JOSEPH F.

McPARTLAND
WILLIAM J. NOVAK

McGraw-Hill Book Company

 PRACTICAL
ELECTRICITY
By JOSEPH F. McPARTLAND
and WILLIAM J. NOVAK
Editors, Electrical Construction
and Maintenance, New York

Using a simple and easy-to-follow illus¬

trative technique, this book clearly ex¬
plains the fundamentals of electricity and
the operation and application of practical
circuits to electrical design. The book’s ap¬
proach is essentially nonmathematical,
with readily understood sketches and dia¬
grams used throughout to supplement the
text.
Starting with the physics of electric cur¬
rent flow, the book describes and analyzes
both direct-current and alternating-current
electric circuits.
To assure strict correlation to modem
practice, the authors give you examples of
calculating circuit characteristics in terms
of commonly-used voltages and current
ratings. The circuits covered are typical
of those found in today’s electrical systems
for power and light in residential, commer¬
cial, and industrial buildings. Heaviest em¬
phasis is placed on practical single-phase
and three-phase alternating-current cir¬
cuits and equipment.
Here is a book that gives you a thorough
understanding of the principles, operation,
and practical applications of basic elec¬
tricity. Useful to both the beginner and the
experienced electrical man, it provides an
excellent reference for anyone engaged in
design, construction, or maintenance of
electrical systems. It is also ideally suited
to the needs of sales people and other semi-
technical personnel engaged in electrical
work.
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2018 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/practicalelectriOOOOmcpa
 Practical Electricity

J. F. McPartland
W. J. Novak
Associate Editors, Electrical Construction and Maintenance

§k

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

New York San Francisco Toronto London

PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY

Copyright © 1964 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the
publishers. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 64-25173

ISBN 07-045694-1

131415161718 HDBP 79876

PREFACE

This book presents the fundamentals of electricity in a unique and

appealing manner. The illustration technique was particularly chosen
for its easy-to-use style. Designed to provide a broad and deep, but
essentially nonmathematical, background in the nature of electricity and
the operation and application of electric circuits, the presentation makes
use of easy-to-follow sketches and diagrams to supplement the text.
Each step of the overall development is broken down into readily digested
units of text and sketches.
Starting with the physics of electric current flow, the book describes
and analyzes both direct-current and alternating-current electric circuits.
To assure tight correlation to modern practice, examples are presented
in terms of commonly used voltages and current ratings, covering cir¬
cuits typical of those found in today’s electrical systems for power and
light in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. The heaviest
emphasis is placed on practical single-phase and three-phase alternating-
current circuits and equipment.
This book can serve well as a textbook for various formal courses in
basic electricity. It also offers wide use as a home-study or reference
book for those engaged in design, construction, or maintenance of
electrical systems. And the volume is ideally suited to the technical
information needs of sales personnel and other semitechnical personnel
engaged in electrical work. Its content is aimed at both the beginner and
the experienced, practicing electrical man.

/. F. McPcirtland,
W. J. Novak
CONTENTS

Preface .Ill

Basic Electricity. 1

Circuits .4

Circuit Studies .14

Power and Work .17

Electric Conductors.23

Basic Circuit Study.29

Magnetism .32

Electromagnetic Induction.41

Alternating Current .47

A-C Fundamentals.51

A-C Circuit Analysis.54

Circuit Impedances.60

Capacitive Reactance.63

Capacitance and Resistance.66

Single-phase Circuits.69

Parallel Circuits.72

Complex Circuits .75

Three-phase Circuits.78

Practical Circuits .87

Index.90

V
 Basic Electricity
HE MODERN BASIS for under¬ minal of the source to the positive
standing the nature of electricity terminal. The relative “looseness” of
is the electron theory of matter. electrons in any metal determines its
According to this theory, all matter in value as a conductor. Copper and
the world—anything that can be aluminum are the common conductor
seen, felt, or otherwise determined materials used in modern electrical
to be physical in nature—is made up systems.
of minute charges of electricity. Any
physical substance can be broken down In contrast to the relatively good
into extremely tiny particles called conductivity of metallic materials,
“atoms,” which are so small that they there are other materials which have
are not visible even under a power¬ very “tight” electron structures and do
ful microscope. Each atom is an not permit appreciable electron flow
electrically balanced package of when subjected to electron pressure.
charged particles. The core of the
atom, called the “nucleus,” has a Such materials are called dielectrics
given value of positive charge depend¬ or insulators. Typical of such materials
ing upon the element or substance it are paper, rubber, plastic, porcelain,
happens to be. Revolving around the cloth, wood and just about any non-
nucleus are particles called electrons, metallic solid. Of course, such ma¬
each of which has a negative charge terials vary in their insulation strength,
of one unit. The number of electrons depending upon their particular
“orbiting” the nucleus in any atom atomic makeup. Materials with high
equals the number of units of positive resistance to flow of electric current
charge in the nucleus. It is these elec¬ find use as insulation on wires and
trons which make possible the flow cables and in electrical apparatus.
of electric currents.
Inasmuch as electric current consists
In metallic substances, the elec¬ of flow of electrons, its value is meas¬
trons in the atomic structures are ured in terms of electrons passing a
normally held in their orbits by rel¬ point each second. This is identical
atively weak forces of attraction to measuring flow of water in a pipe
from the nuclei. As a result, if a in terms of gallons per minute passing
source of electron pressure (such as any point in the pipe. Because there is
a battery or generator) is applied in such a large number of electrons flow¬
series with a continuous path of metal, ing in even very small currents (bil¬
such as copper or aluminum wire, lions and billions of electrons per sec¬
the force exerted by the pressure is ond), the unit called the “ampere” is
sufficient to overcome the forces used and is equivalent to 6.28 v 1018
holding the electrons to the nuclei in electrons per second.
each atom and these electrons are
made to move through a metal path. The usefulness of electric current,
Thus a current is created with elec¬ however, is not in flowing through
trons flowing from the negative ter¬ circuit conductors. It must be made

1
 FLUID ANALOGY
f/ec/r/r//y /s a morns of fransm/Pf/ny
energy. // /s nr-/- a f/r/ef, dor/' compo¬
nent of an e/ec/r/ca/ sys/em frve.
coar/erpar/s yf a f/a/f sys/em.\ as
sdooun. 7~/e f/ous of Currenf /a Tfe
u//re f or a/a far /a Afe p/'pe) mafes
yf p<ossP/<$ far ff?e ofr/aen /otzcf fo
rraAe effm/'enZ use of ffe en?eryy
c/ere/opeof Ay S/e. anyone/ fa cafe of
remofs/y from ffe fan of.

to flow through incandescent and fluo¬ Basically, any electric circuit con¬
rescent lamps to produpe light, to flow sists of the utilization device or devices
through resistance elements to produce which will use the current, the con¬
heat or to flow through motor windings ductors which will carry the current
or other coils where electromagnetic to the device and a source of pressure.
effects will be converted into mechan¬ This source of pressure may be a
ical work. The wires or cables in any battery or a generator which will feed
circuit are merely the means to deliver directly to the load or it might be
the current to the utilization devices the service conductors which the utility
which will perform the work. As such, brings to a building to provide the
system design aims at keeping their heeded pressure for all of the circuits
opposition to current flow down to a in the buildings. Of course, these serv¬
minimum. The generator or battery ice conductors actually connect back
then, which supplies the electron pres¬ to the utility company’s generator in
sure to the circuit, has to spend only a remote location. In the case of a
a little of its force in getting the typical branch circuit for lighting or
current through the wires and can a motor, the busbars in the panelboard
spend its major force in pushing the can be thought of as the source of
electrons through the load device pressure. In fact, any set of terminals
which offers the major opposition to across which a voltage exists can be
current flow. considered the pressure source.

ELECTRON THEORY f/ec/rors

(VAer e/ec/r/'ra/ pressure ys exer/eof
or a. "conc/uc/cr" Ay a, yereraf/ny ofe-
r/ce e/ec/rons are mo re of reaa/'/y
from r/om fo rfom^ area fry an?
efec/r/c oarrerf
CONDUCTOR

N/ec/rors m an "/rsa/a/or"are fe/cf

Z/gA Z/y Ay /fre/r a Zorns. f/ecfr/'ca /
press a re ofoes S7cf erase pfem fa Pressure y/PtonA
mo re, fence no eurren Z ffou/ rfer/Zs
/N SUL A TOR

2
 Electric pressure is expressed in
terms of volts. The more volts at
which a source is rated, the higher
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
will be the pressure it exerts on the
Wafer mores
electrons in a circuit. As stated above,
-from fi/yf fo
this pressure is used to overcome the
fouJ po/rfs.
forces holding atoms in electrical bal¬
ance. The amount of force to be over¬
come in any part of a circuit depends A/eaf f/eurs
upon the atomic tightness of the ma¬ ■from f'yAer fo
terial itself, the cross-section area, and fou/er femper-
afures
the length of the section concerned.
This total force can be expressed as
resistance or impedance to current ffecfr/e/fy As
flow. In a typical circuit, the copper cor? s/c/eree/ fo
or aluminum conductors have very ffoo? -frompomfs
loose atomic structures and sufficient of A/of?po fer?f
cross-section so that the total resist¬ Aa/ f& po/rfs
of /oarer po¬
ance for the length of the conductor
pe of Aa A
is relatively low. In contrast, the fila¬
ment of a lamp being supplied by the
conductors is made of a length of fine
tungsten wire of very small cross- ELECTRIC CURRENT
section, with the comparatively tight
atomic structure of tungsten. As a Gnuorys pp/? as/as. 37L? port r/r.
result, this filament has a high resist¬
ance compared to the circuit conduc¬
tors—even though length of the fila¬ lAVATEg AAEAT
ment is short. Resistance or impe¬
dance to current low is commonly ex¬
pressed in terms of “ohms”. frecrrors rtsp s&r

From the foregoing, it can be seen

that in any circuit it takes volts to £IECTJ?/C/TY
push current through the resistance of
conductors and load devices. In our
typical electrical system, we provide Correrf f/our fs arra/opous fo>
120 volts to force enough current frartsrti/ssfort of usurer arc/ feaf
through an incandescent lamp to pro¬ for s/mpf/c/fy, "e/ecfrortS per s'ec-
or?af" are c/ef/reof fr? ferms of
duce light. Or we provide 480 volts to
"amperes? ffe comm or/ a r? / f of
push enough current through a motor
efecfr/c curre/yf
winding to get a certain horsepower of
mechanical output.

