Bachelor of Arts (Honors) in

Journalism & Mass Communication

(BJMC)

BJMC-2
Introduction to Media and
Communication
Block - 4
Models of Communication
UNIT-1 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION MODELS

UNIT-2 EARLY MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT-3 BERLO’S MODEL, SHANNON AND WEAVER

MODEL, DEFLEUR’S MODEL, KATZ AND
LAZARFELD MODEL
UNIT-4 OTHER MODELS: NEWCOMB, WESTLY &
MACLEAN, CONVERGENCE, HELICAL,
ENCODING-DECODING, RITUAL, PUBLICITY
The Course follows the UGC prescribed syllabus for BA(Honors)
Journalism under Choice Based Credit System (CBCS).

Course Writer Course Editor

Shreesthi S.Mishra Dr. Bharati BalaPatanaik

Media Academician HOD, JMC, SMIT, Berhampur

Samanta Biswabhusan Dhir Dr Ashish Kumar Dwivedy

Academic Consultant Senior Academic Consultant
OSOU, Sambalpur OSOU, Sambalpur

Sheetal Purnima
Academic Consultant
OSOU, Sambalpur

Material Production
Dr. Manas Ranjan Pujari
Registrar
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur

© OSOU, 2019. Models of Communication is made available under a Creative

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UNIT-1 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION MODELS

Structure:

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Concept of Communication Theory
1.4 Concept of Communication Model
1.5 Model and its Significance
1.6 Classification of Communication Models
1.7 Linear and Non-Linear models of Communication
1.8 The Advantages of Models
1.9 Limitations of Models
1.10 Check Your Progress

1.1LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Communication models serve as guide for research and offer a means to display
research findings. Such models are considered as tools, which helps scholars,
practitioners and students to illustrate their thinking about important aspects of
communication. We will study some primary communication models which led to the
development of more complex models, in this chapter.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Communication in general refers to the human activities that everyone recognises but
few can define satisfactorily. Talking or conversing with one another, receiving and
transmitting information through various modes of mass media, like television, print,
radio, vernacular mediums like folk music or drama, cinema accounts to spreading
information or idea. But academicians find it difficult to completely outline the
definition of communication as ‗a subject of study‘ as a result of its diversity as
human communication is not just limited to vocal communication.

All communication involves signs and codes. Signs are artefacts or acts that refer to
something other than themselves; that is, they are signifying constructs. Codes are the

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systems into which signs are organised and which determine how signs may be
related to each other.

1.3 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION THEORY

Communication is the process of dissemination, or accepting messages from a source,

i.e. from one individual to another via mutual understanding. It is a deep rooted
behaviour that in a way constructs the society.

In a communication process, information is first gathered and a sender sends this

information to a receiver. Once the message is received, the receiver decodes it and
provides the sender a feedback. In any form of communication there is always a
sender, a message and a receiver. There are a few kinds of communication like, oral
or verbal which includes speech, song, and tone of voice, nonverbal which includes
body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact and writing etc.
Now, let us understand what brought theories into existence, why and how they are
formulated. We know that ‗theory‘ is a conceptual observation on a set of events
based on thorough research, but the research to understand the process of
communication can be termed as ―communication theory.‖ Communication theory is
not a new or separate field of study; it is infused with other subjects.

Aristotle was the first to identify the problem faced in communication and
constructed a theory by focusing on the art of influence. Before the twentieth century,
humanistic and rhetorical point of views and concepts were used to substantiate a
theory. However, during the twentieth century more scientific methodologies, insights
from psychology, sociology, linguistics and advertising showed inclination towards
communication theory and practice.

1.4 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION MODEL

Communication is interaction with one‘s own self, with others and with external
environments. The focus of our communication is sometimes defined, sometimes
undefined and vague. Similarly we are not always conscious of our purpose of
communication or the effects that our messages will have on the targeted receivers.
Our communication may not be comprehensible by everyone all the time.

In human (public) communication, three major elements play a significant role. These
are Ethos, Logos, and Pathos. Ethos refers to the character of the speaker, Logos is
power of reason and evidenced in text and speech and Pathos is emotions elicited in
an audience. Although the field of communication has changed considerably in the

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last thirty years yet, the theories and models framed way before remains the same.
This proves that these models have not lost significance and can be applied to the
present day scenario. Models are developed from theories in order to provide a
simplified view of complex object, observable fact or procedure, in order to focus and
examine the basic characteristics. Models draw attention to some critical features
which otherwise gets less focus. Thus, by examining models, one learns not only
about the object, situation or process, but also about the perspective of the profounder
or designer.

Also, in communication studies, the simplification of complex dynamics through

models helps scholars and students to understand the components and processes
involved. It also provides insights into the perspectives of the designers.

1.5 MODEL AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

A model is presentation of the real phenomenon in abstract terms that can be applied
in different forms at different times. Communication is an extremely complex with
ever-changing communication phenomenon. Complexity and constant change in
communication process makes it imperative that it is presented in simple and
generalised way to explain and understand the structure and functions of
communications. Communication Models present this simplification.

A model is a representation of real world phenomenon in more abstract terms which

can be applied to different forms at different times.

Communication models are merely pictures; they can even be distorting, because they
stop or freeze an essentially dynamic interactive or transitive process into a static
picture. Models are metaphoric in nature as they allow seeing one thing in terms of
another.

The four general functions of communication models are models organize the various
elements and the process of communication act in a meaningful and interesting way.
Second, they help in discovery of new facts about communication. It generates
research questions. Third, these enable us to make predications concerning
communications i.e what will happen under certain conditions. Fourth, models may
provide the means of measuring the elements and the process involved in
communication.

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1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION MODELS

The format of communication models depends on how we define and understand the
process of communications and how these are applicable to different forms of
communications. Communication models are classified in three categories: stages,
types, and forms of models. There have been four stages in the development of
communication models: Linear and non-linear. These can be presented in various
forms such as Symbolic Model, Physical Models, Mental Models, Verbal Models,
Iconic Models, Analogue Models and Mathematical Models.

Graphic models present schematically what verbal models present with words.
Graphic models of communication are:
 Gerbner‘s general model of communications
 Westley and McLean‘s ABC mass communication model
 Defleurs expansion of Shannon and Weaver‘s model and Vora‘s model for
diffusing concepts.
 Iconic models are photographs, sculptures and paintings of persons, objects
and scenes.
 Analogue models bear a defined structural relationship to the subject they
represent but do not look like them. The computer may be described as the
analogue of the human brain.
 Mathematical models are not frequently encountered in communication field
except for graph theory in the analysis of communication networks and
statistical concepts of information processing.

Mathematical
models
Symbolic
models
Verbal
models
Mental
All models
models
Iconic models
Physical
models
Analouge
models
Figure 1.1

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This presents taxonomy of models. In communication we are concerned with
symbolic models that compromise of verbal models and mathematical models.
Physical models comprises of iconic and analogue models. Verbal models are
basically the theories stated in words. Gerbner‘s Model, SMCR Model, Lasswell‘s
Model are examples of verbal models. But Shannon Weaver‘s model is a
mathematical model. In a Mathematical Model, graph theory and statistical concepts
communication networks and information processing system are expressed. We will
study these models in details in the consecutive chapters.

Communication theories generally have not been expressed in mathematical symbols.

Communication system comprises of two general models – Media systems and oral
systems. In media systems, the information flow is activated through professional
communicators for transmission through media channels such as print, radio,
television, film, video, telecommunication etc.

The messages are descriptive and impersonal. While in the oral systems the messages
are point to point emanated from sources authorised to speak by social hierarchy.
Interpersonal channels can be personal when the communication is between the
individuals.

1.7 LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

This is second classification of models. The media system and oral system
models are classified into Linear and Non-Linear communication models.

Linear model is uni-directional that portrays the message flow from speaker to
audience with or without effect. These models could be both vertical and horizontal in
nature. In non-linear models the message flow is bi-directional or multi-directional.
These models are circular and convergence models.

Most of the earlier models of communication were linear models. They are
foundation models that suggested significant concepts which later developed into
non-linear, interaction, transaction and convergence models. The linear
communication models were useful and designed for experiments that mostly became
a base for the study of propaganda and mass persuasion. These models described a
simple communication act and not the process. Although Berlo in 60s defined
communication in terms of communication process, but in his subsequent research he
did not pursue his idea. In fact Berlo in 1977 acknowledged that SMCR was not
intended as a communication model but it was developed as an audio visual aid to
develop recall of the concepts of the communication relationships.

