ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology Copyright # 2017 ASM InternationalW

George E. Totten, editor All rights reserved

DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v18.a0006403 www.asminternational.org

Introduction to Tribology and

Tribological Parameters
Horst Czichos, BHT Berlin, University of Applied Sciences
Mathias Woydt, BAM, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing

TRIBOLOGY, which comes from the Greek wear and wear behavior is referred to as a tribo- wear process and their physical, chemical,
word tribos, “to rub,” is the science and technol- system, which refers to a structure of interacting and technological properties
ogy of interacting surfaces in relative motion. surfaces in relative motion to perform a specified
Operational parameters, such as stress type,
The word was coined in 1966 by Robert Burch- technical function. Generally speaking, a system load, deformation velocity, temperature, and
field (then editor of the Oxford English Dictio- is a set of elements with complex interconnec- their functional duration
nary). Basically, the science of tribology is tions. When the parts or elements have complex
Interaction parameters, which characterize,
concerned with obtaining an acceptable wear interactions with the other constituents within a in particular, the action of the operating
behavior or life of a part from the study of fric- system, it is necessary to analyze the parts in parameters on the structural components of
tion, wear, and lubrication. This involves not relation to other parts of the system. This sys- the tribological system and define its contact
only the properties of the materials in contact tems approach is conceptually different from that and lubrication modes, friction, and wear
but also various system factors, such as the nature of analytical reductionism, where the object of mechanisms
of the relative motion, the nature of the loading, an investigation is broken down into its individ-
the shape of the surface(s), the surface rough- ual parts, such that each part could be analyzed These basic elements of a tribosystem (Fig. 1)
ness, the ambient temperature, and the composi- separately (see the section “Appendix: Principles are used to evaluate and obtain an acceptable
tion of the environment in which the wear occurs. of General System Theory” in this article). wear life of components for a variety of func-
As a consequence, some form of operational Because wear is a complex process that tional purposes in machinery, machining, trans-
classification is needed to evaluate the material, depends on various system factors and interrela- port, process control, and medical applications
mechanical, and environmental elements that tionships, the characteristics of a tribosystem are (Ref 1, 2). The purpose of the systems approach
can affect wear rates of a part. described by a set of parameters that include: is twofold. Tribological parameters and the sys-
Materials wear differently in different wear tems approach help in the development of tests
situations, and different materials wear differ-
Structural parameters, which characterize that quantify the effects of friction and wear on
ently in the same situation. The collection of the components (materials, lubricant, and the function and structure of a tribological sys-
controlling factors and relationships affecting environment) involved in the friction and tem. The systems approach also helps in the

Fig. 1 Groups of basic tribological parameters

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 4 / Introduction

evaluation and selection of candidate materials tribosystem, including the materials involved of cylinder liners) and the very low wear
based on a wear rate or coefficient. (see also the section “Material Parameters and regime (or zero wear).
This article describes in more detail the basic Selection” in this article). Surface characteristics also include the com-
structural, operational, and interaction para- Table 1 names typical tribosystems with their position and microstructure (Fig. 2). In particu-
meters of a tribosystem. The interaction para- four basic structural components, together with lar, the chemical composition, the electronic
meters, which characterize the action of the the attributes being either closed or open for nature, and the microstructure of surfaces may
operational parameters on the structural compo- their elementary structure. Closed means that be quite different from that of the nominal bulk
nents in the system, consist of three important all components are involved in a continuous, volume properties of a material. As illustrated
aspects: repeated, or periodical interaction in the friction schematically in the lower part of Fig. 2,
and wear process, for example, as in bearings or materials are usually covered by contaminants

Contact parameters
a gear drive. Open means that the element in and physically adsorbed or chemically bonded

Friction parameters
the tribosystem is not continuously involved in layers. Metallic materials have oxide layers as

Wear parameters
the friction and wear process and that a materi- well. The subsurface region adjoining the bulk
als flow in and out of the system occurs, for volume also may differ considerably from
These three aspects of the interaction para- example, workpieces in machining. In German, the bulk material in terms of residual stress,
meters embody the complex mechanisms the type of wear in an open tribosystem also is work-hardened layers, and microstructure with
and relationships between the constituents of a referred to as single-sided wear, while the type respect to grain size and residual strains due to
tribosystem. These interaction parameters also of wear in a closed tribosystem is referred to deformation and/or distortions of crystallinity.
have a dual character (Fig. 1). On one hand, as double-sided wear. Lubricants may be either gas, liquid, or
the components are necessary to realize the The interfacial element (3) and the ambient solid. The main function of a lubricant is to
technical function of the tribosystem. The medium (4) may be various substances, such maintain separation of the surfaces and thus
interaction parameters also are an integral part liquids, gases, or pasty substances. The nominal reduce the friction and wear between two slid-
of the systems approach, because they charac- properties include: ing surfaces. Another function is to carry away
terize the processes of friction and wear, fric- heat and debris from the contact region pres-
tion-induced energy dissipation, and wear-
Chemical properties, such as composition,
sure. Liquid lubricants dissipate heat better than
induced materials degradation. additive content, acidity, and humidity solid or semifluid lubricants, but the shear prop-

Physical properties, such as density, thermal
erties of lubricant are critical to performance as
Structural Parameters conductivity, and flash and fire point well.

Mechanical properties, such as viscosity and
The use of liquid or gas lubricants is known
viscosity-temperature and viscosity-pressure as fluid-film lubrication. Fluid-film lubrication
The structural parameters (Fig. 1) of a tribo-
characteristics depends on a number of factors, including load,
logical system consist of the components in
contact and relative motion with each other [tri- speed, lubricant viscosity, contact geometry,
Detrimental elements, such as dirt, dust, and and surface roughness of both surfaces (see also
boelements (1) and (2)], the interfacial environ- moisture, may also be present and must be recog-
ment (3) between the contacting parts, and the the section “Contact Parameters” in this arti-
nized in the analysis of structural parameters. cle). With fluids, it is possible to generate
ambient environment (4). The structural ele- Surface characteristics of the contacting
ments (1) to (4) are further described by a num- thicker films as a result of squeeze-film effects
components [(1) and (2)] are of obvious impor- in the fluid. As a result of these effects, it is
ber of properties necessary to fulfill the tance in affecting the friction and wear of inter-
functional purpose of the tribosystem. sometimes possible to achieve complete separa-
acting surfaces in relative motion. The surfaces tion of the surfaces, which virtually eliminates
Relevant properties of the two components of solid components possess a certain rough-
[(1) and (2)] in contact include: wear.
ness, which can be quantified in various ways, Thick-film lubrication refers to the total sep-

