geographical Area

Forest Cover
a) Very Dense Forest 83,471 2.54
b) Moderately Dense Forest 320,736 9.76
c) Open Forest 287,820 8.75
Total Forest Cover' 692,027 21.05
Scrub 42,176 1.28
Non-forest 2,553,060 77.67
Total Geographical Area 3,287,263 100.00
Source: Forest Survey of India, State of Forest Report, 201
' Includes 4662 km^area under mangroves.

64
 Figure- 3.1 Forest Cover of India in 2011

Very Dense Moderately

Forest k Dense Forest
2.54 % \. 9.76% „
•|^^j»_^ Open Forest
H ^ ^ ^ p p l . S.75%
y^]^pi^^ Scrub
fi<r^^ — S M I 1'2S%

Non-Forest
77.67 %

Source: Forest Survey of India, State of Forest Report. 2011.

3.2.2 Regional Variations in Forest Cover

Although forest coverage is about 21.05 % at the national level, the proportion

varies widely among states (Appendix IV), minimum being 3.5 % in Punjab and

maximum 90.7 % in Mizoram. This variation is expected due to location of States in

different climatic zones and their topography (Raut. 2004). For instance, north-eastern

region of the country comprising seven States, namely. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,

Manipur. Meghalaya. Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura is endowed with rich forest

resources. The region, which constitutes only 7.98 % of geographical area of the

country, accounts for nearly one fourth (24.5 %) of its total forest cover. The total

forest cover in the region is 173219 km', which is 66.07 % of its geographical area in

comparison to the national forest cover of 21.05 %. Similarly, forest cover in six

Union Territories (UTs) viz. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and

Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu and Lakshadweep and is about 74.2% of their total

geographical area, but it accounts for only 1% of total forest area in the country.

Nearly 58 % of India's forests are categorized as dense forests and 42% as open

65
 forests. The proportion of dense forests (tree cover with canopy density of 40 % and

above) and open forests (tree cover with canopy density of 10-40 %) also varies

considerably among States. This is clear from the fact that only three States namely,

Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh account for nearly 1/3'^'

(32.9%) of the dense forest in the country, however, they comprise only 16% of the

total geographical area of the country. Thus, interstate variations in relatively

proportionate geographical area under forests are quite substantial.

Besides, wide disparities also exist in terms of per capita availability of forest

cover between different States. The availability varies from 4.88 km^ per person in

Arunachal Pradesh to 0.01 km per person in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana

and West Bengal. Apart from these, there are many forest poor states with less than a

critical minimum area of 0.1 km per person viz. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka,

Kerala, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Assam and Jharkhand.

3.2.3 Trends in Forest Cover (1987 to 2011)

As mentioned earlier that the Forest Survey (FSI) of India has been regularly

assessing the forest cover of the country on a two-year cycle since 1987. The updates

in terms of changes in forest cover and its different components (i.e. dense forests and

open forests) are regularly published in various State of Forest Reports (SFRs). Till

now, twelve cycles of forest cover assessment have been completed and the latest was

published in SFR, 2011. Table 3.3 presents the trends in total forest cover, dense

forest and open forest in India from 1987 to 2011.

66
 Table 3.3 Trends in Forest Cover (1987 to 2011)

Years Total Forest Cover Dense Forest Open Forest

Area %ofTGA Area "/oofTFC Area %ofTFC
(sq km) (sq km) (sq km)
1987 642041 19.5 361412 56.3 276583 43.1
1989 640134 19.5 378470 59.1 257409 40.2
1991 639182 19.4 385008 60.2 249930 39.1
1993 640107 19.5 385576 60.2 250275 39.1
1995 639600 19.5 385756 60.3 249311 39.0
1997 633397 19.3 367260 58.0 261310 41.3
1999 637293 19.4 377358 59.2 255064 40.0
2001 653898 19.9 395169 60.4 258729 39.6
2003 677816 20.6 388574 57.3 289242 42,7
2005 690171 20.9 403420 58.5 286751 41.5
2009 690899 21.02 403666 58.3 288377 41.7
2011 692027 21.1 404207 58.4 287820 41.6
Source: Forest Survey of India, State of Forest Reports 1987 to 2011.