In the case of the lamp, the current

flow through the lamp filament pro¬
duces tremendous molecular friction
resulting in high heat. The heat causes (oer?erafors arcf faffer/'es cfo
the filament to glow “white hot,” giv¬ rof penerafe " efecfr/c/'fy-
ing off visible light. The current ffey are rfer/ces Of serf fo
through the motor produces magnetic creafe a pressure ar?cf ff?as
effects which result in rotation of a cause efecfror?s fv rr/oue
shaft.
 Circuits
HE FUNDAMENTAL require¬ 2. A motor circuit may get voltage
ment for electrical utilization is from power panel busbars or from
the electric circuit. spliced connections to feeder conduc¬
As stated previously, a circuit con¬ tors; wires complete the path to the
sists of a source of voltage (or elec¬ motor; and the motor is the load.
tron pressure)—such as a battery, a
generator or any terminals across 3. A feeder circuit is any circuit in
which a voltage exists—one or more an electrical system which feeds a
“load” devices which will use the cur¬ number of branch circuits. A typical
rent provided by the source, and a example would be the conductors in,
closed conductive path—such as insu¬ say, an office building which run from
lated wires—from the negative termi¬ the main switchboard in the basement
nal of the source, through the load up to a panelboard on one of the
and back to the positive terminal of floors. In such a case, the terminals
the source. This arrangement is es¬ on the switchboard constitute the volt¬
sential to all types of useful circuits: age source, the conductors to the pan¬
elboard busbars make up the closed
1. The typical lighting branch cir¬ circuit path and the load is considered
cuit gets voltage pressure from the to be the sum of the loads of the
busbars in the panel; wires are run in branch circuits supplied from the pan¬
cable or conduit to outlets where load elboard.
devices—fluorescent and incandescent
luminaires — are connected to the 4. A supply circuit or service en¬
source; and current flows when the trance circuit to a building has the
circuit is closed by a wall switch. utility line terminals as the voltage

4
 MOTOR BRANCH CIRCUIT //pAf/ny f/x fares (or /am/na/res)

/oad cons/sfs of /no for p/us Saz/fc/es con fro/

res/s/a nee of cono/acfors
"/feafra/" far f/roa/f 10T
{A/eoaf'/e fprm/na/J frea/ers

730 v
LIGHTING BRANCH CIRCUIT
or/p/cafes af ffe pane/foarof. 7ofa/
A/of or f "//of "6 as fare
/oao/ sapp/feof fy c/roa/f /ncfades
(fos/f/i/e
//pfif/np f/x faros p/us res/sfar/coo
fer/r/ra /)
o f cono/acfors-.
/

PAMELBOARP (Source of xo//ape).

Tf/'s //5/?30 - yo/f fxine/ sapp/'es
e/ffer //5" or 23d yo/fs. f/pjhf/np large amounts of power. It should be
c/rou/f sfou/p connecfed fo one noted that all of these circuits are
A of fus a no/ neafra/j rece/Ves normally operating, useful circuits.
//5 yo/fs. A/of or c/rcu/f Con¬ There is a condition which can occur
ner fed ft foff fof fusesj re- in any circuit in which failure of in¬
ce/t/es 230 yo/fs. sulation in equipment or in conduc¬
tors provides a closed path of current
flow that is not through the load. Such
a condition is called a “short circuit.”
In any electrical circuit, the flow
source, the conductors connecting to of current depends upon the character
the building service equipment as of the voltage source and the nature
the closed circuit and all of the load of the conductive path through the
devices in the building—lights, appli¬ entire circuit. As a result, there are
ances, motors, etc.—as a single effec¬ different types of current flow.
tive load at the main switchboard in¬
coming terminals. Direct Current is current which flows
Any of the above types of circuits through the circuit in the same direc¬
might be direct-current circuits or al¬ tion at all times and with almost con¬
ternating current circuits depending stant strength. A direct current flow
upon the operating character of the in which the strength is always the
voltage source, whether it is ac or dc. same, such as from a battery, is often
Such circuits might operate at any of called a “continuous” current. Direct
the voltage levels in use today, rang¬ current in which the strength of flow
ing from below 50 volts for various rises and falls during the time of flow
signal anu control circuits, through is called “pulsating” direct current.
the common 120-, 208-, 240-, 277-, This latter current is produced by a
480- and 550-volt circuits used for dc generator, but if the amount of the
lighting and power loads, to the high¬ pulsation is small compared to the
er voltages—2,300; 4,160; 4,800; 13,- overall value of the current, the
000 and up—used for distribution of current is effectively direct current.

5
Alternating Current is the type of cir¬ ly from those of direct-current cir¬
cuit flow produced by a voltage source cuits (and will be discussed separately
which alternates the direction of its later), there are a number of funda¬
electron “push.” Say a source has mental rules common to both types
terminals marked 1 and 2. Then—on of circuits. One of the most important
a fixed time schedule, say, 120 times of these is Ohm’s Law and applies to
per second — the source will exert ac and dc circuits.
pressure first from 1 toward 2, then
from 2 toward 1. Naturally, current George Ohm, a teacher of math
in the circuit will respond to this al¬ and physics in Germany, set forth a
ternating pressure and will itself alter¬ law in 1827 covering the behavior of
nate direction of flow in time with the electrical circuits. According to his
alternations of pressure. Electrons will law, a fixed relationship exists among
quickly flow one way, stop, reverse current, voltage and resistance in a
direction, stop, reverse direction, etc. closed circuit. The law may be stated
During the period between each re¬ in three ways:
versal of direction, the current starts
from a value of zero amperes, rises to
a maximum value of so many amperes 1. The current flowing through a cir¬
and then decreases to zero. This al¬ cuit is equal to the voltage applied to
ternation is the basis of our modern
60 cycles of current alternation per
second. Each cycle consists of flow
from zero-to-maximum-to-zero in one
Conduc/ors /n
direction and zero-to-maximum-to-
su/fab/e rareu/ay
zero in the opposite direction. There
are 120 half cycles and 120 reversals __ SrancA c/rcu/fs
of flow direction per second. -/

Although the characteristics of al¬ fKHVw ^

ternating-current circuits differ great¬
._:^n/w s
. —bead C

feeder
'^'Pane/

San fcfi board

FEEDER CIRCUIT
feeds a number of
branch r/reu/fs. //
may or/y/nofe /n a
Pane/ or so// fcfiboard.
The feeder c/rcud shown
feeds a. pane/ u/dfi 3
SERVICE OR SUPPLY CIRCUIT branch c/rcu/fis. To/a/
sfioum feeds a, /oad eyua/ fo /fie /oad on feeder /s food
sum of /fie /oads suppfed by A p/us bond 3 p/us
each feeder c/rca/fi or/y/na f/no /r; Toad C p/us res/s/-
/fie scv/fcfiboard p/us /fie res/sptnce a nee of feeder con-
of 7fie serv/ce conduc/ors and /fie duo/ors and pane/
Su//fcAboard pus bars. Pus Pars.

6
 TRANSMISSION
LINE. GENERATOR
VOLTAGE PROP /n any parf- of
1-20 VOLTS art e/ectr/ca/ c/rcu/t represents tAe
YO//aye usee/ to force tAe current
ZArouyA /Aa/ part af /Ac c/rcu/t /n
tAe s/tctcA at /eft. tAe re /s a Yo/toye
c/rop of 2 Yotts tetoueen /Ac gener¬
ator antfsubstation -transformer,
3 Yotts betcueen -tAe substaA'orr anct
cZ/stributian -tnansffrmer etc. TAus
SERVICE
tAene /s a po/mZ/a/ of on/y ///. 3
Switch
£ PANEL Yo/tx across tAe /amp u/Aen //as
113-6
TO
VOLTS
p/ugyecZ /nto tAe receptacle- TAe
OTHER.
Yo/fages sAourn cut // vary, of course^
LOADS
u// tA tAe aefuat current f/ou//ng
in -tAe concfuctors.

Just u/Aat comprises tAe "/n terra/" a net yonaf tAe serY/ce suz/tcA may be consAZ
"externa/" c/rcu/ts /s a matter of op/n/on. erect tAe externa/ctrcm/t. Ps far as
das/ca/ty. everytA/'ny outs/We tAe gener¬ tAe ex tens/on cortf a net /amp are oun¬
ator /s externa/ to tAegenenat/ng source. ce meet, CYerytA/ny up tt> tAe recept-
/Jourever, trom tAe stanefpo/nt of tAe oc¬ ac/e Js */.nterna/* fAe exactPef/n/-
cupancy sen/ect, on/y that port/on be - t/on ac/optctf /Jr un/mportanf

the circuit divided by the total resist¬ divided by the current flowing through
ance in the circuit. the circuit.

I = —, where
R
I=current in amperes If a circuit has 240 volts applied to it
E=voltage applied, and and the current flow is 8 amps, the
R=resistance in ohms. total resistance is 30 ohms.
If 120 volts is applied to a circuit
containing a total resistance of 12
ohms, a current of 10-amps will flow.
I N THE three forms of Ohm’s Law—
E E
2. The voltage applied to a circuit is I——, E=I R and R=— the
equal to the current flowing through R I
the circuit times the resistance of the voltage is applied to the circuit which
circuit. is made up of the resistance of
E = IR the circuit conductors and the resis¬
If a current of 30 amps is flowing tance of the load device.
through a circuit with a total resist¬ As a result, current flowing through
ance of 16 ohms, the voltage of the the resistance of the conductors pro¬
circuit is 480 volts. duces a certain voltage drop in ac¬
cordance with the formula E—IR, in
which the E equals the drop in voltage,
3. The resistance of a circuit is equal the I equals the current flowing and
to the voltage applied to the circuit the R equals the resistance of the cir-

7
 SERIES CIRCUIT
Consider on/y that port/'on of the system iMCMIDlSCtNT
beyonct the receptac/e shourn. in th/‘s LAMP
s/mp/e circuit, there are 3 res/stances lit OHMS
in series.-
Contactor to /amp.- 0.25 ohm
/amp : /2 A oo ohms
Conductor from /amp O. 25 ohm
Tota/ res/stance • /2 /. So ohms Cor?factor to /amp ¬
s’* 1/2 • 0.92? amp * O. 2S ohm
• 'M voit (approx.)
To find the curren f f/oouing in the cir¬ /amp--
cuit, appiy Ohm's /our $ £• If 9 0.922 amp x /2/ ohms
//2 rods _ • /// 'fa vo/ts (approx.)
' 75is3Zn ' Conductor from /amp-
5 • 1/2. • 0 922 amp * 0.25 ohm
• V+ vo/t (approx.)
fart of the i/2 ro/ts is a sect up to
torce the Current through each of
the three resistances. 7he rc/fage Thus, in a. ser/es circuit,
drop across each part may he • TUB SAAf£ CUP25AJT HOW'S /A ALL PAPTS.
founct hy app/yiny Ohm's /aw fo • TP£ VOLTA05S ACPOSS 5ACN PAPT A00
each resisfance in turn : UP TO TH£ TOTAL /AfPP£SS£0 VOLTA Of.

cuit conductors. The voltage dropped drawn by the load devices connected
in the conductors is then subtracted in parallel. Or another way to cal¬
from the voltage applied to the cir¬ culate the circuit current is to reduce
cuit to obtain the voltage which is the resistances of the parallel load
actually impressed across the termi¬ devices to a single resistance value
nals of the lamp, motor or other load equivalent to the several.
device. Such consideration of voltage
drop is an important phase of any ac¬
Calculation of circuit conditions for
tual circuit calculation and will be
supplying a number of independent
considered fully later.
load devices is based upon two rules
Because circuits commonly supply
of load connections:
a number of lamps or a number of mo¬
tors or other power devices, it is im¬ 1. If two or more resistance load de¬
portant to be able to calculate the vices are connected in series, i.e., the
values of current, voltage and resist¬ load resistances are connected in series
ance for such operating conditions. with the resistance of the circuit con¬
In the common arrangement, load de¬ ductors, the effective load resistance
vices are rated for the circuit voltage is equal to the sum of the individual
— such as 120 volts — and are con¬ load resistances. And the total circuit
nected across the conductors in par¬ resistance is the sum of the effective
allel. Each load device is then sup¬ load resistance and the resistance of
plied with its rated voltage and draws the circuit conductors. A circuit in
current in proportion to the value of which resistances are connected in a
its resistance. The circuit current is single path of current flow, with cur¬
then equal to the sum of the currents rent flowing from one resistance to