Chemical such as centerline average roughness (Ra) or aration of asperities by a lubricant film thick-
properties, such as chemical
the peak-to-valley roughness (Rz) (Fig. 2). In ness many times larger than the size of the
composition

addition to the use of Ra and Rz roughness lubricant molecules. If this condition exists
Physical properties, such as thermal
values, stochastic parameters, such as the var- only partially—that is, if part of the load is car-
conductivity

iances of the height and slope of asperities ried by the fluid pressure and the rest is borne
Mechanical properties, such as elastic mod-
and the curvature, also are used for characteri- by contacting asperities separated by a molecu-
ulus, hardness, and fracture toughness

zation. Other roughness parameters may be larly thin lubricant film—the term thin-film
Geometric properties, such as shape, geome-
used to better describe the topography of cera- lubrication or sometimes mixed lubrication is
try, and dimensions

mics, thermally sprayed coatings, and hard used. In thin-film lubrication, the lubricant usu-
Microstructural properties, such as grain
metals, because they disregard the porosity. ally is not bonded to the surfaces; it separates
size, dislocation density, and stacking-fault
The use of areal surface texture quantities (in opposing surfaces, and the lubricant viscosity
energy
accordance with ISO 25178-2) is gaining more affects friction and wear.
The diagnosis of tribosystems must individually and more importance due to very smooth sur- In the most severe form of thin-film lubrica-
identify the elements or components involved faces (e.g., diamondlike coating) and specific tion, the entire load is carried by asperities
in the friction and wear processes of a given finishing techniques (e.g., mirrorlike finishing lubricated by surface films of molecularly thin
liquids, gases, or solids; this condition is known
as boundary lubrication. In boundary lubrica-
Table 1 Structural components of typical tribological systems tion, each surface may be covered by a chemi-
Triboelements
cally bonded fluid or semisolid film, which
Tribosystem (1) (2) Interfacial element (3) Ambient medium (4) System structure
may or may not serve to separate opposing sur-
faces. The viscosity of the lubricant is not a fac-
Bearing Shaft Bushing Lubricant Oil mist Closed tor affecting friction and wear.
Gear drive Drive gear Driven gear Lubricant Air Closed
Machining Tool Workpiece Cutting fluid Air Open The exclusive use of solid lubricants is called
Tire/road Tire Road Moisture Air Open solid lubrication. Solid lubricants provide cer-
Hip joint Femur Capsule Synovial Tissue Closed tain advantages in high-vacuum, aerospace, or
cryogenic applications, where liquids would

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 Introduction to Tribology and Tribological Parameters / 5

Surface roughness profile parameters (ISO 4287)

Peaks
Bearing curve

Rz
Profile
Valleys %

Rz: peak-to-valley height 0 20 40 60 80 100

Surface composition and microstructure

Contaminants Adsorbed layers

Oxide layers
Ground-steel surface » 5 nm

1...10 nm

Inner surface microstructure > 5 μm

(workhardened)

Bulk metal microstructure

Fig. 2 Surface characteristics: roughness, subsurface composition, and microstructure

evaporate or congeal and, at somewhat higher The kinematics can be continuous, intermit- scale (Ref 3). Thus, the length and time scales
temperatures, where liquids could decompose. tent, reverse, or oscillating. associated with friction and wear must be con-
Solid lubricants are usually adopted because
Normal load (FN), defined as the total force sidered, as illustrated in a simplified manner
of their good stability, although solid lubricants (including weight) that acts perpendicular in Fig. 3, with tribological processes occurring
may be applied to achieve design simplification to the contact area (A) between the contact- on various scales.
or weight reduction. Dry-film (solid-film) lubri- ing elements (1) and (2), where the contact In the diagnosis of friction and wear test
cation involves a coating of solid lubricant that pressure, p, is given by p = FN /A data, it also must be noted that the tribological
separates the opposing surfaces, and the lubri-
Velocity (v), specified as the vector compo- conditions are very different for tests done on
cant itself wears away. nents and the absolute values of the individ- the nanometer and macroscopic scale. For
Fluid films tend to be more easily displaced ual motions of the contacting elements (1) example, atomic force microscopes (AFMs) in
than solid lubricant films, and they have the ability and (2). Distinctions also must be made nanometer-scale tribology are very different
to self-heal. Solid lubricant layers do not. How- between the different kinematic conditions from macroscale pin-on-disc testers. The AFM
ever, this limitation of solid lubricants is removed in terms of the relative velocity (vr) that is tips induce stresses in the gigapascal (109 Pa,
when they are used as additives and fillers. Solid relevant to friction-induced temperature or 106 psi) range, whereas macroscale testers
lubricants are also used as fillers in plastics to rises; the sum velocity (vs) that is relevant operate in the kilopascal (103 Pa) range. Atomic
make self-lubricating materials. With these mate- in lubricated tribosystems involving the for- force microscopes typically allow sliding
rials, the solid lubricants provide lubrication by mation of an elastohydrodynamic film; and amplitudes of only a few micrometers, whereas
forming tribofilms on the rubbing surfaces. the slide-to-roll ratios when motion involves sliding amplitudes in macroscale wear tests
a combination of sliding and rolling motion. range from hundreds of micrometers up to

Temperature (T) of the structural components centimeters.
Operational Parameters at a stated location and time. In addition to the Macroscale tribology refers to tribosystems
operating (steady-state) temperature, the fric- with dimensions from millimeters up to meters;
Operational parameters characterize the tion-induced temperature rise, DT (average sliding speeds are in the range of approximately
functional (or test) conditions of a tribosystem. temperature rise and flash temperatures), must 1 mm/s (0.04 in./s) to more than 10 m/s (33 ft/s).
In tribological testing, they can be considered be measured or estimated on the basis of fric- The function of macroscale engineering com-
(with the exception of friction-induced tem- tion heating calculations. ponents—to transmit motion, forces, and
peratures) as independent variables that can be
Time dependence of the set of operational mechanical energy—is governed by dynamic
varied to obtain friction and wear data experi- parameters (FN, v, T), for example, load mass/spring/damping properties of the inter-
mentally. The basic operational parameters of cycles and heating or cooling intervals acting elements. If macroscale wear can only
tribological systems include:
Duration (t) of the operation, performance, be quantified at the nanometer scale, it is
or test called zero wear.

