Fundamentals of Aerodynamits

Fifth Edition in SI Units

John D. Anderson, Jr.

Curator of Aerodynamics
National Air and Space Museum
Smithsonian Institution
and
Professor Emeritus
University of Maryland

Mc
Graw
Hill
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 Preface to the Fifth Edition xix 1.12 Applied Aerodynamics: The Aerodynamic
Coefficients—Their Magnitudes and
Variations 75

PART 1 1.13 Historical Note: The Illusive Center

of Pressure 89
Fundamental Principles 1.14 Historical Note: Aerodynamic
Coefficients 93
Chapter 1 1.15 Summary 97
Aerodynamics: Some Introductory 1.16 Problems 98
Thoughts 3
1.1 Importance of Aerodynamics: Historical Chapter 2
Examples 5 Aerodynamics: Some Fundamental Principles
1.2 Aerodynamics: Classification and Practical and Equations 103
Objectives 11
2.1 Introduction and Road Map 104
1.3 Road Map for This Chapter 15
2.2 Review of Vector Relations 105
1.4 Some Fundamental Aerodynamic
Variables 15 2.2.1 Some Vector Algebra 106
1.4.1 Units 18 2.2.2 Typical Orthogonal Coordinate
Systems 107
1.5 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 19
2.2.3 Scalar and Vector Fields 110
1.6 Center of Pressure 32
2.2.4 Scalar and Vector Products 110
1.7 Dimensional Analysis: The Buckingham
2.2.5 Gradient of a Scalar Field 111
Pi Theorem 34
2.2.6 Divergence of a Vector Field 113
1.8 Flow Similarity 41
2.2.7 Curl of a Vector Field 114
1.9 Fluid Statics: Buoyancy Force 52
2.2.8 Line Integrals 114
1.10 Types of Flow 62
2.2.9 Surface Integrals 115
1.10.1 Continuum Versus Free Molecule
Flow 62 2.2.10 Volume Integrals 116
1.10.2 Inviscid Versus 'Viscous Flow 62 2.2.11 Relations Between Line, Surface,
and Volume Integrals 117
1.10.3 Incompressible Versus Compressible
Flows 64 2.2.12 Summary 117
1.10.4 Mach Number Regimes 64 2.3 Models of the Fluid: Control Volumes and
1.11 Viscous Flow: Introduction to Boundary Fluid Elements 117
Layers 68 2.3.1 Finite Control Volume Approach 118

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xii Contents

2.3.2 Infinitesimal Fluid Element 3.2 Bernoulli's Equation 207

Approach 119 3.3 Incompressible Flow in a Duct: The Venturi
2.3.3 Molecular Approach 119 and Low-Speed Wind Tunnel 211
2.3.4 Physical Meaning of the Divergente 3.4 Pitot Tube: Measurement of
of Velocity 120 Airspeed 224
2.3.5 Specification of the Flow Field 121 3.5 Pressure Coefficient 233
2.4 Continuity Equation 125 3.6 Condition an Velocity for Incompressible
2.5 Momentum Equation 130 Flow 235
2.6 An Application of the Momentum Equation: 3.7 Governing Equation for Irrotational,
Drag of a Two-Dimensional Body 135 Incompressible Flow: Laplace's
2.6.1 Comment 144 Equation 236
2.7 Energy Equation 144 3.7.1 Infinity Boundary Conditions 239
2.8 Interim Summary 149 3.7.2 Wall Boundary Conditions 239
2.9 Substantial Derivative 150 3.8 Interim Summary 240
2.10 Fundamental Equations in Terms 3.9 Uniform Flow: Our First Elementary
of the Substantial Derivative 156 Flow 241
2.11 Pathlines, Streamlines, and Streaklines 3.10 Source Flow: Our Second Elementary
of a Flow 158 Flow 243
2.12 Angular Velocity, Vorticity, and Strain 163 3.11 Combination of a Uniform Flow with a
2.13 Circulation 174 Source and Sink 247
2.14 Stream Function 177 3.12 Doublet Flow: Our Third Elementary
2.15 Velocity Potential 181 Flow 251
2.16 Relationship Between the Stream Function
3.13 Nonlifting Flow over a Circular
and Velocity Potential 184 Cylinder 253
2.17 How Do We Solve the Equations? 185 3.14 Vortex Flow: Our Fourth Elementary
Flow 262
2.17.1 Theoretical (Analytical) Solutions 185
3.15 Lifting Flow over a Cylinder 266
2.17.2 Numerical Solutions-Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 187 3.16 The Kutta-Joukowski Theorem and the
Generation of Lift 280
2.17.3 The Bigger Picture 194
2.18 Summary 194 3.17 Nonlifting Flows over Arbitrary Bodies:
The Numerical Source Panel
2.19 Problems 198
Method 282
3.18 Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over a
PART 2 Circular Cylinder-The Real Case 292
3.19 Historical Note: Bernoulli and Euler-The
Inviscid, Incompressible Flow 201 Origins of Theoretical Fluid
Dynamics 300
Chapter 3
3.20 Historical Note: d'Alembert and His
Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Paradox 305
Flow 203
3.21 Summary 306
3.1 Introduction and Road Map 204 3.22 Problems 309
 Contents xiii