8
the next as it makes its way from the needed to produce the current flow
positive terminal to the negative term¬ through each resistance. And the sum
inal of the voltage source, is known as of these voltage drops around the cir¬
a series circuit. cuit—E^IRj, E2=IR2, E3=IRg, etc.
—is equal to the voltage impressed at
2. If two or more resistances are con¬ the source of the circuit.
nected so that each resistance has the It should be noted that the current
full circuit voltage impressed across through a series circuit has the one
it, the resistances are said to be con¬ value determined by the impressed
nected in parallel. In such an arrange¬ voltage and the sum of the resistances.
ment, the effective resistance of all of It is the same at any point in the cir¬
the resistances considered as a single cuit. Voltages across individual re¬
resistance is equal to some value less sistances, on the other hand, vary
than the smallest of the resistances with the value of resistance and the
connected in parallel. amount of current flowing.
Of course, it must always be rem¬
Series Circuits embered that the voltage source it¬
As far as the connection of load de¬ self—whether it is a generator or a bat¬
vices is concerned, series circuits are tery, or the busbars in a switchboard
not generally used for modern light¬ or panelboard—has a definite amount
ing and power load connection. The of resistance, known as “internal” re¬
.theory of series circuit operation, how¬ sistance, which it adds to the series
ever, is essential to a full understand¬ resistances of the external circuit and
ing of what takes place in every branch which plays a part in limiting current
circuit, feeder and service supply. As flow. This latter characteristic re¬
mentioned previously, every circuit quires that a careful distinction be
finds the circuit wires themselves as made between the parts of any circuit,
resistances in series with the single or as follows:
combination load resistance.
In any strictly series circuit, the A. That part of the circuit
voltage at the source of the circuit is which is connected to the terminals
impressed across the sum of the re¬ of the source—to the generator term¬
sistances. As a result, the current inals or to the bus lugs in a panel-
that flows in the circuit can be deter¬ board—is generally referred to as the
mined from Ohm’s Law as follows: “external” circuit. The resistances of
the external circuit include the load
resistances and the resistances of con¬
necting wires from the source to the
load and between individual load re¬
sistances in a series circuit.
in which
B. That part of any circuit
I=current flowing through all of the
which is within the generator or bat¬
resistances
tery or that part which is between a
E = the circuit voltage
set of terminals used as a voltage
Ri, R2, R3, R4, etc. = the individual
source and the actual generator or
resistances making up the circuit.
other source providing the voltage at
the terminals can be thought of as
Then, applying one of the other the internal circuit. This internal cir¬
forms of Ohm’s Law to each resistance cuit contains the electromotive force,
—i.e., E 1R—we will get the amount or electron pressure, and the resistance
of the total circuit voltage which of its own current path. This internal
is dropped across each resistance, resistance reacts with current flowing
the amount of electron pressure through it to produce a certain volt-

9
age drop which substracts from the is connected by two wires, each with
voltage value of the electromotive a resistance of 1 ohm, to a load device
force. As a result, if the voltage across with a resistance of 57.5 ohms. What
the terminals of a generator or other is the circuit current? What is the
source is measured when the voltage terminal voltage of the generator?
source is not supplying current to a What is the voltage drop in the circuit
closed external circuit, the value of conductors? What is the voltage
voltage will be exactly equal to that across the load?
generated.
If, however, the voltage of the a. The current flowing through the
same source is measured when the series circuit is equal to the emf
source is supplying current to an ex¬ divided by the total resistance.
ternal circuit, the voltage will be _ 120 volts _ 120 volts
found to be somewhat lower than the ~ 0.5 + 1 + 1 + 57.5 ~ 60 ohms
open-circuit value. The difference in = 2 amps
the two measured values will be equal
to the product of the amperes of cur¬ b. Generator terminal voltage is equal
rent flowing times the value of the in¬ to the generated emf minus the voltage
ternal resistance of the source—ac¬ drop produced by the circuit current
cording to Ohm’s Law that E=IR. It and the internal resistance of the
should be noted that voltage sources generator.
produce electrical pressure, but cur¬ Terminal voltage = 120 — (2 amps X
rent flow through resistance always 0.5 ohms) =119 volts
produces a drop in pressure. That is,
it uses pressure and must therefore c. Voltage drop in the circuit con¬
be subtracted from the source value. ductors is equal to circuit current
Any voltage drop, then, in the in¬ times the total resistance of the con¬
ternal resistance of a source must ductors.
be subtracted from the value of gen¬ Voltage drop = 2amps X 2 ohms
erated electromotive force to deter¬ = 4 volts
mine the actual value of voltage avail¬
able at the terminals of the source to d. The voltage across the load is equal
produce current flow through the ex¬ to the generator terminal voltage mi¬
ternal circuit. nus the voltage drop in the circuit

A pplication of series-circuit
calculations takes many forms
conductors.
Load voltage = 119 volts — 4 volts
= 115 volts

in modern electrical practice. 2. Four lamps, each rated at the

Although utilization devices—lighting same resistance value, are series con¬
fixtures, motors, appliances—are gen¬ nected across a terminal voltage of
erally connected in parallel on branch 600 volts, producing a current flow
circuits, street lighting circuits are of 10 amps. What is the circuit resist¬
frequently connected with the lumi¬ ance? What is the resistance of each
naires or ballasts in series. Series lamp? What is the voltage across each
calculations are also standard parts lamp?
of engineering design of feeders and
of many motors and appliances. Some a. Circuit resistance is equal to the
typical examples of calculations are as terminal voltage divided by the circuit
follows: current.
„ 600 volts
R = rp:- = 60 ohms
1. A generator with an internal re¬ 10 amps
sistance of 0.5 ohm produces an
electromotive force of 120 volts and b. Since the four lamps are connected

10
PARALLEL CIRCUIT Cons/sts of coffee maker, to as far, a ref
frying pan p/ugged info kitchen app/iance circuit kfhat currentstviii
fiou/ in the portions of the circuit indicate of 6y the arrows in the
drawing ? t/eg/eef the vo/fage drop in the conductors.

COFFEE MAKER TOASTER PRYING PAN

(l4.4 OHMS) ( 14-.4- OHMS) (rz.5 OHM S)

TUE FIRST STEP is to draw a

simpfe schematic diagram to
represent the circuit. Since we
CURRENT
are neg/ecting the conductor
E
vo/tage drop, there is a /20-
tfoit potential across each ap¬
p/iance. ^ —
CURRENT A CURRENT &

tie may appiy Ohm's taw //? turn life may a iso find current A by de¬
to each app/iance ■ ter mining /?(>#, the effective (or
epuivaient) resistance•
VOLTS
CURRENT =
OHMS _j_J_ + _L _L
1*20 VOLTS Ppff P2 P3
C « /4.4- OHMS
Q. 33 AMPERES
_ J— +. _L_ 4. _L
~ H4 /«-.♦ 12.5
D s C = 8-33 AMPERES
= 069++.0G94-+.06
I 20 VOLTS = .Z188
E = J2.5 OHMS
9.6 AMPERES
OHMS
*<ePf=.2l88 "
9.6 AMPERES
120 VOLTS
, A " 4.57 OHMS
26.26 AMPERES

W f

cuit current, is eguai to the sum

of the currents in each of the
para ifei branches Obviously, breakers or fuser ur/ii
open the norma/ 20- ampere cir¬
A = C ♦ D + E
cuit arith such a toad This em-
A - 8.33 *6.33 + 9,6 phas/jes the desirab/iity of
having two 20-amp kitchen
A = 26.26 AMPERES
app/iance circuits.

11
in series and all have the same resist¬ by the individual resistances. The cur¬
ance, the resistance of each is equal rent divides among the parallel paths
to the total resistance divided by the presented by the resistances, with the
number of lamps. current through any path conforming
60 ohms ._ , to I=E/R. The load with the lowest
R = --- = 15 ohms
4 resistance value will draw the highest
current and that with the highest
c. The voltage across each lamp is resistance value will draw the lowest
equal to the resistance of the lamp current. Intermediate values of resist¬
times the current flowing. ance will draw intermediate values of
Lamp voltage = 15 X 10 = 150 volts. current. If, for instance, three load
devices are connected in parallel on
a 120-volt circuit, with the resistance
values being 2, 4 and 6 ohms, the
Parallel Circuits 2-ohm device will draw 120/2 or 60
As stated previously, the most amps, the 4-ohm device will draw
common connection for light and 120/4 or 30 amps and the 6-ohm
power utilization devices connected to device will draw 120/6 or 20 amps.
branch circuits in modern electrical The total current drawn by the circuit
systems is the parallel connection. In conductors which supply the three
such a circuit connection, all of the devices is equal to 60+304-20 or 110
load resistances are connected between amps.
the conductors which connect the
load to the source of emf. As a Another way of evaluating a paral¬
result, the voltage across any one load lel circuit involves reducing the group
resistance is essentially the same as of parallel-connected resistances to a
that across any other load resistance. single equivalent resistance which
would draw current equal to the sum
The voltage across all of the resist¬ of currents flowing through the indi¬
ances is exactly the same if all of the vidual resistances of the actual circuit
resistances are connected to the same under study. The effective resistance of
points on the circuit conductors tieing a group of resistances connected in
back to the emf source. Such con¬ parallel will always have an ohmic
nection, however, is not generally value less than that of the smallest re¬
achieved in typical circuit hookups. In sistance of the group. For any parallel
the usual arrangement some of the group of resistances, the actual value
load resistances are further away from of effective resistance can be readily
the switch or panelboard terminals found from the following formula:
than are others of the load resist¬
ances. There is, then, a very slight 1 1.1.1
difference in voltage from one resist¬ Reff. ~ Ri+ R, + Ra etc-
ance to any other due to voltage drop
in the conductors of the circuit. The where Reff. = the effective resistance
of the group, and Ri, Rs, R3. etc.
basic theoretical point, however, is
= the individual resistances
that voltage across all of the resist¬
ances is the same in parallel hookup.
Example: Three resistances—10 ohms,
This can be thought of as comparing
20 ohms and 40 ohms are connected
to the fact that current through all
in parallel. What is the equivalent
of the resistances is the same in series
single resistance value of this group?
hookup.
1 _ 1 1 1 _ 4 +2 + 1 _ 7
With the same voltage across all of
Reff. 10 20 ^ 40 40 40
the load resistances, the total current
drawn by the circuit is equal to the
Reff. = -y — 5.71 ohms
sum of the individual currents drawn

12
Example: Four resistances — each the resistances divided by the number
rated 20 ohms—are connected in par¬ of resistances connected in parallel.
allel. What is the effective resistance
of this group? In the first example above, if the
group of resistances were connected
—-— = -L_j_J--p_A__pJ_=A across a circuit voltage of 120 volts,
Reff. 20 ' 20 ' 20 ' 20 20
the current flowing through the circuit
conductors would be E/R or 120/5.71,
Reff. = = 5 ohms which is 21 amps. The current flow¬
4
ing through each of the individual
From the latter example, it can be seen resistances would be: 120/10 ohms
that when a number of parallel resist¬ or 12 amps; 120/20 ohms or 6
ances have the same ohmic value, the amps; and 120/40 ohms or 3 amps.
effective resistance of the group is The total of the three currents is, of
equal to the ohmic value of one of course, also 21 amps.