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The non-linear models follow the cybernetic principle. The four most important
elements of cybernetic explanation are the concept of information, feedback,
networks and purpose. Human communication is explained in non-linear models by
analytical concepts of interaction, self-generation and mutual exchange of
information.

Deutch Karl (1968) advocated that human systems are not connected and coordinated
by mechanical means or information. The most important form of information sharing
is the network in circuits, by which individuals within the system are interconnected.
A circuit is a circular loop with two way exchange of information that is a
prerequisite for feedback. Feedback produces action in response to information and
by doing these it generates subsequent behaviour.

The action models are sender oriented. They emphasise on how a sender must
construct a message to secure a desired result. How should a sender act, speak in
order to transmit and persuade listeners. Action models may work with media
channels but they do not work well with interpersonal channels. There are chances of
miscommunication, if the source does not structure the message correctly for
transmission and the listeners do not listen properly or apply their own meaning to the
message. The action model is implicit model for both listening as well as speaking.
Listening is the act of receiving the message and acting upon it.

1.8 THE ADVANTAGES OF MODELS

Let us study the how models are helpful in communication theories:

1. Asking questions- Mortensen, states: ―A good model is useful, then, in

providing both general perspective and particular vantage points from which
to ask questions and to interpret the raw stuff of observation. The more
complex the subject matter—the more amorphous and elusive the natural
boundaries—the greater are the potential rewards of model building.‖
2. Simplifying Complexity- Models help clarify the structure of complex events.
As Chapanis (1961) noted, this is done by reducing complexity to simpler and
more familiar terms. Thus, the aim of a model is not to ignore complexity or
to explain it, but rather to give it order and coherence.
3. Heuristic Value- Models provide hypothetical ideas. They also connect
relationships between theories thus giving new insights and conclusions.

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1.9 LIMITATIONS OF MODELS

1. Mislead to oversimplifications-Much of the work in designing

communication models illustrates the often-repeated charge that anything in
human affairs which can be modelled into definitions. They can end up being
superficial to be given serious consideration.
2. Chances of missing out relevancy-Models can miss out important points of
comparison. According to Chapanis (1961), ―A model can tolerate a
considerable amount of slop.‖
3. Can lead to confusion between the model and the behaviour it portrays-
Mortensen states, ―Critics also charge that models are readily confused with
reality. The problem typically begins with an initial exploration of some
unknown territory. . . .Then the model begins to function as a substitute for
the event: in short, the map is taken literally. And what is worse, another form
of ambiguity is substituted for the uncertainty the map was designed to
minimise. What has happened is a sophisticated version of the general
semanticist‘s admonition that ―the map is not the territory.‖
4. Premature Closure-The model designer may escape the risks of
oversimplification and map reading but may become caught up in inherent
abstraction. To force down for a conclusion is to seek completion in a model,
whether or not the model justifies an hypothesis.

1.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is communication?
2. Discuss communication model. What is its significance?
3. Discuss various forms of communication models.
4. What are the two general models of communication systems?
5. What are linear and non-linear models of communication?
6. What are the advantages of having communication models?
7. What are the limitations of communication models?

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UNIT-2 EARLY MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Structure :
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Aristotle‘s model of Communication
2.4 Lasswell‘s model
2.4.1 The Advantages of Lasswell‘s model
2.4.2 Disadvantages of Lasswell‘s model
2.5 Osgood- Schramm Model of Communication
2.5.1 Different Components of Schramm's Model
2.5.2 Working of Schramm's Model
2.5.3 Concepts of Schramm's Communication Model
2.5.4 Field of experience
2.5.5 Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication
2.6 Gerbner‘s model
2.6.1 Concept of Gerbner‘s model of Communication
2.7 Check your Progress

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this chapter we will learn about some early models of communications. After
finishing this chapter we would know the concepts behind Aristotle‘s model,
Lasswell‘s model, Osgood‘s and Schramm‘s model and Gerbner‘s model of
communication.

2.2. INTRODUCTION

There were a few numbers of new communication models which were advanced,
based on the theme of the early models.

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2.3 ARISTOTLE’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

Aristotle who is a great philosopher proposed the earliest mass communication model
called ―Aristotle‗s Model of Communication. He proposed model before 300 B.C.
he stressed on the importance of audience role in communication chain in his
communication model. This model is more focused on public speaking than
interpersonal communication. He is considered the first scholar to examine the
communication process. He stated that in a communication process called ―rhetoric,‖
there is an orator i.e. a speaker constructing an argument which is to be presented as
speech to an audience i.e. listeners.

This Aristotelian view emphasised the standpoint of communication of mid twentieth

century thinkers.

speaker speech occasion audience effect

Figure 2.1
Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with 5 basic elements
(i) Speaker
(ii) Speech
(iii) Occasion
(iv) Audience
(v) Effect

Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different time
(occasion) and for different effects.
Speaker plays an important role in Public speaking. The speaker must prepare his
speech and analysis audience needs before he enters into the stage. His words should
influence in audience mind and persuade their thoughts towards him.
Example:

Alexander gave brave speech to his soldiers in the war field to defeat Persian Empire.
Speaker - Alexander

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Speech - about his invasion
Occasion - War field
Audience - Soldiers
Effect - To defeat Persia

Over the period many models and theories have evolved. For example, in 1949
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver proposed the model ―Mathematical Model of
Communication,‖ which was a result of their research based on telephonic
communication.

2.4 LASSWELL’S MODEL

Harold Dwight Lasswell is an American political scientist who state that a convenient
way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions
 Who
 Says What
 In Which Channel
 To Whom
 With what effect?

This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According
to Lasswell there are three functions for communication:
1. Surveillance of the environment
2. Correlation of components of society
3. Cultural transmission between generations

Lasswell model suggests that the messages flow in a multicultural society with
multiple audiences. The flow of message is through various channels. Lasswell‘s
communication model is similar to Aristotle‘s communication model. Laswell makes
no provision of intervening variables, those mediating factors which have impact on
the ways in which messages are received and responded to.

In this model, the communication component which refers the research area called
―Control Analysis,
 Says what is refers to ―Content Analysis,
 In which channel is refers to ―Media Analysis,
 To whom is refers to ―Audience Analysis,
 With What Effect is refers to ―Effect Analysis.

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 Figure 2.2

2.4.1 The Advantages of Lasswell’s model

 It is easy and simple.
 It suits for almost all types of communication.
 The concept of effect is considered.

2.4.2 Disadvantages of Lasswell’s model

 Feedback not mentioned.
 Noise not mentioned
 It is a linear model of communication.

2.5 OSGOOD- SCHRAMM MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Schramm's Model of Communication was postulated by Wilbur Schramm in 1954,

where he suggested that communication is a two way process where both sender and
receiver take turns to send and receive a message.

The message is only sent after encoding so the sender is also called Encoder and the
encoded message is decoded under receipt by the receiver, making him the Decoder.

This model was adapted from the theories of another theorist Osgood, so is also
known as Osgood and Schramm Model of Communication or Encode-Decode Model
of Communication. According to Osgood, communication is a dynamic process in
which there is an interactive relationship between the source and receiver.

Osgood replaced the linear model of communication with the circular process of
communication and Schramm added the concept of field of experience to it. This
model is described in Schramm's book ―The Process and Effects of Communication.‖

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 Figure 2.3

2.5.1 Different Components of Schramm's Model

Schramm's Model has different components for communications where,

 Sender (transmitter) is the person who sends the message.
 Encoder is the person who converts the message to be sent into codes.
 Decoder is the person who gets the encoded message which has been sent by
the encoder and converts it into the language understandable by the person.
 Interpreter is the person who tries to understand and analyse the message.
Message is received after interpretation. Interpreter and receiver is the same
person.
 Receiver is the person who gets the message. He/she decodes and interprets
the actual message.
 Message is the data sent by the sender and information that the receiver gets.
 Feedback is the process of responding to the received message by the receiver.
 Medium or media is the channel used to send the message.
 Noise is the interference and interruptions caused during the process. It is also
created when the intended meaning of the message sent by the sender and the
meaning interpreted by the receiver is different which is known as Semantic
Noise.
2.5.2 Working of Schramm's Model

The model suggests that encoding and decoding are the two most important part of a
communication process.

