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Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices

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DOI: 10.5772/45884

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 Chapter 7

Electronic Waste Management in Ghana

– Issues and Practices

Martin Oteng-Ababio

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/45884

1. Introduction
Man has always been proficient producer of waste; however, towards the end of the 20th
century saw the upsurge of a new, noxious clutter: the electronic detritus that has come to
be known as e-waste. The consumption of electronics: televisions, computers, cell phones,
video games, iPods, etc has increased over the last few years, making the electronic industry
the world’s largest and fastest growing enterprise [1]. The boom in the consumption of
electronic products also come with a price to be paid –the management of the end-of-use
products, or the e-waste. According to UN estimates, between 20 to 50 million tonnes of e-
waste are generated worldwide annually, accounting for about 5% of all municipal solid
waste. Not only is the figure representing the fastest growing municipal waste stream, it
also has the potential of increasing further. In the case of mobile phones, for example, 98
million phones are said to be discarded in America annually [1].

The increased consumption and production of EEE have been facilitated by rapid economic
growth, an increasing urbanization and globalization [2]. These have become major drivers
of change, providing forceful leverage to socio - economic and technological growth in most
developing societies, and contributing significantly to the digital revolution worldwide.
Indeed, new electronic gadgets and appliances have infiltrated every facet of live today,
providing society with more comfort, health, security and easy information acquisition and
exchange [3]. Ironically, e-waste has become an emerging challenge as well as a business
opportunity of tremendous significance. This is due to the volumes being generated and the
content of both toxic and valuable materials in them. The fraction of iron, copper,
aluminium, gold and other metals in e-waste is over 60% while plastics account for about
30%, with hazardous pollutants comprising about 2.7% [4].

Some recent studies [5,6] indicate that the society is ‘unconsciously’ creating its own toxic
footprints. A research by Swerts argues that “the same hyper-technology that is hailed as a

© 2012 Oteng-Ababio, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the
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150 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

'crucial vector' for future modern societal development has a not-so-modern downside to it:
electronic waste” [7]. The fact is that the increasing 'market penetration' in the developing
countries, 'replacement market' in the developed countries and 'high obsolescence rate'
make e-waste one of the fastest growing waste streams. Currently, the average life span of a
computer has shrunk from 6 years in 1997 to less than 2 years as at 2005, generating a
flourishing export trade in used computers from developed to developing countries through
up to 75% of such shipments are normally unusable [8].

The resultant waste is posing a serious challenge in disposal and recycling and creating ugly
solid waste management (SWM) scenes in most developing societies. The fact is that,
managing the normal waste from households in these countries already appears to be an
insurmountable task [9]. It is therefore seen as more complicated if the so-called e-waste
invasion from developed countries finds an easy entry into the developing countries all in
the name of free trade [10]. Admittedly, the absence of proper mechanism, regulations and
standards of disposal make these high-tech products often end their lives in the ‘normal’
waste stream meant either for recycling or landfilling [9]. The situation becomes worrying in
situations where studies in China and India have shown that unregulated disposal of such
wastes can contaminate soil, groundwater, and air, as well as affect all those involve in their
processing, as well as the nearby communities [11,5].

Without doubt, most of the e-waste disposed of in developed countries eventually arrives in
African countries through both legal and illegal means [9], where it is processed under risky
conditions by poor and marginalised population. This condition of risk includes toxic health
and environmental dangers. However, at the same time, access to livelihoods, access to
technology, upgrading of technical skills and know how, the extension of useful life of
electronics and material reuse also occur [12,13]. The e-waste processing sites in Ghana
exemplifies the challenges Africa policy makers face with respect to e-waste and its impacts
on health and the environment.

This paper looks at the magnitude e-waste trade in Ghana by analyzing the growing trade in
electronic products ostensibly “to bridge the digital divide”. It also examines its current
management practices. The goal is to help raise awareness about the growing e-waste
menace and encourage critical debate around the issues and hopefully, enable further
action. The objectives of the study were achieved through years of research in the subject
area [see 9,14,13,15]. The data were further updated by in-depth interviews with the key
stakeholders in both public and private sectors, especially at Agblgbloshie which is the hub
of e-waste activities in the country (see Figure 1).