Type of motion, that is, the kinematics of
Microscale tribology typically involves
structural elements (1) and (2) can be classi- The dimensional scale of phenomena from the devices that are 100 to 1000 times smaller than
fied in terms of sliding, rolling, spin, and operational parameters can range from the mac- their macroscale analogs. Thus, the volume of
impact and their possible superposition. roscopic to the microscopic and nanometer components on this scale is reduced by a factor

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 6 / Introduction

of at least 106. As an example, the technology permanent interfacial tribological action on a Conformal surfaces fit together fairly closely,
of microelectromechanical (MEM) systems is component (e.g., sliding seals), whereas a value and conformal surfaces usually appear in slid-
an interdisciplinary technology dealing with of e < 1 indicates an intermittent tribological ing journal and thrust bearings, machine guide-
the design and manufacture of miniaturized action on a component (e.g., piston ring/cylin- ways, and seals. If two nominally flat and dry
machines, with the major dimensions at the der liner; bearing shell/shaft). The contact- solid materials (1) and (2) are brought into
scale of tens to hundreds of micrometers. area-to-wear-track ratio is an important factor static contact under the action of a normal load,
Masses and inertias of MEM components rap- in developing suitable methods for testing. asperities on the surface touch and deform
idly become small as size decreases, whereas
surface and tribological effects, which often
depend on area, become increasingly important
1m Macro-
(Ref 4).
Velocity, v = 1 km/s engineering
Tribology on a nanometer scale involves components

Length
phenomena from the submicroscopic to the Macro-
Engine bearings
atomic scale. It is not possible to link the test Laboratory tribology
Hip
results obtained at the nanoscale with friction 1 mm tribotesters joints
and wear phenomena at the macroscopic scale,
mainly because atomistic models are not v = 1 μm/s
directly scalable (Ref 5). MEMS
Asperity contacts
1 μm Micro- Dislocations Micro-
Contact Parameters devices microstructure tribology

The interaction parameters characterize the Molecular films

action of the operational parameters on the Atomic force
1 nm Atomic Nano-
components of the tribosystem and consist of microscopy
structure tribology
contact parameters, friction parameters, and
wear parameters (Fig. 1). Contact parameters Dynamic modeling
Time
include a number of factors related to the con-
tact geometry and the determination of contact 1 ns 1 μs 1 ms 1s 1000 s
stresses. In some cases, contact conditions also
may be very closely related to the operational Fig. 3 Dimensions of tribological systems and triboprocesses. MEMS, microelectromechanical systems
factors of applied force and velocity. For exam-
ple, if contact conditions involve impact or ero-
sive wear, the angle of impact or impingement a
angle is more likely to be considered an opera-
tional factor (influencing the velocity and force
b
of impinging particles) rather than a contact
parameter. Microcontact
Contact parameters of two parts in relative areas, Areal
motion consist of the geometry or configuration
of the parts and whether the forces induce slid-
ing motion or some combination of rolling and
sliding motion. The contact conditions influ-
ence the occurrence of different wear mechan- Geometric contact area A0 = a • b
Real contact area Ar = Σ Areal << A0
isms and the need or conditions for adequate
lubrication. For example, adhesive wear is a (a)
primary factor in sliding components, such as
sliding bearings. Rolling contact also is fre- Contact area
quently accompanied by slip or sliding, and
many types of rolling-contact situations pro- FN FN Slip
duce at least a small percentage of slip or slid- region
ing. The degree to which sliding governs the
total wear of components must be ascertained
by the specific contact conditions.
Contact Geometry. The geometric configu- FT No-slip
ration of contact between two parts is either region
conformal or counterformal (nonconforming) FT
contact (Fig. 4). Depending on the configura- ai
tion, the contact region may be a point, line,
or area. Another important contact parameter Hertzian contact
is the contact-area-to-wear-track (or overlap) pressure aH
FN
ratio (Fig. 5), which is a dimensionless ratio
(e) that characterizes the wear pattern to the (b)
region of contact. For example, Fig. 5 illustrates
the example of a pin-on-disc configuration
(point contact) and a cylinder-on-plane configu- Fig. 4 Basic contact conditions for (a) conformal and (b) counterformal contact, with Hertzian contact pressure
under normal forces (FN) and combined normal and tangential forces (FT). ai, radius of circle; aH, radius of
ration (line contact). A value of e = 1 indicates Hertzian contact circle

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 Introduction to Tribology and Tribological Parameters / 7

Tribosystem pin-on-disc (Point contact) Contact-area-to-wear-track ratio, ε

Triboelement (1) FN Contact area, AC
ε=
stationary Contact Wear track, AW
(ε = 1) area, AC

Triboelement (1) Triboelement (2)

stationary, ε = 1 rotating, ε < 1

Permanent Intermittent
Triboelement (2) tribocontact tribocontact
rotating (ε < 1) v Wear track,
AW Quasi-static Cyclic contact
contact stress stress

Tribosystem cylinder-on-plane (Line contact) Permanent friction Cyclic friction heating

heating when AW passes AC
Triboelement (2) Wear track,
rotating AW Permanent action of Intermittent action of
(ε < 1) wear mechanisms wear mechanisms
Contact No direct chemical Chemical influence of the
area, AC influence of the ambient medium on the
Triboelement (1) stationary (ε = 1) ambient medium in AC area AW–AC

Fig. 5 Contact-area-to-wear-track ratio, an indicator of the action of tribological processes on the tribocomponents.
Source: Ref 1

elastically or plastically under the given load. Counterformal surfaces occur in applications
The dominating contact deformation mode is such as gears and roller bearings that involve
governed by a deformation criterion (the so- rolling in combination with some slip or
called plasticity index), which depends on the sliding. Fig. 6 Basic geometry of conformal or counterformal
deformation properties and the parameters of Hertzian Contact Equations and Effective contact with a spherical (or cylindrical) shape
the surface topography of the contacting bodies Stress. For curved bodies, the macroscopic con-
(1) and (2) (Ref 6). The summation of individ- tact area and stresses are described by the well- If aH denotes the radius of the Hertzian contact
ual contact spots gives the real area of contact, known Hertzian contact equations. For two circle, no slip occurs within a circle of radius ai,
Ar, which usually is much smaller than the spheres in contact with an applied normal force such that (Ref 8):
apparent geometrical area, Ao, of the contact. (FN), the radius of the contact (a) is:
 1=3
In the case of elastic deformation, the real area vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
h 2 i F2
u ai ¼ aH 1  N2
of contact depends primarily on the ratio of nor- u 1