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Encoding assumes a critical part in starting the procedure of correspondence by
converting data into information. Encoding is done by a sender (transmitter) and sent
to a receiver.

When data reaches to the receiver, receiver decodes and interprets the data. This data
is called a message, and it is transmitted through a medium.

This model shows how meaning is transferred from one person or group to another.
Schramm's model of communication is used in both Intrapersonal and Interpersonal
communication.

The model takes communication as a never ending process which constitutes

messages and feedbacks.

Each person is both sender and receiver, so there must be interpretation of the
message on each turn. The interpreted data is known as information. This makes
communication effective but might cause problems too as the message sent after
encoding might not be the same when decoded by the receiver. So, this model is not
conventional like other models that only talk about sender and receiver.

Feedback is also a very important component as it lets the sender know if the receiver
has interpreted the message as required or not. The message becomes useless if the
receiver does not understand it making feedback different than the expected outcome.

The communication is incomplete if there is no feedback. Deliberate articulation and

passing on of message to others ensures communication.

For instance, a person is talking to someone who does not understand English. The
person codes the message and writes the message in the form of language. The other
person won't be able to decode it as the person cannot understand the language. The
feedback is immediately passed to the sender acknowledging that the receiver hasn't
interpreted the message as required making feedback an important component in the
communication.

Schramm's model of communication originated from Shannon Weaver's model of

communication. The Shannon-Weaver model is a more mathematical and
technological, whereas Schramm's model is more psychological.

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2.5.3 Concepts of Schramm's Communication Model

Schramm believed that the background of the individual who is involved plays an
important role in communication. People with various knowledge, experience and
cultural practices interpret message in a different way than other.

A sender passes on the information to the receiver. The receiver interprets it

according to his/her knowledge, experiences and gives feedback to the sender. The
main concepts behind his model were.

‗Semantic noise‘ has been introduced here, suggesting that a sender and receiver
apply different meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because of words
and phrases for e.g. technical language. In a way, certain words and phrases will
cause you to deviate from the actual meaning of the communication.
When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult and
people get deviated from the actual message.

Figure 2.4

2.5.4 Field of experience

Field of Experience are the things that influences the understanding and interpretation
of message like culture, social background, beliefs, experiences, values and rules.

Same message can be interpreted differently by different people. If the words and
signs they both(sender and receiver) use are common they communicate more
efficiently.

For example, a person who always eats with spoon is informed that that he has to eat
with hands in that place, the person will get offended because he will think it is

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impolite to eat that way. Socio-cultural gap will change the way a person interprets
the message.

2.5.4 (a) Context of the relationship

The people involved must have things in common to talk about. The message must be
something important to both. Communication will be easier if the relationship
between the sender and receiver is close.

For example, old friends will have many things to talk about in comparison to new
ones as they will have a larger mutual social circle.

2.5.4 (b) Context of Social Environment influencing the Field of Reference

People communicate according to the situation they are in. People act and
communicate according to the place, time, reason and settings they are facing. The
same people will act differently when they meet casually or for official purposes.

2.5.5 Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

1. Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their
opinion.
2. Semantic noise included as a concept helps in understanding problems that
can occur during interpretation of message.
3. Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the receiver
as intended or not.
4. Concept of interpretation makes the communication effective.
5. Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to understand the
communication process in many other ways than the traditional ones.
6. Concept of context makes the environmental factor be included in
interpretation of message and brings change in the message value.
7. It is a dynamic model, as it shows how a situation can change.
8. It shows why redundancy is an essential part of communication.
9. There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver interchange
roles.

2.5.6 Disadvantages of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

1. This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assumes encoding and
decoding takes place on its own. This is a major drawback of this model.

2. This model cannot deal with multiple levels of communication and complex
communication processes.

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 3. There can only be two sources communicating, many sources complicate the
process and the model cannot be implemented.
4. Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than intended.

2.6 GERBNER’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION (1956)

George Gerbner, a Professor of Communications, made an attempt at a

general-purpose model of communication. It is considerably more complex than
Shannon and Weaver‘s but it has the linear process model as its skeleton. The main
advances over their model, however, are two: it relates the message to the ‗reality‘
that it is ‗about‘ and thus questions perception and meaning. It sees the
communication process as consisting of two alternating dimensions—the perceptual
or receptive and communicating as control dimension.

Figure 2.5

2.6.1 Concept of Gerbner’s model of Communication

The main elements of Gerbner‘s model are,

1. Horizontal dimension- The process begins with an event E, something in
external reality which is perceived by M (and M can be a human or a machine
such as a camera or a microphone).

M‘s perception of E is a percept E1. This is the perceptual dimension at the start of
the process. The relationship between E and E 1 involves selection, in that M cannot
possibly perceive the whole complexity of E. If M is a machine, the selection is

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determined by its engineering, its physical capacities. If M is a human, however, the
selection is more complex. Human perception is not a simple reception of stimuli, but
is a process of interaction or negotiation. We try to match the external stimuli with
internal patterns of thought or concepts. When this match has been made, we have
perceived something, we have given it meaning. So ‗meaning‘ in this sense derives
from the matching of external stimuli with internal concepts.

Consider what happens if we fail to hear a word clearly, or cannot decipher

someone‘s handwriting. Or think of the visual puzzles of photographs of familiar
objects taken from unfamiliar angles or in unfamiliar close up; once the matching or
recognition has occurred, the photograph is easily perceived for what it is. Until this
moment, we are in a state of frustration, for, although we can see the tones and shapes
of the photograph, we cannot say we perceive it yet, for perception always involves
the drive to understand and organise.

Failing to see meaning in what we perceive puts us into a state of disorientation. This
matching is controlled by our culture, in that our internal concepts or patterns of
thought have developed as a result of our cultural experience. This means that people
of different cultures will perceive reality differently. Perception, then, is not just a
psychological process within the individual; it is also a matter of culture.

2. Vertical dimension- We now move to the second stage and into the vertical
dimension. This is when the percept E 1 is converted into a signal about E, or
to use Gerbner‘s code, SE. This is what we normally call a message that is a
signal or statement about the event.

The circle representing this message is divided into two; S refers to it as a signal, the
form that it takes, and E refers to its content. It is clear that a given content or E can
be communicated in a number of different ways—there are a number of potential Ss
to choose from.

Finding the best S for the given E is one of the crucial concerns of the communicator.
It is important to remember that SE is a unified concept, not two separate areas
brought together, in that the chosen S will obviously affect the presentation of E—the
relationship between form and content is dynamic and interactive. Content is not
simply conveyed by form, as in what I.A.Richards disparagingly calls the ‗vulgar
packaging theory of communication‘. Richards uses this colourful phrase to pour
scorn on communication theory. For him, Shannon and Weaver‘s model implies that
there is a core message that exists independently. This is then encoded; that is, it is
wrapped up in language like a parcel for transmission. The receiver decodes it, or

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unwraps the packaging and reveals the core message. The fallacy for him is the idea
that a message can exist before it is articulated, or ‗encoded‘.

Articulation is a creative process: before it there exists only the drive, the need to
articulate, not a pre-existing idea or content that then has to be encoded. In other
words, there is no content before form, and the attempt to find a difference between
form and content is in itself a very doubtful exercise. In this vertical or
communicating dimension, selection is as important as it is in the horizontal.

First there is the selection of the ‗means‘—the medium and channel of

communication. Then there is selection from within the percept E 1 . Just as E 1 can
never be a complete and comprehensive response to E, so too a signal about E1 can
never in its turn attain completeness or comprehensiveness. Selection and distortion
must occur.

The basic concept beneath this dimension also contains the concept of access to the
media and channels of communication. Who has access to the mass media is currently
a burning issue in the debate on the relationship of television and society. The
horizontal dimension of this model tells us that television‘s E 1 must be a selection of
E, so who makes the selection and whose picture of the world is transmitted as SE is
obviously of prime importance. Trade unions claim, with some justification, that in its
handling of industrial news, television always presents a middle-class, management-
inclined version. This is not necessarily deliberate, but may be explained by the fact
that television personnel are normally closer in class, culture, and educational
background to the managers than they are to the workers, and therefore their E 1 will
naturally involve the same sort of selection of E as would the managers‘.