13
 Circuit Studies
A LTHOUGH circuits are divided
into two basic categories—series
is traced further back toward the
generator or other source of supply,
and parallel—based on operating it will be found that there is a con¬
characteristics, analysis and applica¬ tinuing succession of series and paral¬
tion of modern circuits for power, lel elements associated with each
light, heat, signals and communica¬ other.
tions almost always involves both
series and parallel considerations. A diagram of almost any electric
supply system shows a tree-like de¬
Take the simple case of a kitchen velopment of series and parallel cir¬
appliance circuit which supplies, say, cuits, with the generator as the trunk
a coffee maker, a toaster and an elec¬ of the radial branches and sub¬
tric frying pan. The appliances are branches. The generator produces the
connected by cord and plug to re¬ voltage which causes current flow
ceptacle outlets. In each appliance, through the entire system. It also sup¬
the heating elements may be con¬ plies the total amount of current re¬
nected in parallel. But this parallel quired by all of the load devices—
load is actually in series with the re¬ lamps, motors, etc.—connected at the
sistance of the conductors in the extremities of the system.
power cord. Thus the circuit to each
appliance from the wall outlet is a In flowing through the system, this
combination series-parallel circuit. total current is subdivided among
various parallel circuits. And as any
Then consider the branch circuit current flows to any part of the system,
from the panelboard to the wall out¬ there is a voltage drop in accordance
lets. The three appliances—each a se¬ with the series formula E=IR. The
ries-parallel circuit, as we have seen voltage is, therefore, maximum at the
—are connected in parallel across the generator and is successively reduced
branch circuit conductors. But again, from point to point as current flows
we have the resistance of the branch to the loads.
circuit conductors connected in series
with the parallel load of three ap¬ Calculation of voltage, current and
pliances. And if the electrical system resistance values in series-parallel cir-

14
cuits is a simple matter of correlating
separate series and parallel calcula¬ DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
tion in accordance with the basic are free-/*be comb/nafons of
relationships for each type of circuit. ser/e5-paraZ/e/ c/rcu/fs.
With given circuit voltage and given
resistance values, the first step in cal¬
MOTORS LIGHTS
culating currents is to determine the
effective resistance of each parallel
group of resistances and then treat
the circuit as a purely series circuit.
Take, for instance, the simple case
of a 4-ohm resistance connected in
series with two parallel resistances of
2 ohms each, with the combination
circuit supplied from a 120-volt
source:

Considering the two 2-ohm resist¬

ances in parallel, we know that when
a number of parallel resistances have
the same ohmic value, the effective
resistance of the group is equal to
the ohmic value of one of the re¬
sistances divided by the number of SIDEWALK HEATING CABLE
resistances connected in parallel. is a firacf/ca/ eyamp/e of a ser/es-
From this, the effective resistance of para//e/ c/rru/f •
the two 2-ohm resistances in parallel JUNCTION BOX

is 1 ohm, and this is connected in

240
series with the 4-ohm resistance VOLTS
IOO-FT LOOP
J
across the 120 volts. CABLE RESISTANCE:
.02 OWM PER PT.

Dividing the 120 by the total of 5 IOO- FT LOOP

D
ohms resistance (1 ohm plus 4 ohms), <f ac/y /oop may be cons/e/ereef bo be /OO
we get a current of 24 amps flowing . OZ- obm res/stances bn ser/es ; fu/o
from the source and through the /oops -fee/ from a sbr?g/e junefoo boy
series-parallel combination of resist¬ Ore Jr? para//e/.
ances. This 24 amps flows through
the 4-ohm resistance and through the TOTAL RESISTANCE OF EACH LOOP-

parallel group of 2-ohm resistances. loo X .02 =2 OHM S

Since the two parallel resistances EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF TWO
have the same value, the current will LOOPS IN PARALLEL :

divide equally in flowing through the 2 OHMS

--- - I OHM
two paths. A current of 12 amps will
flow through each of the parallel re¬ Total current:
sistances. Note that the current is 24 24Q_yOLTS X 24o AMPS

amps up to the parallel group, be¬ I OHM

comes 12 amp through each resist¬ CURRENT in EACH LOOP:

ance and then becomes a single 240 AMPS
= 120 AMPS
current of 24 amps where it flows
from the two parallel resistances to
VOLTAGE drop in each LOOP
return to the voltage source. 240 VOLTS
= 2.4 VOLTS PER pj
loo PEET
Considering the above example
further, the current flow of 24 amps

15
 is to subtract the 96 volts (4x24)
PgQ6LEM: from 120 volts, indicating that 24
find iota/ current fa fen 6y series- volts are impressed across the paral¬
parai/ei circuit shown; current lel resistances. Then dividing this 24
through each resistance, uo/tage volts by the 2-ohm value of each
across each resistance. resistance, we get 12 amps as the
4 0MMS
current flowing through each of the
-1-wv parallel resistances. This, of course, is
a check on the previous calculation.
I20 VOLTS
In such problems, the basic formulas
of Ohm’s Law provide for double
checking to minimize the chance of
SOLUTION: error.
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF TWO 2 -OHM
RESISTANCES : Although the foregoing was a sim¬
2 OHMS
--- = I OHM ple matter of arithmetic calculating,
2
the most complex circuits, can be re¬
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
duced to similar step-by-step analysis
and calculation based on the funda¬
AW
4 OHMS mental relationships—
120 VOLTS I OHM

E
l= r- e=ir, r-_ l.
TOTAL RESISTANCE OF RESULTING
SERIES CIRCUIT:

4 + I - 5 OHMS
The procedure for solving series-
parallel circuit configurations can be
TOTAL CURRENT:
applied to all or any part of an elec¬
120 VOLTS
= 24 AMPS trical system. In our present-day
5 OHMS
power and light systems, the feeder
total current divides through
AND
and branch circuit conductors are
considered to be series resistances. So
^ = 12 AMPS EACH
also are tap conductors which supply
VOLTAGE ACROSS R, : individual load devices, such as taps
4 OHMS X 24 AMPS = 96 VOLTS to lighting fixtures. Load devices—
lights, motors, etc.—are generally
VOLTAGE ACROSS Zz AND :

2 OHMS * 12 AMPS - 24 VOLTS

connected in parallel with each other.
However, at any panelboard, the
THESE TWO VOLTAGES ARE INI SERIES
branch circuits or feeders are con¬
TOTAL VOLTAGE DROP =■
nected in parallel on the busbars. At
■56 + 24 = 120 VOLTS
switchboards, the outgoing circuits
=■ IMPRESSED VOLTAGE
are connected in parallel with each
other.

through the 4-ohm resistance pro¬ And the feeder to a panelboard or

duces a voltage drop of 4x24 (from the service conductors to a switch¬
E=IR) or 96 volts. The current flow board are resistance values connected
of 24 amps through the 1-ohm effec¬ in series with the effective resistance
tive resistance of the parallel 2-ohm of the parallel load circuits. For any
resistances produces a drop of 1x24 voltage level, either the terminal volt¬
or 24 volts, which, added to the age of the utility’s service or the sec¬
previous 96 volts, accounts for the ondary terminal voltage of a trans¬
120-volt pressure of the source. former that is used to step from one
Still another evaluation which can voltage level to another, the same
be placed on the foregoing problem approach is used.

16
 Power and Work
C haracteristics and applica¬
tion of electrical circuits have, so
Work is said to be done when a
force acts through a distance. Force
far, been described in terms of volt¬ is understood to be a push or pull
age, resistance and current. These ele¬ which changes the condition of motion
ments of electricity are, of course, im¬ or changes the shape of a body and is
portant and essential to effective use of measured in standard units called
electrical systems. They are, however, pounds. It takes force to move a body
strictly speaking, only incidental to that is at rest, to change the velocity
the primary purpose of any electrical of a moving body, to stop or change
circuit. The function of an electric cir¬ the direction of a moving body, or to
cuit is to provide power to do work. deform—stretch or compress—a body.
Electrical systems, whether a simple Lifting a 200 pound weight 10 feet
battery operating a bell or a vast is work rated at 2,000 foot-pounds.
multi - voltage - level industrial lay¬ Or if an object were pushed along the
out feeding numerous power and light floor with an average force of 20
loads, exist only to do work—to ring pounds for a distance of 100 feet,
a bell; to make lamps give off light; 2,000 foot-pounds of work would be
to make motors rotate with enough done.
power to drive conveyors, pumps, It is important to note that time is
fans, hoists and other mechanical not a consideration in evaluating work.
loads; to make heating elements give In the two cases cited in the previous
off heat. The accomplishment of these paragraph, the lifting of the 200
tasks does involve extensive consider¬ pound weight through 10 feet might
ation of voltage, resistance and cur¬ have been done in, sav, 5 seconds,
rent; but the ultimate considerations whereas the pushing of the object by
are always of power and work. A clear a 20 pound force over 100 feet might
understanding of the words “power”, have taken a full minute. The work
“work” and “energy” and their re¬ is the same in both cases, 2,000 foot¬
lationship to each other and to voltage pounds. However, in the first case, the
resistance and current is essential to the work is being done faster. And the
effective application of circuits. time-rate of doing work—how fast or

17
 LIFTING WEIGHT /s an examp/e of do/nq ti/OPK.
USork c/one /n //fhnq 50 /bs 2 ff /s
50 x 2 - /OO f/-/5s.

// /h/s a/or A /s c/one /n 5 seconds, f/?e

POWER /n aoJ/ed /s
50 LBS
122. » 20 f/-/Bs per second.
5
Pou/er /s descr/ Bed as H>e rafe of do/ny
u/orA.
Thus // wou/d faAe more pou/er fo //f/ fhe,
u/e/yh^ /n 2 seconds •
2 FT
22 Q = 50 Pf/6s per sec.
2

how slow a given amount of work is has to come from a source of energy.
done—is defined as “power”. A source of energy is required, say, to
lift a weight to a certain height. The
lifting is an expenditure of energy
Power is a measure of the rate at
which is work. And as a result of the
which work is done. A 220-pound man
running up a 20-foot high flight of lifting, the body lifted has been given
stairs in 10 seconds applies a lot more potential energy equal to the work
power than another man of the same done. It can be seen that work con¬
weight who does the same amount of sists in taking energy from one body
work in going up the same stairs in and giving it to another body. Energy
50 seconds. Mechanical power is mea¬ itself cannot be destroyed. It exists in
sured in units called “horsepower”. various forms—heat, light, mechanic¬
One horsepower is equal to a work al, electrical, chemical—and can be
rate of 550 foot pounds per second. converted from one form to another.
In the case of the two men running But the term “energy” should be dif¬
upstairs the first man did 220x20 or ferentiated from the term “work”
4,400 foot-pounds of work in 10 sec¬ which is the expenditure of energy.
onds, which is 440 foot-pounds per Translating the foregoing physical
second or 44/55 horsepower. The sec¬ concepts to conditions encountered in
ond man did the same 4,400 foot¬ electrical circuits, we get the following:
pounds of work in 50 seconds, which
is 88 foot-pounds per second or 88/- Watt and kilowatt are the two terms
550 horsepower. The difference in commonly used to designate electrical
power applied accounts for the time power. A watt is a measure of the
difference in doing the same work. time-rate at which electrical energy is
expended, a measure of the rate of
electrical work. A kilowatt is simply
Energy is the ability to do work and is 1,000 watts. When speaking of “elec¬
measured in the same units as work, trical power” then, we refer to the
foot-pounds. Energy is stored in a body watts or kilowatts of the load or cir¬
and is expended when that body does cuit. A 1,000-watt lamp uses electrical
work. In our previous discussion of energy 10 times as fast as a 100-watt
work, the force applied to do work lamp. A 20-kw generator has more

18
power than a 10-kw generator, i.e., it under a pressure of one volt. In elec¬
provides a higher ability to do work trical dc circuits this is expressed as a
over any period of time. basic power equation:
Although electrical lighting and
heating devices are commonly rated P —E X I
in watts and circuits, systems and where, P = power in watts
electrical energy sources are also
rated in watts, electric motors are E = Voltage across load
correlated to the mechanical loads I — Current through load
they drive and are rated in output
horsepower. One horsepower is equiv¬ For example, if there is.a current
alent to 746 watts or approximately flow of 0.833 amps through a lamp
34 of a kilowatt. when 120 volts is impressed across it,
On a purely electrical basis, 1 watt the electrical power of the lamp is—
is the rate of energy expenditure when
a steady current of one ampere flows p = 0.833 X 120 = 100 watts.