It is clear from Table 3.3 that all the components of forest cover have recorded

an increase from 1987 to 2011. The total forest cover increased by 49986 sq km from

1987 to 2011. Similarly the area under dense and open forests has increased by 42795

sq. km and 11237 sq. km respectively in the same period. However, due to changes in

the technique and scale of interpretation from 2001 (Table 3.1), any direct comparison

of forest cover assessments since 2001 (i.e. from 2001 to 2011) with that of prior

assessments till 1999 (i.e. froml 989-1999) would be invalid (FSI, 2001). It is because

of this reason, the data for analyzing the changes/ trends in forest cover from 1989 to

2011 has been divided into two time periods- Period A (1989 to 1999) and Period B

(2001 to 2011) (Table: 3.4).

Table 3.4 Change in Forest Cover (1989 to 2011)

Category/Year Period A Period B

1989 1999 Change in 1999 2001 2011 Change in 2011
Area % Area %
Dense Forest 378470 377358 -1112 -0.3 395169 404207 9038 2.2
Open Forest 257409 255064 -2345 -0.9 258729 287820 29091 10.1
Total Forest 640134 637293 -2841 -0.4 653898 692027 38129 5.5
Source: Forest S jrvey of Jnc ia, State of Forest Repo rts 1989 , 1999,200] &201!.

67
 As far as changes in different components of forest cover is concerned, only

marginal changes are observed during Period A, from 1989 to 1999 at all-India level

(Table 3.4). Over the period often years, the total forest cover of the country declined

by 0.4 percent while the area under dense and open forest cover declined by 0.3 and

0.9 percent respectively. On the other hand, during Period B, from 2001 to 2011,

significant increasing trends were recorded in different components of forest cover at

all India level. The total forest cover of the country increased by 5.5 percent with 2.2

percent increase in dense forests and 10.1 percent increase in open forests. In terms of

area, the forest cover recorded an increase of about 38129 sq km, out of which 9038

sq km (23.7%) was due to increase in dense forest and 29091 sq km (76.3%) was due

to increase in open forests.

However, this increase in forest cover (in Period B), is mainly on account of

technological and methodological changes incorporated in the forest cover assessment

since 2001 (Table 3.1). For instance, with the adoption of new technology in 2001

when the assessment for the entire country was done digitally on 1:50,000 scale, it

had become possible to capture forest cover patches down to 1 hectare. Thus, the

increase in forest cover during Period B was partially due to the capture of some

additional forest patches (FSI, 2005). Moreover, 'forest cover' was redefined as

consisting of all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of

more than 10 percent, irrespective of land use and ownership. Consequently, all

perennial woody vegetation (including bamboos, palms, coconut, apple, mango,

neem, peepal, etc.) has started to be treated as tree cover since 2001 (FSI, 2001).

While before 2001 (i.e. from 1989 to 1999), forest cover was largely confined to the

assessment of large continuous wooded lands and only plantations were included in

the total forest cover along with the natural forests. Areas identified during ground

68
 tmthing having other land uses or under private ownership were deliberately excluded

from forest cover. Since 2001, all lands with tree crops, such as agroforestry

plantations, fruits orchards, tea and coffee estates with trees, etc., which are not

actually forests, have also been included in total forest cover in the category of open

forest (FSI, 2001). As a result, the open forest, which has shown a decline of 2345 sq

km (0.9%) during Period A, (1989 to 1999), has tremendously increased by 29091 sq

km (10.1%) during Period B, (2001 to 2011) (Table 3.4). As the total forest cover has

largely increased due to increase in open forest (76.3%)) during Period B, the increase

may also be attributed to the compositional changes in the definition of forest cover to

include additional tree crops apart from technical and methodological changes in

forest cover assessment.