3FN E1 1  E2 2
1
2
u
3 FT
mal force (FN) to the elastic modulus of both a¼t  
bodies. In the case of plastic deformation, the 4 R11 þ R12 Slip occurs in the part of the Hertzian contact
real area of contact depends on the ratio of FN between ai and aH (Fig. 4b).
to the yield pressure or the hardness of the where n1 and n2 are the Poisson’s ratios of In the case of macroscopic relative motion,
softer of the contacting bodies. sphere 1 and 2, respectively; R is the radius; the contact conditions lead to complex stress
If, in addition to the normal load, a tangential and E is the elastic modulus of the respective distributions due to the superposition of nor-
force is introduced, a junction growth of asper- sphere. This equation also applies to the case mal forces, FN, with the frictional forces (FF,
ity contacts may occur. The microscopic inter- of a sphere in contact with a flat surface and a perpendicular to FN), where FF > FN  m0.
action forces between contacting solids sphere in conformal contact within a spherical The multiaxial stress conditions may be con-
include, at least in principle, all those types of groove. If sphere 1 is in contact with a flat sur- verted into an effective uniaxial tensile stress.
atomic and molecular interactions that contrib- face (R2 = 1), then 1/R2 = 0. If sphere 1 is in The basic idea of an effective stress calcula-
ute to the cohesion of solids, such as metallic, conformal contact with a spherical groove tion is to convert complex stress situations
covalent, and ionic, that is, primary chemical (Fig. 6), then the radius of sphere 2 is given a into a uniaxial stress condition, which allows
bonds (short-range forces), as well as secondary negative value in the aforementioned equation, the use of uniaxial test data for engineering
van der Waals bonds (long-range forces) such that the denominator is 4(1/R1  1/R2). design.
(Ref 7). The maximum pressure (pmax) occurs at the The von Mises (VM) and Tresca (TR) cri-
These surface forces depend in a complicated center of the contact area and is: teria are common methods for calculating
manner on the physical-chemical nature of the effective stress in many engineering situations,
3FN
structure and composition of the outermost sur- pmax ¼ including contact conditions in components
2pa2
face layers and contaminants (Fig. 2). The local such as rolling-element bearings or gears. In
stress-adhesion-deformation-shear processes in Compared with a conformal contact geometry, addition to the contact pressure distribution of
the stochastically distributed microscale con- counterformal bodies face a significant increase spherical bodies with a circular contact area,
tacts of the interfacial region cause the fric- in contact pressure at a given load and geome- Fig. 7 shows the contact pressure distribution
tional resistance against motion, independently try. A tangential force (FT = FN  m0) is addi- in an elliptical Hertzian contact of two bodies
from the nominal geometric contact area. tionally applied to a static Hertzian contact with curvature in two planes. The resulting
Compared with a conformal contact geome- (where m0 is the static coefficient of friction). principal normal stresses, s1, s2, and s3, along
try, counterformal contact takes place in an If FT is less than FN, the Hertzian contact area the z-axis (directed into the material) for an axis
extremely small, concentrated area, and coun- has a slip area and a stick area that takes place ratio A/B = 6 are plotted on the left side. The
terformal bodies face a significant increase in before a macroscopic horizontal relative motion equivalent stresses formed in accordance with
contact pressure at a given load and geometry. occurs between body (1) and body (2) (Ref 8). the VM and TR criteria are shown on the right.

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 8 / Introduction

geometry, and surface roughness of both sur- surface temperature in the conjunction and have
faces. Depending on the contact conditions, a lower resistance to scuffing. For these condi-
fluid-film lubrication can occur by the follow- tions, additives should be used to reduce asper-
ing mechanisms: ity friction and thereby prevent the excessive
asperity temperature rise that leads to scuffing.

Hydrodynamic lubrication, where the shape Contacts that operate at very low slide-to-roll
and relative motion of the surfaces cause ratios (that is, nearly pure rolling condition)
the formation of a fluid film having suffi- generate much less heat in the conjunction and
cient pressure to separate the surfaces can support a higher load without surface deg-

Hydrostatic lubrication, where a lubricant is radation generated by sliding wear. This condi-
supplied under sufficient external pressure to tion exists in gear teeth contacts at or near the
separate the opposing surfaces by a fluid pitch point and in all contacts between race-
film way/ball or raceway/roller contacts of rolling-

Elastohydrodynamic lubrication, where the element bearings. Surface or subsurface fatigue
friction and the film thickness between the is the predominant mode of failure. Surface
two bodies in relative motion are determined fatigue life improves greatly with a higher ratio
by the elastic properties of the bodies, in of lubricant film to surface roughness. Elasto-
combination with the viscous properties of hydrodynamic lubrication theories are directly
the lubricant at the prevailing pressure, tem- useful for assessing fatigue life of these con-
perature, and shear rate tacts, because the lubricant performance is
affected strongly by the elastic deformation of
In addition, plastohydrodynamic lubrication is the bearing surface.
another process where a thick lubricant film
can form at the interface between the rigid die
surface and the plastically deformed surface of Friction Parameters
a workpiece in metalworking processes.
Although thick-film lubrication may be possi- Solid friction is the resistance to motion
Fig. 7 Material stress for curved surfaces and elliptical
contact (A/B = 6). See the text for further ble, it often is not achieved because of the when, under the action of an external force,
explanation. poor surface quality generated under these con- one body moves or tends to move relative to
ditions. Mixed or boundary lubrication is usu- another body. The quantity to be measured (or
ally specified for most metalworking processes measurand, in the terminology of metrology)
von Mises (Distortion Energy) Criterion. The in order to achieve the desirable friction that is the friction force, FF, which is a vector quan-
von Mises effective stress concept (sVM) is will enable control of the surface quality of tity characterized by its direction and its quan-
based on a concept of maximum energy of dis- the workpiece. In addition, the lubricant must tity value. Depending on the kinematic
tortion, such that: also be a good coolant to carry away the heat conditions (i.e., sliding, rolling, spinning, or
rffiffiffi generated. impact), the frictional force can be tangential
1 Conformal surfaces usually operate in the (FT) that resists sliding or a frictional torque
sVM ¼
q
2 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi regime of thick-film hydrodynamic or hydro- that resists rolling or spinning.
 ½ðs1  s2 Þ2 þ ðs2  s3 Þ2 þ ðs3  s1 Þ2  static lubrication, and performance can be pre- The most commonly used friction law in
dicted readily from analyses based on the sliding motion is the Coulomb friction:
where s1 > s2 > s3 are the principal normal Reynold’s equation (see also the article “Prop-
stresses. The distortion energy hypothesis takes erties of Liquid Lubricants” in this Volume). FF ¼ f  FN
into account how all three differences between A thick oil or gas film can be generated hydro-
the principal stresses influence the initiation of dynamically by the surface velocities or hydro- where the ratio between the friction force (FF)
plastic deformation of the material. The von statically by an externally pressurized lubricant. and the normal force (FN) acting to press the
Mises effective stress is most widely used in The friction and contact temperature in the con- two bodies together is empirically defined as
engineering design, both in the low- and high- junction is influenced strongly by the sliding the dimensionless coefficient of friction (f).
temperature ranges. It has been found to govern velocity. A lubricant in sliding contact usually The coefficient of friction usually is further
the deformation of materials under complex behaves like a sheet of glassy solid sheared at described as either static or dynamic friction,
loading situations. the midlayer. representing, respectively, either the resistance
Tresca (Shear Stress) Criterion. The Tresca In the case of counterformal contacts, the to initiate motion or the resistance to sustain
effective principal stress (sTR) criterion is Hertzian contact area is smaller and more con- relative motion of contacting bodies. For slid-
based on the concept of maximum shear stress centrated, where lubricant pressure is very high ing friction, the average frictional power (PF)
energy and is expressed simply as: and the film thickness of lubrication is very with a sliding velocity (v) is thus PF = FF  v
thin—on the same order of the surface rough- (or = f  FN  v). In similar fashion, a rolling
sTR ¼ jðs1  s3 j ¼ j2Tmax j ness. Lubrication is influenced by the ratio of friction coefficient or a friction coefficient with
the sliding velocity to the rolling velocity, oth- spinning can be defined as the quotient of the
where s1 and s3 are the principal normal stresses. erwise known as the slide-to-roll ratio. The film friction torque and the normal load times a
According to this hypothesis, fatigue occurs due thickness is generated primarily by the rolling characteristic radius related to the contact
to flow processes in the plane of the maximum velocity, which draws the lubricant into the geometry.
principal shear stresses, Tmax, which is located conjunction. Sliding velocity has no effect on Friction is not a basic property of materials,
at 45 to the principal stress system. film generation unless the inlet viscosity is and tables with data on friction coefficients
Fluid-Film Lubrication. As previously reduced significantly by the heat generated by can be misleading. Specific values for a given
noted, the modes or regimes of lubrication with sliding. The friction and contact temperature material depend on a number of factors, includ-
fluids include thick-film, thin-film, or boundary in the conjunction is influenced strongly by ing the type of relative motion, the contact pres-
lubrication, which can change depending on the the sliding velocity. Contacts that operate at a sure between the surfaces, the temperature, the
load, speed, lubricant viscosity, contact high slide-to-roll ratio generate a higher contact stiffness and vibrational properties of the