The paper is structured as follows. The next section explores the meaning of e-waste and poses
the question whether e-waste is a reality or myth. The third section examines the global
dynamics of e-waste and presents an overview of the Ghanaian situation. This is followed by a
discussion on the e-waste circuitry in Accra including the limitations that confront the current
management system. The conclusion examines a way forward on how to make the e-waste
recycling in the Ghanaian economy in particular and possibly, other developing countries in
general more environmentally friendly without compromising its economic virtues.
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 151

Source: Oteng-Ababio, 2012

Figure 1. Map showing the study area

152 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

2. What is e-waste?
In general, e-waste describes old, end-of-life electronic and electrical equipments (EEE) or
waste generated from any equipment running on electricity or a battery including
computers, laptops, TVs, DVD players, mobile phones, MP3 players, etc., which have been
disposed by their original users. It has been categorized into three main groups, and these
are; large household appliances like refrigerator and washing machine; information
technology (IT) and telecom like a personal computer (PC), monitor and laptop; and
consumer equipment like television sets. Each of these e-waste items has further been
classified with respect to 26 common components which form their 'building blocks' and are
therefore readily 'identifiable' and 'removable.' These include metals, compressors, plastics,
glasses, wiring/electrical, transformer, circuit board, fluorescent lamp, brominated flamed
retardant (BFR), etc.

E-waste also contains more than 1000 different substances, which make it either ‘hazardous’
or 'non-hazardous'. The presence of elements like lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium and
flame retardants beyond threshold quantities in e-waste classifies them as hazardous waste.
Generally, EEEs are largely classified under three major heads, as: 'white goods,' like
household appliances (air conditioners, dishwashers, refrigerators and washing machines);
'brown goods,' like TVs, camcorders, cameras, and 'grey goods,' including computers,
printers, fax machines, scanners, etc. The grey goods are comparatively more complex to
recycle due to their toxic (hazardous) composition.

2.1. The e-waste blues – A myth or reality?

The literature is replete with conflicting statements on whether e–waste is ‘stunning
whitewashed of reality’ or otherwise. Greenpeace for example argues that e-waste is being
exported often illegally to Ghana from Europe and the U.S [5]. In the e-waste yards,
unprotected workers many of them children dismantle computers and T.Vs with little
more than stones in search of metals that can be sold. The remaining plastics, cables and
casing are either burnt or simply dumped. Brook as long ago as 1988, had also revealed
that as safety laws in Europe and the USA push toxic waste disposal cost up to $2,500 a
ton, waste brokers are turning their attention to the closest, poorest, most unprotected
shores – West Africa [16]. Jim Puckett, a former Toxic Director of Greenpeace paints a
glimmer picture of the main recycling site in Ghana. He writes:

It [Agbogbloshie] is a place where the developed world's old techno-crash waste has been tossed
up by the hidden currents of today's consumerism and commerce, and has found a strange
resting place..... In these global waysides, questions beg for answers; they cry out from the bone
yards where these fallen icons of our proud information age lie as rotting fruit the progeny of
centuries of technological advancement. Machines which months ago could process a billion
instructions per second have found their end as metal and plastic skeletons in the world's most
sorrowfully poor communities, to be subjected to hammer and fire, emitting deadly smoke and
fume [6].
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 153

However, Larry Summers, a former Economist of the World Bank in 1991, reportedly
justifies the economic sense of the exportation of e-waste to developing countries. According
to Summers:

the less developing countries especially those in Africa, are seriously under polluted and thus
can stand to benefit from pollution trading schemes as they have air and water to spare;
environmental protection for health and aesthetic reasons is essentially a luxury of the rich, as
mortality is such a great problem in these developing countries that the relative minimal
effects of increased pollution would pale in comparison to the problems these areas already face
[cited in 4].

Incidentally, a former Deputy Minister of Local Government in Ghana in 2008 subtly

collaborated Summers’ assertion, by emphasizing that, ‘there is no dumping of e-waste in
Ghana’ [17]. Reacting to the Daily Graphic report, an Officer of the EPA in Ghana in 2008
ranted during a local radio discussions that ‘there is no need for people to be concerned; …
the situation is not as scary as the media is making it look like’.