For the third stage of the process, then, we revert to the horizontal dimension. But
here, of course, what is being perceived by the receiver, M 2 , is not an event E, but a
signal or statement about an event, or SE. The same processes as we outlined in stage
1 are involved and it is perhaps worth re-emphasising here that the meaning of the
message is not ‗contained‘ in the message itself, but is the result of an interaction or
negotiation between the receiver and the message. M 2 brings to SE a set of needs
and concepts derived from his or her culture or subculture and in so far as s/he can
relate SE to them so, we can say, s/he finds meaning in the message. The message
itself should be seen as a potential of many meanings.

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2.7. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is Aristotle‘s Communication Model?

2. Discuss the five basic elements of Aristotle‘s Communication Model.
3. Write a brief note on Lasswell‘s Model of communication.
4. What are the advantages & disadvantages of Lasswell‘s Model of
communication?
5. Write a brief note on Osgood- Schramm‘s Model of Communication?
6. What are the different components of Schramm's Model of
Communication?
7. Explain the working of Schramm's Model of Communication.
8. What is field of experience?
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Schramm's Model of
Communication?
10. Discuss Gerbner‘s model of Communication and its concept.

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UNIT-3 BERLO’S MODEL, SHANNON AND WEAVER
MODEL, DEFLEUR’S MODEL, KATZ AND
LAZARFELD MODEL

Structure

3.1Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication
3.3.1 Components of Berlo's Model of Communication
3.3.2 Criticisms of Berlo's SMCR Model
3.4 Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
3.4.1Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of Communication
3.5 De Fleur‘s Model of Communication
3.5.1 Concept of De Fleur‘s model of communication
3.5.3 Theory De Fleur‘s model of Communication
3.5.4 Comparison with Shannon-Weaver model
3.6 The Two Step Flow Communication Theory of Mass Communication by
Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld
3.6.1 Concept of Opinion Leader
3.6.2 Critics of Two-step flow Model
3.7 Check Your Progress

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, we will learn about a some models of communication, i.e.
Berlo‘s model, Shannon Weaver model, De Fleur‘s model, Katz &Lazarfeld two step
flow model. We will also learn the limitations and criticisms of these models. Some
models contributed new concepts and key terms, we will learn about their importance.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

This chapter covers some linear models of communication. Here one simple model
has made way for various communication theories. Models which has attracted both
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academics of human communication and information theorists and help them in
further research in communication field.

3.3 BERLO'S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

In 1960, David Berlo asserted Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR)

model of communication from Shannon Weaver's Model of Communication (1949).
According to him, factors affecting the individual components in the communication
make communication more efficient.

Berlo's Model has basically four components to describe the communication process.
They are sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the components is affected
by many factors. His model focuses on encoding and decoding which happens before
sender sends the message and before receiver receives the message respectively.
We will study the components of Berlo‘s model in details.

Figure 3.1

3.3.1 Components of Berlo's Model of Communication

1. S -Sender

Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message. The
source sends the message to the receiver. The factors related to sender are also
applicable to the receiver, they are as follows-

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 a) Communication Skills: Communication skills of a person affect the
communication process. If the sender has good communication skills, the
message will be communicated better. Similarly, if the receiver cannot grasp
the message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication
skills include the skills to speak, present, read, write, listen, note etc.
b) Attitude- The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the
message. The person's attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment
changes the meaning and effect of the message.
c) Knowledge- Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the
communication ore effective. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the
communicator send the message with less discrepancy.
d) Social Systems- Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social
factors affect the sender's way of communicating the message. It creates
difference in the generation of message.
e) Culture- Cultural differences can create major confusions as a person from
one culture might find something offensive which is very much accepted in
the other‘s culture.

2. M-Message : A message is the substance that is being sent by the sender to the
receiver. It might be in the form of voice, audio, text, video or other media.
The key factors affecting the message are,
a) Content- Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole
message from beginning to end is called content.
b) Elements- These are the non verbal things that tag along with the
content like gestures, signs, language, etc.
c) Treatment- It is the way in which the message is conveyed to the
receiver. Treatment also affects the feedback of the receiver.
d) Structure- The structure of the message or the way it has been
structured, affects the effectiveness of the message.
e) Code-It is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the
form of language, text or video.

3. C-Channel: It is the medium used to send message. In basic communication,

the five senses of a human being is the channel for the communication flow
and it affects the effectiveness of the channel.

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 a) Hearing- One receives the message through hearing.
b) Seeing- We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages
by seeing.
c) Touching- Many of the non-verbal communication happens from
touching like holding hands.
d) Smelling- We collect information from smelling.
e) Tasting- Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.
4. R- Receive: A receiver is the person who gets the message sent in the process.
The thinking pattern and all other factors mentioned above must be in sync to
that of the sender. The message might not have the same effect as intended if
the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also have a very
good listening skill. Other factors are similar to that of the sender.
a) Communication skills
b) Attitudes
c) Knowledge
d) Social Systems
e) Culture

3.3.2 Criticisms of Berlo's SMCR Model

Now let us understand the limitations of the Berlo‘s model of communication.

 There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
 There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication process.
 It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
 Sender and receiver are assumed to have no differences at all; they must be
similar according to the above mentioned factors.

3.4 SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

In 1948, Shannon, an American mathematician and electronic engineer and Weaver

an American scientist came together to write an article in ―Bell System Technical
Journal called ―A Mathematical Theory of Communication, also called as, Shannon
Weaver model of communication.

This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between

sender and receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication
process called ―Noise. At first the model was developed to improve the Technical

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communication. Later it‗s widely applied in the field of Communication. The focus of
this model was three components viz: Channel Noise, Semantic noise and Feedback.
These three components were considered for the first time in communication process.
Channel noise suggested any interference with the transmission of the message.
Semantic noise occurs when message is misunderstood or the receiver does not
understand the message because the communicator may use difficult words and
unknown terminology. Feedback is the third component to assess the effects and
comprehend the intended message adequately.

Information source Encoder reception  destination

channel
sender encode decoder receiver
r
Noise
Feedback 

Figure 3.2

The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise,
channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

Sender is the originator of message or the information source selects desire message.
While ‗Encoder‘ is the transmitter which converts the message into signals.

The sender‗s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In
telephone the voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables.
Decoder decodes the encoded message from the source.

The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable
and understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can‗t receive the exact message
and it will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver.

Receiver defines the destination of the message from sender. Based on the decoded
message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If the message is distracted by
noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver.

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‗Noise‘ is the discrepancy in the transmitted message. The messages are transferred
from encoder to decoder through channel. During this process the messages may
distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder and crowd noise or
encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process which
affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message.

The model clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or
signals from external sources. E.g. if there is any problems occur in network which
directly affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages.

Principles of redundancy i.e. the repetition of the main idea of the message is used to
reduce channel noise both in mass media and interpersonal communication channels.
The semantic noise can be reduced if communicator adjusts his vocabulary to
audience needs interests and understanding. But the interpretation of intended
meaning depends on feedback loops between the source and the receiver.

3.4.1 Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of Communication

Let us study the limitations of the model which introduced the concept of ‗noise‘ in
detail.
 It‘s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass
audience.
 The model based on - Sender and Receiver. Here sender plays the primary
role and receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive).
 Communication is not a one way process. In the absence of feedback this
becomes a one way communication.

3.5 DE FLEUR’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Melvin Lawrence De Fleur is a professor and scholar in the field of communications

and social psychology. He did the experimental study ―Experimental studies of
stimulus response relationships in leaflet communication‖ based on American
Communities how information is diffused by them.

3.5.1 Concept of De Fleur’s model of communication

De fleur‘s model draws its base from the Shannon and weaver model of
communication. It is basically and expansion of the Shannon and Weaver model. It is
also based on the ―Westley& Maclean model of communication‖ which describes the
circular process of communication with feedback from the receiver. Shannon and
Weaver model is a one way communication and they explain the role of noise in the

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communication process. Westley& Maclean model is a two way communication and
for the first time they introduced the important component called ―Linear Feedback‖
in the communication model. De fleur combines these two models and creates new
one called ―De Fleur Model of Communication.‖

Figure 3.3

3.5.3 Theory De Fleur’s model of Communication

Melvin De Fleur‘s simply expands the Shannon & weaver model of communication
by inserting the Mass Media device. He suggests the communication process is
circular as well as it gives possible two way feedback. In this whole communication
process, noise may occur at any stages. Defleur pictures the source, transmitter,
receiver and destination as separate phases of mass communication.