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 Introduction to Tribology and Tribological Parameters / 9

supporting structures, the presence or absence solid friction are basically due to a combination to-roughness ratio, or lambda (l) factor, which
of third bodies, the duration of contact, and of subsurface deformation and interfacial abra- is defined as the ratio of the absolute film (liq-
the chemistry of the environment in and around sion and adhesion-shear processes (Fig. 9). In uid) thickness, h, divided by the Tallian rough-
the interface. Nonetheless, the friction coeffi- addition, elastic hysteresis and damping can ness parameter, sT:
cient is ordinarily less than unity for reasonably occur. The mechanical energy associated with
hard materials. As an example, the general solid friction involves the following (Fig. 9): h h
l¼ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
range of friction coefficients for typical sheet sT s21 þ s22

Introduction of mechanical energy (I): for-
metal alloys is as follows (Ref 9):
mation of the real area of contact, junction where s1 and s2 are the respective root-mean-
Friction coefficient General condition in sheet forming growth at the onset of relative motion square surface roughness of the two surfaces

Energy transformation (II): adhesion and in contact. The lambda factor is a practical limit
0.05 to 0.1 Excellent sliding
0.1 to 0.15 Conventional values shear, plastic deformation, abrasion, hystere- on the minimum value of film thickness (h0)
0.2 Rough surface sis and damping when asperities or small bumps on all sliding

Energy dissipation (III): thermal processes, surfaces begin to interact. When l > 1, the film
absorption of energy leading to microstruc- thickness is greater than sT and there should be
However, friction coefficients also can vary tural changes, emission of energy from heat, no contact and thus no wear, according to the
by orders of magnitude, depending on ambient noise, electrical current, or light equation. However, l > 3 is typically the crite-
environment conditions and the interfacial con- rion for complete separation during sliding
The occurrence of friction mechanisms wear, because one standard deviation (s) of
ditions. For example, the coefficient of friction
depends on the structural and operational para- surface roughness represents statistically only
for copper on copper is demonstrated to vary
meters of the tribosystem in question. All of approximately 60% of the peak asperities (see
significantly, as follows (Ref 7):
the partial processes of friction in Fig. 9 have also the articles “Fundamentals of Lubrication”
Friction coefficient
been experimentally observed in various stud- and “Friction and Wear of Sliding Bearing
(copper on copper) Condition ies (Ref 11). Scanning electron microscopy Materials” in this Volume).
0.08 Measured under boundary
(SEM) enables the examination of friction The experimental verification of the depen-
lubrication (mineral oil) tracks with both high resolution and high depth dence of friction on the film-thickness-to-
1.0 Solid friction in air of focus. It also is possible to study the micro- roughness ratio, l, is demonstrated in Fig. 10
>100 Solid friction in vacuum (1010 structure under friction tracks with the electron
torr) (Ref 13). A cylinder-on-flat model configura-
channeling pattern technique in an SEM tion with a constant load (FN) was used as the
(Ref 12). The surface topography of friction test system, and the tests were performed with
Interfacial adhesion is greatest when the surface tracks also can be characterized down to the three decreasing lubricant viscosity values at
is very pure copper, while atmospheric expo- nanometer scale with Nomarski optical inter- oil bath temperatures of 20  C (70  F) (A),
sure results in surface oxides that reduce the ference microscopy. 30  C (85  F) (B), and 40  C (105  F) (C).
atomic cohesion at the surface. The ambient Friction and Lubrication. With fluid separa- The sliding velocity (v) was increased stepwise,
medium and the formation of surface films play tion, the friction coefficients can be several kept constant at every data point for 5 s, and the
a critical role for solid friction, and friction orders of magnitude lower than for systems that friction force (FF) was measured with a force
forces between oxide surfaces are almost involve solid contact (see also the article “Lab- sensor. Simultaneously, information on the
always lower than between bare metals. As oratory Testing Methods for Solid Friction” in nature of the contact (metal/metal or metal/
another example, the effect of oxygen on the this Volume). Friction forces under lubricated lubricant/metal) was obtained by measuring
sliding friction of pure iron is illustrated in conditions are mostly lower than those of solid the electrical resistance (R) of the contact
Fig. 8 (Ref 7). In high vacuum, strong adhesion friction and depend on the shear resistance of between the sliding parts. Electrical resistance
and seize occur. The stepwise admission of interfacial boundary films and on the rheology less than 10 O indicates metal/metal contact,
oxygen lowers the friction coefficient until it of the lubricant. while a resistance more than 50 kO indicates
reaches the value normally measured in air at A basic tribological parameter of friction and separation of the sliding surfaces by the
ambient pressure. lubrication is the dimensionless film-thickness-
From multiinstrumental investigations of fric-
tion mechanisms (Ref 10), the mechanisms of
I. Introduction of mechanical energy
Force

Relative motion
(1) Moving triboelement
(3) Ambient medium

(2) Stationary triboelement

II. Transformation of energy

Adhesion Plastic Hysteresis

Abrasion
and shear deformation and damping

III. Dissipation of energy:

absorption in triboelements, emission in the environment

Fig. 8 Effect of oxygen on the friction of pure iron Fig. 9 Overview of the basic mechanisms of friction

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 10 / Introduction

tribosystem (two solid bodies in repeated

FN = 10 N
0.25 (1) Steel, hardened 0.25 contact).
The generalized
Friction coefficient (f )