Some studies may also be quoted in this regard. For instance, the Sub-Group-I

on Forestry (2011), constituted by Planning Commission of India in its report has

analyzed the trends in forest cover from 2001 to 2007. It was found that the forest

cover has quantitatively increased during the period due to increase in plantations,

limited harvesting of timber as well as protection and management accorded by Forest

Department and Village Forest Protection Committees (VFPCs). However, according

to the report, the quality of forest cover and the productivity from forest areas have

generally declined during the period owing mostly to biotic pressures like grazing,

human interference, habitat fragmentation, forest fires, etc. The assessment of forest

cover by FSI using satellite imagery was also criticized by Puyravaud et al. (2010) as

it fails to distinguish native forests from tree plantations, which are often

monocultures of exotic species that have limited value for endangered biodiversity.

The authors in their study 'Cryptic Destruction of India's Native Forests' have

repudiated the government claim of 5% increase in forest cover between 1997 to 2007

69
 by pointing out that large chunks of this cover were actually made up of exotic tree

plantations such as eucalyptus and acacia. When the plantations were subtracted from

the total forest cover, the figures showed a 1.5 to 2.7 % shrinking of India's natural

forests each year. The researchers observed that between 1997 and 2007, there was a

sharp decline of natural forests from 514,137 sq. km to 389, 970 sq. km. Conversely,

in the same period, there was a rise in total forest cover from 660,337 sq km to

690,250 sq km, the tree plantation grew rapidly from 146,200 sq km to 389,970 sq

km. The rise in forest cover was thus entirely due to the tree plantations or 'artificial

forests'.

Thus, it is clear that apart from technological and methodological changes in

the forest cover assessment, the increase in forest cover over the period of time from

1989 to 2011 is not because of increase in native forests but it is mainly due to the

addition of tree plantations or 'artificial forests' in the total forest cover.

3.3 Major Issues OF Forests in India

3.3.1 Forest Degradation

India has been able to arrest the rate of deforestation and the area under forest

has increased to a small extent in the recent years. However, forest degradation

appears to be continuing, which is evident from the low level of growing stock in

Indian forests. The growing stock per ha of forest area as per both in 2009 and 2011

ISFRs is esfimated to be around 58.46 m^ per ha of forest area. This is far below the

global average of 130.7 mVha and the South and Southeast Asian average of 98.6

mVha for the corresponding period (FAO, 2006). Moreover, more than 40 per cent of

the forests in country are degraded and under-stocked (Aggarwal et al, 2009,

Bahuguna et al, 2004). The National Forest Commission report 2006 indicated that

70
 around 41 per cent of total forest in the country is degraded, 70 per cent of the forests

have no natural regeneration, and 55 per cent of the forests are prone to fire (MoEF,

2006a). The factors affecting forest degradation in India are demand and supply gap

of forest products, diversion of forest land for non-forestry use, encroachments,

shifting cultivation, over and unregulated grazing in forest areas, and forest fires (FSI,

2011; Davidar et al, 2010; Aggarwal et al, 2009; MoEF, 2009b; MoEF, 2006a).

Factors affecting Forest Degradation

Demand and Supply Gap of Forest Products

India's huge population contributes to the large demand base of the forest

products. With limited forest cover, the supply of forest products does not match the

demand and hence there is a substantial gap between demand and sustainable supply

of various forest products such as fuel wood, timber and fodder in India. This often

leads to unsustainable exploitation, thereby resulting in degradation of forests. These

degraded forests, in turn, provide even less to these products and services, thus,

resulting in a vicious cycle where the demand and supply gap of the products results

in unsustainable exploitation of resources and vice versa (CAEP-TERI, 2011) There

has been different estimates of the demand and supply of major forest products. The

estimates by TERI (Aggarwal et al, 2009) put the demand-supply gap for fiiel wood,

fodder and timber at 100, 853 and 14 million tonnes respectively (Table 3.5).

