U NIT PERFORMANCE ms CHARACTERISTICS OF’ me INSTRUMENTS SIA GROUP PART-A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS ‘at. Define the following terms, (a) Resolution (b) Sensitivity. ans: (a) Resolution Itis defined as the increment in the input of the instrument for which the output remains constant i.e., when the input given to the instrument is slowly increased for which the output remains same until the increment exceeds a definite value. () Sensitivity Itis defined as the ratio of change in output to that of change in the quantity being measured. Sensitivity is also known as incremental sensitivity or linear sensitivity. _ _ Change in qutput _ AC, Change in input AC, Sensi ‘The sensitivity differs for different values of input as shown in the figure (a) but when the calibration curve is straight line, then the sensitivity remains constant over the entire range and is given as the slope of calibration curve as shown in the figure (b). For better performance of the system the sensitivity of an instrument should be high. Figure (bk: Linear Sensitivity SPECTRUM @LLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS, SIA GROUP {G Scanned with CamScanner(a) Error (©) Expected vatue. Ans: : An: (@) Error @ Ji any device, when the measured value or indicated as error. Im an ideal device the error is zero ie. the output is always equal to the true value of the measurand. When the | (®) MENTAL ND INSTR! = ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS A Datine the following dynamic charg, Define the f ‘aa. ollowing, ® us . Wane of measurand differs from its true value then this | chang the system onl Aifference between the measured v te value is referred i Neen the measured value and true value is refe types of input signal MONT Ka (b) Pynamic error. is f the deloy fn sponse of te citys 1 pt ir depend on egg, ee monly. tis also known as measuring Ing rts iene espe Tey ways. Dynamic Error Dynamic error is determined asthe algebraic Dessured value exceeds the true value of measurand the error is said to be positive. By minimizing the error of the device, its difference between te true value ofthe quantity ang accuracy can be increased. recorded by the measuring instrument at any insta, neasurand isa function of time. Iti also known as meq, 8 ©) Expected Value ee tis nothing but the design value. It is the most possible Yalue that computations describe one should expect to measure applied othe measuring system then the responses by the ratio ofthe amplitude of output signal to tar gt ‘measurand, this ratios known as static sensitivity of hes Q3. Defi ic characteristics, following dyn: Under steady state, when the step-nput faci a (2) Speed of response For the calculation of dynamic error the understanding ofa sensitivity is essential. Under the input function of ie, OY Metty. f both the dynamic eror comprises of both the transient and steady Ans: meee PapeE IN) | components. For indicating instruments, the steady sie (@) Speed of Response is calculated at any instant from the information ofthe yaig of the measurand and its corresponding recorded signa ass Ii of with which i jiihe Quickness ofan instrument wth whic itresponds | othe mea to the sudden changes in amplitude of the input signal. ‘Speed of response can also be stated as the total time taken by the system to come closer to steady state condition, ‘Speed of response of a system can be evaluated by knowing the ‘measurement lag of that system. ©) Fidelity Fora time-varying input the quality of indication by the instrument is referred as fidelity. The perfect fidelity is obtained only by a zero order system ie. fidelity is the degree of neamess with which the output reproduces the time varying input within a conversion factor, But for higher order systems the output cannot reproduce the input signals constantly at all instant and for all typés of input time varying function. Under steady state conditions for sinusoidal input functions the perfect fidelity of an instrument would indicate that the waveforms of the output and input signals occur simultaneously with each other at all instants. Hence, there will be neither amplitude error nor phase error. Fidelity requirements is generally associated to cover deficiency in amplitude frequency characteristics and with the applications the fidelity requirements differ. It's specification is reduced, while describing the working of electronic amplifiers and such other electronic apparatus ‘meant for entertainment. Thus fidelity is maintained fora wider range of frequencies. Figure (a): Ramp-input ’ KO) The dynamic error is a function of time for sit mand itis a constant in case of ramp-input 48 shown in the figures above Look for the SIA GROUP Loco GF on ing TITLE COVER ' before you buy —_—_—— . Scanned with CamScanner 2UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments ES eee Cheractitatce Gitnethiménte: "Mv aang i wanes 48S ‘Aprlintay-17, Se ‘The procedure steps used to find the errors ‘measurement is as follows, Step-t Compute the actual or arithmetic mean of the given observations, Mean (¥") step-2 Compute the deviations by subtracting the each value of variable from the arithmetic mean. ie,x=X-¥ step3 Calculate the square of the deviations obtained in step-2 and determine the sum of squared deviation, x? and divide it by total number of observations. : 2@-¥) — W=1)* Step-4 Calculate the value of standard deviation by computing the square root of the value bbtained in step-3. Steps ; ‘i Calculate the standard error by di iding the value of standard deviation by the square root of number of observations. é, standard errot i . Example Calculate the standard error for the data, 140, 160, 190, 145, 175 Step-I Mean) = MO-Het oo s-78 B10 5 = 162 Step-2 and Step-3 x “ xex-X sora 140 22 484 160 2 4 190 28 784 Mas “0 249 175 13 169 3 ~ x= 810 Bx841730 SPECTROM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS ——->--—— SIA GROUP Scanned with CamScannerStep-s Standard error = 186 Q6. What are the types of performance characteristics of an instrument? An: Instrument Characteristics The performance characteristics of an instrument can be classified into two types. They areas follows, 1, Statie characteristics and 2. Dynamic characteristics. Static calibration is a process which determines the static characteristics of an instrument, Static calibration determing the relationship between the output signal and the quantity under study experimentally. The static characteristics of an instruney are accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, stability, error, threshold ete Some of the dynamic characteristics are, Dynamic error, Fidelity, Lag, Speed of response. Q7. Write short notes on accuracy. Ans: Model Papacy ‘Accuracy 5 The closeness of the measured value with respect to the true value is called as accura Accuracy is influenced by the affects of disturbing inputs such as teniperature, humidity and also by the limits of intrinst errors and instability of natural zero. Under certain operating conditions accuracy can also be determined by calibrating. ‘The accuracy of the whole system depends upon the accuracies of each individual instruments in that system. General the accuracy of the instrument depends upon the natural limitations of the instrument as well as on the shortcomings i ‘measurement process. Q8, Write short notes on precision. Ans: Precision The instrument ability to reproduce a certain group of readings within a given accuracy is known as precision i number of measurements are made on the same true value, then the degree of closeness of these measurements is called presi Precision of an instrument depends upon the random errors. It refers to the ability of an instrument to give is reaa® ‘again and again in same manner for constant inpul signals. Instruments having high accuracy should also be highly presi @9. A person using an ohmmeter reads the measured value as 470 0 instead of 47 ©. What kind of ™™ does this represent? Justify. : Mods papers. If. person reads the measured value as 470 © instead of 47 © from an ohmmeter then that error represents BS @ Pare human errors which are caused by the user or an operator by taking wrong readings, readings with parll®® strument, Ans: Gross error improper calculations etc. from the Look for the SIA GROUP Loco ‘on the TITLE COVER before you buy Scanned with CamScannera UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.5 10. Discuss the main difference between accuracy and precision. Ans: 1. Accuracy represents the degree of correctness of the measured value with respect to the true value, On the other hand, precision represents the degree of repeatability of several independent measurements of the desired input at the same reference conditions. Accuracy and precision involved in a measurement are dependent on the systematic and random errors respectively. Wis structive to note that a precise measurement may not necessarily be accurate and vice-v. 4, The difference between accuracy and precision has been illustrated in the figure. The arrangement may be thought fo correspond to the game of darts where one is asked to strike a target represented by centre circle. The centre circle then represents the true value, and the result achieved by the striker has been indicated by the mark “>”. © (a) High accuracy (b) Low accuracy (c) Low precision High precision High precision Low accuracy , Figure Qit. Give a classification of voltmeters. Ans: ApritMay-17, Sett, 1(a) Generally, the voltmeters are classified into following types. 1, Permanent magnet moving coil voltmeter. 2. Moving iron voltmeter. 3.__ Electro dynamometer type voltmeter. 4. Rectifier type voltmeter. 5. Induction type voltmeter. 6, Electrostatic type voltmeter (a) FE input electronic D.C voltmeter. (b) Average responding voltmeter. (©) D.C coupled peak responding volimeter (@) Peak to peak reading voltmeter. 7. Digital voltmeter (a) Ramp type DVM (b) Integrating type DVM. (©) Successive approximation type DVM. (2) Continuous balance DVM. Q12. Draw the multirange A.C voltmeter, Ans: Basic schematic of multrange A.C voltmeter is shown in figure, This circuit is used to measure various ranges of A.C. voltage signals. SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Sia GROUP gs Scanned with CamScannerJoka rma oa 7S AWWW R, R soy resistors Ry Ry By 4 R, Whose ots . Figure: Muttirange A.C. Voltmeter sia edb From the above figure, itis noted that a chain of multipliers are formed bY SEN RELNSIN ION etree improve the rectifier operation resistor g Resistor 8, acts as a multiplier whose voltage range i 2.5 V. In order to imPro 3004 a meter shunt Q13. Give the applications of Ayrton shunt. Ans: Jn many multirange meters an Ayrion shunt is used to replace the function of a make-before-break switch, 1 2. It is used along with galvanometer in comparison method of D.C resistance measurement 3. Imayrton shunt method of resistance measurement, the contact resistance doesn't afféct the accuracy of the meter Therefore, it can be used in those applications which require highly accurate resistance values. Q14. What are the applications of precision rectifier? Ans: Model Papert oy 1. As the precision rectifier eliminates the errors arising due to voltage drop (i.e., cut-in voltage of the diode) by employiy op-amp, it can be used in various precision instrumentation applications, to know the peak value of the input wr measurement. ~ 2. As the op-amp can withstand large differential voltages, this circuit can be used with those measurement circuits vis are operating at very high frequencies. 3. Inssignal processing applications, which deal with very low values of current, voltage and power, precision rectifier isu for various purposes. : 4. __A precision rectifier can also be used as clipper and clamper. Q15. What are the advantages of using a thermocouple instrument? Ans: 1 A thermocouple instrument provides greater accuracy of the order of £1%, upto frequencies of 50 MHz. . x It can be used for the measurements of both A.C, D.C currents and voltages, 3. Itcan be easily converted into voltmeter withthe help of few series resistors and low 4. It can measure R.M.S values of both voltage and current waveforms irrespective of the frequency of waveform. 5.