Chapter 4 fhapter 5
Incompressible Flow over Airfoils 313 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings 411
4.1 Introduction 315 5.1 Introduction: Downwash and Induced
4.2 Airfoil Nomenclature 318 Drag 415
4.3 Airfoil Characteristics 320 5.2 The Vortex Filament, the Biot-Savart Law,
4.4 Philosophy of Theoretical Solutions and Helmholtz's Theorems 420
for Low-Speed Flow over Airfoils: The 5.3 Prandtl's Classical Lifting-Line
Vortex Sheet 325 Theory 424
4.5 The Kutta Condition 330 5.3.1 Elliptical Lift Distribution 430
4.5.1 Without Friction Could We Have 5.3.2 General Lift Distribution 435
Lift? 334 5.3.3 Effect of Aspect Ratio 438
4.6 Kelvin's Circulation Theorem and the 5.3.4 Physical Significance 444
Starting Vortex 334 5.4 A Numerical Nonlinear Lifting-Line
4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory: The Method 453
Symmetric Airfoil 338 5.5 The Lifting-Surface Theory and the Vortex
4.8 The Cambered Airfoil 348 Lattice Numerical Method 457
4.9 The Aerodynamic Center: Additional 5.6 Applied Aerodynamics: The Delta
Considerations 357 Wing 464
4.10 Lifting Flows over Arbitrary 5.7 Historical Note: Lanchester and
Bodies: The Vortex Panel Prandtl-The Early Development of
Numerical Method 361 Finite-Wing Theory 476
4.11 Modern Low-Speed Airfoils 367 5.8 Historical Note: Prandtl-The
4.12 Viscous Flow: Airfoil Drag 371 Man 480
4.12.1 Estimating Skin-Friction Drag: 5.9 Summary 483
Laminar Flow 372 5.10 Problems 484
4.12.2 Estimating Skin-Friction Drag:
Turbulent Flow 374
Chapter 6
4.12.3 Transition 376
Three-Dimensional Incompressible
4.12.4 Flow Separation 381 Flow 487
4.12.5 Comment 386
4.13 Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over
6.1 Introduction 487
an Airfoil-The Real Case 387 6.2 Three-Dimensional Source 488
4.14 Historical Note: Early Airplane 6.3 Three-Dimensional Doublet 490
Design and the Role of Airfoil 6.4 Flow over A Sphere 492
Thickness 398 6.4.1 Conzment an the Three-Dimensional
4.15 Historical Note: Kutta, Joukowski, Relieving Effect 494
and the Circulation Theory 6.5 General Three-Dimensional Flows: Panel
of Lift 403 Techniques 495
4.16 Summary 405 6.6 Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over a
4.17 Problems 407 Sphere-The Real Case 497
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6.7 Applied Aerodynamics: Airplane Lift 8.3 Speed of Sound 555