Notwithstanding the many negative commentary and contestation about e-waste, recent
studies have demonstrated succinctly that e-waste contains valuable metals like copper,
gold, and silver that are lost if not recovered properly, and which have to be compensated
for by intensified mining activities, which ultimately lead to severe sustainability impacts. A
conundrum is created as to whether e-waste recycling is an “economic boom or an
environmental doom”. The nexus becomes more complex particularly at Agbogbloshie, the
hub of e-waste activities in Ghana, where there is nothing like “waste”; where every object,
component, and material has “value”. On the daily basis, computers and televisions are
regularly bought and sold, assembled, disassembled, and reassembled. They disintegrate
into their constituent materials-plastics, glass, and metals. Plastic printer cases are smashed
with rudimentary tools including hammer, spanner, chisel and even the bare hands.

3. The global dynamics of e-waste

Millions of computers purchased around the world every year become obsolete and leave
behind lead, cadmium, mercury and other hazardous wastes. Recent studies have shown
that a workplace computer has a life span of about 2 -3 years, whilst that of a household is 3
– 5 years [18]. Additionally, Mundada et al, revealed that in 2004, 315 million computers
became obsolete while 183 million new ones were sold [19]. They also noted that since 2005,
for every new computer put on the market comes with an obsolete one. The US EPA
estimates that in 2007, 29.9 million desktops and 12 million laptops were discarded in the
USA; that is over 112,000 computers were discarded daily [20]. In the same year, a total of
205.5 million units of computer products were disposed of out of which only 48.2 million or
18% was recycled while the rest was trashed – in landfills or incinerators (see Table 1).

Similar studies concluded that only about 10% of the total waste generated are recycled
while about 80% are exported into developing countries, most of which end up in landfills
and incinerators [21,22,23]. In the European Union (EU), the volume of e-waste is expected
154 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

to increase by 3 to 5% a year while developing countries are expected to triple their output
of e-waste by 2010.

Products Total disposed Trashed Recycled Recycle ratio

(millions on (millions on (millions on (by weights)
units) units) units)
Television 26.9 20.6 6.3 18%
Computer 205.5 157.3 48.2 18%
products
Cell phones 140.3 126.3 14 10%
Source: US Environmental Protection Agency, July 2008.

Table 1. E-waste generation and handling processes in the USA (2007).

Proportionately, e-waste is currently not a large part of the waste stream though it shows a
potentially higher growth rate than any other category of municipal waste. In the USA for
example, between 2005 and 2006, the total volumes of municipal waste increased by only
1.2%, compared to 8.6% for e-waste [20]. Some studies have also revealed that about 90% of
e-wastes in some developed countries end up in landfills [23]. Such a tendency has
increased the agitations by civil society groups over the negative environmental impact of
improper handling of e-waste. Today, beyond doubts a large proportion e-waste from the
developed world is being exported – in some cases illegally – to developing countries
including Ghana [24], where the appropriate end-of-life management systems are non-
existent [9].

4. Ghana and e-waste: an overview of the issues

Beyond doubt, there has been a phenomenal growth in the ICT sector in Ghana in the last
decade due to its application in the national growth process (schools, internet cafes, etc) [25].
Probably the single most relevant and comprehensive document on ICT and development in
Ghana is the ICT for Accelerated Development Policy, which hopes to “transform Ghana
into an information-rich, knowledge-based and technology driven high income economy
and society” [26]. It aims to introduce computers into all schools to allow children who
might otherwise not have access to quality educational opportunities to use the laptops to
access knowledge and provide them the opportunity to engage their own capacity for
learning, regardless of their physical location or financial limitations. Between 2010 and
2011, the Ministry of education, in conjunction with rlg Communications Limited, a local
private computer assembling company successfully distributed 60,000 laptops to school
pupils throughout the country.

The introduction of the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) has also increased
the preference for mobile telephony. This has reduced fixed telephone services from 206,300
lines in 2000 to 143,900 by 2008 and thus creating large quantities of obsolete telephone sets
which are being thrown away or stored for perceived value. Figure 2 shows the trend in the
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 155

number of mobile and fixed telephone lines in the country from 2000 to 2009. From the
figure, mobile phone subscription increased from 90,000 in 2000 to more than one million in
2004 and to almost 15 million by the end of 2009. The teledensity (in respect of mobile phone
alone) thus grew from about 5 phones to 100 people in 2000 to 49 phones in 2008, an
increase of about 190%.