(3) Mineral oil

0.20 0.2 Stribeck curve Wear also can be characterized by the mecha-
(2) Steel, hardened

Friction coefficient (f )
nism and type of wear in developing wear tests
0.15 Roughness, R = (R12 + R22)1/2 = 0.69 μm 0.15 and suitable designs. Generally, by characteriz-
C ing the wear situation in these manners, there is
0.10 0.1 sufficient information to formulate a model and
B A
B to assess the significance of various parameters,
0.05 A 0.05
C including materials, which can be changed to
A ∗ run-in, R = 0.48 μm I II III
resolve the wear problem.
No-contact time fraction, %

100 100

75 80 Wear Mechanisms

No-contact time
A∗ A B C

fraction, %
60
The interfacial deterioration processes are
50
40 called wear mechanisms. In general terms,
there are three basic categories of wear
25 20 mechanisms. One type of wear is abrasive
0
wear, which is used to describe situations where
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1 2 3 4 the principal cause of the wear is scratching or
Sliding velocity (v) in m/s Flim-thickness-to-roughness ratio (λ) cutting by abrasive particles. The term non-
abrasive wear is used to describe all other wear
Fig. 10 Experimentally determined Stribeck curves and the generalized Stribeck curve situations involving contact between two solid
bodies (for example, sliding or rolling). The
lubricant film or the formation of a solid tribo-
Regime II with mixed friction, where 1 < l
third general wear mechanism is erosion, where
film. With a fast signal-discrimination tech- < 3: In this regime, friction involves a com- the wear is caused by a fluid, a stream of parti-
nique, the no-contact time fraction was bination coexistence of solid-body friction cles, or bubbles (in the case of cavitation), not
determined. Thus, a distinction between solid/ (I) and fluid friction (III). by contact between two solid bodies.
solid contact and the existence of an interfacial
Regime III with fluid friction, where l > 3:
The chain of events leading to wear is illu-
lubricant film could be achieved. The graphs of In this regime, friction is dominated by strated in Fig. 11 (Ref 16). Tribological loading
the friction coefficient and the no-contact time lubricant rheology and hydrodynamics. The on materials comprises the actions of contact
fraction are shown on the left side of Fig. 10. flow of the fluid is no longer dominated by mechanics, relative motion, and contacting mat-
The friction graphs show the well-known shape the surface roughness. ter, activated by frictional energy. The action of
of the Stribeck curve. (Stribeck was the first to contact forces and stresses in combination with
describe the friction of sliding lubricated jour- Wear Parameters relative motion triggers the wear mechanisms
nal bearings with this curve, Ref 14). of surface fatigue, abrasion, and the materials
The single Stribeck curves A, B, and C show Wear is the process of deterioration of a degradation processes listed in the left part of
a different influence of surface roughness and solid surface, generally involving progressive Fig. 11. The contacting matter initiates—
lubricant viscosity on friction at the left side loss of substance due to relative motion together with interfacial and ambient media—
and at the right side of the curves: between contacting bodies, that is, the inter- the wear mechanisms of tribochemical reac-

Friction decreases at the left side of the Stri-
acting elements of a tribosystem. This defini- tions and adhesion in combination with debris-
tion closely follows that of the Organisation formation processes. All these processes and
beck curves with decreasing surface rough- for Economic Co-operation and Development, their interference lead to wear: surface damage
ness (run-in effect from curve A to curve which defines wear (Ref 15) as “The progres- and wear particles.
A*) and decreases also with increasing lubri- sive loss of substance from the operating sur- In many tribosystems, one type of wear
cant viscosity (sequence of curves C, B, A). face of a body occurring as a result of mechanism tends to predominate. However,

At the right side of the Stribeck curves, the
relative motion at the surface.” There also the types of wear mechanisms are not necessar-
influence of surface roughness on friction dis- are some additional aspects worth noting in ily mutually exclusive. They can coexist and
appears (curve A* coincides with curve A), the definition of wear: interact to form more complex wear processes.
and friction increases with increasing lubri- The individual mechanisms can interact
cant viscosity (sequence of curves C, B, A).
Wear is usually detrimental but in mild form
sequentially to form a more complex wear pro-
may be beneficial, for example, during run- cess, and materials can exhibit transitions in
A generalized Stribeck curve could be obtained ning-in.
by combining the experimentally determined
A body may become unserviceable as a
wear behavior as a result of changes in other
friction and no-contact data with calculated operational parameters, such as load, velocity,
result of major plastic deformation. Small- and friction. The relative importance or occur-
film-thickness data based on the elastohydrody- scale plastic deformation occurs in almost
namic lubrication theory and on the values of rence of individual mechanisms can change,
all wear processes. depending on the wear situation.
the operational and materials parameters of the
In English, the general term wear includes
tests. The generalized Stribeck curve charac- mechanical, chemical, and thermal effects.
terizes the main friction and lubrication regimes In German, there is a distinction between Degrees of Wear
as a function of the dimensionless film-thick- Abnutzung (wear and corrosion) and the
ness-to-roughness ratio (l), as: term Verschleiß (wear) that does not appear Wear-In. Initial wear behavior of a tribosys-
in English. tem often is different from long-term behavior.

Regime I with solid boundary friction, where
In German, single-sided wear refers to wear There are two reasons for this. One is that wear
l < 1: In this regime, friction is dominated in an open tribosystem (one solid body in and wear processes modify surfaces, and it may
by solid/solid interactions and shearing of contact with a fluid or workpiece), while take some time before stable surface or contact
interfacial boundary films. double-sided wear refers to wear in a closed conditions are established. Another is that the

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 Introduction to Tribology and Tribological Parameters / 11

relative mix of mechanisms can change, either to be lower than initial wear rates, they are not differentiation is primarily in terms of the fea-
as a result of the changes to the surfaces and necessarily constant. Depending on the tribo- tures of the wear scars and secondarily by
the interface, or because some mechanisms, system, long-term wear rates may change as a wear rate. Coarse features and high wear rates
such as fatigue, may require some time to result of the nature of the dominant wear mode. are characteristics of severe wear. Examples
become significant. The most significant For example, fatigue wear modes are frequently of mild and severe sliding wear are shown in
changes occur during the initial period, which stress dependent. For nonconformal contacts at Fig. 12.
is often called the break-in or wear-in period. constant load, wear rates would continue to All materials can exhibit both mild and
During this period, conformity between sur- decrease as the wear results in increased contact severe wear characteristics, depending on the
faces is improved, roughness is modified, stable area and hence lower contact stress. tribosystem in which they are used. Transitions
oxides and tribofilms are formed, and work Severe and Mild Wear. Most types of wear between these two modes are often related to
hardening and thermal softening can occur. mechanisms have mild and severe forms. This parameters such as load, speed, stress, the
Wear rates are generally higher during this classification is based on the nature of the amount of lubrication, and other parameters
period as well. While long-term wear rates tend wear, not necessarily the amount. The (Ref 17). For example, changes in relative
humidity or the type of abrasive particles
encountered can also result in mild-to-severe
wear transitions. Often these types of transi-
tions are sharp (Fig. 13), and wear maps have
been used as a graphical representation of tran-
sition boundaries (Ref 18). See also the next
article, “Tribological Testing and Presentation
of Data,” in this Volume.