Table 3.5 Demand and Supply Gap of Forest Products (2004)

Forest Products Demand (MT) Sustainable Supply Gap/Unsustainable
(MT) Harvest (MT)
Fuel wood 228 128 100
Fodder (green & dry) 1594 741 853
Timber 55 41 14
Source: Aggarwal et al, 2009
Data is based on TER] estimates and compilation.

71
 The ISFR 2011 made an estimation of consumption of woods by commercial

and household sectors for various purposes and production potential of woods from

forest sources as well as from tress outside forest (Table 3.6). The total annual

consumption of wood in constructions and furniture - both in commercial and

household sector - as well as for agricuhural implements are estimated to be 48.0

million cubic meters (m cum) in Round Wood Equivalent (RWE). However, the total

production of timber stands at 45.95 m cum, showing a gap of 2.05 m cum annually

(FSI,2011).

Table 3.6 Consumption and Production of Forest Products (2011)

Forest Products Consumption Production
Wood (RWE in million cubic metre) 48.0 45.95
Fuelwood (million tonnes) 58.47 19.25'
Fodder (Livestock dependence on 199.58
Forests) (in million)

Source: India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2011, Forest Survey of India.
"Annual availability of fuel woodfromTrees Outside Forests (TOF).

In terms of volume extracted, fiiel wood is the most important produce of

India's forests. Of the total demand for wood in the country, it is estimated that over

80 % of the demand is just for fuel wood. As per the 2011 Census, 49 % of the

households in the country use fuel wood for cooking. The MoEF (2006a) has

estimated India's annual demand for fuel wood at 200 million tonnes (MT), 49% of

which comes from farm forestry and the remaining 51% from natural forests. Thus, it

is implied that 100-115 MT of fuel wood is extracted from natural forests, which is 6-

7 times higher than the estimated sustainable supply of 17 MT from those forests.

This unsustainable extraction of fuel wood is one of the primary reasons for

degradation of Indian forests. There are various studies which indicate this correlation

(Bhattacharya and Joshi, 2000; Hertberg, Amdt, and Shekhar, 2000). Apart from

72
 these, about 199.38 million (38.49%) livestock was estimated to be dependent ,

partially or completely, on forests for feed, either through small feeding or grazing.

Diversion of Forest Landfor Non-Forestry Use

Diversion of forests for developmental activity has a major impact on India's

forest cover and its quality. Since independence, forest land was prime target for its

diversion for resettlement, agriculture, industrialization and the trend was continued

by the Forest (Conservation) Act (FCA) 1980. During the period 1951 to 1980, as

many as 42.38 lakhi ha of forest lands were diverted to non-forest use. According to

the FSI (1987), official diversion of forest lands for non forestry use since 1950s has

been an important factor behind the reduction in the productivity of goods and

services from forests. In 1980, FCA was enacted to provide priority to conservation of

forests by regulating the diversion of forest land for non-forest activities. Now the

prior approval of the Centre was required for diversion of forest land for non-forestry

purposes (see details in Chapter 5). However, despite the passing of the FCA,

diversion of forest land was continued. Since the Act came into force in 1980, 23,404

proposals related to developmental activities, rehabilitation of displaced families as

well as encroachment have been approved by diverting 11.99 lakh ha of forest land

over the period (approximately 30 years) 1981 to 2011. The average annual diversion

of forest land after the Act is about 0.36 lakh ha where as prior to Act it was 1.5 lakh

ha (MoEF, 2010). Although the rate of diversion has come down with the

implementation of FCA 1980, there is still a significant amount of area being diverted

for non forestry purposes. Purpose wise area of diverted forest land for both the

periods is presented in the Tables 3.7(a) & (b).