Source: Oteng-Ababio 2010; **2009 data from National Communication Authority (NCA) Records 2010

Figure 2. Number of Mobile and Fixed Telephone Lines in Ghana 2000 – 2009 (in thousands)

One important characteristic of e-waste scenario in Ghana is the fact that the rate at which
electronic gadgets became obsolete is also not known. This is because of inappropriate data
management practices and the fact that a number of them come in already old. Additionally,
Ghana’s land frontiers are porous, particularly along certain stretches of its three land
borders (Cote d’Ivoire, Togo and Burkina Faso), making shipments through unmonitored
routes possible. Figure 3 presents the trend of used computers imports into Ghana between
2004 and 2011, which until 2004, had been unattractive due to the then associated high
import duty. Trade blossomed only when the government zero-rated (tax exempted) the
importation of computers and computer accessories in 2004, primarily to make the product
affordable and promote the use of ICT in the Ghanaian economy. From figure 3, a total of 1.3
million kg of used computers and accessories were imported to Ghana in 2004, reaching 10.3
million by 2011.

A major characteristic about the advancements in ICT in Ghana is the increased dependence
on used or refurbished products, due mainly due to financial considerations. The reality is
that although the poverty rate in the country fell from 51% in 1991/92 to 28.5% in 2005/06,
yet an estimated 44.8% of the population still live on less than one US dollar per day [27]. It
156 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

goes without saying that a large segment of the population could not genuinely afford a
new computer if they were to join the global ICT revolution. During the studies, some used
computers could be obtained for as low as 30% of the cost of a new product of similar brand
in Accra. For example, while a new Toshiba A110 series laptop computer cost $1,200, a
refurbished one of the same make was going for about $150 [9].

Source: Oteng-Ababio 2012

Figure 3. Trends of Used Computer Imports into Ghana: 2004-2011

Computers are playing a huge role in the Ghanaian socio-economic developmental

agenda. Yet, the authorities lack the technology and infrastructural capacity to handle
such waste. Accordingly, crude (open) dumping and recycling have become the lot of
most local authorities who are constitutionally mandated, and responsible for waste
management. This task is expected to be executed in a society where majority seem to lack
appreciation of the threat pose by improper disposal practices. The need for a conscious
public awareness (creation) campaign, which may culminate in the promulgation of the
appropriate legislations regarding the proper handling of e-waste, has been long overdue.
Ultimately, the quest to satisfy potential and actual human consumption demand should
not necessarily lead to negligence of ecological and health concerns or to blatant dumping
of junk products on the stakeholders as being claimed by some environmental NGOs and
other media houses.

5. Think Globally, Act locally: Accra’s e-waste circuitry

5.1. The legal framework for e-waste management
Despite a wide range of environmental legislation in Ghana, there are no specific laws for
e-waste recycling [28,9]. In recent times, the Government in conjunction with its
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 157

development partners has initiated processes through workshops and seminars, to

enhance awareness creation about environmentally sound e-waste management. In 2005,
a National Working Group was constituted by the EPA to help formulate a strategy for e-
waste recycling but the outcome of their deliberations is yet to be made public. Ghana is
however a signatory to the Basel convention which seeks to provide a framework for the
international regulation for e-waste.

Research shows that in the 1970s and 1980s some developed countries used to export
hazardous wastes to developing countries for final disposal which before long culminated in
serious environmental pollution [29]. To remedy this problem, the Basel Convention came
into effect in 1992. The Basel Convention requires that prior notice of any proposed export of
certain hazardous items should be given to the government of an importing country and
approved by it. But the Basel Convention does not regulate secondhand items and some e-
waste scrap (including printed-circuit boards).

In principle, the Convention does not solve the new environmental problem caused by the
recycling of e-waste. To solve the new problem, it is argued that the Basel Convention
should be amended in such a way that hazardous wastes must not be exported from
developed countries to developing countries for any purpose (even for recycling). In 1995
such a statement was presented as the Basel Total Ban, but it has yet to be agreed upon.

The convention also prohibits trade between Annex VII countries (OECD, EU and
Liechtenstein) and non-Annex VII countries. The convention contains language that
exempts prohibited trade in cases where an Annex VII country has signed a bilateral trade
agreement with a non-Annex VII country so long as that agreement contains equivalent
provisions for “environmentally sound” treatment of waste (the convention however fails to
define “environmentally sound”). Despite the ratification, the convention becomes
operational and applicable only when it has been properly “domesticated” which the
government of Ghana has failed to do till date.