Wear Quantities
The measures and units used to quantify the
wear interacting elements of a tribosystem are:

Wear length, Wl: one-dimensional changes
in the geometry of interacting triboelements
perpendicular to their common contact area

Wear area, Wq: two-dimensional changes of
cross sections of interacting triboelements
perpendicular to their common contact area

Wear volume, WV: three-dimensional
changes of geometric regions of interacting
triboelements adjacent to their common con-
tact area. Wear volumes are connected via
density or specific gravity with wear masses
or wear weights.
In addition to these quantities, a wear-time ratio
may be defined as wear velocity.
Wear Coefficient (k) or Wear Rate. A fur-
ther wear parameter is the wear coefficient, k
Fig. 11 Chain of events leading to wear (or wear rate), which is defined as:

Fig. 13 Mild-to-severe wear transition in the case of

unlubricated sliding between two steel
surfaces. Transitions occur as a result of changes in the
Fig. 12 Examples of mild and severe wear morphology. (a) Lubricated sliding wear scar on steel in the mild wear
nature of the oxide formed in each region. Source: Ref 19
regime. (b) Appearance of the same type of scar in the severe wear regime

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 12 / Introduction

k¼
W or hydrostatic or hydrodynamic lubrication. Material Parameters and Selection
FN  s Another possibility to obtain zero wear is com-
plete separation of the triboelements by electro- Even though material properties are only one
where W is the wear volume (in mm3), FN is the magnetic forces and magnetic air bearings,
applied load (in Newtons), and s is the sliding aspect of wear resistance, the selection of a
where an actuator generates the load-bearing material for wear applications is a very impor-
distance (in meters). The wear rate definition electromagnetic forces and a sensor measures
has been used for brake materials more for than tant structural element of a tribosystem. In
the air gap between the triboelements (Ref 21). addition to the design and analysis of tribologi-
80 years, and the wear coefficient has the phys- The air gap is kept constant with a mechatronic
ical meaning of the abraded volume normalized cal experiments, another objective of the sys-
control unit. tematic approach is the numerical selection of
by the dissipated kinematic energy in MJ. The Estimating the Wear Rate in Engineering
denominator (in units of N  m) of the wear rate candidate materials (e.g., from databases or lit-
Design and Practice. The calculated wear rate erature) based on a wear rate or coefficient from
(k) multiplied by the coefficient of friction or wear established from practical experience
gives the value of dissipated energy (in units a system analysis of the tribosystem and its
represents a key set limit for selecting candidate operating condition. As an example, Fig. 15
of MJ). materials/coatings. The wear volume, in order
The same approach can be found in the FZG details a brief questionnaire (Ref 22) for the
to evaluate the wear rate, is from the point of evaluation of the wear rate and other conditions.
(Forchungsstelle für Zahnräder und Getriebe- the design linked to the allowable increase in
bau) test for gears (ISO 14635). (Note: the The questions asked in this questionnaire repre-
gap or clearance between relatively moving com- sent the minimum information needed to estimate
German term translates as “Gear Research Cen- ponents of the tribosystems. This figure must be
ter”) In the FZG test, the abraded mass of the wear rates and design of an application.
defined by the mechanical engineer in determin- Design and materials selection for wear
tribocontact is normalized by transmitted work ing when the function would no longer be properly
in mg/MJ (milligrams are converted to volume resistance requires a system approach. Materi-
fulfilled. The wear volume thus is calculated from als selection is only one factor in the overall
by the density of the tested material). This the geometric contact area or apparent surface
underlines that wear and energy dissipation process of wear design, and just changing one
area times the wear length. It can also be estimated material is unlikely to solve an excessive wear
are linked together, and both must be stated from reclaimed components.
together to validate a couple as being low or or surface damage problem. Even the property
It also is very important to relate the sliding of hardness, which is correlated with wear
high wearing. distance only to sliding (not rolling distances)
An overview of the range of wear data is resistance in many situations, is not necessarily
and to a specific friction regime, for example, a sufficient indicator of wear resistance or wear
given in Fig. 14 with respect to the wear coeffi- dry, mixed/boundary lubrication. Hydrodynamic
cient. Depending on the interfacial state of a tri- performance in specific situations. For example,
lubrication must not be incorporated into the slid- steels for rolling-contact bearings must be
bosystem—lubricated sliding, unlubricated ing distance. In the case of slip rolling, the accu-
sliding, or wear by hard particles—the wear exceptionally clean (that is, free of inclusions).
mulated sliding distance is related to the sliding Another example is cast irons that have the
coefficient (k) can vary over more than 6 orders portion. As the operating condition normal force,
of magnitude (Ref 20). A wear coefficient of same hardness but different graphite structures.
temperature, and sliding speed vary over one Graphite acts as a lubricant, and cast irons with
10–6 conventionally indicates the border cycle or time, the following approaches can be
between tolerable removal of surface boundary different graphite structures will behave differ-
applied to identify meaningful figures: ently in wear.
layers and mild to severe wear. Thanks to met-

Operating condition, where severe wear or Nonetheless, there are some basic factors to
allurgical development, wear coefficients under
dry sliding down to 1010 and 1012 mm/N  m failure occurs consider regarding the wear resistance of mate-

Set of parameters, which cover, for example, rials. Different types of materials tend to be
have been demonstrated. Abrasive hard parti-
cles cause even higher wear. The lowest wear 80% of the customer or operating conditions used for different wear situations (Ref 23).

Average over one duty cycle or the peak load Table 2 provides an overview of typical wear
can only be achieved when the triboelements
are completely separated by a fluid film, rea- Successful matches also may require validation applications for different classes of materials.
lized by either elastohydrodynamic lubrication In abrasive wear situations, for example, it is
of other nontribological properties as well.
generally desirable to have the material harder
than the abrasives present, or at least of compa-
rable hardness, to minimize wear and obtain
long life. For long life under sliding, it is gener-
Erosion ally desirable to have a 2-to-1 or larger ratio
Wear by
hard particles between yield point and nominal contact stress.
Abrasion For impact and rolling, this ratio can be smal-
ler, approaching 1, and still be acceptable.
Generally, the material should be chemically,
Unlubricated sliding Severe mechanically, and thermally stable under the
operating conditions, and the nominal contact
Mild stresses should be within the elastic range of
the material. If either of these criteria is not
Boundary met, it is likely that severe wear behavior and
unacceptably high wear rates will result. A cor-
EHD lubrication ollary is that if a particular material must be
used, the conditions of use need to be changed
HD lubrication Lubricated sliding so that these criteria are satisfied. This may
include various types of surface treatments.
10–12 10–10 10–8 10–6 10–4 10–2
Great savings in manufacturing cost can be
3
achieved by applying coatings or surface treat-
Wear coefficient, k = WV/FN • s (mm /N · m)
ments to economical structural steels to provide
wear resistance at selected areas in machine
Fig. 14 Overview of the range of wear data. HD, hydrodynamic; EHD, elastohydrodynamic components. Sometimes appropriate design

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QUESTIONNAIRE ON OPERATING CONDITIONS Please fill in fields numbered 01 to 25, respectively.
Mark what is applicable!

