State of matter

In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms that matter takes on. Four states of
matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many other states are
known, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and neutron-degenerate matter, but these only
occur in extreme situations such as ultra cold or ultra dense matter. Other states, such
as quark–gluon plasmas, are believed to be possible but remain theoretical for now.
Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in properties. Matter in the
solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with component particles
(atoms,molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place. Matter in the liquid state
maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles
are still close together but move freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both variable volume
and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither close together nor fixed in
place. Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape, but as well as neutral atoms,
it contains a significant number of ions and electrons, both of which can move around freely.
Plasma is the most common form of visible matter in the universe.

The four fundamental states of matter. Clockwise from top left, they are solid, liquid, plasma, and gas,
represented by an ice sculpture, a drop of water, electrical arcing from a tesla coil, and the air around
clouds, respectively.

The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but a system can contain
several immiscible phases of the same state of matter (see Phase (matter) for more discussion
of the difference between the two terms).

The four fundamental states

In a solid the particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces
between particles are strong so that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a
result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change their
shape by force, as when broken or cut.
In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered,
repeating pattern. There are various different crystal structures, and the same substance can
have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, iron has a body-centred
cubic structure at temperatures below 912 °C, and a face-centred cubic structure between 912
and 1394 °C. Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which exist at
various temperatures and pressures.
Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are not thermal
equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassical states of matter.
Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by
freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process ofsublimation, and
gases can likewise change directly into solids through deposition.
Liquid

Structure of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-
range order is present.

A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a
(nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if
the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it
becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance.
Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have
enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the
shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater
than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception being water, H2O. The highest
temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.
Gas
The spaces between gas molecules are very big. Gas molecules have very weak or no bonds at all. The
molecules in "gas" can move freely and fast.

A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will
also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces
is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is
much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the
entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at
constant pressure to the boiling point, or else by reducing the pressure at constant
temperature.
At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and can be
liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid (or
solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).
A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical
temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and
gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high density
confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For
example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extractcaffeine in the manufacture
of decaffeinated coffee.
Plasma

In a plasma, electrons are ripped away from their nuclei, forming an electron "sea". This gives it the
ability to conduct electricity.

Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are
electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to
electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving
disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal. In fact it is
this electron "sea" that allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.
The plasma state is often misunderstood, but it is actually quite common on Earth, and the
majority of people observe it on a regular basis without even realizing it. Lightning, electric
sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights, plasma televisions, some types of flame and the stars
are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state.
A gas is usually converted to a plasma in one of two ways, either from a huge voltage
difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures.
Heating matter to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the
presence of free electrons. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is
assumed that essentially all electrons are "free", and that a very high-energy plasma is
essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons.

Phase transitions

This diagram illustrates transitions between the four fundamental states of matter.
A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a
change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state
of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by
a phase transition. Water can be said to have several distinct solid states.[5] The appearance of
superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are superconductive states.
Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive
properties. When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are
called mesophases. Such phases have been exploited by the introduction of liquid
crystal technology. 
The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending
on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions
change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in
temperature. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this
substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point, boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if
heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that
they leave their parent atoms.
Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can
also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and
the quark–gluon plasma are examples.
In a chemical equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l)
for liquid, and (g) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is
seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, so there is no standard symbol to denote it. In the
rare equations that plasma is used in plasma is symbolized as (p).
High-energy states
Degenerate matter
Under extremely high pressure, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic
states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter. In these conditions, the structure of
matter is supported by the Pauli exclusion principle. These are of great interest
to astrophysicists, because these high-pressure conditions are believed to exist insidestars that
have used up their nuclear fusion "fuel", such as the white dwarfs and neutron stars.
Electron-degenerate matter is found inside white dwarf stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms
but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matter is found inneutron stars.
Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to
combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of
neutrons. (Normally free neutrons outside an atomic nucleus will decay with a half life of just
under 15 minutes, but in a neutron star, as in the nucleus of an atom, other effects stabilize the
neutrons.)

Very high energy states