5.2. Informal e-waste recycling

In the main, the collection and re-cycling of e-wastes is by the informal sector [25,13]. The
practice however exhibits a highly stratified system, comprising collection, recycling,
refurbishment and reuse activities and eventually the disposal of the residuals. Generally,
the EEEs are processed informally in small workshops using rudimentary methods such
as manual disassembly and open burning. The appliances are stripped of their most
valuable and easily extracted components which are processed to directly reusable
components or secondary raw materials in a variety of refining and conditioning
processes. There are also indications that some selected components like printed wiring
board are selected for export probably to Asia for recycling [13]. The remaining parts are
dumped or stockpiled directly. Figure 4 gives an overview of the current end-of-life
management practices in Ghana.
158 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

Source: Oteng-Ababio: 2012

Figure 4. The current recycling and disposal practices in the study area

5.2.1. Collection
The collection process is the first point of entry into the e-waste economy. The collectors are
mostly youthful and constitute majority of the workforce in the e-waste trade. They are the
actors who execute door-to-door collections of used electrical and electronic equipments
(EEE) from private homes, institutions, dump sites and transfer stations. It can thus be
concluded that waste collectors “make a living” by creating their own jobs as opposed to
“earning a living” in regular formal employment. However, they do not operate in a
separate economic realm since their operations depend on both the local and international
formal economy. Moreover, there can be various loops from informal activities back to
formal industry in terms of supplying recycled inputs. The challenge however is that like
most informal activities, they operate in a subordinate position within global and local
economies.

Initially, collectors did not have to pay anything for items dumped at street corners,
neighbourhoods or dump sites. However, with increasing competition occasioned by
increasing youth unemployment and the entrance of more prospective scavengers, the
“waste” has begun to attract a competitive price. During the fieldwork, it was learnt that a
collector has to pay $1–2.5 for an obsolete desktop computer. Some collectors also directly
engage in the dismantling and recovery of metals including the burning of cables and wires
to liberate copper, but there are a few who “sell their booty” to middlemen, who also serve
as the intermediaries between the collectors/recyclers and scrap dealers.
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 159

An emerging dynamic in the collection of e-waste is the increasing spatial extent that
collectors have to explore. Initially, many collectors operated within Accra and its environs
and commuted daily between Agbogbloshie and their targeted mining neighborhood for the
day. With increasing competition, the city appears fully mined and collectors have to
increase their orbit for scavenging, spend days in targeted areas, build bulk before returning
to base at Agbogbloshie with their booty. This has implication for the sustainability of the
enterprise. For example, collectors now need huge “financial capacity” in order to spend
days at a targeted destination and build bulk.

5.2.2. Refurbishment and reuse activities

Generally, reuse of older electronic products is a common practice in Ghana and the most
environmentally preferable option in dealing with e-waste. It is also economically the means
through which many people can access electronic products. It further conserves energy and
raw materials needed to produce new once and reduces pollution associated with energy
use and manufacturing. Unfortunately, since most used electronic imports are rarely tested
for functionality, there is high level of refurbishment and repair, and this serves as a
disincentive and time-consuming.

Additionally, repairing and refurbishing have emerged as important segments of e-waste

(mis)management. Refurbishers transform old/nonfunctioning products by replacing
defective components. They engage in cleaning and repairing activities in order to make the
refurbished product more appealing and affordable to the populace. The findings reveal
that the cost of a secondhand desktop computer at Agbogbloshie which hovered around $60
in 2010 had dropped considerably 2012. Table 2 presents the current price list of the value
chain of some of the electronic items on offer at Agbogbloshie.

Prices Cell CRT Desktop Laptop Fridge Air

(GHC) phone monitor computer conditioner
Consumers 1.5 - 5 2-5 2- 10 5 - 10 10-20 10 – 40
Refurbished 15 - 50 5 -10 10 - 50 10 - 50 20-50 30 – 90
Source: Field work, 2012

Table 2. Prices of some selected refurbished electronic equipments at Agbogbloshie

The area is also seen as having extensive inventories of accumulated parts to service the
reuse cluster while the city refurbishers travel to the area to source parts. Local re-users
capitalize on available stocks and so have “earned” reputations as the most rapid installers
of reused components in the country. Accordingly, reuse traders, shopkeepers, and
“individuals in the known” send devices from all over the country to be repaired in
Agbogbloshie. It was also established that some of the refurbishers have also opened outlets
outside Accra, especially in the Northern regions where they also coordinate the repairs and
sale of refurbished electronics. Figure 5 shows some refurbishers of computer system units
at the study area.
160 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