73
 Table 3.7 (a) Diversion of Forest Lands before Forest Conservation Act (1951 to
1980)
Purpose Area (lakh hectares)
Agriculture 26.23
River Valley Project 5.02
Industries 1.34
Transmission Lines and Roads 0.61
Miscellaneous 10.08
Total 42.38
Source: Source: Forest Sector Report India 2010, MoEF

Table 3.7 (b) Diversion of Forest Lands after Forest Conservation Act (1981 to
2011)
Purpose Area (lakh hectares)
Defense 0.46 (3.8)
Encroachments 3.7 (30.8)
Social Services 0.65 (5.4)
Roads & Railways 0.63 (5.2)
Power Projects 1.64(13.7)
Mining 1.49(12.4)
Irrigation 1.67(13.9)
Miscellaneous 1.75(14.6)
Total 11.99(100.0)
Source: Forest Sector Report India 2010, MoEF

It is clear from Table 3.7(a) & 3.7(b) that while prior to the Act, the bulk of

diversion of forest land was for agriculture purposes, which was about 26.23 lakh ha

(60%), in the post Act period, largest chunk of forest land, about 3.7 lakh ha (30.8%),

was diverted for regularization of encroachment. Bulk of the regularization was in

1990 and 2001. Only about 5.4 per cent of the total forestland diverted has been for

social services which include dispensary/hospital, disputed settlement claims,

drinking water projects, forest village conversion, rehabilitation, village schools, etc

(CSE, 2012). According to CSE (2012), maximum diversion of forestland during the

post Act period (1981-2011) was occurred in the last four years, from 2007 to 2011.

74
 During this period, 8,284 projects were granted forest clearance and 2.04 lakh ha of

forestland was diverted. This is about 25 per cent of all forestland diverted for

development projects since 1981. Even, in one single year- 2009, as much as 0.88

lakh ha of forestland was granted clearance. The pace of forestland diversion,

therefore, doubled in these five years.

Encroachment on Forest Land

The ever-increasing demand for regularization of encroachments on forest

lands is one the most important reasons for degradation of forests. Encroachment on

forest lands especially for cultivation had been a regular phenomenon since

independence. As the population grew, there was more and more demand for land for

agriculture. Various States and Union Territory Governments officially diverted as

many as 2.623 million hectares of forest lands for agriculture during the period from

1951 to 1980. In addition, many hectares of unoccupied non-forest government lands

were also allocaited for agriculture. It was also reported that many State Governments,

especially Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kamataka and Gujarat regularized the

unauthorized occupations of forest lands for cultivation many times before the

enforcement of Forest (Conservation) Act (FCA) 1980 (FSI, 1987).

In 1980, the FCA ensured that no diversion of forest land is possible without

the prior approval of the Government of India. Besides, the National Forest Policy,

1988 stipulated that there would be no regularization of existing encroachments on

forestland. However, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), under

pressure from States, evolved a national consensus on the issue and issued guidelines

on September 1990 on regularization of pre-1980 encroachments. It was decided that

all post-1980 encroachments would not be regularized. But, the encroachment of

75
 forest land, and socio-economic pressures to regularize them were continued even

after 1980. Till 2001, the Central Government alone had regularized encroachment of

over 3.66 lakh hectares of forestland in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, Arunachal

Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Tripura and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Thus,

encroachment on forest land is an ongoing process. As on 31^' March 2004, around

13.43 lakh ha of forest land was reported under encroachment (MoEF, 2006a).

Mining in Forest Areas

The requirements of economic development make the extraction of the

nation's mineral resources an important priority. But, mining is closely associated

with forestry and environment issues as a major part of the nation's known reserves of

some key minerals are in areas which are under forest cover. Thus, mining activity is

an intervention in the environment, and if unregulated, has the potential to adversely

disturb the ecological balance of an area (MoEF, 2006a). As far as the diversion of

forest land for mining is concerned, about 1098 cases were approved for 0.088 million

ha of forest area from 1980 to 2004 and 211 cases were approved for 0.012 million ha

of forest area from 2005 to 2009 under Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 (Lok Sabha

Debates, 2009). Thus, there is a need to design a framework of sustainable

development, v/hich takes care of bio diversity issues and to ensure that mining

activity takes place along with suitable measures for restoration of the ecological

balance.