De Fleur‘s suggested that his model is ―Feedback Device.‖ This feedback mechanism
helps to analyse the target audience (as separate from the receivers). Here, all these
receivers are not considering as a target audience because the target audience will
make some kind of feedback which will helps to find the target audience by using
feedback device.

One of the important aspect of the communication model is two way communication
process which is recommended by De Fleur. This model is the first to introduce two
way feedback and the concept of targeted audience in the communication process.

De Fleur‘s model can be well described as the working of advertisings. In advertising

strategies message is encoded in form of ad film to sell a particular product and then
transmitted by a mass communicating channel. At the other end the receiver (TV set
or radio) decodes the information as message and finally it is being transformed to the

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destination (the target audience). After this the feedback acts as a message – an
information source and the same process continues where the message reaches back
the advertising company. Here, the circular process of communication or two way of
communication is carried out. People become the senders and they use feedback
device to give a response to what is already communicated to them. Feedback device
can be again social networks, print media, telephone and emails. The company
becomes receiver of the feedback and will be able to know what is understood by the
people.

Through feedback, the company can know whether their intended message has
reached the target audience and if not they can modify their message and once again
involve in communication process.

3.5.4 Comparison with Shannon-Weaver model

There are many similarities between these two models. Shannon – weaver model of
communication is one way of communication. De Fleur‘s model also starts with one
way of communication but continues further to two way of communication. In both
models, there is source of information, sender, transmitter, channel, receiver,
destination and noise source. The function of all these factors is same in both models
of communication. Source of information can be anything. The human being, animal,
plants and machine or tools can become the source of information and the
information that is collected is a cognitive process. There is a communication that is
carried out between sender and receiver and message is being sent through a medium.
Similarly, the medium can be anything.

Noise in both models plays a crucial role in the communication process. Noise can be
any physical or psychological disturbances which distracts the sender or receiver in
the communication process. Communication will be complete only when the
feedback is received. Every message is sent with a purpose and it serves a need. And
also, there is a pattern used in communication process. Interpersonal communication
is being highlighted in both models.

De Fleur‘s model of communication is a two way of communication whereas,

Shannon- Weaver model is one way of communication model and it is linear in
manner. The De Fleur model introduces target audience and two way feedback.
Shannon-Weaver model ends with destination but De Fleur‘s model does not end
with destination. Further communication that is sending the feedback takes place. The
receiver becomes sender to send the feedback with the help of a feedback device
which is a communication channel in itself. As a result, the sender becomes receiver

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by receiving the feedback through a channel. So, circular process which is absent in
Shannon-Weaver model is present in De Fleur‘s model of communication.

3.6 THE TWO STEP FLOW COMMUNICATION THEORY OF MASS

COMMUNICATION BY ELIHU KATZ AND PAUL LAZARSFELD

In 1944 Paul Lazarsfeld, an American Social Researcher, Bernard Berelson and Hazel
Gaudet introduced The Two-Step Flow of Communication in the book called ―The
people‘s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign.‖

The purpose of their study was focused on Presidential election campaign and the
decision-making process it affects. They had to find out whether the mass media
messages have direct influence on voting mandate. Unexpectedly they found the
media messages (like radio and newspapers) have least influence than an informal,
personal communication of voting behavior. Based on this researched data, The Two
Step Flow Communication Theory of Mass Communication was developed by Katz
and Paul Lazarsfeld.

Figure 3.4

3.6.1 Concept of Opinion Leader

Opinion Leader is a leader for a certain group who gives details and information to
lesser active persons in the group. In office, the managing director is an opinion

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leader and in public, a political leader is an opinion leader. They interpret the
information to their own group.

In Public, a political leader is an opinion leader. The people usually do not support
opinion leaders who are isolated from the population.

Katz and Paul seems ―the flow of media messages from radio and print to opinion
leaders and then the leaders leads the messages to lesser active users in the
population.‖ Through this transformation of message, the leaders may add their
opinion on the actual content which may affects the low active users. In some cases
the ‗Opinion leaders‘ filter the actual content, according to their belief of relevancy of
a message. Mostly the opinion leaders are selective and they pass the messages to the
group. (Low-end media users: Poor, Worker and People who are not affordable for
getting information directly).

The Opinion leaders have enough voice only in structured social groups not in an
isolated individual in the population.

3.6.2 Critics of Two-step flow Model

Researchers have found substantial evidence that initial mass media information
flows directly to people on the whole and is not relayed by opinion leaders. The two-
step hypothesis does not adequately describe the flow of learning. Lazarsfeld and his
associates in the 1940 election study were unable to determine the specific flow of
influence. Today most of the advertising researches are based upon this theory.

3.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Describe Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication.

2. What are various components of Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication?
3. What are the limitations of Berlo' Model of communication?
4. Describe Shannon Weaver model of communication.
5. What are the limitations Shannon Weaver model of communication?
6. Write a brief note on De Fleur‘s Model of Communication.
7. Compare De Fleur‘s Model of Communication with Shannon Weaver model
of communication.
8. What is two step flow model & how is opinion leader concept used in this
model?

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UNIT-4 OTHER MODELS: NEWCOMB, WESTLY &
MACLEAN, CONVERGENCE, HELICAL,
ENCODING-DECODING, RITUAL, PUBLICITY

Structure
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 The New Comb‘s model of communication ―ABX‖ model
4.3.1The concept of Newcomb‘s Model
4.4 Westley and MacLean‘s Model of Communication
4.4.1 Components of Westley and MacLean‘s Model
4.4.2 Concepts of Westley and MacLean‘s
4.4.3 Advantages of Westley and MacLean‘s Model
4.4.4 Disadvantages of Westley and MacLean‘s Model
4.5 The Convergence Model of Communication
4.5.1Key Elements of the model
4.6 Helical Model of Communication
4.6.1 Concept of Helical Model of Communication
4.6.2 Advantages of Helical Model of Communication
4.6.3 Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication
4.7 Encoding and Decoding Model
4.8 Rituals or Expressive Model
4.9 Publicity Model
4.10 Check your Progress

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After finishing this unit we will learn about Newcomb‘s model, Westley and
McLean‘s model, Kincaid‘s model, Dance‘s model of communication. And the
concepts behind the formulation of the models and their limitations are discussed in
this chapter.

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4.2 INTRODUCTION

New Comb‘s model of communication outlined some interesting facts with his ABX
model, his model states that internal relations are interdependent. With A and B as the
communicator and receiver and X being the social environment. Westley and Mac
Lean‘s model is an extension of Theodore New Comb‘s model. These models are
specifically adopted for the mass media. They coined the term ―gatekeeper.‖ We will
study the Kincaid‘s convergence model and Dance‘s Helical model of communication
in this chapter.

4.3 THE NEW COMB’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION: “ABX” MODEL

(1953)

Newcomb took a new approach to the communication process. The main purpose of
this theory is to introduce the role of communication in a social relationship or society
and to maintain social equilibrium within the social system. He published a new
social approach in field of communication which is called ―ABX‖ system which was
later known as Newcomb‘s model.

Figure 4.1
Newcomb does not include the message as a separate entity in his diagram. He
concentrates on the social purpose of communication, showing all communication as
a means of sustaining relationships between people.

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 Figure 4.2

4.3.1 The concept of Newcomb’s Model

The Newcomb‘s model works in a triangular format or A-B-X system and
represented interpersonal communication
A – Sender
B – Receiver
X – Matter of Concern

The relationship between A and B is like student and teacher, government and public
or newspaper and readers.

Sender and Receiver may work in a same flow but the same time some factor like
―X‖ may affect their flow of relationship.
―X‖ it may be third persons, issue, topic or policy.

ABX is a system which means that its internal relations are interdependent: of A
changes, B and X will change as well or if A changes his relationship to X, B will
have to change either his relationship with X or with A. ABX will be in equilibrium
only if A and B have similar attitude to X. But if A likes X and B does not then A and
B will be under pressure to communicate until both adopt similar attitude to X. The
more important a place X has in their social environment, the more urgent will be
their drive to share an attention towards it.

4.4 WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Westley and MacLean‘s Model of Communication was suggested by Bruce Westley

and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr. in 1957. This model was an adaptation from
Newcomb‘s model of communication, which focuses on co-orientation for
simultaneous orientation in a two way communication. It also consisted of some
concepts from Lewin‘s model.