ENERGY / s the ah///by to Po work. 4 Ar e/ecfrtc u/aber heater /s

rabec/ 3 ktv, 240 vo/bs. What
Th/s /amp hu/6 /s rabeP
pou/er Poes /b reyu/re oper-
/OO uratts. /bs poorer
ah/rjq at /20 iro/bs ?
Cor sumpt/or? /s /OO uratts.
/t /b operates tor 20 hcs\ VOLTS7 240x240
OHMS - 132
WATTS 3000
bb>e energy e/pencbec/ /s
/OO *20 »2000 u/abf- hoars Operating at /20 uo/bs; the re¬
or 2 k/'/ou/ait- hours. sistance /s sb/bb /9-2 ohms
VOLTS2
l7°* >2Q- 750WATTS
power *
OHMS 19.2 .

Thus, on /y '/a the rated pow¬

EXAMPLES'- er /s re get/reef to operate

the heater at '/z rateP
/ U/hab /s the res/shance of a. 60- iro/taye.
u/ahtj /20- uo/b /amp hct/P f
VOLTS2 (20 x. 120 _ 14- 400
OWM s * WATTS fco <oO

a 240 OHMS
POWER AND ENERGY
2 U/hab curren/ Pours through th/s RELATIONS! P$
/amp 7
watts 60 WATTS = VOLTS X. AMPS
AMPS 0.5 AMP
VOLTS 12.0
WATTS = AMPS2 X OMMS
VOLTS2
3. A /ooo-u/att co/fee-maker oper- WATTS =
OMMS
abes Tor 3 hours each a/ay. //our
much energy /s expenPePper u/eek ? 1 HORSEPOWER = 550 FT-LB/SEC.
1 HORSEPOWER. * 746 WATTS
KWHRS = KW K HOOKS
I HORSEPOWER « 0.746 KW
= i x 3 a 7

m 21 KWUKS
1 KILOWATT' 34 HORSEPOWER

19
INASMUCH as the basic equation
for determining the power of elec¬
how fast or how slow a load will ex¬
pend electrical energy or, which is the
trical loads—P=E x I involves the same thing, do work. Electrical work,
voltage and current associated with then, is expressed in units which rep¬
the load, the equation can be written resent the product of electrical power
other ways by substituting equivalents and time. The basic unit of work or
for voltage and current from the energy expenditure is the watthour. A
equations of Ohm’s Law: watthour is simply the energy expend¬
ed when power of one watt is applied
P = Ex I for one hour. A kilowatt-hour is 1,000
but, E='I x R watthours.
therefore, P = IxRxl=I2R
Example: If an electric light bulb is
If we have a load of 10 ohms re¬ doing work at the rate of 100 watts
sistance with a current of 4 amps (or, as it would more commonly be
flowing through it, the power of the expressed, if the bulb is rated at 100
load is watts) and operates for 20 hours, the
P = 42 x 10 = 160 watts.
work done or the energy expended
Or by substituting for I in the basic would be:
equation in accordance with Ohm’s Energy=100 watts x 20 hours =
Law that I=E/R, we get 2,000 watthours or 2 kilowatthours.
P = E x E/R = E2
~R Although the concepts of electric
power and energy are applied prima¬
Then if we had a load of 20 ohms rily to load devices—lights, heaters,
resistance with 120 volts impressed motors—to determine desired utiliza¬
across it, the power of the load would tion, there are undersirable, though
be inevitable, power and energy losses
P = 1202 = 720 watts in electrical systems. As we saw pre¬
"20 viously, current flow over conductors
Although the basic power equation is produces an unavoidable drop in volt¬
stated as P = E x I, to determine the age from the source to the load. Sim¬
power when voltage and current are ilarly, as long as the current flows to
known, it can be rearranged to yield the load there are power losses pro¬
any of the three quantities when the portional to the volts dropped in the
other two are known. conductors and the current flowing.
And for any period of time over which
Example: What is the voltage across power is applied, there is an expendi¬
a resistance heating element rated at ture of energy or an energy loss equal
1,200 watts through which 10 amps to the product of the power loss and
are flowing? the time involved. Both of these losses
E = P/I = 1,200 watts/lOamps are inevitable in every system, but
= 120 volts. care in design is usually taken to min¬
imize such losses. These losses not
Example: What is the current flowing only cost money due to the charge for
through a load rated at 2,400 watts watthours expended in the conductors,
with 120 volts impressed across its but the electrical energy is expended
terminals? by conversion to heat which can have
I = P/E = 2,400 watts/120 volts = deleterious effects on the insulation of
20 amps. the conductors.

Electric Energy Basic Meters

As we have seen, power is the time In practice, application of forego¬
rate of doing work. Power rating tells ing theory to circuits and equipment

20
 METER CONNECTIONS
The 1/OC.TAtETEP has two fermlna/s, ts co/i/ieej¬
ect by two conductors dlrect/y across toad Jo
measure the vo/tage, or potent/a/ at/fference,
across 1/re toact. t/7 ate c/rcu/ts, as shown, the
post Jive lerm/nat of JJre meter must be con¬
nected Jo the posit/ve s/de of the toact. tn
ac circuits, either Term/not o/ an ac vott-
meter may be connecteat Jo either side of
the toact.

The PMMETEt? has two Terminals,

Is connectect />7 series u/ltb the
toaat Jo measure the current f/ow-
LOAD
lng In the Circuit The CL4ATP- Oil
dMATETEP has hinged Jaws which
are st/ppect over conductors Alo
phys/'catconnection Is required.

The WATTMETE& combines functions

CURRENT
TERMINALS
of ammeter and vottmeter to give
a reading dlrect/y In u/atts. tt has
two current termlnats, oonneefed
In series with toad, and two volt¬
VOLTAGE
terminals age termlna/s, connected across the
toad-

LINE
The hlhTTUOUP MPTPP (or hi to wafthour meter), //he the
3- \AJ IRE
wattmeter, has both vo/tape and current terminals, SINGLE- PHASE
KILOWATT-HR
f rotat/np dish, or armature, operates Ind/catlnp METER
(t/a/s or a counter to show the totatenergy consumed, SOCKET

tt Is norma tty connected through a meter sochet

NEUTRAL
at the serv/ce entrance tocat/on.
LOAD

found in any electrical system depends when properly applied. A voltmeter

upon some means of measuring un¬ must always be connected across in
known conditions and correlating the parallel with the load device, the cir¬
data obtained. A basic group of in¬ cuit or circuit element across which
struments provide for ready and ac¬ the difference in electrical potential is
curate measurements of electrical to be determined. Proper connections
conditions. These are: in dc circuits call for the positive ter¬
minal of the meter to be connected to
Voltmeter—This is a device construct¬ the high-potential side. Care must also
ed and calibrated to provide directly- be taken to use a meter with a range
read indication of value of voltage (as indicated on its scale) suitable for

21
the task. Greater accuracy is possible the terminals are for connection in
by using a meter range just above the series with the load and supply the
value of voltage being measured. ammeter section of the instrument.
The other two terminals are for the
Ammeter—This is another direct-read¬ voltmeter section and are connected
ing instrument, designed to measure across the load.
amperes of current flow. A conven¬
tional ammeter must be connected in Watthour meter—This direct-reading
series with the load device or circuit meter is used to measure .amount of
element through which current flow electrical energy expended, the
is to be measured. In the proper con¬ amount of electrical work done. The
nection, all the current flowing through meter that the power company uses to
the device under test also flows determine how much energy the
through the ammeter. Another type of owner or tenant must pay for is a
ammeter, the clamp-on ammeter, is watthour meter. As you might guess,
magnetically connected to the circuit its internal mechanism correlates the
under measurement. power requirements of the loads being
served and the time for which the
Wattmeter—This direct-reading in¬ power is applied. The product of
strument which measures power or the watthours is indicated on a system of
rate of energy expenditure is actually calibrated dials on the face of the
a combination of ammeter and volt¬ meter.
meter, measuring volts and amps and
indicating their product, which is Although there are many other types
watts. The basic wattmeter has four of meters used in today’s electrical
terminals for connection into the cir¬ systems, the foregoing are for both dc
cuit which is to be measured. Two of and ac measurement.

22
 Electric Conductors
G ENERATION, transmission and
utilization of electric energy de¬
bility to electrical purposes are con¬
sidered. For instance, only silver has
pend upon the use of conduc¬ a higher conductivity than copper, but
tors to accomplish flow of current. its high cost limits its use to special
The basic electric conductor is the applications—such as switch contacts
wire. According to standard defini¬ or fuse elements—where it offers spe¬
tions, a wire is a single, solid length cial advantage.
of drawn metal. However, modern
usage of the word “wire” includes both Second to copper as a common
single, solid lengths of metal and sin¬ conductor material is aluminum,
gle assemblies of a number of solid which offers light weight and low
lengths of metal twisted or braided cost as advantages to offset its some¬
together. Thus, we have the terms what lower conductivity than copper.
“solid wire” and “stranded wire.” Through recent years, use of alumi¬
num wire and cable has grown rap¬
Particularly in the larger sizes of idly. Other, lesser used conductive
conductors, a single insulated or un¬ materials include: zinc, nickel, mer¬
insulated stranded wire may be called cury, iron, tungsten and even gold.
a cable. However, the word cable is Just as water pipe is designated
most accurately descriptive when used according to its diameter, thereby in¬
to indicate an assembly of two or dicating its ability to conduct quantity
more individually insulated wires of water, so electric wires may be
which are twisted together, either designated according to their diam¬
with or without a covering over the eters, as indication of ability to carry
assembly. current. But because wires have such
small diameters, it is more convenient
As discussed previously, copper is to express the diameters in thousandths
the most common material used for of an inch. And, further, to avoid the
electric conductors. Of all of the con¬ use of decimal points and to make
ductive materials available, copper reference to these diameters a simple
represents the most practical choice matter, diameters of wires are given
when such factors as conductivity, in “mils”—thousandths of an inch.
cost, strength and general adapta¬ One mil is 1/1000 of an inch or