__Its performance does not affected by eros arising due to stray magnet feds, 2 oradinG, If Its used to read 200 V on a 400 V5 Q16. A voltmeter is accurate to 97% of its full scai calculate the absolute error and the percentage of erred Look for the SIA"GROUP Loco w on th ee Scanned with CamScanner cuirent thermocouples. TILE COVER before you buyUNIT-1_ Performance Characteristics of Instruments ae > Ans: Given that, Accuracy = 97% of full scale reading Range of voltmeter = 400 V True voltage, v= 200 V. Absolute error =? Percentage error =? We have, ‘The magnitude of absolute error at full scale, 87 = 0.97 ® 400 = 388 V ‘The percentage error at true voltage is given by, wee x10 388 38x 200 td = 194% Q17. The output voltage of an amplifier measured a has the following readings in volts 20.00, 19.8 precise measurement? Justify. Ans: Given that, ‘The light different values of an amplifier using digital voltmeter is given by, 20.00, 19.80, 19.85, 20.05, 20.10, 19.90, 20.25, 19.95 Precise value =? ‘The mean of different measurements yields a precise measurement. Thus, the mean of eight different values are, Sumof measurements ‘Numberof measurements ight different intervals using the same digital voltmeter 19.85, 20.05, 20.10, 19.90, 20.25,19.95. Which is the most Mean = = 20.00+19.80+19.85 + 20.05 + 20.10+19.90+20.25+19.95 _ 159.9 8 8 Mean = 19.98 ‘Therefore, the precise measurement is 19.98. Q18. Adigital voltmeter has a read-out range from 0 to 9,999 counts. Determine the resolution of the instrument in volts when the fullscale reading is 9.999 V: Ans: Given that, Digital voltmeter range = 0 0 9999 counts Full-scale reading, V,, = 9.999 V Resolution of the voltmeter, R=? ‘The resolution ofthe digital voltmeter is given by, 4 1 : ae = x9.999 5999 f 1 “7000 Resolution R= 1 mV ees SPECTROM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS ———- SIA GROUP QS Scanned with CamScannerTUT MENTATION [LJNTU-KAKing) insTRl Oy ae ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND PART-B uTIONS TH SOL! ESSAY QUESTIONS WI rie CHARACTERISTieg iTS, $7 4.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENT E. Gp, SENSITIVITY. ERROR, ACCURACY, RESOLUTION, PRECISION, EXPECTED VALUE: FEES Pose, FIDELITY, Lac ay MEASUREMENT, DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS - SPEED t : DYNAMIC ERROR Q19. Discuss the performance characteristics of an instrument. {00c.-3, 5 An: 4, aa) | Mode Peper 02 ‘They are, Performance characteristics of an instrument ae classified into two Pes: TREY (a) Static characteristics (b) Dynamic characteristics. (a) Static Characteristics lical it jents whe ‘The characteristics which describe the performance of measuring instruments or medical instrum¢ 1en subjected tp Jow frequency inputs or D.C inputs are referred to as static characteristics. 7 tet he sieoretet oem ‘or instrumentation system be subjected toa wide range of fixed input signals, then the Guay nse, of the measurement process is known by the properties of the resulting output respo : sei However some sensors and measuring systems do not have statie characteristics because they Ee ee aly time-varying input signals and do not respond to time-invariant signals. One of the examples of such tyPe 0! SY Piezoelectric device. ‘Some of the static characteristics are, 1. Accuracy 2. Precision 4. 5. 6. _ Hysteresis, i 7. Resolution 8 Stability 9. Reproducibility 10. ‘Dead zone 11. Range and span ~ - 12, | Drift 13, Static error. 1. Accuracy Accuracy can be defined as the degree of closeness with which the output of the instrument reaches the true value of quantity being measured. ‘The term accuracy describes how close the measurement is tothe true measured quantity. ©" or It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the incasured value and true value to the true value. Generally this? is expressed in terms of percentage of full scale output value. ‘The accuracy of the measuring system is expressed as, Percentage of true value, Measured value—True value. True value 100 Percentage of full scale deflection, Measured value True valve 99 ‘Maximum scale value Look for the SIA GROUP Loco on the TITLE COVER before you buy Scanned with CamScannerUNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments 2 SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Precision ‘The ability of the measuring system to reproduce the same output values among several independent measurements under specified conditions o¢ within a given accuracy is referred to a precision and is expressed in terms of deviation in measurement. Let us consider an example in which an input of accurately known value is applied to the transducer. With this known input if the measuring instrument produces its output which lies between + 196, then the precision of the measuring instrument can be + 1%, Therefore, an instrument is said to be highly precise ift produces same output for an applied input though the measurement is repeated a number of times, Hence, precision can also be stated as the degree of repeatability of a measurement. Sensiti For answer refer Unit-l, QI. Topic: Sensitivity Linearity Linearity can be defined as the closeness of actual calibration curve of the instrument to the idealized straight line within a given range of full scale output. or It can be stated as the deviation of output curve of measuring instrument from a specified or idealized straight line, and is illustrated in figure. eatised straight line ——> output Maximum deviation Actual calibration curve Since the linearity is one of the most desirable characteristics of the measuring instrument, the design of the instrument should be such that the output signal isa linear function of the input signal. Threshold ‘Threshold of an instrument can be stated as the smallest quantity of input below which the output will not be detected. It can be specified as percentage of maxipium scale deflection or as absolute value in terms of units of input. Hysteresis It is defined as the maximum difference in the output with the same value of input (within the specified range), when approaching first from the increasing values of the measurand and then decreasing values of the measurand. 12, 13, () + (transducer) for a zero input (i 19 Hysteresis can be noticed when the input/output characteristics for an instrument are not the same {ce different) for increasing values of inputs than for decreasing values of inputs Resolution Resolution of a measuring instrument can be stated as “any smallest increment in the measured variable that can be noticed or detected by that instrument with certainty’, fan instrument has high resolution then itcan distinguish very small changes in the input quantity. Stability Itis the ability of the instrument to have the same stan- dard of performance over a prolonged period of time, The need for calibrating the instrument frequently is less for a instrument having high stability Reproducibility Its nothing but the degree of closeness with which a given value of a variable may be repeatedly measured ‘over a period of time. or ‘The reproducibility of an instrument is the ability to produce the same value of output (response) for equal inputs applied over a period of time. Dead Zone Dead zone (dead band) can be'defined as the largest variation in the-value of input for which the instrument can not respond and produces no output: Range and Span Range isthe lower and upper limits ofthe instrument in which itis designed to function or operate to determine, indicate and record the measured variable. Span is similarly defined as the total operating range of the instrument. Drift It indicates the change in the output of the instrument +» the change of base Tine), or change in its sensitivity with time, change in ‘humidity, temperature or some other factor. Drift i an undesirable characteristic of any instrument. Static Error ‘Theaccuracy of a given instrument is calculated interms ” of its error, The static error of an instrument is nothing, but the difference between the measured value and the exact value of the quantity run on i.., (Static error= Measured. value ~ Exact true value). « Dynamic Characteristics ‘The characteristics of an instrument which are considered while measuring a quantity that varies with time (ie., measur- and is time-variant) are known as dynamic characteristics. The dynamic charact istics are determined from the mathematical ‘model of the system ic. adiffereptial equation of first order or second order with constant coefficients. For remaining answer refer Unit-l, Q3. SIA GROUP QB Scanned with CamScannerMENTATION [INTU-KaKiy » N ANI ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS F 1.10 inserum' x Q20. Explain the dynamic response of a second 0! iy jynamic response of OR mont. Explain the di Instrut z st and define the dynamic characteristics of a" Mra, order instrument. xy that varies with time ( Ans ofthe system Le. erential equation of ist oder of second 0 The dynamic characteristics ofan instrument areas follows . ‘ yes in the dynamic quanti Speed of Response an output) o the sudden Co system to reach the eg sce ih wih stom sponds epee aM epon ita tw it is known as speed of response. Fora step input, the tt is specified as speed of response ; i change in the quantity bein, ii) Measurement Lag nse to achange My ce the output in response t a Theme delay taken bythe menurng sytem bsanerheti Pine characteristics of the syste is known as measurement lag. Measurement l ) Fidelity Some ofthe input quantities undergo changes with respect t tim to the changes in the measured quantity at every instant of time is an error-free response ofthe system (i.e. a all instants under stea similar to the input signal waveform). (y) Dynamic Error iy og cated by the measurement system and the true value of the quantity (which, ‘The difference between the Value : function of tine) sno as dyamiceor A the dynam response o system consists of steady state resp * transient state response, the dynamic error also comprises of transient error and steady state error. ete.,) for which the measuiy trument to hharacteristic ofa measuring ins ip eras fidelity. Excellent fidelity ofa system, Hy dy state condition, the output signal waveform ise. () Dynamic Range ‘The range of values of a certain quantity (for example, temperature, pressure, voltage, Z instrument can produce a faithful response under dynamic conditions is known as dynamic range of the instuaes Dynamic range is represented as the rato of the maximum value to the minimum value for which the system can rest effectively (vi) Bandwidth ‘The range of frequencies within which the dynamic sensitivity of the system lies within a specified band (For examph, band) of static sensitivity of the system is known as ‘bandwidth’ of the system. The amplitude versus frequen characteristics of a system are flat within the bandwidth of the’system. (vil) Settling Time The time required by the response of the system (after the application of a Step input to it), to reach and stay withiat ioe range a sendy State output value is known as ‘settling time’. The settling time depicts the speed of response! system. Ifthe settling time is small it can be infered thatthe speed of respons is hit (viii) Time Constant panes of ie syste Mahe ‘Time constant is defined as the time requit d fo of decomeen heed te “wired for the output ofthe system to reach 63.2% of the final output value. av Constantin order to have high speeid of response, Ti of the system. ’Ponse. Time constant depends on the parame} * Dynamic Response of a Second Order Instrument Assume that a 2 order system is subjected to a unit step input, A) = u(t) and The normalized transfer function of 2 order system i, 2 Gs)= oe 5° +2E0,s+0p Look for the SIA GROUP. Loco: we onthe Tm coves = fore youbuy + Scanned with CamScanner keUNIT-1_ Performance Characteristics of Instruments — ‘The output response of the system is, ls) = GEs).R(s) By substituting G(s) and R(s) in the above equation we get, 2 ——— Se =) OF eimstes If the system is under damped, the damping ratio is less than 1 ie, & < 1. Therefore for this system the roots of the characteristics equation are a complex conjugate pat, fa unit step input is applied to a 2 order under damped system then ts esponse i given bs OW) = GE) RS) wt o, “SF Ro,sr0] “GHE0, J0.1IHF [60,4701 i-8*) To get the output response in time domain form first apply partial fractions and then take inverse Laplace transform to the above equation. In time domain the output can be given by, jr-boy-s0.doh 2 CH= +R F200, 540 maar tei AE so( o,f BO at FS Silo) Frequency of damped oscillations oe ee For the unt step input the dynamic error is determined by, 2) =)- Cl) = rbot) ~sin( ot fe; +4) ca 5 vi-? And the steady state error is, ' 2,7 &n(Ohse =0 ~ ‘Thus, for a unit step input the steady state error of a2 order under ‘damped system is “O° and the final steady state response of the system is, A c= cont > Opec) : ie ! d ind Figure: Response of 2 Order Unde: Damped System for Unit Step Input SPECTROM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS — SIA GROUP Scanned with CamScannerCC ——— ENTATION [JNTU-K aK, 112 p INSTRUM : ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AN! Sl annie Apriitay., Sa, Ans: ay, Static Error ofthe quantity. Mathematical, BN ; e exact val Wis defined a the diterence between measured value and the ex Static error, 64 = 4, — 4 Where, . A, = Measured value 4, Dynamic Error act or true value of the quantity, For answer refer Unit. Mathematically, Where, QI8, Topic: Dynamie Error itis given as dynamic error e,()= 10) ~ el) "(= Value indicated by the measurement (0) = True value of the quantity it. 22. Distinguish between static and dynamic characteristics of an instrument ane NowiDee.