Source: Field work, 2011

Figure 5. Electrical refurbishing shops in Agbogbloshie

5.2.3. Crude recycling

Informal dismantling and recycling of e-waste aimed at material recovery is emerging as ‘a
lucrative business’ in Ghana. At the Agblobgloshie e-waste management site, their primary
activities include manual disassembly of obsolete computers, monitors, televisions, etc to
isolate metals (copper and aluminium). There is also open burning of certain components to
isolate copper from plastics in which they are encased, particularly from plastic coated wires
and cables (see figure 6).
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 161

Source: Field work, 2011

Figure 6. An open burning of e-waste to harvest copper at Agbogbloshie

Much of the work is carried out by children, using only rudimentary tools and with no
protective equipment. The recovered materials have ready market; copper is sold at 22 US
cents (0.22 USD) per half kilo while plastic is sold at 1 US cent (0.01 USD) per kilo (see 13).
Admittedly, this crude practice results in some loss of resources and environmental
pollution yet it remains a major source of livelihood for many of the urban poor, especially
the displaced youth from the North, who are compelled to choose between living in
perpetual poverty or working in “perceived poison”.
162 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

5.2.4. Disposal
Ironically, most obsolete electronic devices are usually stored for a while for a perceived
value (physical or emotional) before disposal. Even in both public and private
establishments, these items are usually stored until directives are issued for their disposal.
Until recently when ‘crude informal recycling’ became prominent in areas like
Abglogbloshie, most of these products end up in the landfills. This is not unique to
developing countries as even in the US, 3.2 million tonnes of e-waste were sent to landfills in
1997 [23]. In recent years however, courtesy the informal recycling practices, only residues
like ashes from other recycling operations [30] and casing are dumped. Some of these
materials without doubt, contain toxic chemicals which have the potential to pollute the soil
and groundwater through leaching.

5.3. Formal e-waste recyclers

Even though the informal e-waste activities are highly visible and have indeed established a
circular flow within the Ghanaian economy, valuable resources are lost through the current
process. Several causes including insufficient collection efforts and resources; inappropriate
recycling technologies; and above all, illegal ‘imports’ (or movement) streams of e-waste
into regions with inappropriate recycling infrastructures have been identified. With the
burgeoning trade in e-waste and the growing public environmental consciousness, there
have been clarion calls on the government to institute formal recycling system. It is
envisaged that the formal sector would be able to manage e-waste in an environmentally
friendly manner, using “state-of-the-act-technique” that will ensure better environmental
management and enhanced resource recovery [31].

The Government is in the process of formulating a e-waste management bill and a draft has
been sent to cabinet for consideration. It is however not clear what role the proposed
legislation has carved for the informal sector; whether it is going to be at the expense of the
well mesh-worked system or would complement it. From all indications, the latter might
potentially be the case, even though majority of Ghanaians engage with second hand
electronics. The planned policy is to be rolled out at a time most of the local authorities lack
the financial resources to acquire the needed sophisticated capital-intensive recycling
technologies or provide appropriate landfills. Furthermore, very few of the well established
electronic companies operate official collection and take-back facility/services.

One of the very few companies operating a semblance of a take-back system is rlg
Communications, a private Ghanaian company established under the companies code of
1963 (ACT179) on the 23rd day of February 2001. The company begun as a sale and service
centre for mobile phones, but currently assembles mobile phones and laptops not only for
the Ghanaian market but has offices in China, Nigeria and The Gambia. It has a monthly
production output of 10,000 mobile phones and 8,000 laptops.

In terms of end-of-life operations, the company occasionally advertises for its customers to
bring old (not necessarily non-functional) for an upgrade. The company has branch offices
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 163

in all the ten regions in Ghana which undertake phone and computer repairs and sales.
They also receive old products for upgrade or refurbishment. Thus, people do not return a
product because it has reached end-of-life but their desire to upgrade it. Even that, there are
instances where upgrading becomes problematic when the product was sourced not directly
from rlg office or where the customer misplaces the purchase receipt and/or warranty card.
The company has no recycling facility so the “unwanted electronics” are sent to China for
processing and/or reuse. Averagely, the company exports 1, 300 pieces of mobile phones
every 2 months and about 100 pieces of computers every four months.