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Unlike Dance‘s Helical Model of Communication, the model says that
communication does not begin when one person starts speaking, but it does when a
person responds to something from his/her surroundings. The person must first
receive message from the environment and then, respond accordingly to object of
orientation.

The Westley and MacLean‘s model can be applied in two contexts: interpersonal and
mass communication, the point of difference is ―feedback.‖ Feedback is direct and
fast in interpersonal communication and indirect and slow in mass communication.
The model also differentiates message as purposive and non-purposive.

Figure 4.3

4.4.1 Components of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The major components in the communication process for the model are as follows,
 Source (A) - Source is the message creator and sender.
 Environment (X) - Environment is the physical and psychological
situation where the message is being created and sent.

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  Sensory experience (X1…) - Sensory experience is the first thing that
the source sees by which the source gets the idea for the formation of
the message.
 Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,…) - Objects of orientation is the
person's social and cultural reality that has formed from his/her past
experiences and teachings.
 Message Interpretation or Coding (X‘) - Message is interpreted with
the objects of orientation of the receiver of the message.
 Receiver (B) - The person who gets the message sent by the source
and the person who interprets according to his/her objects of
orientation.
 Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, b) - The views and ideas of the
receiver or his/her social reality is his/her object of orientation. That is
how the receiver interprets the message.
 Feedback (f) - The receiver forms another message after interpreting
the message and sends it back to the sender. It is known as feedback.
 Gatekeeper (C) - Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The
gatekeeper is the editor who filters the message as per the needs of the
audience and media institution.
 Opinion Leader - Opinion leaders are well known and recognised
people who can influence public opinions.

4.4.2 Concepts of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication (1957)

The process of communication in Westley and MacLean's model of communication

starts when the source creates a message according to one‘s environment. The
communicator acts and creates the message as a response to the sensory experience
with their objects of orientation. Then, the response is coded after interpreting the
environmental response. The coded message is transmitted to a second respondent
who interprets the message differently according to the objects of orientation and
provide feedback to the sender.

Gatekeeper and opinion leader are the parts of communication process in mass
communication. They are the editors or proofreaders, who choose which message
should be published and what effect will it have on the audience. Filter of the
message is dependent on many factors.

Gate-keeping is done in many levels:-

1. Individual level- A person‘s gender, sexual orientation, culture, likes, dislikes, etc.

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2. Routine practice level- Pre-established set of rules and practices for a particular
type of work to be done
3. Communication organisations- The policies of the organisation that is publishing
the work.
4. Social institutions- The social systems by which the message is formed.
5. Societies- Societal values and belief systems, rules and norms, etc.

4.4.3 Advantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model

The advantages of this model of Communication are as follows:-
1. There is the concept of feedback.
2. As the message comes from the environment, sensory field improves the
message formation.
3. Social factors are included in objects of orientation.
4. This model can be applied to interpersonal, group communication as well as
mass communication.
5. The model is very descriptive.

4.4.4 Disadvantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

1. There are many variables even for simple communication which makes the
model very complicated.
2. The model is only two-dimensional and does not explain communication
which involves multiple messages and complicated messages.
3. The information can get modified while sending it from the sender to the
receiver as there can be noise. The model does not account for noise in
communication.
4.5 THE CONVERGENCE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

The Convergence Model of Communication is otherwise known as Kincaid‘s model

was developed by D Lawrence Kincaid, a scientist in the Faculty of Social and
Behavioural Sciences.

Kincaid is best known among communication theorists as the proponent of the

convergence model of communication. This is a non-linear model of communication
where two communicators strive to reach ―mutual understanding.‖

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 Figure 4.4

4.5.1 Key Elements of the model

In the convergence model, ―communication‖ is defined as a process in which

participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual
understanding.

Lawrence Kincaid proposed the convergence model in 1979, which lead to a

relational perspective of human communication. When information is shared with
individuals or groups taking part in the communication process, it leads collective
action towards mutual agreement and mutual understanding. Before decision making
the information is understood, interpreted and effectively perceived by individuals.
Communication in the context of this model is viewed as a transactional process
rather than a single event. The model emphasises information exchange and networks
that exist between individuals.

In previous models, bias was introduced by-

1. A view of communication as linear
rather than cyclical.
2. A message-source bias rather than a focus on relatedness and
interdependence.
3. An analysis of objects of communication in
a manner that isolates them from larger contexts.
4. Discrete messages are given more importance over silence, rhythm, and
timing.
5. Persuasion is given more importance than understanding, agreement, and
collective action.

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 6. Attention to individuals rather than relationships.
7. A model of one-way mechanistic causation rather than mutual causation.

4.6 HELICAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Figure 4.5

Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967, known as

Helical Model of Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring like curve in
the shape of a cylinder or a cone. Helix is compared with evolution of communication
of a human since birth to existence or existing moment. Helical model gives
geometrical view of communication. The model is linear as well as circular combined
and disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.

4.6.1 Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where continuity of

the communication process is very important. Communication is taken as a dynamic
process in helical model of communication and it progresses with age as our
experience and vocabulary increases.

At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the communication
progresses. The same effect can be seen with communication of humans, where you
know nothing about a person at first and the knowledge grows steadily as you know
the person better. It considers all the activities of the person, from the past and
present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes past
behaviour and experiences. Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behaviour and

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grows upward in a new way. It always depends on the lowest level to form the
message. Thus, the communicative relationship reaches to the next level in which
people share more information.

Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always growing

and accumulative.

Figure 4.6

Example of Helical Model of Communication

A child crying at birth signifies the communication of the child to its parents. After
some years, the child cries whenever the child needs anything like food or attention.
Then the child learns communicating with haphazard words, and slowly progresses
towards learning specific languages and communicates with the people who know the
language. Communication becomes more complex as the child grows into adult and
to the existing moment. The adult uses the same pronunciations and use of words or
facial expressions that he/she learned when he/she was a child. Communication is
directly dependent on his/her past behaviour as a child but can also modify as the
person grows.

Here, communication evolves with the child crying. This is where the helix is small at
the bottom. And he continues communication, the helix gradually grows. When the
communication becomes more complex, the spiral grows wider. From then on, it
grows steadily as his life goes on.

4.6.2 Advantages of Helical Model of Communication

1. The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes
communication process to be two way.
2. The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

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4.6.3 Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication

1. The model is taken as more simple than it should be.

2. Many critics have not accepted this as a model as it has very few variables.
3. It is not testable because it is abstract.
4. It is not represented systematically and in an orderly manner.
5. Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.
6. Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be breaks
in situations as well as events can be meaningless, forced or unproductive.
7. The purpose of communication is not always growth.

4.7 ENCODING AND DECODING MODEL

The Encoding and decoding model of communication is also known as reception

theory, was first developed by cultural studies scholar Stuart Hall in 1973. Titled
'Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse', Hall's essay offers a theoretical
approach of how media messages are produced, disseminated, and interpreted.
The encoding of a message is the production of the message. It is a system of coded
meanings, and in order to create that, the sender needs to understand how the world is
comprehensible to the members of the audience.
In the process of encoding, the sender (i.e. encoder) uses verbal (e.g. words, signs,
images, video) and non-verbal (e.g. body language, hand gestures, face expressions)
symbols, which he believes the receiver (that is, the decoder) will understand. The
symbols can be words and numbers, images, face expressions, signals and/or actions.
The decoding of a message is how an audience member is able to understand, and
interpret the message. It is a process of interpretation and translation of coded
information into a comprehensible form. The audience is trying to reconstruct the
idea by giving meanings to symbols and by interpreting the message as a whole.
Effective communication is accomplished only when the message is received and
understood in the intended way. However, it is still possible for the message recipient
to understand a message in a completely different way from what the encoder was
trying to convey. This is when "distortions" or "misunderstanding" arise from "lack of
equivalence" between the two sides during communicative exchange.
In his essay, Hall compares two models of communication. The first, the traditional
model is criticized for its linearity – sender/message/receiver – and for its lack of
structured conception of various moments as a complex structure of relations. The
author proposes the idea that there is more to the process of communication and, thus,
advances a four-stage model of communication that takes into account the production,
circulation, use and reproduction of media messages. Each of these steps helps