-12, 8012, a4 i in the below table, The following difference between static and dynamic characteristics is as shown in the Dynamic Characteristics Statie Characteri -] When the measurand does not vary with time, tien the static characteristics of an instrument are determined. -] When the measurand is a time varient, then variena, —] then the dynamic characteristics of an instrument are determined. | Static characteristics are determined by a process | 2. called static calibration in which the relationship ‘between output signal and the measurand is experimentally determined. .| Dynamic characteristics are determined from the ‘mathematical model of the system which is in diffe. tential equation form of first order or second order with constant coefficients. . uring static calibration the parameters effecting | 3: The dynamic characteristics of any system consists the system except the desired input signal are held of two componeiits, they are the characteristics of the Jconstant. system itself and the nature of its input function, | The performance of an instrument under dynamic conditions ean be determined by subjecting its primary clement to a variety of unknown and predetermined : Variations in the output obtained, ‘The terms which specify the static characteristics, | 5,| The terms which specify the dynamic characteristics are accuracy, precision, linearity, thre shold, measurement lag, speed of response fidelity, dynamic sensitivity, hysteresis ete error, bandwidth, time constant ete | In static calibration the measured quantity is related | 4, with some standard of knowh accuracy, Certain instruments satisfying few criteria and having satisfactory static characteristics can also be used under dynanis characteristics. Q23. List out the sources of errors. Look for the’ SIA’ GROUP Logo a 7 the TITLE COVER before ‘you buy Scanned with CamScannerUNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments An steady values. What are the general classes of errors? Model Papers, 02(0) The measurement process is not always confined 10 ‘no measurement can be made with perfect scouracy, but tis important to find out what the accuracy is and how differen errors have entered into the measurement. Errors ray come from various sources and are generally classified into three types. They are, 1. Gross errors 2. Systematic errors and 3. Random or accidental érrors Gross Errors Gross errors are caused mainly due to insufficient knowledge, in reading instrument, recording and calculating measurement results. These errors may also occur duc to ineot- rect adjustment of instrument and computational mistakes, It is not possible to eliminate the errors completely but it can be ‘minimized by the following precautions y (@) Special attention should be taken in reading and recording the data, . (b) The experimenter should not be dependent on one reading only, atleast three or eve ‘must be taken, Systematic Errors Systematic errors are mainly involved with the instru- fen more readings ‘ments, components used in measurement and due to improper handling, misuse of instrument and due to overloading of the instrument. This type errors are further divided into three cat- egories. They are, () (b) SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS (@) Instrumental errors (@) Environmental errors and (©) Observational errors. > Instrumental Errors . These errors are essential in measuring instruments due to their mechanical structure and due to calibration or ‘operation ofthe instrument or measuring devices which ‘causes the instrument to read too high or too low along its entre scale, For example, in the D' Arsonval moment, friction in bearings of different moving element possi- bly causes incorrect readings. There are many kinds of instrumental errors, depending upon the type of instru- ‘ment used. These errors can be minimized by using the following methods. (@ Choosing appropriate instrument for the specific ‘measurement application, Afier determining the instrumental errors, correc tion factors should be applied. ii). The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully. Environmental Errors ‘These errors are caused due to changes in the environ- ‘mental conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, that may affect the instrument characteristics, such as the affects of changes in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or if magnetic field or electrostatic field. © 1.43 “These undesirable errors can be reduced by the following ways, (Arrangement must be made to keep the conditions approximately constant. Employing hermetically sealing to certain compo- nents in the instrument, which eliminate the effects ‘of the humidity dust, ete Magnetic orelectrostati Gi) elds must be provided, Observational Errors ‘These errors are produced by the experimenter. The most frequent error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale. ‘These errors are caused by the habits of individual ob- serves. To minimize parallax errors modem electrical instruments have digital display of output. Random or Accidental Errors Errors caused due'to the random variations in the parameters orin the system of measurement are called Random or Precis mn errors, These errors vary in magnitude and may be either positive or negative. The following are some of the main contributing factors to the random errors. @) ) © Q24. Certain Human Errors ‘These errors occur due to inconsistency in estimating successive readings from the instrument by an experimenter, To reduce these errors it is necessary to exercise extreme care with mature and considered judgement in recording the observations. Errors Caused due to the Disturbances to the Equipment Precision errors in the instrument may arise from the outside disturbances to the measuring system. These disturbances may be variations or mechanical vibrations. Poorly controlled processes also lead to random errors. Errors Caused by Fluctuating Experimental Conditions ‘These errors are caused due to some uncontrolled disturbances which influence the instrument output. Line voltage fluctuations, vibrations of the instrument supports, etc,, are common examples of this type. —=—re—e—r—a—vcs seers PE Draw the block diagram of the measuring systom and explain the function of each stage of this system. ‘The géneralized measuring system consists of three main funetional elements. They are, 1. Primary sensing clement, which senses the quantity under measurement, 2. Variable conversion element, which modifies suitably the output of the primary sensing element. 3, Data presentation element that renders the indication on a calibrated scale, SIA GROUP 2 Scanned with CamScannerTRUMENTATION LINTUKAKyy, Ts AND INS) ELECTRONIC MEASUREMET ihe Les |B 114 pun contin cement ring System Figure: Functional Elements of# Measuring S¥ ssion takes place, This where the conver isd 1 able electrical output The transduction my! @ Primary Sensing Element able el The measurand frst comes into contact with primary sensing clement transducer which converts the measurand (or) measured quality im! fom mechanical, eletrcal (or) optical to any related form. . Gi) Variable Conversion Element ding and dis ‘The oaput ofthe primary sensing element i in the ceria form suitable for contol TESTES A, Olay. a, of the primary sensing element is tpt {050 form presen sion element. A System May require one a instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert the original information, This Funetion is performed by the variable € more variable conversion suitable to it. (2) Variable Manipulation Element The signal gets manipulated here preserving the original nat signal as input and produces a voltage of greater magnitude. The wiry OT acting as a voltage amplifier. Here the voltage amplifier acts as a vari the voltage, ‘The clement that follows the primary sensing element in Here the variable conversion element and variable manipul tre of it example, an amplifier accepts a small yoy iput is the same voltage but of higher ya lation element since it amps measurement system is called signal conditioning ation element are collectively called as Data coniinsy clement or signal conditioning element. (b) Data Transmission Element ‘The transmission of data from one another is done by the data transmission element. In case of spacecraft, the con signals are sent from the control stations by using radio signals. The stage that follows the signal conditioning element and data transmission element collectively is called intermediate stage. Gili) Data Presentation Element ‘The display (or) readout devices which display the required information about the measurand, forms the data presentation ‘element. Here the information of the measurand has to be conveyed for, monitoring, control (or) analysis purposes. (2) Incase of data to be monitored, visual display devices are needed like ammetérs, voltmeters and so on are used. (b) In case of data to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, T.V equipment, storage type C.R.T, printers and soo are used O25. Explain the types of test signals used In determining dynamic characteristics of measurements app a system. Ans: The dynamic characteristics or analysis is classified with respect to time and frequency as time domain analysis and quency domain analysis. 1, _Intime domain analysis the input is applied to the system and the behaviour of the system is studied as a function of tint. 2. In frequency domain analysis the input isa sinusoidal one and the behaviour of the system is studied as a functions! frequency. The standard test signals used for time domain analysis are as follows, (Step input Gi) Ramp input Gil) Parabolic input (iv) Impulse input. Look for the SIA GROUP ‘Loco gy on the ‘TITLE COVER before you buy Scanned with CamScannerUNIT-1_ Performance Characteristics of Instruments a Step Input ‘The continuous time step input u(t) is defined as, Mor 120 o- be { <0" 1 for n20 ind discrete time step input u(n) is defined as, "=n cd vo t ['-— (2) Continuous Time Step Input (b) Discrete Time Stop Input Figure (1) Therefore, a unit step input represents a signal which changes its level from 0 to | in zero time and it reveals a great deal about how quickly the system responds to an abrupt change in the input signal. Gi) Ramp Input ‘The ramp input is defined in continuous time as _ fi rz0 0 r<0 And in discrete time as, Hn) = fr n20 ” {i n<0 —-n (a) Unit Ramp Signal {b) Discrete Ramp Signal Figure (2), A unit ramp signal starts at zero and increases with, constant slope of unit with respect to time. (il) Parabolic Input The parabolic input is defined as, _ JP; 120 0 = 10; 1<0 ‘And in discrete time as n20 jo n<0 SIA GROUP SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Scanned with CamScanner1.16 TION [NTU ww ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION (INTU-Kag, ‘The signals are given below, ro), a(n) t t lie Signal (0) Unit Parabolic Signal (0) Discrete Parabolic Signal Figure (3) ; i ; ional to square of time ‘This signal is also called as acceleration input since the input signal i proportional to sq Yay constant acceleration, Impulse Input = Wis also called as a 6(delta) function, The continuous time impulse input is given by, 5) =0 for #0 ‘And discrete time impulse input is given by, 1, n=0 [0 ee ‘The unit impulse is defined asthe signal which has a zero value every where except att= 0. Where the magnitude fg 50 1 ° ——>Time,t Unit Impulse function Figure (4) In frequency domain analysis, the system behaviour is studied through the sinusoidal signal because the tine signals such as step, ramp, parabolic inputs can be expressed in terms of sinusoidal signal of different amplitudes and A continuous time sinusoidal signal is given as (0 =A sin(or + §) Where, A= Amplitude” © = Frequency in radians/sec, 4 =Phase angle in radians a A sinusoidal signal is an example ofa periodic signal, the period of which is T= 2™ ‘The discrete time version of a sinusoidal signal is given by, ° x(n) = A sin(on +6) van frequen, Where, = angular frequency in radians/cycle, x(t) x(n) See (a) Continuous Time Sinusoidal Signal (Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signal Figure (5) Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO QS on the TITLE COVER before you buy Scanned with CamScannerUNIT-1_ Performance Characteristics of Instruments — 026. Explain the significance of the number of significant figures in a stated quantity with examples. ans (apt. St, 20) Mov-tt, Se, a0) Significant Figures . The number of meaningful digits used to express a