Forest Fires

In India, forest fire is a widespread and recurring phenomenon and causes

extensive damage to forests. Some fires are incidental, but majority of them are man-

made and are created to facilitate extraction of a variety of NTFPs such as tendu

76
 X•"-^^•^

leaves, sal seeds and honey to have a good yield of grass, and for cTearing the forests

for shifting cultivation purposes. In some parts of the country, forests are set on fire

for socio-cultural and religious purposes (CAEP-TERJ, 2011). As there is no accurate

assessment of such damages by the State Forest Departments (SFDs), reliable data on

the extent of burnt forests area and value of the forest crop destroyed due to forest fire

are not available. There is also a tendency of under reporting the severity and extent

of burnt areas. However, FSI has been collecting data by recording the incidence of

forest fires during National Forest Inventories (NFI). Based on the analysis of about

22,000 sample plot data collected during 2002 to 2008 from all over the country, FSI

has estimated that about 2.94 million ha forests or 3.69 per cent of the recorded forest

area, are annually affected by mild to heavy ground fire of which 1.64 million ha is

affected by moderate to heavy fire (ICFRE, 2010). In most cases, fire protection is

based on a system of fire lines, which is inadequate and ineffective due to lack of

funds (MoEF, 2006a).

Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are

cultivated temporarily, and then abandoned (Tripathi and Barik, 2003). This

unscientific form of land use affects 10 Mha of forest area across 16 states especially

in the north-eastern part of the country. The practice of shifting cultivation has been a

major factor responsible for forest loss in these areas. There are varying estimates,

which indicate that around 3 to 26 million people are involved in this practice (MoEF,

2006a). Earlier, this practice was in harmony with the regeneration capacity of forests

but over the years due to increase in population, the rotation cycle of shifting

cultivation has decreased from 20 to 4 years. This has resulted in large scale

degradation of forests. Productivity of these lands has also come down, which has

77
 made people undertake intensive agriculture, further degrading the forests (CAEP-

TERI,2011).

Open and Unregulated Grazing

Open and unregulated grazing is another important cause of forest degradation

in India. It has adverse impact on growing stock as well as on regeneration capacity of

forests. A substantial percentage of pasture and grazing lands has been encroached

upon for agricultural and other purposes. The reduction in extent of pasture and

grazing lands, and loss in their productivity has led to more and more forests being

used as grazing lands (FSI, 1987). India's total fodder consuming livestock population

as per the 2007 Livestock Census is estimated to be 518.6 million. Of these 199.6

millions of livestock, depend, partially or fully on forest for fodder (FSI, 2011).

3.3.2 Insufficient Database and Information Systems for Management Planning

Information and monitoring systems for the forest sector are instrumental for

effective policies and planning, valuation of forest resources, efficient investments,

and engendering accountability. The development of systems for collecting,

maintaining and disseminating forest-sector statistics is essential for sustainable forest

management. However, according to Indian forestry experts, the availability,

accessibility, consistency, reliability and quality of data and information relating to

Indian forestry sector is a major concern for policymakers and scientists.

While highlighting a national concern on inadequacy of forest resource

information, the National Forest Policy (NFP) of 1988, in its Section 4.14, has

emphasized on the need for information collection and dissemination of forests

statistics. Section 4.14 entitled "Forest Survey and Database" states:

78
 "Inadequacy of data regarding forest resources is a matter of concern because

this creates a false sense of complacency. It is imperative to comple the survey of

forest resources on scientific lines and to regularly update information. For this

purpose, periodical collection, collation and publication of reliable data on relevant

aspects of forest management needs to be improved with recourse to modem

technology and equipment".