and Drag 500 8.3.1 Comments 563
6.7.1 Airplane Lift 500 8.4 Special Forms of the Energy
6.7.2 Airplane Drag 502 Equation 564
6.7.3 Application of Computational Fluid 8.5 When Is A Flow Compressible? 572
Dynamics for the Calculation of Lift and 8.6 Calculation of Normal Shock-Wave
Drag 507 Properties 575
6.8 Summary 511 8.6.1 Comment on the Use of Tables to Solve
6.9 Problems 512 Compressible Flow Problems 590
8.7 Measurement of Velocity in a Compressible
Flow 591
PART 3
Inviscid, Compressible Flow 513
8.7.1 Subsonic Compressible Flow 591
8.7.2 Supersonic Flow 592
8.8 Summary 596
8.9 Problems 599
Chapter 7
Compressible Flow: Some Preliminary
Aspects 515 Chapter 9
7.1 Introduction 516 Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves 601
7.2 A Brief Review of Thermodynamics 518 9.1 Introduction 602
7.2.1 Perfect Gas 518 9.2 Oblique Shock Relations 608
7.2.2 Internal Energy and Enthalpy 518 9.3 Supersonic Flow over Wedges
7.2.3 First Law of Thermodynamics 523 and Cones 622
7.2.4 Entropy and the Second Law of 9.3.1 A Comment on Supersonic Lift and Drag
Thermodynamics 524 Coefficients 625
7.2.5 Isentropic Relations 526 9.4 Shock Interactions and Reflections 626
7.3 Definition of Compressibility 530 9.5 Detached Shock Wave in Front of a Blunt
7.4 Governing Equations for Inviscid, Body 632
Compressible Flow 531 9.5.1 Comment on the Flow Field behind a
7.5 Definition of Total (Stagnation) Curved Shock Wave: Entropy Gradients
Conditions 533 and Vorticity 636
7.6 Some Aspects of Supersonic Flow: Shock 9.6 Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves 636
Waves 540 9.7 Shock-Expansion Theory: Applications to
7.7 Summary 544 Supersonic Airfoils 648
7.8 Problems 546 9.8 A Comment on Lift and Drag
Coefficients 652
Chapter 8 9.9 The X-15 and Its Wedge Tail 652
Normal Shock Waves and Related Topics 549 9.10 Viscous Flow: Shock-Wave/
Boundary-Layer Interaction 657
8.1 Introduction 550 9.11 Historical Note: Ernst Mach-A
8.2 The Basic Normal Shock Equations 551 Biographical Sketch 659
 Contents xv

9.12 Summary 662 11.11 Applied Aerodynamics: The Blended

9.13 Problems 663 Wing Body 754
11.12 Historical Note: High-Speed
Airfoils-Early Research and
Chapter 10 Development 760
Compressible Flow through Nozzles, Diffusers, 11.13 Historical Note: The Origin of The
and Wind Tunnels 669 Swept-Wing Concept 764
10.1 Introduction 670 11.14 Historical Note: Richard T.
10.2 Governing Equations for Whitcomb-Architect of the Area Rule
Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow 672 and the Supercritical Wing 773
10.3 Nozzle Flows 681 11.15 Summary 774
10.3.1 More on Mass Flow 695 11.16 Problems 776
10.4 Diffusers 696
10.5 Supersonic Wind Tunnels 698
Chapter 12
10.6 Viscous Flow: Shock-Wave/
Boundary-Layer Interaction inside Linearized Supersonic Flow 779
nozzles 704 12.1 Introduction 780
10.7 Summary 706 12.2 Derivation of the Linearized Supersonic
10.8 Problems 707 Pressure Coefficient Formula 780
12.3 Application to Supersonic Airfoils 784
Chapter 11 12.4 Viscous Flow: Supersonic Airfoil
Subsonic Compressible Flow over Airfoils: Drag 790
Linear Theory 711 12.5 Summary 793
11.1 Introduction 712 12.6 Problems 794
11.2 The Velocity Potential Equation 714
11.3 The Linearized Velocity Potential
Equation 717
Chapter 1a
Introduction to Numerical Techniques
11.4 Prandtl-Glauert Compressibility for Nonlinear Supersonic Flow 797
Correction 722
11.5 Improved Compressibility 13.1 Introduction: Philosophy of Computational
Corrections 727 Fluid Dynamics 798
11.6 Critical Mach Number 728 13.2 Elements of the Method
of Characteristics 800
11.6.1 A Comment on the Location of Minimum
Pressure (Maximum Velocity) 737 13.2.1 Internal Points 806
11.7 Drag-Divergence Mach Number: The 13.2.2 Wall Points 807
Sound Barrier 737 13.3 Supersonic Nozzle Design 808
11.8 The Area Rule 745 13.4 Elements of Finite-Difference
11.9 The Supercritical Airfoil 747 Methods 811
13.4.1 Predictor Step 817
11.10 CFD Applications: Transonic Airfoils
and Wings 749 13.4.2 Corrector Step 817
xvi Contents

13.5 The Time-Dependent Technique: 14.9 Applied Hypersonic Aerodynamics:

Application to Supersonic Blunt Hypersonic Waveriders 876
Bodies 818 14,9.1 Viscous Optimized Waveriders 882
-