numerical value (measured value of a quantity) are known as significant figures, Significant figures indicate the precision of the measurement and the magnitude ofthe measurand. The measured value should be expressed in more number of significant figures because the more significant igures, the higher will be the precision. Significance of Significant Figures 1. Significant figures insures the quality of the data, 2, __Itmakes the information unambigous and easier, 3. It provides good numerical accyracy leading to mathematical errors. Let us consider three numbers, 100 grams, 100. grams and 100.00 grams. The “100 grams” has only one significant figure i.c., ‘I’ is at hundred’s place and itis only accurate to the approximate! values of 100 grams. The “100 grams” has three significant figures i.e., the last significant number is at one’s place and itis a ccurateto the approximate gram, which is near to 100 grams than 101 grams or 99 grams, The “100.00 grams” has five significant figures i., the lst significant figure is at hundredths place and itis accurate tothe nearest 0.01 grams, which is closer to 100.00 grams than 100.01 of 99,99 grams. ‘Consider an example in which the measured voltage across a resistor ina circuit is specified as 50 V. It indicates that the measured voltage may be close to 49 V or 51 V. This specification has two significant figures. Ifthe measured voltage is specified as 50.0 V then it indicates thatthe value may be close to 49.9 V or 50.1 V. This specification has three significant figures. ‘Thus, from the above illustration it ean be observed that the specification with three significant figures is more precise than the one with two significant figures. Q27. The current passing through a resistor of 100 + 0.2 ohm is 2.00 + 0.01 A. Using the relationship P = FR, calculate the limiting error in the computed value of power dissipation. Ans NoviDec. , Set-4, Q4(b) Given that, 1=2.0040.01A i R= 1004022 7 Expressing the guaranteed limits of both current and resistor for the purpose of calculation, ‘ve have, 1=2.00+ 0.5% : R= 100+ 0.2% For finding out the limiting error inthe value of power dissipation, we need to evaluate the maximum and minimum values of power dissipation. on occurs at high values of current and resistance i.e., R=R+0.2%R=1.002R P= (1 005 7) (1.002 R) =1.012PR ‘Similarly, minimum power dis P,,,,= (0.995 1}? (0.998 R) = 0.988 PR ipation occurs at lowest values of and R. Fase ia P ‘Therefore, the limiting error in the computed value of power dissipation is + 1.2% i limits 0.988 P and 1.012 P. SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Error % *100=41.2% ., the power dissipation falls in the ‘SIA GROUP {5 Scanned with CamScanner{A voltmeter having a sana of KIVV Ie con fli ammeter reading 80 Von 180 V scale, When the mt resistance of the unknown resistor (il) actual ro the loading effect of the voltmeter? Ans: Given that, Sensitivity of voltmeter, $= 1 KV Voltage = 80 V Range of voltmeter = 150 V (Current in ammeter, /= 10 mA To determine, @ Apparent resistance of the unknown resistor Gi) Actual resistance of the unknown resistor Gi) Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter . © Apparent Resistance of the Unknown Resistor a atiatt ‘After neglecting the resistance of mill-ammeter, the total circuit resistance is v Rot 180 10x10 =8x10'O=8ka The apparent resistance of unknown resistor, R= R,=8 kQ. @) Actual Resistance of the Unknown Resistor ‘The resistance in voltmeter, R, = Sensitivity x Voltmeter range + = 1x10 QV x 150V t =150%109 , = R= 150kQ We know that, Voltmeter isin parallel with unknown resistances, thus, unknown resistance (aétual) is obtained as, ae *h, 5 RyRy 8x10°x150%10° 150«10°— 8x10 8.4540 ii) Error Due to the Loading Effect of the Voltmeter . The percentage err due to loading effect ofthe voltetr is given by, - Actual resistance — Apparent resistance % Exror= z ‘Actual resistance uw — 845%10°-8x10? 8.45103 Ys Error = 5.325% Look for the SIA GROUP Loco Q onthe te COVER before you buy \ i Scanned with CamScannerPerformance Characteristics of instruments 1.19 - The following 'd from the m 147.9 2 147-1 2; 147.5 9, 147.6 0, 147.4 0, (b) Average deviation (c) Standard deviation. resistor: 147.20, 147.49, .147.6 0,447.5 Q. Calculate (a) Arithmetic mean post sate ‘Apriitday-17, Sot-1, 02(D) Given that, The values obtained from the measurements ofthe value ofa resstoy 89972. 65,5 1474.0, 25= 147.9 0,2, M471 O, x, = 1475 0, x, 7.6.04," 147A, 3, = 1476.2, x,=1475Q, ‘To determine, : (@) Avithmetic mean, & () Average deviation, B (©) Standard deviation, o = 7 (o Arithmetic Mean, & _guithmetic mean of the readings, Staytyty tat tytsy Total number of measurements =147.4679 Arithmetic mean, ¥ = 147.467 0 (i) Average Deviation Deviation of the measurements from mean, 4, 147.2 — 147.467 =-0.267 147.4 — 147.467 =~0.067 147.9 147,467 = 0.433. * = 147.1 - 147.467 =-0.367 147.5 - 147.467 = 0.033, 147.6 — 147.467 = 0.133, ¥ = 147.4 — 147.467 =-0.067 47.6 — 147.467 = 0.133, 47.5 ~ 147.467 = 0.033, Average deviation, . ' pit Le ldpltldgltldsltldsltldgttlayl+ lag tld! n 0.267 + 0.067 + 0.433 + 0.367 + 0.033 + 0.133 + 0.067 + 0.133 0.033 2 ooEeEOEeSR Average deviation, D = 0.1703 ECTRUH @LLiW-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS SIA GROUP 25 Scanned with CamScannerRUMENTATION [JNTU-K Akg a inst aa ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND (©) Standard Deviation Standard deviation, ASI) 0.067)" + 0.133) + ORE 133) OS = 0.2345 Standard deviation, = 0.2345 1.2. D.C VOLTMETERS-MULTI-RANGE, RANGE EXTENSION/SOLID STATE AND DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETERS Q30. Explain how the range of D.C voltmeter is extended. staal (Aprilt8, Set, QA(a) | NovDec.-12, Set-3, 21(a) | Model Papersy, iy Figure shows the meter with a multiplier, + In the above figure, series resistance (R,)is connected with the basic meter movement which is converted into a volimetz Inthis case R,, acts as a multiplier. The voltage of the circuit is measured by combining the meter movement and series rsisane ‘The current which is flowing through the basic meter limits by R,, Inthe above figure, V =Device full range voltage V, = Voltage across the basic meter movement R,, ~ Series resistance 1,, = Fall scale deflection current of the movement R,_= Internal resistance ofthe coi From the above figure,‘ ViALR, 0 . -t V=1R+R) 0) Look for the SIA GROUP Loco on tl ITLE COVER before you buy al Scanned with CamScannera ‘The multiplying factor for multiplier is given by, R= R (m1) @) + Equation (3) is known as resistance of multiplier. 31. List out different D.C voltmeters and explain any one voltmeter in detail. ans: Apriittay-17, Sot, Q2(0) The following are the different D.C voltmeters. 1, DArsonval D.C voltmeter. Permanent magnet moving coil D.C voltmeter. Electro dynamometer type D.C voltmeter. 2 3 4, Rectifier type voltmeter 5. Electrostatic type voltmeter. 6 Moving iron (M1) D.C voltmeter. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil D.C Voltmeter quantities only, because the deflecting torque produced is proportional to PMMC instrument is used for measuring D.C imeter as shown in figure. the voltage or current to be measured: Hence, it acts as a moving coil ammeter or volt Construction: A PMMC voltmeter consists of moving coil, magnet system, control system, damping system, pointer and scale. The moving coil consists of number of turns mounted on copper or aluminium former which provides mechanical strength to the coil and damping torque. The coil is pivoted on jewel bearings so tha its sides lie inthe air gap between U-shaped permanent mag ret. The control system produces controlling torque which is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs: The damping system produces damping torque for allowing the pointer to reach the rest position within a short duration of time over graduated scale, wna Permanent magnet Moving coil oo Balancing > Raul weight > . field Figure SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS SIA GROUP @5 Scanned with CamScannerMENTATION [JNTU-RAKINAD {STRU! 1.22 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND IN' ae Storie, Whenever a canay ‘The principle of working of PMMC voltmeter is same as that of working ove ‘When the current £0 be Measured i, ‘carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field, it experiences a force, and tends to MOW™’ ions of the Coil is produce, made to flow through the coil, a deflecting torque proportional to the flux density 2M TT s gecting torque proportions which makes the coil to move. As the coil moves, the pointer shows deflection onthe $0 ts ointer which moves ove, , to the coil voltage and the magnitude of the voltage flowing through the coil indieale™ ts teained and the point graduated scale, When deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque, a balance c! shows zero deflection, Q32. With neat sketch explain the solid state voltmeter. Ans: ‘The solid state voltmeter using IC 741C is shown in figure below. I Voltage V s divider Figure: Solid State Voltmeter Using 1¢ 741¢ Solid state voltmeter is a directly coupled athplifier who: value. The gain of the Op-amp is determined byterto( Be : ; Look for the SIA GROUP Loco on the TITLE COVER betore you buy: Scanned with CamScannerRy _100kQ From the above figure, = =O _ 99 R 1k In his case the Op-amp 741C provides the gain whose value is 100. From the figure, it is noted that for stability under stray pick-ups the 0.1 jiF éapacitor is connected across the 100 kQ resisor. In between terminals 1 and 5 a pot is connected whose value is 10 k@2 and its centre tap connected to ~5 V supply. This otentiometer is used for adjusting zero output for zero input conditions hence it is known as zero set, ‘The Op-amp 741C is protected by the diodes D, and D,. These diodes are at nérizconducting mode under normal conditions, inthis case the maximum voltage across diodes D, and D, is 10 mV (0.01 V). Depending upon the polarity of the voltage either diode D, or D, conducts when the voltage appears across these diodes more than 100 mV (0.1 V) then the op-amp 741C is protected. An indicator shown in figure uses a A scale of 50 to 1000 pA full scale deflection. In this casé maximum full scale deflection is obtained by adjusting the resistor R,. 33. Howa basic D'Arsonval movementis converted into multirange voltmeter? Explain it using neat diagram. Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q1(b) + Amultirange voltmeter is obtained from a D.C voltmeter by connecting a number of multipliers along with a range switch. Alarge number of workable ranges are available with a range switch. A multirange Voltmeter with a four position switch is shown in figure (1). Figure (1: Multirange Voltmeter with a Four Position Switch Figure (1), ¥,, VV, and V, are voltages and R,,R,, 8, and R, are multipliers, Amore practical arrangement ofa multirange Voltmeter is multipliers connected in series string and is shown in figure (2). Figure (2k: Multipliers Connected in Series String i ies string has following advantages than the circuit shown in figure (1). Except resistor R, Multipliers connected in series string arenes pain andard resistance values. Therefore, resistors R,, R, and R, are available very sion ieee are i meet he circuit requirements which i & low range multiplier : a t RE o A : oe——_—_ Scanned with CamScanner- ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINAD a) sensitivity? Explain its relevance in circult applications. : ©. Nowsbect2,80t2, a9, Let, R,,= Total circuit resistance and 2 Sa ; ¥ = Range voltage then their quotient always be at 1000 7;- is known as voltmeter sensitivity, This value is same for all voltage ranges. tis also called as Ohms-per-volt rating of a voltmeter. Sei scale deflection current of the meter movement (J,.,) dlenoted with ‘S°, which is the reciprocal of the fj aivity ge 2 1:4{2 semi s= 7 (9)] Sensitivity or Ohms-per-volt rating of the voltmeter is shown in figure. Figure: Multipliers Connected in Series String In the above circuit, V =Voltage range, as set by the range switch and. R= Internal resistance of the meter movement, Total circuit resistance, ,, Muhtiplier resistance, R, (Aprii-18, Set-4, Qt(a) | Now.