Although mandated in the NFP, a comprehensive and systematic mechanism

for collection, collation, analysis and dissemination of forestry data at the national

level is yet not available. The statistical reporting in the forest sector has been

inadequate to meet both national and international requirements. There is no reliable

assessment of the growing stock of trees at state level. Other deficits include a lack of

data on different products from forests and a lack of increment in biomass data. It is

difficult to make economic assessments and set policies without quality data and

information on both the tangible and intangible benefits of forests.

Although, the FSI in its State of Forest Reports provides information on forest

cover of the country, it does not provide separate information on the area under

plantations as well as on natural forests. As these reports do not talk about natural

forests, they also tend to leave the impression that the dense forest cover largely

consists of natural forests. However, according to CSE's Fifth Citizen's Report

(1999), these impressions are wrong as a part of dense forests also consists of

plantations and regenerated natural growth apart from undisturbed pristine forest

cover. Thus, the current information is below the requirements to support sustainable

forest management.

79
3.3.3 Undervaluation of Forestry Sector

Despite making significant contribution to India's economic and ecological

systems, India's forests have not been given due recognition in the national accounts.

The current approach far accounting of farestry sector contribution to GDP grossly

under estimates their contribution to the national economy due to insufficient

accounting of tangible benefits of forests, non-recording of intangible benefits, non-

recording of unauthorized extraction and insufficient recordings of losses in the

forests (MoEF, 2006c). Contribution of forests to the economy is traditionally

recognized through tangible products of calculated value like timber and other forest

products but a range of non-priced as well as highly subsidized products such as fuel-

wood, fodder and a range of NTFPs including medicinal plants that are exchanged in

an informal manner outside the market system, are not measured. The limited market

exchange of various forest products results in gross undervaluation of the contribution

of the forests, which has led to an inadequate allocation of funds to the forestry sector

(GOI,2011).

Moreover, the intangible services provided by forests such as watershed

function, prevention of soil erosion, regulation of floods, carbon store and carbon

sequestration, biodiversity conservation and recreational, cultural and aesthetic

services are also ignored due to absence of an appropriate market system (MoEF,

2006c). The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07) document also states that the potential of

forests to reduce poverty, realize economic growth, and their contribution to the local

and global environment has not been fully realized due to a combination of market

and institutional failures. Thus, forests are consistently and seriously undervalued in

economic and social terms (GOI, 2006). The value of forests reflected in the System

of National Accounts (SNA) represents less than 10% of the real value. For example,

80
the contribution of forests to tlie GDP was mere 0.65% in 2007-08, down from 3.7%

in 1970-71, 2.4% in 1981-82, 1.5% in 1991-92 and 0.96% in 2001-02 (CMIE, 2010).

However, these figures exclude contribution of the forest based industries, which are

included under the manufacturing sector. More importantly, these figures are based

only on recorded removals from forests which are only a fraction of actual removals

and do not take into account the environmental services provided by the forests.

Contribution of many forest services is also perhaps recorded under agriculture rather

than forestry (Saigal, 2003).

3.3.4 Low Investment in Forestry Sector

Despite the recognition by the planners of the importance of the forestry sector

in Indian economy, and in growing scenario of urbanization and industrialization in

the country, the investment in the forestry sector is low and inadequate. The forestry

sector does not appear to be high on the government's funding priority list. The plan

investment in forestry and wildlife sector so far, including State and Central plan, has

been about l%o of total plan outlay (The Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-12). To

overcome the problems faced by forests. National Forest Commission has

recommended allocation of 2.5%) of national budget to the forestry sector. The

Planning Commission in the Eleventh Five Year Plan Mid Term Evaluation has also

recommended increasing the allocation to atleast 5% of annual. State and Central

sector outlay to the forestry sector preferably by the Twelfth Five Year Plan.

However, the allocation for the Environment, Forests & Wildlife has remained below

1% of which Forest and wildlife sector received only 0.4% to 0.5% of overall

Eleventh Plan allocation. Thus, the plan funds for the development of forest resources

are inadequate to ensure the integrated management of the land and water resources in

the country in a sustainable manner.