Name of tribosystems 1) 01
Tribocomponents 2) Element 1 Element 2
Name 02 03
Dimensions 04 05
Material 06 07
Roughness

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08 Centerline average = μm Rz = μm 09 Centerline average = μm Rz = μm
Interfacial medium Surrounding atmosphere

Structure of
the tribosystem
Name 10 11

State of aggregation 12 Solid Liquid Gaseous 13 Liquid Gaseous

Lubrication mode 14 Unlubricated Fluid lubrication Gaseous lubrication Mixed lubrication Boundary lubrication

Type of motion 15 Sliding Rolling Drilling Impact

16 Continuous Intermittent Repetitive 17 Oscillating Oscillating frequency: Hz
17 b Amplitude of stroke = μm
Normal force N 18
Pressure N/mm2 19a (Geometric) 19b (Hertzian)
Velocity m/s 20a min. 20b Average 20c max.

Operating
variables
Temperature of operation °C 21a min. 21b Typical 21c max.
Duration of operation h 22
Coefficient of friction 23a min. 23b max.
Allowable wear length μm 24a (Element 1) 24b (Element 2)
Allowable wear volume mm3 25a (Element 1) 25b (Element 2)

Tribological
characteristics
1) According to the German Standard DIN 50320 and DIN 50323, a tribosystem Contact
consists of element 1 (e.g., bearing shell), element 2 (e.g., shaft), interfacial Name :
Company :
medium (e.g., lubricant), and surrounding atmosphere (e.g., air).
Department :
2) If possible, please attach a sketch or a photo showing the areas Address :
in which wear occurs. Phone No. :

Fig. 15 Questionnaire on the structure and operating conditions of a tribosystem

Introduction to Tribology and Tribological Parameters / 13
 14 / Introduction

Table 2 Typical wear applications for selected engineering materials

Sliding Rolling
Unlubricated Lubricated Unlubricated Lubricated Impact Three-body Fluid Drop Particle
Materials wear wear Abrasion wear wear Abrasion wear abrasion erosion Cavitation erosion erosion

Surface treatment of structural X X X ... ... X ... X ... ... ... ...
alloys
Hard surfacing of structural X X X ... ... X X X ... ... X X
alloys
Soft coating of structural X X ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X
alloys
Alloy steels ... X X X X X X X ... ... ... X
Tool steels X X X X X X X X ... X ... ...
Precipitation-hardened ... ... X X ... ... ... X ... ... ... ...
stainless steels
Martensitic stainless steels ... X X X X ... ... X X ... ... ...
Graphitic cast irons X X X X ... X ... X ... ... ... ...
White irons X ... X ... ... X ... X ... ... ... ...
Refractory materials X X ... ... ... ... X X ... ... ... ...
Superalloys ... X ... X ... ... ... ... ... X X X
Bronze ... X ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X ...
Beryllium copper ... X ... ... ... ... X ... ... ... ... ...
Soft bearing alloys (Babbitts) ... X ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Carbides X X X X ... ... ... X ... ... X X
Ceramics X ... X ... ... ... ... X X ... X X
Thermoset polymers X ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Thermoplastic polymers X X ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X ...
Elastomers ... ... ... X X ... X X ... X X X
Carbons X ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Lubricating composites X X ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Source: Ref 24

may be the more economical and lasting solu- constituents of the system, in either complex or enclosing the structural elements—are classi-
tion. Designs that provide a lubricant film sup- nonlinear fashion. In this approach, a system is a fied as:
port to a contacting system may mitigate the set of elements interconnected by structure and

Inputs {X}: operating inputs, working loads,
need for a super wear-resistant material. function, where the behavior of a system is the
Surface condition is another factor that can manner in which the whole or parts of a system auxiliary inputs, and disturbances

Outputs {Y}: functional outputs, loss out-
influence the wear resistance of a material. This act and react to perform a function (Fig. 16). In
can refer to microstructure, the surface finish, characterizing the behavior of systems, the terms puts, noise, and structural elements debris
the residual stresses, and the use of coatings structure and function also must not be isolated
or surface treatment. For example, surface fin- from each other, because the structure and the All inputs and outputs can be categorized to
ish is especially important in journal bearings function of systems are interconnected. belong to the cybernetic categories of energy,
and rolling-contact bearings, where very thin The structure of a system is given by ele- matter, and information.
lubricant films are needed for the performance ments such as: Systems Function. The basic functions of
of the bearings. If the surfaces are too rough, (technical) systems are:

A: the set of the elements (components), ai,
the high points penetrate the thin oil film and
Support of (working) loads
initiate wear or failure. Residual stresses also separated from the environment by a hypo-
Transfer or transformation of operating
are a factor in many applications with rolling- thetical envelope enclosing the elements;
contact conditions. For example, a roller bear- A = {a1, a2, . . ., an} inputs into functional outputs

P: the relevant (materials) properties of the
ing with races will have a propensity to spalling The function of a system is borne by the sys-
failure if residual tensile stresses occur in the elements; P = {P(ai)}, i = 1 . . . n

R: the relations (interactions) between the tems structure. The support of loads requires
race surfaces. Bearings with compressive resid- appropriate (load-bearing) properties (P) of the
ual stresses in the races offer added insurance elements, R = {R(ai $ aj)}, i, j = 1 . . . n, j 6¼ i
relevant systems element. The transfer or trans-
against failure when unplanned excursions of formation of operating inputs into functional
load occur. The normal (nominal) structure of a system is
represented by the set: outputs (T) requires appropriate interactions
(R) between relevant systems elements to
S0 ¼ fA; P; Rg enable the pertinent function.
Appendix: Principles of General
System Theory If the structure of a system changes with time
(t), for example, due to detrimental changes of REFERENCES
The concept of analytical reductionism refers element properties (P) or relations (R) under
to an entity (i.e., an object of investigation) that working loads (l) (e.g., force, temperature), the 1. H. Czichos, Tribology—A Systems
can be broken down into its individual parts, structure of a system is load and time dependent Approach to the Science and Technology
such that each part can be analyzed separately, and is represented by the set: of Friction, Lubrication and Wear, Else-
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