13.5.1 Predictor Step 822 14.10 Summary 890

13.5.2 Corrector Step 822 14.11 Problems 890
13.6 Flow over Cones 826
13.6.1 Physical Aspects of Conical
Flow 827
13.6.2 Quantitative Formulation 828
13.6.3 Numerical Procedure 833
PART 4
Viscous Flow 891
13.6.4 Physical Aspects of Supersonic Flow
Over Cones 834
Chapter 15
13.7 Summary 837
13.8 Problem 838 Introduction to the Fundamental Principles
and Equations of Viscous Flow 893
15.1 Introduction 894
Chapter 14 15.2 Qualitative Aspects of Viscous
Elements of Hypersonic Flow 839 Flow 895
14.1 Introduction 840 15.3 Viscosity and Thermal Conduction 903
14.2 Qualitative Aspects of Hypersonic 15.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 908
Flow 841 15.5 The Viscous Flow Energy Equation 912
14.3 Newtonian Theory 845 15.6 Similarity Parameters 916
14.4 The Lift and Drag of Wings at Hypersonic 15.7 Solutions of Viscous Flows: A Preliminary
Speeds: Newtonian Results for a Fiat Plate Discussion 920
at Angle of Attack 849 15.8 Summary 923
14.4.1 Accuracy Considerations 856 15.9 Problems 925
14.5 Hypersonic Shock-Wave Relations
and Another Look at Newtonian
Theory 860 Chapter 16
14.6 Mach Number Independence 864 A Special Case: Couette Flow 927
14.7 Hypersonics and Computational Fluid
Dynamics 866 16.1 Introduction 927
14.8 Hypersonic Viscous Flow: Aerodynamic 16.2 Couette Flow: General Discussion 928
Heating 869 16.3 Incompressible (Constant Property)
14.8.1 Aerodynamic Heating and Hypersonic Couette Flow 932
Flow—the Connection 869 16.3.1 Negligible Viscous Dissipation 938
14.8.2 Blunt versus Slender Bodies in 16.3.2 Equal Wall Temperatures 939
Hypersonic Flow 871 16.3.3 Adiabatic Wall Conditions (Adiabatic
14.8.3 Aerodynamic Heating to a Wall Temperature) 941
Blunt Body 874 16.3.4 Recovery Factor 944
 Contents xvii

16.3.5 Reynolds Analogy 945 Chapter 19

16.3.6 Interim Summary 946 Turbulent Boundary Layers 1019
16.4 Compressible Couette Flow 948
19.1 Introduction 1020
16.4.1 Shooting Method 950
19.2 Results for Turbulent Boundary Layers
16.4.2 Time-Dependent Finite-Difference
on a Flat Plate 1020
Method 952
19.2.1 Reference Temperature Method
16.4.3 Results for Compressible Couette
for Turbulent Flow 1022
Flow 956
19.2.2 The Meador-Smart Reference
16.4.4 Some Analytical Considerations 958
Temperature Method for Turbulent
16.5 Summary 963 Flow 1024
19.2.3 Prediction of Airfoil Drag 1025
Chapter 17 19.3 Turbulence Modeling 1025
Introduction to Boundary Layers 965 19.3.1 The Baldwin Lomax Model 1026
-

19.4 Final Comments 1028

17.1 Introduction 966
19.5 Summary 1029
17.2 Boundary-Layer Properties 968
19.6 Problems 1030
17.3 The Boundary-Layer Equations 974
17.4 How Do We Solve the Boundary-Layer
Equations? 977 Chapter 20
17.5 Summary 979 Navier-Stokes Solutions: Some
Examples 1031
Chapter 18 20.1 Introduction 1032
Laminar Boundary Layers 981 20.2 The Approach 1032
20.3 Examples of Some Solutions 1033
18.1 Introduction 981
20.3.1 Flow over a Rearward-Facing Step 1033
18.2 Incompressible Flow over a Flat Plate:
20.3.2 Flow over an Airfoil 1033
The Blasius Solution 982
20.3.3 Flow over a Complete Airplane 1036
18.3 Compressible Flow over a Flat Plate 989
20.3.4 Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer Interaction
18.3.1 A Comment on Drag Variation
1037
with Velocity 1000
20.3.5 Flow over an Airfoil with a Protuberance
18.4 The Reference Temperature Method 1001 1038
18.4.1 Recent Advances: The Meador-Smart
Reference Temperature Method 1004
20.4 The Issue of Accuracy for the Prediction
of Skin Friction Drag 1040
18.5 Stagnation Point Aerodynamic
20.5 Summary 1045
Heating 1005
18.6 Boundary Layers over Arbitrary Bodies:
Finite-Difference Solution 1011 Appendix A
18.6.1 Finite Difference Method 1012
-
Isentropic Flow Properties 1047
18.7 Summary 1017 Appendix B
18.8 Problems 1018 Normal Shock Properties 1053
xviii Contents

Appendix C Bibliography 1071

Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach Index 1077
Angle 1057
Appendix D
Standard Atmosphere 1061