23
 CONDUCTOR AREA*? The C//?CC/Ch£ M/C area aT a coa-
SIZ.E AREA aZucZar /s eouaZ -/-a The c/ZatneTer
(awg) (CIRCULAR mils) (/rf m/Zs) SfleareaZ.-
18 l,«2 4 CM = pC2
te 2,5 83
14 4.1 or 7he M/C area aTa corr-
12 6.3 30
c/acTor Zs eauaZ Zo 3./era T/crres
10 1 0,3 80
The raZZas ("? /nZZs) SfaarerZ
8 1 6,5 IO
6 26,2 50 SQ M/L $ - 3. /Z/C Zl2
4- 4- l,T40
3 5 2,640
I MIL s .OOI INCH MILS » INCHES X IOOO
2 6 6,370
I INCH a IOOO MILS INCHES s MILS X -OOI
l 8 3,690
1/0 1 O 5,500 I CM * .7854 SQ MIL CM = SO MILS X 1.2732
2/0 1 3 3, IOO I $<3 MIL. * 1.2732 CM SQMILS » C Tvl x .78*54
3/o 1 6 7, 800
SQ MILS
4/0 2 1 1,600 $R IN • SR MILS - SQ IN X 1,000,000
1,000,000

0.001 inch. There are a thousand tioned above is equal to the square
mils to an inch. Thus a wire which of the diameter in mils—80.8 x 80.8
has a diameter of, say, V2 inch has a or 6530 circular mils.
diameter of 500 mils. A No. 12 wire
has a diameter of 80.8 mils. Although wires are designated ac¬
cording to mils of diameter and cir¬
A better indication of a wire’s cur¬ cular mils of cross-section area, and
rent-carrying capacity is its cross-sec¬ such data is commonly used in circuit
tion area. And inasmuch as diameters calculations, the most common refer¬
are expressed in mils, areas are sim¬ ence for many sizes of wire is made
ilarly expressed. The area of an elec¬ according to the size designations of
tric wire is generally given in units the standard wire gages. Electric wires
known as “circular mils.” A circular are generally drawn to diameter sizes
mil is the area of a circle having a which correspond to the American
diameter of one mil. Wire Gage (abbreviated AWG or
A.W.G.), which is also called the
The cross-section area of any wire Brown and Sharpe (B. & S.) wire
in circular mils is equal to the square gage.
of the wire diameter in mils. For
instance, the circular-mil cross-section According to this gage, each size
area of the No. 12 conductor men¬ of wire is given a number ranging

RESISTIVITY OF TYPICAL METALS DIAMETER. OF SOLID CONDUCTOR IM

(ohms PER circular-mil-ft AT 20°c)
MILS = V AREA, IN CIRCULAR MILS

SILVER 8.9 (Th/f Obe* roT app/y Zo sTrarro/ecZ cor-

COPPER (ANNEALED) 10.37 c/ucTors (a/o. 6 a/JcZ Zo/ye^-), s/rce The
COLD 14. 7 area, Zr cat Zs The area oZ The
ALUMINUM 1 7 copper /or p/cs/rr /actrrz) or/y, roT The
TUNGSTEN 33 orera/Z area oZ The aora'acTor.)
GRASS (ANNEALED) 42
N ICKEL 4-7
PLATINUM 60. -2 RESISTIVITY X LENGTH IN FT
RESISTANCE *■ -
CON STANTAN 255 AO.EA IN CM
N 1 C H ROM Er 602.

24
 EXAMPLES •• 3. h/ha/ Ss /he cross- see A/0/7 area of
a Acts Aar efcc/ea/em/ /m area To
/ iYha/ /s /he a/Zame/er of a A/o. /o a. SGOAfCAf coac/uc/or f
Coo c/ctc/or ?
AREAi 500,000 CM
MO. to AREA r 10,380 CM
500,000 X .78S4- = 393,000 SO) MILS
OIA. = V^IO, 38<3 e 10 2. MIL.5
353,000
O. 39 3 SOlf4.
* O. 102 I M.
l.ooo.ooo
2. WA?a A /s /he sf/h. area of a
A/o. & coao/uc/or ? (t/ofe 7he A/a//on a/ f/ec/r/ca/ Cot/e 9/yes
/he area as 0.S20 Sf/n. Th/s /'s 00/
MO. 8 AR.EA = 16, 510 CM /he area of /he copper or a/am/na/rr,
Act/ /he area of a c/re/e etc/Ah a
16,5*0 x 0.7854* i3,ooo SQ mils
<//ame/er eoua/ /o /he 01/era//a/ame/er
I 3,000 of /he s/rAnc/ecZ AAoa/cm cortcZac/or.)
.013 so IN.
1,000,000
4. A/oay much curren/ u/ou/c/ f/ouz /'/? /he c/rcu/Z
shoot/n a/ r/ah/ // /he conc/uc/ors u/ere (a)
copper, (6) Brass, (c) ///chrome /

(a) CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE * <0^.* 200 * 0.31© OHM

4530
(2o
VOLTS
COM DOCTORS
!
IO
OHMS

TOTAL RESISTANCE - o. 3*8 IO “ lo. 3lftOHM

vouTS i *20 IOO FT-*~
current M. G am PS
OHMS 10.318

(A) CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE (c) CONTACTOR RESISTANCE

- I. Z3 ON M S = IS. 4- OMMS

TOTAL RESISTANCE total resistance

=• I (. 2S OWMS •* 28.4 OHMS
CURRENT - KS.OS AMPS current = -4. 23 A.IUIPS

from No. 40 the smallest size, up loss in the wire or it may be limited
through No. 1, No. 0 (read as “one by the voltage drop in the wire.
naught”) No. 00 or 2/0 (“two
naught”), No. 000 or 3/0 (“three As described previously, electron
naught”) and, the largest gage size, flow through conductive materials de¬
No. 0000 or 4/0 (“four naught”). pends upon the relative “looseness”
Wire sizes larger than No. 4/0 are of the atomic structure of the ma¬
designated according to their circular terial. When the structure is very loose
mil size, e.g., 500,000 circular mils. so that there is very low obstruction
And in these larger sizes, the letters to current flow, the material is said
“MCM” are used to abbreviate thou¬ to have “low resistivity” or, describ¬
sand circular mils, so that 500,000 ing the reciprocal “high conductivity.”
circular mils becomes 500MCM.
If the structure is relatively tight,
It should be noted that in the gage the material has “high resistivity” or
sizes the higher numbers are the small¬ “low conductivity.” For any conduc¬
er wires. Thus No. 12 is a smaller tor, the resistance—in ohms—of a
wire than, say, No. 4 and No. 1 is given length depends upon the resistiv¬
smaller than No. 1/0. And, of ity of the material, the length of the
course, the ability of conductors to wire and the cross-section area of
carry current increases with increase the wire in accordance with the for¬
in size. Such current ratings for wires mula—
may be based on the capability of the L
insulation on the wire to withstand R — P —

the heat developed by the I2R energy A

25
VOLTAGE PROF DC RESISTANCE OF
BARE (UNTINNED)
PANELBOAvBD DC MOTOR
COPPER CONDUCTORS
2-CONDUCTOR ©R. ANCH CIRCUIT
-5 HP
22© T£MP = APPIROX. 77F 230 V. OHMS / 1000 FT
vo UTS AWG
20 AMPS AT IS C (77 Fj
FULL LOAD
750 FT.
14- 7 SIS
1 2 1 . € 19
10 /. oi8
PROBLEM : 8 • 64-1
Speed and fondue refu/remen /s demand that the term- 6 . 410
/na/ re>/haye of Me motor shou/n be not /ess Man 223 4 . 2G9
vo/fa at ratedcurrent: df/Z/ty uo/taye uar/at/ons pro¬ 3 . 203
duce a m/h/mum of 228 uo/ts at Me pane/. What 2 . 162
S/ye branch c/rcu/t conductors are reyu/redt 1 . IZ9
0 . 102
SOLUTION! ••
00 . 0811
7he A/af/ona/ C/ectr/ca/ Code, Cec. 430-22, reyu/res Mat
000 .064-2
branch c/rcu/t conductors supp/y/ny a s/ny/e motor hare,
0000 .0TO9
a carry/ny capac/ty not /ess than? /25do of the
motor fu//-/oadcurrent rat/ny-

1.25 x “20 AMPS - 25 AMPS.

Th/s ca/ts tor a d/o conductor

where, R = the resistance of the con¬
ductor in ohms. L = the length of the
Max/a?um a/ton/abte ro/fa ye drop wire, A = the area of the wire cross
= 228- 223 * 5 VOt_TS
section and p (the Greek letter “r”,
from tab fa; res /'stance of ^/O u//re
pronounced row) = the resistivity.
- oig omm/iooo ft.
The unit of resistivity is often ex¬
’ :eo9 OHM FOR 500 FT.
pressed in ohms per circular-mil-foot.
/o/Zaye drop - 0.509 OHM x 20 AMPS This is the resistance of a wire of the
= !0. Ig VOLTS. given material which is one circular
mil in cross section and one foot long.
7~h/s /s more than tu/Zce the a/tou/-
ab/e ro/taye drop; therefore the con¬ Resistivities of various metals are
ductor res/stance /s tar/cc as h/yh shown in the table on the opposite
as perm/ss/hte. page. Example: Find the resistance of
from tab/e, dp a//re has a res/st¬
a 100-foot length of copper wire with
ance of C. 4/0 ohm //COO ft or . 205 a diameter of 5 mils at 20° C.
obm for 500 ft.
The resistivity of copper in this
case is 10.37 ohms per circular-mil-
fo/raye drop = .205 ohm x 20 amrs foot. The cross-section area is (5)2
= 4.10 volts. or 25 circular mils. The total resist¬
ferm/nat vo/taye - 2 28 -4.10
ance, then, is—
= 223.9 volts. R = 10.37 x 100 feet/25 circular
mils or 41.48 ohms
5/nee th/s exceeds the m/n/mum re The example illustrates that resist¬
yu/remen/ of 223 ro/ts■, dp con¬
ance increases with length of the
ductors may be used-
wire but decreases with increase of
wire cross section.