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defines the one that follows, while remaining clearly distinct. In contrast to the
traditional linear approach of the sender and receiver, he perceives each of these steps
as both autonomous and interdependent. These four stages are:
1. Production – This is where the encoding, the construction of a message
begins. Production process has its own aspects. The creator of the message is
feeding off of society's beliefs, and values. Numerous factors are involved in
the production process. These are knowledge-in-use concerning the routines
of production, technical skills, professional ideologies, institutional
knowledge, definitions and assumptions, assumptions about the audiences‘
form and the production structures of the television.
2. Circulation –How things are circulated influences how audience members
receive the message and put it to use. According to Philip Elliott the audience
is both the "source" and the "receiver" of the television message. For example,
circulation and reception of a media message are incorporated in the
production process through numerous "feedbacks."
3. Use (distribution or consumption) – For a message to be successfully
"realized", the broadcasting structures must yield encoded messages in the
form of a meaningful discourse. This means that the message has to be
adopted as a meaningful discourse and it has to be meaningfully decoded.
However, the decoding/interpreting of a message requires active recipients.
4. Reproduction – This stage is directly after audience members have interpreted
a message in their own way based on their experiences and beliefs. The
decoded meanings are the ones with an effect (e.g. influence, instruct,
entertain) with "very complex perceptual, cognitive, emotional, ideological or
behavioral consequences." What is done with the message after it has been
interpreted is where this stage comes in. At this point, you will see whether
individuals take action after they have been exposed to a specific message.

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4.8 RITUAL OR EXPRESSIVE MODEL

The transmission model remains a useful representation of the rationale and general
operation of some media in some of their functions (especially general news media
and advertising). It is, however, incomplete and misleading as a representation of
many other media activities and of the diversity of communication processes that are
at work. One reason for its weakness is the limitation of communication to the matter
of 'transmission'. This version of communication, according to James Carey. It is the
commonest in our culture and is defined by such terms as sending, transmitting or
giving information to others. It is formed off a metaphor of geography or
transportation ... The centre of this idea of communication is the transmission of
signals or messages over time for the purpose of control.

It implies instrumentality, cause-and-effect relations and one-directional flow. Carey

pointed to the alternative view of communication as 'ritual', according to which

communication is linked to such terms as sharing, participation, association,

fellowship and the possession of a common faith ... A ritual view is not directed
towards the extension of messages in space, but the maintenance of society in time;
not the act of imparting information but the representation of shared beliefs.

This alternative can equally be called an 'expressive' model of communication, since

its emphasis is also on the intrinsic satisfaction of the sender (or receiver) rather than
on some instrumental purpose. Ritual or expressive communication depends on
shared understandings and emotions. It is celebratory, consummatory (an end in
itself) and decorative rather than utilitarian in aim and it often requires some element
of 'performance' for communication to be realized. Communication is engaged in for
the pleasures of reception as much as for any useful purpose. The message of ritual
communication is usually latent and ambiguous, depending on associations and
symbols that are not chosen by the participants but made available in the culture.
Medium and message are usually hard to separate. Ritual communication is also
relatively timeless and unchanging.

Although, in natural conditions, ritual communication is not instrumental, it can be

said to have consequences for society (such as more integration) or for social
relationships. In some planned communication campaigns - for instance, in politics or
advertising - the principles of ritual communication are sometimes taken over and
exploited (use of potent symbols, latent appeals to cultural values, togetherness,
myths, tradition, etc). Ritual plays a part in unifying and in mobilizing sentiment and
action. Examples of the model can be found in the spheres of art, religion and public
ceremonials and festivals.

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4.9 PUBLICITY MODEL

Besides the transmission and ritual models, there is a third perspective that captures
another important aspect of mass communication. This can be summarily labelled a
publicity model. Often the primary aim of mass media is neither to transmit particular
information nor to unite a public in some expression of culture, belief or values, but
simply to catch and hold visual or aural attention. In doing so, the media attain one
direct economic goal, which is to gain audience revenue (since attention equals
consumption, for most practical purposes), and an indirect one, which is to sell (the
probability of) audience attention to advertisers. As Elliott has pointed out (implicitly
adopting the transmission model as the norm), 'mass communication is liable not to
be communication at all', in the sense of the 'ordered transfer of meaning'. It is more
likely to be 'spec-tatorship', and the media audience is more often a set of spectators
rather than participants or information receivers. The fact of attention often matters
more than the quality of attention (which can rarely be adequately measured).

While those who use mass media for their own purposes do hope for some effect
(such as persuasion or selling) beyond attention and publicity, gaining the latter
remains the immediate goal and is often treated as a measure of success or failure. A
good deal of research into media effect has been concerned with questions of image
and awareness. The fact of being known is often more important than the content of
what is known and is the only necessary condition for celebrity. Similarly, the
supposed power of the media to set political and other 'agendas' is an example of the
attention-gaining process. A good deal of effort in media production is devoted to
devices for gaining and keeping attention by catching the eye, arousing emotion,
stimulating interest. This is one aspect of what has been described as 'media logic',
with the substance of a message often subordinated to the devices for presentation.

The attention-seeking goal also corresponds with one important perception of the
media by their audiences, who use the mass media for diversion and passing time.
They seek to spend time 'with the media', to escape everyday reality. The relationship
between sender and receiver according to the display-attention model is not
necessarily passive or uninvolved, but it is morally neutral and does not in itself
imply a transfer or creation of meaning.

Going with the notion of communication as a process of display and attention are
several additional features that do not apply to the transmission or ritual models:

 Attention-gaining is a zero-sum process. The time spent attending to one

media display cannot be given to another, and available audience time is
finite. By contrast, there is no quantifiable limit to the amount of 'meaning'

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 that can be transferred or to the satisfactions that can be gained from partici-
pating in ritual communication processes.
 Communication in the display-attention mode exists only in the present. There
is no past that matters, and the future matters only as a continuation or
amplification of the present. Questions of cause and effect relating to the
receiver do not arise.
 Attention-gaining is an end in itself and in the short term is value-neutral and
essentially empty of meaning. Form and technique take precedence over mes-
sage content.

These three features can be seen as underlying, respectively, the competitiveness,

the actuality/transience and the objectivity/detachment which are pronounced features
of mass communication, especially within commercial media institutions.

4.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Discuss the concept behind New Comb‘s model of communication.
2. What is the concept of Westley and MacLean‘s Model of Communication?
3. What are the advantages of Westley and MacLean‘s Model of
Communication?
4. Enumerate the disadvantages of Westley and MacLean‘s Model of
Communication.
5. What is the concept behind Kincaid‘s/Convergence Model of
Communication?
6. Enlist the key elements of Convergence Model of Communication.
7. Describe Helical Model of Communication with an example.
8. What are the advantages of Helical Model of Communication?
9. What are the disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication?

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MODEL QUESTIONS AND ANSWER

Unit 1
1. Discuss communication model. What is its significance?

Answer: Communication models are essentially derived from communication theory

and vice versa. Models are developed from theories in order to provide a simplified
view of complex object, observable fact or procedure, in order to focus and examine
the basic characteristics. Models draw attention to some critical features which
otherwise gets less focus. Thus, by examining models, one learns not only about the
object, situation or process, but also about the perspective of the profounder or
designer.

Significance of communication models:

a) Models help in the simplification of complex dynamics of theories.
b) It helps scholars and students to understand the components and processes
involved in the theory.
c) It also provides insights into the perspectives of the theorists.
d) As model is a representation of real world phenomenon in more abstract
terms, it can be applied to different forms at different times.

2. What are linear and non-linear models of communication?

Answer: Linear and non-linear models of communication are can be presented in

various forms such as Symbolic Model, Physical Models, Mental Models, Verbal
Models, Iconic Models, Analogue Models and Mathematical Models.

Linear models: These are uni-directional that portrays the message flow from
speaker to audience with or without effect. These models could be both vertical and
horizontal in nature. Most of the earlier models of communication were linear
models. They are foundation models that suggested significant concepts which later
developed into non-linear, interaction, transaction and convergence models.

Non –linear models: The non-linear models follow the cybernetic principle. The four
most important elements of cybernetic explanation are the concept of information,
feedback, networks and purpose. Human communication is explained in non-linear
models by analytical concepts of interaction, self-generation and mutual exchange of
information. The message flow in these models can be bi-directional or multi-
directional. These models are circular and convergence models.

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 3. What are the advantages of having communication models?