Even though the operation of rlg is commendable, it is nonetheless limited in scope and geo-
spatial extent. The company at best operates only from the 10 regional capitals even though
its products are visible at all nooks and cranny in the country. Meanwhile, there is not
enough incentive for people to voluntarily deposit the used electronics to the ‘pseudo
collection centers’. Above all, the company does not “take back” its own used product let
alone those from other companies. It could therefore not be a proper yardstick to advocate
for the complete disbandment of the informal sector. Suffice to state that at the present level
of the country’s development, the formal sector cannot solely be depended on in terms of
managing e-waste in Ghana, at least not in the immediate future.

6. Limitations to proper e-waste management in Ghana

Although government seems to be demonstrating some readiness to improve on the status
quo, the major obstacles to safe and effective management of e-waste remain. First, the
absence of appropriate legislation dealing specifically with e-waste appears to be the main
challenge. The current laws guiding the management of hazardous, solid and radioactive
waste including local Government Act (1994), Act 462 and Environmental Sanitation Policy
of Ghana (1999) were passed before the e-waste problem emerged. The EPA in 2005
announced it was developing guidelines to regulate the importation of used electronic
gadgets but nothing has happened since. The government is a signatory to the Basel
Convention but has failed to rectify it till date. The earlier a e-waste regulatory policy is
enacted the better will be the drive towards sustainable e-waste management process [32].

Secondly, the increasing importation of second-hand computers, at times illegally, most of

which are not tested for functionality, is equally posing a serious challenge. This has been
facilitated by the government’s unfettered open-door policy (duty free and lax regulations)
coupled with the high incidence of poverty as well as chronic institutional corruption.
Additionally, lack of reliable data (difficulty in inventorisation) poses a challenge to policy
makers wishing to design an e-waste management strategy and to an industry wishing to
make rational investment decisions. There is also a lack of safe e-waste recycling infrastructure
in the formal sector and thus reliance on the capacities of the informal sector pose severe risks
to the environment and human health. Additionally, the existing e-waste recycling systems are
purely business-driven that have come about without any government intervention.

Finally, there also appears to be a high level of ignorance of the toxicity of e-waste not only
among the general public but even within government circles. The public might not be
164 Sustainable Development – Authoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environmental Management

wholly ignorant but for economic reasons, people are being challenged to choose between
‘poverty and poison’; i.e. working in such recycling facilities and being exposed to health
hazards but making a living or remaining unemployed. Educating the general public on the
impact of improper management practices will go a long way in the fight for environmental
and human-friendly practices.

7. Conclusion
Generally, this study has demonstrated how e-waste scavenging has emerged and become
embedded in specific networked places within highly differentiated circuits that produce
geographically uneven development. The findings show that e-waste has also emerged as a
challenge for local authorities especially in terms of its end-of-life management which is
currently driven by the informal sector. At the same time, it has turned out to be a ‘saviour’
for not only those who depend on the survival economy for livelihood, but also who are
economically challenged to join the ICT revolution. That notwithstanding, the informal
sector or the survival economy remain marginalized and excluded from the waste
management system.

Indeed, participants in the sector currently represent the basis of Ghana’s e-waste
management system. They are the reason for its effectiveness, but occupy the weakest
position in the waste management system in general, with minimal income and precarious
working and living conditions. In the absence of a well developed formal sector, it is
important that the local authorities and government machinery in general have knowledge
about the role of informal economy in the e-waste recycling and processing system. The
institution of friendly policies and regulations cannot only help abate the negative
tendencies inherent in the practice but more importantly, improve productivity and
working conditions without compromising the sector’s flexibility traits.

The government also has the responsibility to enforce the tenets of the international treaties
like the Basel convention which have not been rectified. The ‘extended producer
responsibility’ (EPR) for example focuses on the responsibility that producers assume on
their products at the end of its useful life. The government has to ensure that the obvious
dereliction of duties by agencies like the Standards Board, Customs, Excise and Preventive
Service as well as environmental regulators, etc are halted. The present lethargic attitude of
handling of municipal wastes should encourage the promulgation and enforcement of
apposite legislations. Ultimately, the government should focused on technical and policy-
level interventions, implementation and capacity building, and increase in public awareness
such that it can convert the challenges of e-waste into opportunities.

Author details
Martin Oteng-Ababio
University of Ghana, Department of Geography and Resource Development, Legon, Accra, Ghana
 Electronic Waste Management in Ghana – Issues and Practices 165

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