81
Conclusion

Forests are an important natural resource of India. They assume a great

significance in Indian economy by providing a range of social, economic and

ecological services. However, the present status of forests in the country is not

satisfactory. It is almost a neglected sector in the structure of Indian economy.

According to the ISFR 2011, the forest cover of India is 69.20 million ha. This forest

cover corresponds to 21.05 % of the total geographical area of the country but falls

short to the national goal (National Forest Policy 1988) of achieving 33 % of the land

area under forest cover. Apart from this, out of the total forest cover of 21.05 %, only

12.3 % of forests are under dense forests, with high ecological value.

A large part of country's forest cover includes tree plantations such as

agroforestry plantations, coffee and tea estates with trees, fruit orchards, coconut

crops, etc. Although, these tree plantations give reflectance similar to that of forest

cover, they are not actually forests and cannot perform various socio-economic and

ecological functions of forests. Mathur and Sachdeva (2003) have pointed out that the

ecological benefits of natural forests are difficult to replicate in man-made forests as

functions like carbon-sequestration, watershed protection, etc. largely depend on

topography, soil conditions and density of forests. They mentioned that while natural

forests provide for all these fianctions, only some of these benefits may arise from

man-made forests. It is also clear from an ecological definition of forests, which

defines forest as "an area with a high density of trees". These plant communities

cover large areas of the globe and fiinction as carbon dioxide sinks, animal habitats,

hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constitufing one of the most

important aspects of our biosphere" (ICFRE, 2010). Similarly, the technical glossary

of the Forest Research Institute (1953) defined forests as "a plant community,

,-. 82
predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, usually with a closed canopy".

However, under afforestation programme in India, considerable areas were covered

by planting Eucalyptus and other exotic species which are no substitute of native

forests. It is reported that Eucalyptus lead to an increase in water run-off and soil loss,

make the soil acidic and lower water table (Raut, 2004). Thus, the increase in the

forest cover of the country in recent years may be attributed to the compositional

changes in the definition of forest cover (since 2001) to include additional tree

plantations as well as to the technological and methodological changes in the forest

cover assessment.

Forests in India are under severe biotic pressure due to large human and

livestock population. Although qualitative decline in forest cover has been arrested

during the recent years, degradation of existing stock of forests is still continued.

According to the report of National Forest Commission, about 41% of forest cover of

the country has already been degraded and dense forests are losing their crown

density and productivity continuously. The huge demand and supply gap of forest

products has resulted in the unsustainable extraction of forest resources in India.

Despite the regulation of diversion of forest lands for non-forestry purposes by the

FCA 1980, large areas of forest lands are still being diverted for agriculture as well as

for other developmental purposes. The forests are also degraded due to several other

anthropogenic pressures like over and unregulated grazing, shifting cultivation and

vulnerabilities to forest fires and so on. Thus, it is clear that although, the area under

forests is increasing, one is not sure of the quality of the existing forest stock.

Degradation of natural forests due to several factors remains a major concern of forest

management.

83
 Apart from these, insufficient database and information systems, its gross

undervaluation in economic and social terms, and low investments by the Government

are other major issues of India's forestry sector. Despite providing various tangible

and intangible services to the economy, forests are seriously and continuously

undervalued in social and economic terms. It is probably due to the lack of database

and information systems on forest resources in India. As according to the World Bank

(2008), the inadequate information on forests and weak monitoring capacity result in

poor forest policies, planning, and management, hamper efforts to reduce illegal and

unsustainable extraction of forest resources and improve transparency, and lead to

undervaluation of forest resources. Such conditions, in turn, contribute to continuous

decline in area, health, stock, and flows of forest resources. Thus, the availability,

accessibility, consistency, reliability and quality of data and information relating to

Indian forestry system are major concerns for policymakers that need to be addressed.

84