26
IN ALL phases of electrical practice,
reference to the characteristics of
and 1/10 of the resistance of the
No. 10.
electrical conductors is continually
made and calculations based on such 5. The ratio of 1.26 between succes¬
characteristics are common. sive cross-section areas may also be
For this feason, there are some applied to successive resistance values,
basic relationships among the various observing that resistance decreases
gage sizes of wires which should be with increase in cross-section area.
known: For example, just as the cross-section
area of a No. 3 conductor is 1.26
1. In the American Wire Gage, there times the cross-section area of a No.
is a constant ratio between the diam¬ 4, the resistance of the No. 4 is 1.26
eter of any wire and the diam¬ times the resistance of the No. 3. The
eter of the next smaller wire. This resistance of a No. 3 is 0.205 ohms/
ratio is approx. 1.12/1. Then, since 1000 feet. The resistance of a No. 4
the area in circular mils is equal to is 0.205 x 1.26 or 0.259 ohms/ 1000
the square of the diameter in mils, feet.
the ratio of successive cross section
areas is (1.12)2 or 1.26/1. Thus, for
6. All of the foregoing data can be
example, the ratio of cross section
used to arrive at almost any char¬
areas of No. 2/0 and No. 1/0 con¬
acteristic of any size of conductor by
ductors is 133,100 circular mils di¬
applying it to the following easily-
vided by 105,500 circular mils—
memorized data on No. 10 copper
which is equal to 1.26. The ratio of
conductor at normal room tempera¬
any two successive cross-section areas
ture—
in the AWG table is always 1.26.
No. 10 has a diameter of 0.1 inches
2. An increase of three gage num¬
or 100 mils.
bers doubles the cross-section area of
No. 10 has a cross-section area of
the conductor and also doubles the
(100)2 or 10,000 circular mils.
weight for the same conductor ma¬
No. 10 has a dc resistance of ap¬
terial. For example, No. 1/0 has a
prox. 1 ohm per 1000 feet.
cross section of 105,500 circular mils.
No. 10 weighs 32 pounds per 1000
Three gage sizes larger is No. 4/0,
feet.
which has a cross-section area of
211,600 circular mils or double that
of No. 1/0. For ready reference on the proper¬
ties of conductors, extensive data is
3. An increase of three gage num¬ given in a number of tables in Chap¬
bers halves the conductor resistance. ter 9 of the National Electrical Code.
Thus, from the previous paragraph, One of the most common design
a No. 4/0 conductor has a dc re¬ considerations involving the resistance
sistance of 0.0509 ohms/1000 feet. characteristics of conductors is that
The No. 1/0 conductor has a dc re¬ of voltage drop. As stated previously,
sistance of 0.102 ohms/1000 feet— there must be a certain amount of
twice that of the No. 4/0 conductor. voltage drop in the conductors which
make up modern feeders and branch
4. An increase of 10 gage numbers circuits because all conductors have
increases cross-section area and resistance and voltage must be used
weight by a factor of 10 and decreases to* push current through them. Of
resistance by a factor of 10. Thus, a course, the amount of voltage used
No. 1/0 conductor, which is 10 gage to get the current through the con¬
sizes larger than No. 10, has 10 times ductors should be kept to a relatively
the area and weight of the No. 10 small percentage (1%, 2% or maybe

27
 conductors—No. 6 and larger, al¬
though stranded assemblies are also
used for smaller sizes for such ap¬
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE plications as lighting fixture wiring
and other equipment wiring. The NE
ON RESISTANCE Code, for instance, requires that con¬
The res/shaoce £x of copper a//re ah
ductors No. 6 and larger when used
ar?y amh>/erh hem per a ha re hi may
in raceways must be of the stranded
he fourrcf us/oy hhe forma/a type.
In practice, the safe current-
f 'i.'b4. 5 + fx \ carrying capacities of electrical con¬
= R \ 134. S + t ) ductors is based on the insulation of
cohere & - h. no tva res/shance. a/ the conductors. Current limits are
Temperature / m oheyrees C. those which would produce heating
that would damage or destroy the in¬
EXAMPLE: sulation. Manufacturers of wires and
What /s the res/share e of #£ a/fre
cables make available complete
at a temperature of 45 C ?
tables of conductor current ratings.
SOLUTION!: Again, the NE Code presents maxi¬
From hah/e, £ - 0.4/ ah 25C. mum continuous current ratings for
conductors with various insulations.
/234.5 + 45\ However, it is common to find that
px a .4(f-
\ 2 34 3 +• 25 / design of circuits for low voltage drop
and low power losses in the lines re¬
quires that loading of conductors
=■ .41 * 1.077 (amount of current flowing) be kept
considerably below the current levels
= .442 ohmy looo FT.
which establish the temperature limit
of application.
An important characteristic of the
up to 10%) of the voltage impressed resistance of conductor materials is its
at the supply end of the circuit. But relation to temperature. The resist¬
some voltage must be dropped and ance of the usual conductor materials
the amount of this voltage depends —copper and aluminum—increases
upon resistance—either resistance with increases in the temperature of
alone in the case of direct current the material. There are some conduc¬
circuits or resistance and reactance tive materials—carbon and conduc¬
(an effect opposing current flow in tive solutions—which decrease in re¬
circuits with alternating current). sistance as temperature rises. Still
As will be described later, there is other materials show very little re¬
a difference between dc resistance sistance change with temperature
and ac resistance, with ac resistance variation. Resistance values—as given
being higher for a given size of con¬ in most tables and texts—are those
ductor only in the larger sizes of con¬ which obtain for usual room tempera¬
ductors—conductors No. 2 and larger. tures—from 68 to 77 degrees F (20
As pointed out earlier, some con¬ to 25 degrees C). The temperature
ductors are made up of a single solid coefficient of resistance of a conduc¬
strand of conductive material and tor material is the percent change in
some are made up of a number of resistance that will occur for each
strands twisted together. The strand¬ degree C change in temperature,
ed conductor provides a much more based on the resistance at some ini¬
flexible conductor assembly for easier tial temperature in degrees C. A com¬
handling, bending and installing. monly used temperature base for
For this reason, the stranded as¬ establishing the coefficient is 20 de¬
sembly is used for the larger sizes of grees C.

28
 Basic Circuit Study
A LL of the foregoing principles
and characteristics of electric
Conductors — Connection from the
service conductors of a building to
current flow apply to direct- the various load devices is made by a
current and alternating-current cir¬ simple or complex network—depend¬
cuits. ing upon the size and type of building
and loads—of wires and cables of
varying sizes and constructions. From
There are additional principles and
the utility terminals to the main
characteristics which apply only to
switch or main switchboard, the con¬
alternating-current circuits. These will
ductors are the service entrance con¬
be covered later. So far, the theory of
ductors.
electricity can be correlated to prac¬
From the main switchboard to
tical circuits and application as fol¬
each panelboard in the building, two
lows:
or more conductors provide a circuit
known as a feeder, to deliver power
Voltage Source—For the vast ma¬ to the circuits of the panel. A feeder
jority of buildings, the source of from a panelboard to another panel-
voltage which powers the entire in¬ board is commonly called a subfeeder.
terior distribution system is the serv¬ Then conductors which run from a
ice from the electric utility company. panelboard to motors, lighting fixtures
This is simply connection to the end or plug outlets make up the branch
of a feeder from the utility company’s circuits of the system.
generator. Each of the conductors throughout
the entire system has sufficient cross-
In some cases, the source of volt¬ section area to carry the current im¬
age for a building may be a generator pressed upon it—without producing
right on the premises. And there are heat of I2R which might damage the
many cases in commercial and indus¬ insulation on the conductor and with¬
trial application where a segment of a out producing so much voltage drop
building’s system is supplied from a by current flow through the resistance
small generator or from a dc source of the conductor (drop I R) that the
such as a bank of batteries or a recti¬ voltage delivered to the load devices
fier. This latter case covers special is objectionably low. In practice, volt¬
needs for voltage different from the age drops are generally held to no
basic system voltage or needs for more than 5% of the nominal system
emergency sources of power in the voltage. A widely used approach to
event of failure of normal power. voltage drop holds the drop to about

29
1 % for supply to lighting loads and E x I, the current is less at the higher
3% for circuits to motor loads. voltage. And, as a result, the voltage
drop and power loss in the circuit
conductors will be lower.
Load Devices—These are the utiliza¬ But use of the higher voltage for a
tion devices for which the entire elec¬ two-wire circuit does not meet the
trical system is installed in the build¬ need for supplying 120-volt loads. The
ing. Each lighting and heating device three-wire circuit, which consists of
is designed to operate at a nameplate two wires with 240 volts between
voltage which will produce a certain them and 120 volts between each of
current flow through the device, de¬ these wires and a third wire, provides
pending upon the resistance of the the advantages of reduced voltage
device. Fluorescent and mercury va¬ drop and power loss, with ability to
por lamps use coil type ballasts which serve 240-volt load devices and with¬
oppose alternating current flow by the out sacrifice in the ability to supply
resistance of the wire in the coil and 120-volt loads. Such a circuit is com¬
by an alternating current character¬ monly described as a 120/240-volt,
istic known as inductive reactance. three-wire circuit and may be used for
Motors, both ac and dc, have resist¬ direct current or alternating current.
ance to oppose current flow, and ac In the three-wire circuit, the con¬
motors have inductive reactance. ductor which forms a 120-volt circuit
with either of the other two wires is
Three-Wire Circuits called a neutral conductor and is gen¬
The basic circuit referred to thus erally required by electrical codes to
far has been the two-wire circuit to be grounded (this matter of grounding
a lamp or other load device. And it will be discussed later). When the load
has been shown that this same cir¬ resistance on one of the 120-volt cir¬
cuit may be used to supply a number cuits is equal to the load resistance
of lamps connected in parallel—the on the other 120-volt circuit, the
usual method of load connection in neutral conductor. carries na. curiejit
modern electrical systems. Then, too, and the other two wires carry the
the same circuit of only two wires same current. In effect, the two load
can be used to provide the feeder to resistances are connected in series
the panelboard from which the two- across the 240-volt circuit of the non¬
wire branch circuits are derived. And neutral conductors. The total power
the basic two-wire circuit used over supplied is equal to 240 times the cur¬
the past years has been the 120-volt rent flowing.
circuit to supply the very many load The voltage drop and line power
devices designed for that voltage. loss under these conditions are the
The three-wire circuit was develop¬ same as they would be for a 120-volt
ed to reduce the problems of voltage circuit of the same size wires, carrying
drop and power loss in the lines, while the same current and supplying only
still providing for supply to 120-volt half the power. Thus for a given load
circuits. In the two-wire circuit, in¬ on each of the 120-volt circuits, the
crease in the size of the circuit con¬ voltage drop and power loss for each
ductors reduces the resistance of the 120-volt circuit are only one-half of
line and thereby decreases voltage what they would be for a simple two-
drop and power losses. But this is the wire 120-volt circuit serving the same
only thing that can be done for im¬ load as each of the other two 120-
proving two-wire circuits. However, volt circuits. And when the load re¬
the use of higher voltage offers the sistance on each of the two 120-volt
chance to deliver a given amount of circuits of a 120/240-volt three-wire
power at lower current than would circuit is not the same, the neutral
be required for the same power at wire carries the difference between the
120 volts, i. e., because power equals currents flowing in the non-neutrals.

30
 i?3
GOO
WATTS

///usfraferZ 7s a pane/boarr/ /e/ by or 3 u//re, /2o/24o- ro/7 See/er. Three

branch C/rcu/fe are sho ur/7; 2/rcuMs Mo. / a nr/ 2 are 2- ca/'re rr/rcu/bs;
Mo. 3 /s a 3- ur/re c/rcu/7.

FOLLOWING o I ASRAM ; IO AMPS PLOW

7/ Me current / /a C/rru/7
© Mo- / /s /2 amps. u/baf /s IN ONE

THE NET
DIRECTION,

CURRENT
IS AMPS

IN "n"
IN THE

IS THUS
OTHEJ2..