-10, Set, Ota!) ‘True RMS Meter Average Responding Meter A voltmeter which is designed to measure the rms value of any typical waveform like square wave, sine wave, sawtooth wave etc,, is known as true rm.s Fesponding voltmeter or true r.m.s meter, ‘The performance of true r.m.s meter employing one thermocouple, exhibits non-linear behaviour, To avoid non-linear behaviour, (wo thermocouples are used in the ‘same thermal environment ‘The thermocouple produces slow response, Therefivre, the overall response of the meter becomes sluggish, + |ANA.C electronic voltmeter which measures the average value of the A.C input voltage is known as known as average responding meter, + {At low voltage ranges the volt-ampere characteristics are non-linear. Therefore, at low voltages, the accuracy of the meter is low. | When the signals of radio frequencies are applied, the distributed capacitance of the-series resistance affects the performance of the meter. Hts power consumption is low, ‘The ram.s value indicates how much able the A.C signal is im delivering the power to a resistive load and ‘measures the equivalent heating value of the signal. tis expensive. tt is economical. Look for the SIA GROUP Logo Gy on the TITLE COVER before you buy Scanned with CamScannerUNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.25 Q36. List out different AC voltmeters and explain the working of any one voltmeter in detail. ‘Ans: : ‘Apritiay 37, Set-2, 2) The following are the different types of A.C voltmeters. 1. Average responding voltmeter 2. Peak responding voltmeter 3, True RM.S responding voltmeter 4 Tuned voltmeter $, Heterodyne type voltmeter. ‘True RMS Responding Voltmeter For answer refer Unit-l, Q37. Q37. Explain about true r.m.s voltmeter, Ans: True rms voltmeter is a ype of voltmeter whose working is based on the fact thet the beating power of a signal is ‘Proportional to the square of the .m.s voltage of the signal (ie, P= V2, ). This voltmeter indicates the value of RMS voltage by measuring the heating power of the signal. When a heating element is heated by the' power of the signal, its temperanare increases. A thermocouple placed in close proximity to the heater element, Will produce an output vohage (V,) corresponding 10 the temperature of heater element. This volage is proportional to the heating poster feeded tothe heater clement nad thee Proportional to the ran.s voltage of the signal. = KV as Vee Vins Generally thermocouple exhibits non-linear charscteristcs. To eliminate the nortinar effects of measuring thermocouple a'r thermocoople (balancing thermocouple is used along wih the measuring thermocouple. Bath these thermccocples re “eptin the same therinal environment. The balancing thermocouple is ued a feedback element s0 that the noe hace cfs of balancing thermocouple cancels the non-linear effects of measuring thermocouple. The block diagram of a true ms volumeter is shown in figure. The input section ofthe D.C ampli anf the two ther ‘Recouples connected to its input form a bridge circuit. Initially, the bridge is balanced. The signal to be measured is fist amplified by an A.C amplifier and then fed vo the beating clement ofthe meaning As the element gets heated by the smpliied signal the ouput valtge of the measering tbenacoouple changes Dat bridge becomes unbalanced. The D.C amplifier amplifies ths vaage which coresponds 9 unbalance, The compa of oe 2 ampli is fed tack to the heating element of the balancing thermocouple inorder to Balance the ie ‘The bridge attains Re Sondton when orp voge of alncingtrmecouple gus oe tpt vagy af measuring tore Witenthe bride is balanced, th D.C cument ofthe beating homent of alancing thermocouple is equal ae AC nee or Or texing clement of measuring themecouple- Hence, the D.C caret bance see ropernsl tthe rie robage tthe input signal. Thus the rm.s voltage ofthe input signal is determined from the intcetion of the D.C cesvent on the output indicating meter of true rm.s voltmeter. ‘ : Scanned with CamScannerJNTU-KAKINAD, 26 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [ Al Indicating meter Pee ; D N gna amplifier Bakincing thermocouple Figure: True RMS Voltmeter Q38. What are the effects of using a voltmeter of low sensitivity? Explain with an example. Now-tt, Set4, af) OR Explain voltmeter sensitivity and voltmeter loading effect. (Nov-10, Set-1, Qt(a) | Model Papers, 20) OR Define voltmeter sensitivity. What is the loading effect of a D.C voltmeter? Explain with an example. Ans: ‘Voltmeter Sensitivity z. 4, The sensitivity of a voltmeter is defined as the reciprocal ofthe full-scale deflection current (J,,) of the basic movement. Its denoted by the symbol *S" and expressed in V/V. Iga . Where, Jas the amount of curent required to deflect the pointer of basic meter to its full-scale postion. Volimetr sensitivity is also known as ohms-per-olt rating of he voltmeter. It can also be expresse io oft! resistance ofthe circuit (R) to the voltage range (V) ofthe voltmeter eee! ie, | + R=R,+R) Where, R, = Intemal resistance of movement R, = Multiplier resistance. ass eae oa aad scanned ‘can be used to determine the resistance of the multiplier resistor used it? ‘Loading Effect of » D.C Voltmeter : ‘The loading effect of « D.C voltmeter refers to the phenomenon in whi reading (measured voltage), due to the low internal resistance (i.e. low venation ‘leon produced in the vottm™ ‘A voltmeter is connected in parallel to the circuit whose Voltage i a sensitivity is used to measure the voltage. Nass is 10 be measured. Hence, ifs voltmeter having #™ (@) Across low resistance circuils, it provides correct readings, (b) “Across high resistance circuits, the voltmeter acts as shunt for Scanned with CamScannernme UNIT-1_ Performance Characteristics of Instruments Example of Londing Effect Let us consider, Range of voltmeters = 50 V Measurement of Voltage Across R, Using a Voltmeter having a Sensitivity of 1000 av Resistance of voltmeter, R,. = Sensitivity x Range = 1000 « 50 R, = 50k When voltmeter is connected across R,, the parallef combination of R, and R,, reduces the equivalent resistance across R, which is calculated R= RR _ (0 x10°)(50x10%) "Ra+Ry 10+50)x10? =833kQ _ Then, voltage across R, as measured by this volimeter will be, y, Rep OS RER,* 8.33 x10? =x x 0 +8.33)x107 =45.44V (Measurement of Voltage Across R, with a Voltmeter having a Sensitivity of 20,000 OV Resisance of volumeter, R= Sensitivity x Range = 20000 x $0= 10° R= 1M 100 Similarly, due to the resistance of this voltmeter, the ‘“seivalent resistance will 1.27 Hence, it ean be observed that the voltmeter high Sensitivity (i.e., 20000 $2/V) provides accurate ‘measurement of voltage (i.¢., 49.74 V) across the resistor Loading effect is introduced when voltmeter of low Sensitivity (Le., 1900.) is used to measure the voltage across R,, * Q39. With a block diagram, explain the operation of 3-bit flash converter. Ani Parallel comparator type ADCs are used in those Hons where the analog signal is required to be converted into digital with high speed, since itis the fastest ADC ‘compared wall other types of ADCs. It is also known as flash type or simultancous type ADC. [ts operating principle involves the. input voltage to be converted into. digital with a set of reference equires (2° — 1) comparators, Therefore, be, nin Sake "ek, = 0x10? 1108) 00 x10* +110") =991R ‘cross Kas measured by the above volimeter Nib, v poy (MSE) x SEY 7 x Rrk, SK? 10x10 +9.9%10° 400 Scanned with CamScanners meer high or ou, Tos comps css roving oe (kro OSE) (feference voltage) produce low output i.e, 0. Sint he compat renee ting voltage produce high output ie. 1. When these hit ode Pr ‘converts them. to bnmy ene, This conversion process takes place within 100 ns or even less ‘i i ids on the ° s, the conversion time of parallel comparator type ADC is < 100 ns. This conversion time depends on the speed ~ Itis the fastest technique. ‘The circuit design is simple, It is not suitable for analog to digital conversion with more than 3 10 4 digital output bits. , } is (echnique requires 2*~ 1 comparators, the number of comparators increases with the increase of nut + Q40. Define Anat crest factor with respect to true '.m.s voltmeter. What are typical r.m.s voltmeter specifications * F'Crest factor can be defined aé the ratio of peak value of input waveform to the R.M.S value of that waveform ie, nN __Peak value of input RMS value ‘The crest factorofa Due sinusoidal waveform is equal to 1.414. The non-sinusoi A laboratory type true R.M.S voltmeter ean measure iny " Specifications of True R.M.S Voltmeter Parameter Measurement functions puts having a crest factor of TT ” Specifications: G) Peak value Gi) RM.S value (iii) D.C voltage ; Gi) Ffequeney. Peak Measurentents Voltage measuring range 20.1 mV to 500V 5 D.Ct5.10 Miz pus (iii) Selectable high pass filter +10 Hz, 100 Hz, 1000 Hz © 2 iv) Selectable low pass filter + 20 KHz, 100 kHz, 1 Miz (40 dBi Jecade) RM.S Measurements Has . * @" Voltage measuring range (i)_Frequency range “ Gii)_ Selectable high pass filter _ GV) Selectable tow pass filter +20 KHZ, 100 kHz, 1 \ ye Pg Masts cee 0 KHZ, 100 kHz, MIz (40 dB/decadey fage measuring range . 50 pV t6 300 V :D.C 1030 MHz” 10 Hz, 100 Hz, 1000 Hz :0to 4300 0.02 Hz to 30 Miz digit display\ UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.26 6. General Specifications (@ Input supply voltage 1230 VA.C£10%, 50 Hz-t 5% ‘ Gi) Range of operating temperature : 0 to 55°C (iii). Calibration data : Traceable to International/national standards to be provided. Gv) Calibration certificate : Traceable to NIST/International Standards to be provided. Q41, APMMC instrument ‘with a full scale deflection of 100 HA and an internal resistance of 2000 is available. Itis to be converted into 0-5 'V, 0-10 V, 0-25 V and 0-50 V multirange voltmeter using individual multiplier resistors for each range. Calculate the values of the individual resistors. ‘Ans: . Nov.-11, Set-1, Q1(b). "Given that, Full scale deflection current, /,;= 100 nA 2 Inemal resistance, R, = 2000 0 Desired voltage ranges = 0- 5 V,0- 10 V,0-25 Vand 0-50V Multirange voltmeter (to be designed) Employing multipliers connected in series string connection is shown below. For0-5V Range sv For0-10V Range v=10Vv engi i ‘The switch “Sis at ¥, position and the total circuit resistance is given by, 2! 100000. Ta 100x10 The mulipig resistance, R, = Ry, + RD) sane = 100 « 10°» (48 * 10° +2 10) = 50x 10° SIA GROUP {i Scanned with CamScanner LLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS“For 0-25 V Range Va25V «ht : “The switch Sis at P, position and te total circuit resistance 68 v 25 ot = 250000 2. Ba Teg 00x10 oR = 250k 7 <5 The multiplier resistance, Ry Ray (Ry ¢R AR) = 250 « 10° — (50 x 10° +48 x 10° +2.* 10") _ = 150% 10° ‘ a 2 Ry = 150 kD For 0- 50 V Range v=s0v “The switch ‘Sis at V, position and the total circuit resistance is given ys 50 : it Ty xO a ; = 5000002 : ‘ 7 Rat = 500K R, ‘The multiplier resistance, R,= R,,,~(R, +R, + Ry +R,) é: : 500 10° —(150 * 10" 50 x 10? +48 x 10°-+2 « 10%) =250%10° ER = 250K “ ‘The multirange voltmeter with the designed values of multipliers is shown below, F R250k2 R10 Ry=SOKD * R48 kD Figure (2: Multirange Voltmeter Q42. Abasic D Arsonval movement with an internal resistance R, = 50 Q and be converted into a multi range-D.C voltmeter with ranges Of 0 = 10 V0 ay oerent lng = 0-5 MAL ‘Show the arrangement with the help of neat diagram with values of eretoe eo, 250 V and 0 = Facet resistances used. Given that, Full scale current, /,,=0.5mA + 02 = 10 V, 0- 50V, 0- 250-V and 0- 500 ange voleter employing muliptiers connected in series sting connection i shy ion is shown in fi min figure (1), Novidec.:12, Set 010 Internal resistance, R, Desired voltage range Look for the SIA GROUP Loco QS on the THLE OVER ve fore you bu ly Scanned with CamScanner"e * . Be Be Oe UNIT-1 . Performance Characteristics of Instruments’ is 1.31 4 Ns ve Reso. : a ¥, Figure (1) For 0 10V Range z v=10V The switch ‘S"is at ¥, position and the total eicuit resistance is given by, Wai Rog T= = 20,000 Ta 05x10 8 J Ray = 20k | ‘The multiplier resistance, R, x . =R,=19.95KQ For 0-50 V Range v=s0v : The switch ‘S”is at /, position and the total circuit resistance is given by, The multiplier resistance, 2, = R,,—(R,+R,) : 100 «10° (19.95 x 10° + 50) hina 80000 0kD For 0-250 V Range { V=250V : The switch *S°is at ¥, position and the total circuit resistance is, Rye In 250 osx10 + , = 500000 Fagg" $00 KO The multiplier resistance, R, = Ruy (ky + Ret RD : = 500 « 10° (80 x 10? + 19.95 * 10 + $0) = 400000 . ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS "STA GROUP 5 Scanned with CamScanner1.32 For 0-500 V Range v= 500 ___The switch ‘S"is at V, position and the total circuit re sistance is given by, ‘The multiplier resistance, Ry = Ry (R,+ +R) = 1000 « 10° (400 « 10°+ 80, % 10 + 19.95 x 10° + 50) = 500000 R= 500k The multirange yoltmeter with the designed values of ‘multipliers is shown in figure (2), R,wSOOKA R~AOOKA. RyAOKD R, 19.9510, vy ¥, Q43. Avoltmeter having 80 V on a 100 V scale, when connected across an unknown resistor. The current through the 7 resistor is 2 mA. Calculate the % of error due to loading effect. Ans: Given that, Sensitivity of voltmeter, S= 30 kQ/V. Voltage, V=80V Range of voltmeter = 100 V Current, /=2 mA .To determine, ‘Unknown resistance, R,=? % error due to loading effect = ? When a voltmeter is connected across the unknown resistance (R,), the measured or meter resistance is in parallel with R,. Therefore, the equivalent resistance (R,,) is the parallel combination of R, and R,. This results in error in the measurement due to the meter. ‘ApriuMay-17, Set-4, 02(0) “Look get, ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION Vl for the SIA GROUP LOGO’ Qf. on the TITLE COVER before you buy RaXR, Ry + Re ‘The equivalent resistance is given by, Vv _ + 80 ~~ 2x10 = 40000 2 = 40 kQ. ‘The meter resistance, R, is given by, R,= Sensitivity * Voltmeter range =30% 10° « 100 R,=3MQ ‘Substituting the values of R,, and R,, (Bx10°)xR, 40110 10+ R, 40 * 10? (310% R)=3 x 108% R, 1.2% 10" +40 x10" R,=3 «10 * R, 12 «10"=R, [3 « 106-40 x 10°) 12x10", © 3«10°40x10? = 40540.54.2. = 40.45 2. R-R % Error = "8 x199 = 404510) 40210), 40.45mig> “100 [% Error =1.112% Scanned with CamScanner1.33 ne _ ‘Therefore, the meter scale is non-linear and is becomes crowded at the lower end of a low range voltmeter. Due to the high forward resistance of the diode, the lower end of a voltmeter Q44. Draw the basic circuit of an A.C voltmeter and | has low sensitivity. Figure (3) shaws the general rectifier type explain. AC yoltmeter. Diode(D,) ea Wie The basic circuit of an A.C voltmeter is shown in LI Z "figure (1). ‘ uy] bf Ft Figure (3): General Rectifier Type A.C, Voltmeter In igure (3), for positive half eyele of A.C input signal diode D, conducts. When D, conducts, the meter deflects according to the average value of this positive half cycle of A.C. input signal. To draw more current through the diode D,,a resistor R, Figure 1): A.C. Voltmeter shunt the meter movement. ‘The A.C voltmeter is a rectifier type device which uses | . The diode D, conducts during negative half cycle of ‘#PMMC movement along with a rectifier circuit. A bridge | A.C input signal and the current passes through the measuring recfer shown in above figure uses silicon diodes. * circuit in an opposite direction. This current by passes the meter “Silicon diode has high forward current and low reverse | .movernent. ‘current these are preferred in.a bridge rectifier. A rectifier bridge | Q45, Explain how the range of an A.C. voltmeter is Produces a full wave D.C signal atits output. The movable coil ‘extended. . ofthemeter has some inertia therefore, it indicates steady state | 3 : defection This steady deflection is proportional tothe average value ‘The A.C. voltmeter is a rectifier type device which uses i 7 eee vane | @PMMC movement along with a rectifier arrangement. The SfeecuTent (1) Figure 2) shows the RMS andaverage vale | 1 circuit of an A.C. voltmeter is shown in fguré. 0.707) O64), Tine Figur: AC, Voltmater Figure (2 R.M.S and Average Value of Current ‘The four diodes are used as rectifying elements Which form a full-wave rectifier bridge. Rectifier element converts A.C In ser scale should be gs ierel ts he behets ne eutingsinewave | 10a unidirectional D.C anda meter responsive to D.C is used input At low values of forward eurrent the practical rectifiers | 10 indicate the value of ected A.C. Generally silicon diodes Mt At low values of forwar are used in the bridge rectifier since a silicon diode has high See a ‘PECTRUM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STA SIA GROUP i aBRR: 5 BAS ef TION-{UNTI ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTAT = = the shunt, there reverse current, Rectifier instruments | than the current through the tivity measurement in communication | movement. This reduces HS S6RH TG the meter rent work. Inthe above figure, the | The series combination Of © R, whet the SW is co is limited by R, (multiplier) which does not | is in pare rerefore, the curent through the suit resis rating of PMMC instrument. position 2 Ther for rough the meter MOVER, 5 aon an the curren ity of rectifier type device is given by, | i# less “The resistors R,, Rand R, are together in parallel wig ~~ | meter movement when i sich i patio ies ) it flowing through the . th #5, Zap = Fall scale deflection curent current flowing through the anand icy habe <_, ,_ THEA. sensitivity of a rectifier type device is different of meter movement is inc 2 fot half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier. The A.C. ‘Applicationg A . jof a half-wave rectifier with sinusoidal inputs given | APP! \ pe ‘For answer refer Unit-I, Q13. Ste =0455,., --(2) | Q47. What Is meant by precision rectifier? Ex ‘The A.C sensitivity of a full-wave rectifier with Its working principle and its suitability oidal input is given as, S,.=0.9 5, . ..Q).| . + measurement applications. | THe above given equations ate not valid for non- | Ans: t aR Ose an a ' A circuit, which i& designed to rectify the voltages wha ates 5 ~* "| range is below the cut-in voltage of diode is called precision re ee ¥ = Applied voltage and y ms fier. As itis difficult to rectify millivolt signal at high frequer wid %,= Voltage drop across the PMMC instniment. | using conventional diode, the precision rectifier is designed. la - 72 Therfre, to eitend the range of a half-wave rectifier | a precision rectifier, the conventional diode is connected in ‘YorA.C voltmeter the value of multiplier is, "| feedbiick path of an operational amplifier. Therefore, the cutia 2 RS, V-R-R, «| | voltage gets divided by the open-loop gain of the op-amp. Hes oe < the cut-in voltage is almost neglected or eliminated and it! R,=045S,. VOR-R, (5,0=045 5,2) : ee becom 5 oc 4 Sy oc). |- possible to rectify the millivolt signals at high frequencies, ‘Torextend the range of a full-wave rectifier for A.C _ ins «-voltmeter'the value of multiplier is ‘The cifeuit diagram of a precision halfwave re « R,= 095 S,. V—R_-2R) shown in figure (1); pO ‘Q46. What is ayrton shunt? Describe it with a neat sketch. Specify its applications. x — NoviDec.-12, Set; aia) <___Itis also known as universal shunt, Figure shows the basic circuit of an ayrton shunt, oe Figure (1): Precision Halfwave Rectifier ya ov arats input voltage is postive or greater than (> O. the output voltage of the op-amp exceeds the cub Voltage of the diode. Therefore, the diode becomes f Figure: Ayrton Shunt ‘When the input volta, 4 voi he posbiliy st using he meterin becca | ¥;<0,th ouput votuge ofthe apse ones an oh _Rithout a shunt. This isthe most important merit ofthe ayrion | Which te dou becomes reverse an ie neBaN a shunt, "| Therefore no eur is noted that the series sR, R, and the eter movement is in 8 when the switch (SW) is connected to position 5 The input and the current through the meter movement is léss tcitier ar shown n fgets of alfvare canned with CamScannerLa UNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.35 net vote Tae ~10my uae ota Vy =10mv aA pon) Te Figure (2 Input and Output Waveforms Applications For answer refer Unit, Q14. 48. Design a universal ayrton shunt to provide an ‘ammeter with a current range of 2A, 5A, 10 A using a D' Arsonval movement with an internal resistance R,, = 50 Q and full scale deflection current of 1 mA. Ans: Given that, NoviDec.-12, Set, a1(o) Intemal resistance of d”Arsonval movement, R, =502 Full scale deflection current of ammeter, Ig lm Desired current ranges =2.A, 5 A, 10 In this problem, an Ayrton shunt has to be designed for {he curent ranges. Hence, this Ayrton shunt should consist f3 shut resistances. Let R,, R, and R, be the shunt resistances of the Ayrton shunt as shown in the figure. R,=500 ‘The overall shunt resistance should be small in order to ‘nable the ammeter to measure large currents i.., as the current range inereases, the shunt resistance should decreases. Hence, For 2 A range, shunt includes R,, R, and R, => Shunt resistance, R= R, + Ry +R, For 5 A fange, shunt includes R, and R, => R=, +R, For 10.A range, shunt includes only R, => R,= R, Since, the shunt has to be designed for current ranges, the current flow through the meter (J,) should be considered as full scale deffection current. ic, 1=1,,=1mA. ‘The input current (2) is considered as the range current. This range current gets divided into shunt current (/,) and meter current (Z,) at node 4. ie, J= +1, For 2.A Range The switch is thrown to 2.A range position. => RFR,+R, isin parallel meter resistance, R, = 1999 ma. Since, shunt and meter are in parallel, the voltage drop ‘across shunt and meter will be equal, R,+R,+R,=0.0250125 ~( For 5A Range ‘The switch is thrown to $ A range position, > + Risin parallel with R, +2 > R=R FR, 3 *1=5A=5000mA 1=1mA 4999 mA 1(R, + R,) (4999 mA) (R, + R)=(1 may(a, + 50) B+ R= R450) @ Sp me eek snes "ECTRON gla ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Sa Grogs uw\ON ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTAT! RF AMMETI For 10a Re J=10A= 10000 mA ‘The switch is thrown to 10 A range position, Shunt includes only &, ic. R, is in parallel with (R, + R, + R,) = (9999 mA}(R,) = (1 mA) (R, + R, + 50) R, +R, + 50= 9999 R, Ry +R,= 9999 R, 50 =) ‘Substituting the value of R, + R, from equation (3) into, ‘equation (1), we have, R,+(R, +R) = 0.0250125 2 R, + 9999R, — 50= 0.0250125 10000R, = $0.0250125 R= 0.0050025 Q Substituting the vale of R, + R, from equation (2) into equation (1), we have, R, +R, +R,=0.0250125 2 +50. 7, ~0.0250125 49997 , + 50 + 4999R,= (4999}(0.0250125) . 5000 R, + 50= 125.0374 _ 75.0374 *"5000 R= 0.0150074 2 Substituting the values of R, and R,, we get the value of : R, +R, + R, = 0.0250125 (0.0050025) + R, + (0.0150074)'= 0.0250125 R,= 0.0050026 2 ‘The shunt resistances of ayrton shunt are, R= 0.050025 2 R= 0.0050026 2 R,= 0.0150148.2 Hence, For 2A range, the shunt resistance, +R, + R, = 0.0250125 2 For 5 A range, the shunt resistance, .0100050.2 Look for the SIA GROUP LOGO {ff on the TITLE COVER before you buy [JNTU-KAKINADA} 4.4 .THERMOCO! 49, What is the P! 49. termocouple tYPO te and operation of ‘ApriiNtay 18, Set-t, 02, OR Draw the sketch operation of thermocouple type ammeter. ‘AprivMay-17, Set-3, a2(y) OR Explain the principle and operation of a thermocouple type RF ammeter. (Maye13, Set, a(b) | Mod oR Discuss thermocouple type RF ammeter in detail. . ° pers, 02a) Ans: RF Ammeter Generally RF ammeters are thermocouple, instruments. “The junction of thermocouple made with two dissimilar metal and voliage is developed by heating the junction. In this case a sensitive D.C. microammeter is used to indicate output of thermocouple. The principle used in thermocouple is known as “Thermo Electricity’. As the junction of the thermocouple is heated, some amount of D.C. voltage is generated. This is known as Thermoelectric action. In this device, the junction of two metal wires are heated by the current, which is measufedin thermocouple instrument. As the junction of the thermocouple js heated, the voltage produced is directly proportional to the heating effect. Therefore, the D.C microammeter driven by this output voltage, that gives a reading proportional to the ‘magnitude of the A.C. input. ’ Different types of thermocouples are as follows, 1. Mutual type 2 Contact ty 3. Separate heater type and 4. Bridge type, 1, Mutual Type Animieter ‘Thermocouple <— 4 Figure (1) i Figure (1) shows the mut * / © mutual type thermocouple: mutual type, the altemating current eannot passed through metal wire of a heater, it passes through the thermocouple. sensitive D.C. ammeter shunts the thermocouple which is tht basic drawback of this device. A Scanned with CamScanner ‘and explain the principle ang4 1.37 UNIT-1 “Performance Characteristic$ of Instruments © ©" ———_ Q50. Explain the bridge type thermocouple —} Contact Type 4 rigre (2) sis the cota iypé thermocouple arrangement and mention its applications. st Armeter Ans: (Aprtumay-17, Se-t,Q3(a) | Now/Dee.12, Set, Q4(a)) Bridge Type Thermocouple : Heer Figure (2) : ‘These are low sensitive devices compared to mutual typ. Inthe above figure X-Y is the thermocouple element. This type tus separate thermocouple leads, that conduct away the heat ffom metal wire of the heater. 