Answer: Mortensen suggested that a good model is useful in providing both general
perspective and particular vantage points from which to ask questions and to interpret
the raw stuff of observation.

Significance of communication models:

a) Models help clarify the structure of complex events.
b) It helps in drawing inferences for further research in the field.

4. What are the limitations of communication models?

Answer: The limitations of communication models are:

a) Mislead to oversimplifications.
b) Chances of missing out relevancy-Models can miss out important points of
comparison.
c) Can lead to confusion between the model and the behaviour it portrays.

(For further reference see Unit 1)

Unit 2 onwards

1. What are the advantages & disadvantages of Lasswell’s Model of

communication?
It is a linear model of Answer: Lasswell model suggests that the messages flow in a
multicultural society with multiple audiences. The flow of message is through various
channels. Lasswell‘s communication model is similar to Aristotle‘s communication
model.

The Advantages of Lasswell’s model

 It is easy and simple.
 It suits for almost all types of communication.
 The concept of effect is considered.

Disadvantages of Lasswell’s model

 Feedback not mentioned.
 Noise not mentioned in the communication process.

2. Write a brief note on Osgood- Schramm’s Model of Communication?

Answer: Schramm's Model of Communication was postulated by Wilbur Schramm

in 1954, where he suggested that communication is a two way process where both
sender and receiver take turns to send and receive a message.

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The model takes communication as a never ending process which constitutes
messages and feedbacks.

Each person is both sender and receiver, so there must be interpretation of the
message on each turn. The interpreted data is known as information. This makes
communication effective but might cause problems too as the message sent after
encoding might not be the same when decoded by the receiver. So, this model is not
conventional like other models that only talk about sender and receiver.

Feedback is also a very important component as it lets the sender know if the receiver
has interpreted the message as required or not. The message becomes useless if the
receiver does not understand it making feedback different than the expected outcome.

3. What are the different components of Schramm's Model of

Communication?

Answer: Schramm's Model has different components for communications where,

 Sender (transmitter) is the person who sends the message.
 Encoder is the person who converts the message to be sent into codes.
 Decoder is the person who gets the encoded message which has been sent by
the encoder and converts it into the language understandable by the person.
 Interpreter is the person who tries to understand and analyse the message.
Message is received after interpretation. Interpreter and receiver is the same
person.
 Receiver is the person who gets the message. He/she decodes and interprets
the actual message.
 Message is the data sent by the sender and information that the receiver gets.
 Feedback is the process of responding to the received message by the receiver.
 Medium or media is the channel used to send the message.
 Noise is the interference and interruptions caused during the process. It is also
created when the intended meaning of the message sent by the sender and the
meaning interpreted by the receiver is different which is known as Semantic
Noise.

4. Explain the working of Schramm's Model of Communication.

Answer: This model shows how meaning is transferred from one person or group to
another. Schramm's model of communication is used in both Intrapersonal and
Interpersonal communication.

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The model takes communication as a never ending process which constitutes
messages and feedbacks.

Each person is both sender and receiver, so there must be interpretation of the
message on each turn. The interpreted data is known as information. This makes
communication effective but might cause problems too as the message sent after
encoding might not be the same when decoded by the receiver. So, this model is not
conventional like other models that only talk about sender and receiver.

5. What is field of experience?

Answer: Field of Experience includes all those things that are capable to influence
the understanding and interpretation of message like culture, social background,
beliefs, experiences, values and rules.

Same message can be interpreted differently by different people. If the words and
signs they both (sender and receiver) use are common they communicate more
efficiently.

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Schramm's Model of

Communication?

Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

a) Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their
opinion.
b) Semantic noise included as a concept helps in understanding problems that can
occur during interpretation of message.
c) Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the receiver
as intended or not.
Disadvantages of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

a) This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assumes encoding and
decoding takes place on its own. This is a major drawback of this model.
b) This model cannot deal with multiple levels of communication and complex
communication processes.
c) There can only be two sources communicating, many sources complicate the
process and the model cannot be implemented.

(For further reference see Unit 2)

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Unit 3 onwards

1. Describe Shannon Weaver model of communication.

Answer: In 1948, Shannon, an American mathematician and electronic engineer and

Weaver an American scientist came together to write an article in ―Bell Theory of
Communication, also called as, Shannon Weaver model of communication.
This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between
sender and receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication
process called ―Noise. At first the model was developed to improve the Technical
communication.

2. What are the limitations Shannon Weaver model of communication?

Answer: The limitations of Shannon Weaver model of communication are as

follows:
a) It‗s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass
audience.
b) The model based on ―Sender and Receiver. Here sender plays the primary
role and receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive).
c) Communication is not a one way process. In the absence of feedback this
becomes a one way communication.

3. Write a brief note on De Fleur’s Model of Communication.

Answer: Melvin De Fleur‘s simply expands the Shannon & weaver model of
communication by inserting the Mass Media device. He suggests the communication
process is circular as well as it gives possible two way feedback. In this whole
communication process, noise may occur at any stages. Defleur pictures the source,
transmitter, receiver and destination as separate phases of mass communication.
De Fleur‘s suggested that his model is ―Feedback Device.‖ This feedback mechanism
helps to analyse the target audience (as separate from the receivers). Here, all these
receivers are not considering as a target audience because the target audience will
make some kind of feedback which will helps to find the target audience by using
feedback device.

4. Compare De Fleur’s Model of Communication with Shannon Weaver

model of communication.
Answer: There are many similarities between these two models. Shannon – weaver
model of communication is one way of communication. De Fleur‘s model also starts
with one way of communication but continues further to two way of communication.

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 5. What is two step flow model & how is concept of opinion leader used in
this model?

Answer: Paul Lazarsfeld, an American Social Researcher, Bernard Berelson and

Hazel Gaudet introduced The Two-Step Flow of Communication in a book.

Concept of Opinion Leader

Opinion Leader is a leader for a certain group who gives details and information to
lesser active persons in the group. In office, the managing director is an opinion
leader and in public, a political leader is an opinion leader. They interpret the
information to their own group.

In Public, a political leader is an opinion leader. The people usually do not support
opinion leaders who are isolated from the population.

Katz and Paul seems ―the flow of media messages from radio and print to opinion
leaders and then the leaders leads the messages to lesser active users in the
population.‖ Through this transformation of message, the leaders may add their
opinion on the actual content which may affects the low active users. In some cases
the ‗Opinion leaders‘ filter the actual content, according to their belief of relevancy of
a message.
(For further reference see Unit 3)

Unit 4 onwards

1. What is the concept behind Kincaid’s/Convergence Model of

Communication?
Answer: The Convergence Model of Communication is otherwise known as
Kincaid‘s model was developed by D Lawrence Kincaid.
This is a non-linear model of communication where two communicators strive to
reach ―mutual understanding.‖ When information is shared with individuals or groups
taking part in the communication process, it leads collective action towards mutual
agreement and mutual understanding. Before decision making the information is
understood, interpreted and effectively perceived by individuals.

2. Describe Helical Model of Communication with an example.

Answer: Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967,
known as Helical Model of Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring
like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone. Helix is compared with evolution of
communication of a human since birth to existence or existing moment. Helical

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model gives geometrical view of communication. The model is linear as well as
circular combined and disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.
3. What are the advantages of Helical Model of Communication?
Answer: Advantages of Helical Model

a) The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes

communication process to be two way.
b) The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

4. What are the disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication?

Answer: Disadvantages of Helical Model
 The model is taken as more simple than it should be.
 Many critics have not accepted this as a model as it has very few variables.
 It is not testable because it is abstract.
 It is not represented systematically and in an orderly manner.

(For further reference see Unit 4)

REFERENCES

Further Reading

 McQuail, Denis., ‗McQuail's Mass Communication Theory‘, SAGE

Publications Ltd., London, 2005.
 Salwen, Michael B., Stacks, Don W., ‗An Integrated Approach to
Communication Theory and Research‘, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers Mahwah, New Jersey, 1996.
 Agarwala, VirBala., Gupta, VS., ‗Handbook of Journalism and Mass
Communication‘, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2001.
 Kumar, Keval J., ‗Mass Communication in India‘, Jaico Publishing House,
New Delhi, 2000.
 Narula, Uma., ‗Mass Communication: Theory and Practice‘, HarAnand
Publications, New Delhi, 2015.

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