3. Separate Heater Type «> Separate heater type themiocouple is showin figure 3) For answer refer Unit-, Q41, Topic: Bridge Type. As the name suggest, a bridge circuit arrangements used in the construction. To all the four arms of the bridge, thermo- couples are attached. The thermocouples are kept in a vacuum, so that there is an absence of oxygen and high sensitivity can be obtained. This is due to the prevention from heat loss by conduction process and thus the operation is performed at high temperature. A vacuum thermocouple can also be used but it requires I mA for full scale deflection whereas the bridge circuit arrangement in ait requires 100 mA for full scale deflection. ‘The air heaters used for heating the element is made up of non-corroding platinum alloy. One of the disadvantage of thermocouple heaters ate that can take only small: overloads without getting damage. This is because of the operation car- ying out near the burnout point at normal conditions. The inaterials such as constantan against copper alloy — ‘of manganin or platinum are generally used to form a ther- ‘mocouple. This type of junction exhibits the thermal e.m.f of 4 45 VPC approximately, Applications 1. ', Many heat cool combination heaters use thermocouple bridges for extruding and blow ‘moulding machines. pee Ghsk bead in industries for’ 2 2, These are used in industries for obtaining high degree Seaaa AAA 0d Cmca or accuracy, . ‘Heater, ae ae gS = ~ 2 “i 4 _ 1.5 OHMMETERS-SERIES TYPE, SHUNT Figure (3) CES Bee TYRES, a In the above figure (3), the thermocouple element has ‘eptnear the heater wire. This thermocouple insulated from the heater wire by a glass bead. Due tothe temperature drop in the ‘hss bead. This arrangement makes the instrument sluggish ‘ad low sensitive, In RF current measurements this type is fre- rely used ‘The sensitivity of the thermocouple is increased Placing this arrangement in a vacuum. Hence, loss of heat ynaiation is eliminated by this device. 4 Bridge Type ‘The figure (4) shows the bridge type thermocouple. Figure) JThs is one of the mutual type of thermocouple instrux type of SiS ly of this device is high. This type get avoids the effect ofthe ammeter Se & movement Q51. Draw the series type ohmmeter and explain its operation, Aprivitay-17, Sot, ata) OR , With neat sketch explain the operation of series type chmmeter. Also explain how itis calibrated. Figure (1) shows the series: type ohmmeter. x Xe AWW X Scanned with CamScannerove figure (1) the resistor R, and battery £ are Lin'series with D'Arsonval movement. The ends of ‘Across these terminals a resistor R is connected which JUAknown fesistor. The current which is flowing through F ‘depends on the magnitude of the resistor AR. Hietoe the defection of the meter movement is directly ‘Proportional to the value of unknown resistor R. . Inthe above figure (1), R= Imternal resistance of the DArsonval ‘movernent E = Battery & = Unknown resistor R= Current limiting resistor R= Zero adjusting resistor. Figure (2) shows the dial of series ohmmeter. Initially ‘the terminals X and ¥ are shorted. Therefore, current through ‘unknown resistor (R) is maximum ic, R= 0, °° Ohms 0Ohms © cg Favre (2 Dial of Series Type Obmmeter nt. The Voltage of battery of serics ohmmeter is decreased with tine the meter rofl scale deflection position. The the pointer 10 -eestion positon. The frequently used for genera rE ed popular design. The value of unknown peal he values of R, and R, that gives half the fag ‘ohmmeter is it’s simple a determines tl deflection. B, =R,+ RR RR, . 5 -1- (ei) + Where, R,, = Half of full scale deflection Therefore, 22, is the total resistance presented to the hag sna Ester caren nits a deflection. 1.= Total current of the circuit 7,= Current flowing through the shun 44> Full scale deflection current E,mE, => IR= TR, TpaRy Sa From equations (2) and (3), we get, a Ra a From equations (1) and (4), we get, Scanned with CamScannerSUNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments wea ee ee ee ; From equations (5) and (6), we get, CpaRnBi Ry M1 i 0" TpaByRur # Bg (E— Ril pa) ee Castahadta| : a oe CpaRn By : 4 Q52. Discuss shunt type ohm meter with neat sketch. How is calibrated? Ans: Figure (1) shows the shunt type ohm meter, From the above figure 1), is noted that a resistor R, and a D'Arsonval movement are connected in series witha battery. In the above figure (1) resistor R, is an adjustable resistor and resistor R is the unknown resistor. The unknown resistor R is oanected across the terminals and Y in parallel with D’Arsonval movement, The switch SW is used to connéet the battery to the circuit when used. ° Inthe above figure (1), E.= Battery R, = Adjustable resistor R = Unknown resistor R,= Intemal resistance of the D’Arsonval movement Calibration Fighre (2) shows the dial of shunt type ohmmeter. > ‘ Ohms > Ohms ' Figure (2: Dial of Shunt Type Ohm Meter . Init mi are shorted. Therefore, the unknown resistance R =O, In this case no curent flows through the meter boos tis ite ely short circuit, This position of pointer is marked as 0.9 on the seal ‘SIA GROUP 25 SPECTRUM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Scanned with CamScannerJON (JNTU-KAKINAD, 40 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTAT] al The unknown resistance R= a, nth re, ‘Now to mark co Ohms on the scale, the terminals Xand Yare opened, There fo inter shows fl scale deflection ong ase the maximum current flows through the meter by adjusting the value of R,, and the Poi , seale. This position is marked as co on the scale. .d Y the intermediate markings of poi ‘By connecting various known values of the standard resistors to the: terminals oha mark at the left side of the scale ang Position are made on the seale corresponding to /,, the shunt type obimmeter has a ‘an ‘co’ Ohms mark’at the right side of the scale which is shown in figure (2). .d. Therefore, for the measur ease of low values of resistanee measurements this type of ohmmete is frequent vse remeny values of resistance shunt type ohmmeter is used as a test instrument in the la Q53. Differentiate between series type ohmmeter and shunt type ohmmeter. ‘ ‘Ans: of low inact (@ee-t3,8et2, a1(a) | Nov-t, $3, Q16)| Model Paper. gap) | Series Type Ohmmeter ~ Shunt Type Ohmmeter It doesn’t have ON/OFF switch. 1.| It consist of an ON/OFF switch. a ‘0" Ohr ‘The dial of series type ohmmeter has an ‘cot Ohms | 2.| The dial of shunt type ohmmeter has one mares ‘mark at the left side of the scale and ‘0’ Ohms mark}. | at the left side of the scale and an ‘co’ atthe right side of the scale. right side of the scale. ‘The series type ohmmeter is frequently used for... 3.| In ease of low values of resistance measurements shunt Reneral service work due to its simple and popular type ohmmeter is used as a test instrument in the design. laboratory. . In series type ohmmeter, resistor R, and battery E. | 4.| In shunt ‘ype ohmmeter, resistor R, and D’Arsonval Fa sanecied in series with D’Arsonval movement. | | movement are connected in series with a battery E. In this type the current flowing through the meter | 5 | In this type the current flowing through the meter movement depends on the magnitude of the ‘movement not depends on the magnitude of the unknown resistor R. unknown resistor R. ‘The battery voltage of series type ohmmeter is 6.) The battery voltage of shunt type ohmmeter is not decreased with time and age. decreased with time and age. (O54. A series ohmmeter uses a 50 © basic movement Tequiring a full scale battery voltage is 5 V. The desired scale marking (@) Values of R, and R, (6) Maximum value of R, to compensate for a 10% drop in battery. deflection of 1 mA. The intemal for half scale deflection is 2000 0. Calculate, . Now-t0, Set, G10) ‘Given that, Meter resistance, R, = 50.0. Fal scale deflection current, J,,= 1 mA Internal battery voltage, ¥=5 V Half scale deflection resistance, R, = 2000 Drop in battery voltage = 10% s (@) _Inseries ohmmeter circuit, the value of current limitin Via * Ry XR 3 . | = 2009 210 xsi 2000 000-20 i Fesistance is expressed as, ReaR,- =R, =1980 @ Similarly, for a series ohmmeter the current limiting resist J ance (Ris given by, Ja *RaXR, _ 1x10? x50%2009 | at we «50x 2000, : i VU pay) 5~ (1x10 x 2090) 100 . 3 R= 733330 Look for the SIA GROUP LoGo: Geen ine Tim — & COVER 4 before vii hay TH Scanned with CamScannerUNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments’ 1.41 ) Internal battery voltage is 5 V. Itis also given that, there is a 10% drop in the battery voltage. Therefore 10% of 5 Vis over 0.5 V. ‘The battery voltage with 10% drop, =5V-05V=45V ‘Now, the maximum value of R, to compensate fora 10% drop in battery is calculated as, 1x10 x50%2000 2° V=(gaXRj) 45—(x10- 2000) =e 45-2 -. Maximum value of R, to compensate for a 10% drop in battery = 40.2. Q55. A shunt type ohmmeter uses a basic meter with a full scale current of 2 mA and an internal resistance of 25 Q. The battery has an emf of 4.5 V. Find: (i) The value of resistance R, (ii) At what point will 100 © be marked on the scale? Tpa XR XRo =409 Ans: Dec-13, Set, 1/0) Given that, “Fill scale deflection current, ,,=2.mA Internal resistance, & , = 25 9 Battery em.f, V= 1.5 V ‘To determine, @ Resistance value, R, Gi) Percentage of full scale if R, = 1002 (© When the terminals are kept open (i.e, R, = ©) the ‘maximum current flows through the meter is given by, ue Paces 2x19 R+25 15 100 5100. 125 = 725420 Ta = 1.61 * 10% Percentage of full scale deflection currents at which meter ‘would read 100 2 is given by, L = x100% Q56. Aseries ohmmeter uses a 509 basic movement ring a full scale deflection of 1 mA. The internal battery voltage is 3 V. The desired scale marking for half scale deflection is 2000 Q. Calculate: “0 (li) Maximum value of R, to compensate for a 10% drop in battery. Values of R, and R, 3 Ans: Dei.-13, Sat, a1(0) Given that, Metér resistance, R/= 50 Fall scale deflection cirrent, J,,=1 mA. Internal battery voltage, ¥=3 V. Half scale deflection resistance, R, =2000 9 Drop in battery voltage = 10% @ +. Inseties ohmmeter circuit, the value of current limiting resistance is expressed as, LaXPn®Ry v x 15=(@, +25) x2 * 10° 1.5=2% 10? R, +50*107 pom 22107 48052000 2x 103 R,= 15-50% 107 7 1.5-50x10% += 2000- 33.33 B07 7 R=1966.67 2 Bx 25 2. Similarly, for a series ohmmeter the current limiting (When an unknown resistor is connected across X and Y resistance (Ris given by, terminals the current flow through the meter is piven by, fatty, Fi v Ry 7 Tx®) Tad = pot Ry ft = BRR +R, P BRR 10° 502000, be 3 100 “3=(ba10 x 2000) 1p = > BSx100 254100 riéi 25+100 ; SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS Sin GROUP 5 Scanned with CamScanner J | |Internal battery voltage is 3 V. Its also given that, there is a 10% drop in the battery voltage: Therefore 10% of 3 Vis over 0.3 V. The battery voltage with 10% drop, » =3V-03V=2.7V Now, the maximum value of R, o compensate for a 10% drop in battery is calculated as, 1x10” x50%2000 2.7- (x10 x2000) _ 100 27-2 = 142850 Maximum value of R, to compensate for a 10% drop in battery = 142.85 Q. ©°-A.6 MULTIMETER FOR VOL LTAGE, ‘CURRENT AND RESISTAI Q57. Explain how a multimeter can be used as, D.C voltmeter AC voltmeter (ii) D.C ammeter (iv) Ohm meter. Ans: @ > D.C Voltmeter D.C voltmeter’ section of a’multimeter is shown in figure (1). . Figure (1);D.C Voltmeter Section of a Multimeter ‘ADC 5000 V is shown in figure, which is an external, voltage jack. This external voltage jack is used for the measurement of D.C voltage up to 5000 V. ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [ JNTU-KAKINA| ‘AC Voltmeter > voltmeter section of a multimeter is shop figure Once OFA. voltage measurements he half rectifier rectifies the output voltage OF pret nec plied atthe input) and then passes throu the met, purpose of the other diode connected across the meter ig rotection. When a reverge voltage passes across the the dicde conducts and hence the current by passes the in the reverse direction. pe Led 13940 w 3269 680 158k 3k 22K “ Figure (2): A.¢ Voltmeter Section of a Multimeter Git) “D.C Ammeter D.C ammeter section of a multimeter is shown ia figure (3), +, 104 Figure (3k: D.C Voltmeter Section of Multimeter ‘The above shown figure (3) is used for the measure of D.C milliamperes and amperes. Current can be me : 400.5 A ($00 mA)using + Positive) and. (Negative) teria Jacks marked shown in figure (3) (+10 A and -10 A) ate for the measurement of current in the range of 0 to 10 AmB ‘Current in the range of 0 0 10 Amps. Look for the SIA GROUP Loco QS on the’ TITLE COVER before you buy ’ a Scanned with CamScanner=. UNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments (i) Obmmeter : The Ohmmeter ction ofa multimeter is shown in gure (). : @- 260 ANM\- asa : ska " 92K = 3a 220 ‘ ma WW ‘ IMA 1049 Figure (4: Ohm Meter Section of a Multimeter . . From the above figure (4), it is observed thatthe total circuit resistance of ohmmeter and 102.0 resistor are connected in ~ Parallel in 10 9 resistor range where asthe resistor of 102.2 is disconnected from the circuit inthe 1 MQ range is 10 kQ. The half scale deflection on the 10 k02 range is 100.0. The internal resistance of ohrimeter section of a multimeter is 10 KQ for the 1 MW range which is shown in figure (4) and the internal resistance is 100 © for the 10 kQ. range. A range switch is connected to ‘suitable shunt resistance which changes the range ofan ohmmeter. Different ranges of chmmeter i obtained by using different Yalues of shunt resistance. 258. Draw the block diagram of a digital multimeter and explain it, c Ans: ‘The basic block diagram of a digital multimeter is shown in figure. Hed Ac. : pe. High o 1 « 7 ows , | we = : | . Figure: Block Diagram of a Digital Multimeter j 27a ane umn Fn NOREEN Stbenrs —————"Sra RGU fs Scanned with CamScannereTRUMENTATION to SARI INSTRUM NTS AND I then Sisplayed ia OURN a resistor of unknown value “= "" “Look for the SIA GROUP Loco a onth Atits of resistance di e THLE 5 j "SCOVER Gama yaIb = Bl a ae Scanned with CamScanner' 1 YNIT-t Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.45 960. Explain with a neat block diagram of a dual slope digital voltmeter. Basie Principle ‘Slope propertional wo, <— Constant slope proportional to V, — Votage igure (1) Initially, the dual slope integrating type DVM integrates the input voltage V. The slope of the integrated signal is propor- ‘hal tothe input voltage under measurement. After certain period of time say the supply of input voltage Js stopped, and a ‘eative voltage -F, is applied to the input of the integrator Then the output signal of integrator will have negative slope, and is ‘astant and also proportional to the magnitude of the input voltage Bock Diagram and Working The block diagram of a dual slope integrating type DVM is shown in figure (2), : . ic , 1 oscillator Ae Li Vee yt timtesraige> 12, |compa | ‘ T rat Flip. [Counter er rer emenerery | and q me disphy Block Diagram of Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM ‘The major blocks of «dual slope integrating type DVM (dual slope analog to digital coriverter) are, 1 2 a 4 8. ‘An op-amp employed as an integrator A level comparator Oscillator for generating time pulses Decimal counter Block of logic circuitry. en aad Pulse i applied to eset ithe counter athe output of flip-flop will be at logic “0”, The ee switch S, is in open cone the output of turn opens the AND gate, i aaa Scanned with CamScanner._ be stopped. And the counted pulses are displayed ( gTRUMENTA He rough it sod api 1h brow pat isthe COUN ig esis maxim mediate lock pulse ip lop becomes T0Bic ‘I Which gy Hie supply of V, will be stopped an sr constant negative ag nge it state which in tan ty During his diecharsing anges its output sat zero) the countee 1.46 “ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND IN’ t Tre allowed to pass "When the gate opens the output of the oscillator (clock pulses) Now the counter counts the numberof pulses fed to i. As soon as it rae trun for a time period 1, in this condition the maximum count will be “9999 8 a changes oF goes to “0000” and the fip-op willbe activated. Therefor, the OWE activates the switch drive cireity. This makes the switch Sto open and 5, to close We supply of Fis applied tothe integrator) with this applied signal the output ofthe im" its output signal linearly decreases 1o ero. Ths again makes the output ofthe comparsor the gate. Here the discharging time fof the capacitor is proportional othe iaput Vols SA. the counter indicates the count. ss soon as, the negative slope reaches 2eo vols the comma ‘which in tum locks the gate. Onee, the output of integrator becomes 20 (r the input Of directly gives the input voltage) Derivation While charging the capacitor, we have, Ro { Vide RC} vv, ORC __. While discharging the capacitor, we have, nak fra : . . nae ¢ Tet : Vita ° RC c : S ‘Now, subtract equation 2) from equation (1), we get, , Vn) If, T=Period of oscillator and 1, n,= Counts indicated by the counter respectively + Then, = 4, 2— or 44 Where, Vand n, are constants and if, V-Kn, A From the above equation, is lear that the measured voltage signal’ accuracy does not depend on the time consti i the integrator. i Advantages : ig iy 1. Depending on the requirement the accuracy and speed can be varied. t 5 + 2, ‘Ttean provide the output with an accuracy of + 0.05% in 100 ms, r = 3. ‘This technique exhibit excellent noise rejection since the inteyration process eliminates both noise and super imposed AC on the TITLE COVER’ before you buy” Scanned with CamScannerUNIT-1. Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.47 Q61. How the working of a potentiometer type digital voltmeter be explained? ‘Apri-18, Set2, 02a) OR Explain the functioning of a potentiometer type digital voltmeter. Ans: . Digital a readout /Potentiometer| : Error | > adjustable amplifier ae Error ¥ signal i Unknown Reference volage Reference . volage Figure: Block Diagram of Potentiometric Type Digital Voltmeter Basic Principle The operating principle of a potentiometer type digital voltmeter is to compare the ‘voltage under measurement with a known fixed value of reference voltage. The reference voltage is Varied by varying the arm of calibrated potentiometer to get null ition or a balance condition between these two voltages. At, balance condition the voltage setting of potentiometer gives the value of unknown voltage (voltage under measurement), Operation Initially, the voltage tobe measured is filtered and attenuated oa paticular level and then applied tothe input of comparator. "The comparator is also referred to as an error detector. The reference voltage from the reference voltage source is supplied to the potestiometer, Based on the location of the sliding contact on the potentiometer, the feedback voltage varies and is applied to the comparator circuit. Then, the comparator compares both the voltage to be measured and feedback voltage, and produces some output known as error signal, which is equal t0 the difference of the two voltages. This error signal is then applied tothe error amplifier, The error amplifier strenithens the error signal and supplies its output tothe potentiometer adjustment device. Depending onthe magnitude ofthe amplified eror signal, the potentiometer adjustment devices moves the arm ofthe potentiometer (sliding contact) towards right or left side onthe POT. Thus, the potentiometer adjustment device places the arm in such a position where the voltage on the POT(or feedback voltage) becomes equa othe applied unknown input voltage, when the feedback voltage is equal to the unknown voltage, the resulting error signal will be ‘0" (no error) and no voltage is applied to potentiometer adjustment device. Hence, the siding contact comes to rest. Now at this point, the potentiometer adjustment device position is displayed on the digital readout. The displayed numerical readout is the measure of the unknown input voltage. Inthe block diagram shown above the error detector or comparator may be a chopper. integrator and suggest methods to minimize and to eliminate Q62, What are the possible errors in dual slope I them? Ans: i Possible errors in dual slope integrator and methods to minimize and eliminate them are described below. 1. The leakage current of the capacitor used in the integrator circuit introduces error in the process of integration. Due to. / this integration error, the voltmeter produces a finite reading even inthe absence ofthe input voltage. ‘This error can be rninimieed and also eliminated by modifying the input circuitry i.e, the input tothe voltmeter is connected to ground and SPECTRUM ALLIN-OME JOURNAL FOR EM SIA GROUP 45 (GINEERING STUDENTS. ‘ Scanned with CamScanneran autozero capacitor is connected to the output of the integrator through an electronic switch. Thus a capacitor is connected in the feedback path of the integrator. Due to this feedback clement the output of the integrator is zero in the absence of input voltage. 2. _Asthe integrator used is an op-amp integrator, the op- amp offset voltage, bias currents and offset currents introduce errors. In order to climinate offset voltages or offset errors, two dual-slope cycles are required for ‘a complete conversion process. The two converters jffer from each other. For a few converters the sum and difference of the two time periods produce an output with very small or almost negligible offset error. Also another sum or difference gives a correction factor. Thus, an offset error is eliminated. 3. Instrumental errors arise due to the use of comparators (as they cause comparator errors)."Therefore, performance accuracy of the voltmeter decreases. These comparator ‘errors can be eliminated by employing more sophisticated ___teehniques, G63. How minimum voltage ranges are limited in low ‘cost (AVO) voltmeter in A.C range? What circult arrangement is used to convert A.C, to D.C in ‘such voltmeters? Ans: Signal generators are the sources of electrical signals used for the purpose of testing and operating different kinds of lectrical equipment. A signal generator provides different types ‘of waveforms such as sine, triangular, square and pulse etc. The ‘utput frequency of a signal generator is fixed. It ranges from ‘Very low frequencies to many GHz: A signal generator can also. ‘generate special video signals. Some of the special features of signal generator are attenuation,-modulation and sweeping. ‘Signal generators are mainly used in, (i) Measuring the frequency response of amplifiers Gi) Alignment of radio receivers. Function generator is one of the types of signal generators. However, the basic difference between a signal generator and a function generators that, function generator provides diferent types of waveforms whose frequency values ean be varied and usted, whereas the signal generator output cannot be varied. ‘A function generator can provide sine, square, pulse and triangle in the range of D.C to few Miz. “Another difference between a signal generator and a function generator is that a signal generator provides one kind of output at a time, where as function generalor provides Gifferent outputs simultancously i.e, it ean generate sawtooth Signal to drive the horizontal deflection system ‘of CRO and see hltaneously square wave to test the linearity oF amplifier, function generator generates only basic signals. ic D' Arson} resistance of 50 0.and a full {to a multi range D.C -10V,0-50V, ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS TATION tes AND INSTRUMEN 3, set2, a1(b) | Model ‘Anst rae Given that, internal resistance, ection current, J,,=2 mA 10 V, 0-50, R= 502 Full sale de Desired voltage ranges =O ! (0 100 Vand 0-250 V fer employing multipliers ange volime Malian yo fon is shown in gure (1) R, Ry R in series string. Figure (1) For 0- 10 V Range ov +g” is at V, position and the total ‘The switch “resistance is given by, vy _ 10 Rel Tey 2x10 = 50002 Ryo 5kQ ‘The multiplier resistance, RAR AAR =5x 10°-50 * 24950 eos RY 495KO For 0-50 V Range v=s0Vv : ‘The switch ‘S * is at ¥; position and the total resistance is given by, Aya Lt = 250000 ce Rya2ska resistance, an (R+R) = 25 x 10° ~ (4.95 10? +50) = 20,000 4 Se Ry 20kO Scanned with CamScannerE ‘ 'UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.49 For 0-100 V Range V=100V The switch ‘Si at V, position and the total circuit sesistance is given by, v.__100 * Rue T—* Fay F 7 500002 0: a 2x10 set ie coans Sop sein : Substituting the above values in equation (1), we get, a RG 3 “ The Lhipier resistance, 10 x100x10? x0.1x10 Rye R yg (Ry + RAR) 0.05 s = 50 * 10° —(20 « 10° + 4.95 x 10° + 50) = 25,000 O05 R=25k9 Q66. Two ammeters are joined in series in a circuit For 0-250 V Range carrying 100A. One ammeter has a resistance of y=250V 10000 ohm shunted by 0.10 ohm while the other The switch ‘S.*is at V, position and the total circuit ammeter has a resistance of 150 ohm shunted resistance is given by, by 0.02 ohm, if the shunts are interchanged y 250 what would be the readings of the instruments? R Tha 2x10 Ans: (Aprit-18, Set-2, 02(b) | AprilMay-17, Set-3, Q2(a)) = 1,25,000 Given that, R= 125k2 : ‘Two ammeters are joined in series, The multiplier resistance, : Current, 1=100A RmR RAR, + Rt) 6s Ammeter-I = 125% 10°—(25 x 10° +20 « 10+ 4, - ee eee Resistance, R, = 10000 2 : ! =75,000 Shunted resistance, R,,, = 0.10 2. So RE TSKQ Ammeter-I 7 Rk RaISkD R=DEA” RnA95IQ Resistance, R,=1502 Shunted resistance, R,, te To determine, @R.-s00 Readings of the instrumeats if the shunts are . interchanged ie., Figure (2): Multirange Voltmeter name 85 dual slope integrating type of AID converter The shunted resistance is given by, has an integrating capacitor of 0.1 microfarad a = ik and a resistance of 100 kohms connected. If 1 Tel the reference voltage is 2 V, and the output of ae {an integrator is not to exceed 10 V, what is the | 013g = Zeu%t0000 maximum time reference voltage? Im 0.10(100-/,) =1,, » 10000 Siven that, 10-0.10/,, = 10000 £, C=0.1x105F : R= 100x102 _ 10000411, = 10 i 10 ¥n2v j 1, = ao V-10V 9.99 «104A, man Fon ENGINEERING STODENTS SIA GROUP Scanned with CamScanner‘Amumeter-I. i os seaing interchanged inarmete 1200 = Jah in arnmeter I, 1> . 2° Be : Reading in ar a Ing X150 = fegXt50. Oe 100 =a ae ; 0.02(100~1,,) = 1, * 150 2-002/,, = 1501, . 2= 150.02 2 T © =0.01333 A Ifthe shunts are-interchanged, The current flowing through ammeter-I, Rona Fa OR Ro 0.02 = 100* T9900-+ 0102 . = 100 x 1.999 x10-* * "= 1.999 x 104A, Current flowing through ammeter-I," E 0.10 100*759+0.10 = 100 x 6.6622 x10+ = 0.0666 A Reading in ammeter: Jn Any ad cto 1.999%107 99 - is given by, = 500.754 500A. Scanned with CamScanner