I S - lO
The u/a/age of /oar/ 2, ? (Meg/ecf
OR 5 AMPS.
/oMrcye Mr op)
IO
A +
CIRCUIT KIO. I
R, - 120 VOLTS X 12 AMPS = 1440 WATTS IO AMPS

* Z I S AMPS
i
C IRCUIT NO. 2
5 - • IS amps

Mbgf 7s The cc/rrenb I2 /n

C/rcou/ Mo. 2 ?
_ 1200 WATTS
/n Cbrca/b Mo- 3, 2^ an/ 2s
cvrlrent in e2-- ,o amps
are /20-i/oM /oa/s; /s a
CURRENT MM R- = fcoo WATTS _ 5 AM PS
240-i/o/b /oaM M/r?/ /3i an/Is.
* I 20 VOLTS
CURRENT IN R5* TTo volTS = ' AMP
I2 * IO +• 5 - 15 AMPS

CURRENT IN RC -- 24o VOLTS -5 AMPS

J3 = l+Sr CAMPS « I4 I5 - O. SINCE lyXf

li/7?a7 current //ours /n Zee/-

er con/ucbors 3, 3 an/ M
// 24. /'s 7urne/ obM, T/nc/
M C/rcu/Ts Mo- / an/ 2 are ener-
Currenbs My, Z4. an/ /?■
g/^ecC an/ C/rcu/b Mo. 3 r/eeaerg/je/ ?
CURRENT IN *4 - o
CURRENT in "a" -I, S IO AMPS
CURRENT in Rs c I AMP
CURRENT IN”©" - I4 r \S AMPS
CURRENT IN r 5 AMPS

Ij=0+5* 5 AMPS I^= HS--4A MPJ

THESE TWO CURRENTS OPPOSE EACH OTH&?
I{ * G-5 = I AMP
IN THE NEUTRAL, /AS SHOWN IN TV4 t

31
 Magnetism
M AGNETISM is a physical phe¬
nomenon which plays an essential
tion, artificial magnets are readily
manufactured from iron, steel or var¬
role in the distribution and utili¬ ious alloys, and these have widespread
zation of electrical energy. commercial value. A piece of steel,
Although we can generate light and for instance, can be made into a mag¬
heat by simply passing either direct net by repetitively stroking it with a
or alternating current through a re¬ body which is already a magnet. But
sistance—such as the element of a the most common way of magnetizing
toaster or the filament of an incandes¬ such a piece of steel is to place it
cent lamp, rotating electrical equip¬ within a coil of wire and pass a heavy
ment like motors and generators and current through the wire. The flow of
other devices such as relays, trans¬ current sets up a magnetizing force
formers, induction heating equipment which orients the molecular structure
—depend upon magnetism. of the steel, giving it the character of
a magnet.
Fundamentals Magnets are commonly classified
Centuries ago, it was discovered according to their ability to retain the
that a certain iron ore found in the character of a magnet. Those which
earth had the ability to attract and retain the strength of their magnetism
hold to itself pieces of iron. Because indefinitely are called permanent mag¬
this ore was plentiful in Magnesia, a nets. In this category are hardened
province in Asia Minor, it was given steel and a number of scientifically
the name “magnetite.” From this, the developed alloys of nickel and cobalt.
name “magnet” is used to describe Those magnets which owe the strength
any body attracting iron or steel. of their magnetism to an external
Although natural magnets as found magnetizing force (such as the cur¬
in the earth have no useful applica¬ rent-carrying coil of wire on the core

32
 MAGNETIZATION of ap/ece of sfee/j sucf
0S o screu/cfrZser p/ac/e^ may fesf Z>e a reamp-
/Zsfe/Z fy p/ac/ny zf Z/7S/t/e a 00/V of a//re
carryz^y a Aeai/y c/c career?/ ar?y
sfaZ/Zr?y off career?/ a/f/fe
6/ac/e Zs /r75'/ We-

COIL E KIDS CONNECTED

TO SOURCE VOLTAGE

LINE5 OF FORCE are ofem-

plunger
onsf/afeoZ 6y /'ror? f/Z/r?ys s/r/nk-
Zed 00 s/ee/ of paper oaer Z?otr
mayref fzZZoys ouf/Zoe mayref
aoc/ foes of force, fo/a/s ofyrea/-
esf coocenfrafZor? are poZ/?/s of
yreafesZ maynef c a/fra. cf/or7.

50LENQIP COIL car/y/ay ca r-

of an electro-magnet) and which lose
rent aZZracZs s/ee/ pZaayer pa//Soy
almost all of their magnetism when
/Z /rrZo c o/Z. Coos/oZeraZ/e moouaZforce
the external force is removed are re¬ Zs accessary fo u// ZAc/caur pZuryer Zcr/er?
ferred to as temporary magnets.
car re/7 f /.r s/u / off pZaryer may Z?e
u// fZi/rau/r) eas/Zy; coZZ Zoses Zfs rray-
Two terms used in connection with
neZ/sm. TZjZs Zs an esampZe of a. "fe/v-
magnets are: permeability and re-
porary " ewayaef.
tentivity. Permeability refers to the re¬
lative ease with which a material can
be magnetized, the ease with which its
molecular structure can be oriented to The term magnetic materials is used
that of a magnet. Soft iron, as an ex¬ to refer to those materials which are
ample, is relatively easy to magnetize attracted or repelled by a magnet and
and is said to have high permeability. which can be magnetized themselves.
Steel, on the other hand, is hard to Iron and steel are the most common
magnetize and is said to have lower of such materials.
permeability than soft iron.

Retentivity is a specific term refer¬

Magnetic Field
ring to the ability of any magnet to Magnets can be made in a wide
retain its magnetic character, with variety of shapes and sizes, from any
permanent magnets having high re¬ one of the various magnetic materials
tentivity and temporary magnets hav¬ available. But there are certain char¬
ing low or poor retentivity. In the acteristics common to all magnets:
case of temporary magnets (soft iron)
that small amount of magnetism which 1. If a straight bar of magnetized
is retained after the external magnetiz¬ steel or a horseshoe-shaped magnet or
ing force is removed is called residual any other shape is dipped into a pile
magnetism. of iron filings, it will be found that

33
the filings cling in large numbers to counts for the high strength of attrac¬
the ends of the magnet and only a tion for iron or steel at the poles.
relatively few filings attach themselves
to the intermediate part of the magnet. 5. The total quantity of magnetic
The area at each end of a magnet, lines of force is commonly called
where the attractive force is the great¬ magnetic flux. And, again, flux is al¬
est, is called a pole. ways from North to South external to
the magnet and from South to North
2. The poles of any magnet are the internal to the magnet. Lines of force
points at which certain forces are are continuous and never cross.
concentrated. This force takes the
form of lines of energy and is speci¬ 6. Although magnetic lines of force
fically referred to as lines of force. are really imaginary, they provide a
The existence of these lines of force helpful, working concept. And the
can be revealed in two ways: lines of force exist in the full 360° of
space around the axis of the magnet.
A. If a piece of white paper is
placed over a bar magnet and iron 7. The flow of magnetic flux can be
filings are sprinkled evenly over the roughly compared to the flow of elec¬
paper, the filings will be seen to tric current. The magnet is the source
take the form of actual lines run¬ of pressure (comparable to the voltage
ning, external to the magnet, from source) and the flux finds more or
one pole to the other in curving less opposition to its presence. This
paths. The filings are actually under opposition is known as the reluctance
the influence of the lines of force. (similar to resistance in electrical cir¬
cuits) of the material. Air has very
B. If the same bar magnet is placed high reluctance and iron and steel
on a flat surface, a small compass have lower reluctance. And the lower
can be used to study the presence the reluctance for the lines of force
of the lines of magnetic force. By from a given magnet, the higher the
placing the compass in various posi¬ flux density.
tions along the length of the bar
magnet, it will be seen that the
needle takes different positions. The
North pole of the needle will al¬
I F A BAR MAGNET is suspended
freely at the end of a length of
ways point toward the South string and the North pole of a sec-
pole of the bar magnet, and the cond, hand-held, bar magnet is
needle will always line itself up brought slowly toward the North pole
with the direction of the lines of of the suspended magnet, it will be
force at the particular position of readily seen that a force of repulsion
the compass. The needle points exists between the two North poles.
away from the North pole of the The North pole of the suspended
magnet. By plotting the various po¬ magnet will move away from the
sitions of the compass needle, the other North pole. And the same re¬
lines of force will be indicated on pulsion exists between two South
both sides of the magnet. poles. Then just the opposite effect
will be achieved if the North pole of
3. From the above, lines of magnetic the hand-held magnet is slowly moved
force have definite direction at all toward the South pole of the sus¬
points in the space surrounding a mag¬ pended magnet. In this case, there is
net and they act along curved lines. an attractive force between the two
poles and they move quickly together.
4. The strength of a magnet is con¬ These two actions illustrate the first
centrated at the two poles. This ac¬ laws of magnetism:

34
 PERMANENT
/ MAGWET

COMPASS j rrjoyeai a/ouf a />ar maynef,

uzi// a/uzays po/nf guzay from a A/orff?
may r? e fir po/e/ a/ZynSny zfse/f uz/'ffz
ffe /an md/ynefs fines of force. Vfe
compass need/e z’fse/f is a sma// far
maynef a/iff? a A/orff and a Sou//?
po/e J z/s Sou ?f7 po/e is a/fracdd fo
fire /dryer ma/neff A/orff po/e any
PERMEABILITY of me/a/s u/ce u era a.
/nay 6e de/nonsfrafed i>y dip-
piny perm a nenf mayaef info
p//e of me fa/ fray/neo/s. Tfose
u?iff? f/yfr permea. 6/Z/fy (map- tion among them and such a piece of
re f'c) a?/// ad fere readi/y fo iron or steel is unmagnetized. How¬
f/>e may re/; ffose u> iff /eur
ever, if the same piece of iron or
per/nea /iffy (non- md/nefio) io/'/f
steel is subjected to a strong magnetic
no/- Tfis princzp/e zs emp/oyed
field, the magnetic molecules will be
/n maynefic separafors used
forced into a definite pattern of
in indusfry-
orientation. Such orientation of the
molecules makes a magnet out of the
piece of iron or steel. In it, all of the
1. Like magnetic poles repel each molecular North poles point one way
other. and all of the molecular South poles
point in the opposite direction. Re¬
2. Unlike magnetic poles attract each moval of the magnetizing force from
other. a piece of soft iron will result in the
magnetic molecules resuming their
It has been noted that the needle original position. But the molecules of
of a compass (a small magnet, itself) hardened steel will retain their orien¬
always points North and South. This tation even after the magnetizing
occurs because the North pole of the force is removed, becoming a perma¬
little bar magnet in the compass is nent magnet.
attracted toward the earth’s geograph¬
ic North pole which is actually a
South magnetic pole.

The character of magnetism is such Electromagnetism

that if a bar magnet is cut into two In 1819, a scientist named Oersted
pieces, each piece is a magnet in the discovered a relation between magnet¬
same sense that the whole bar was. ism and electric current. He found
And further cutting of these pieces that an electric current flowing
into any number of pieces will yield through a conductor produced a mag¬
that number of little magnets. One netic field about the conductor. When
theory of magnetism holds that in any a small compass was brought close to
magnet even the molecules act as the wire carrying current, the needle
magnets. Accordingly, the theory says of the compass was deflected at right
that these molecules in iron or steel angles to the wire. If a current-carry¬
may be arranged without any orienta¬ ing conductor is passed through a

35
sheet of cardboard, the nature of the thumb along the wire. If the thumb
magnetic field around the conductor points along the wire in the direction
may be studied by placing the small of current flow, the fingers will be
compass on the cardboard and mov¬ pointing in the direction of the lines
ing it in circles around the wire. of force around the conductor.
It will be noted that the needle Although the magnetism is rela¬
keeps changing position slightly as it tively weak at any point along the
is moved around the conductor, in¬ length of a wire, the magnetic effect
dicating that the magnetic field exists can be strengthened by winding the
in concentric circles around the con¬ wire into a coil. The total magnetic
ductor and that it has definite polari¬ force of the length of the wire is
ty, i.e., the needle points in one di¬ thereby concentrated in a much
rection with the current flowing in a smaller space and is, as a result, more
given direction and then points in the intense. The character of the magnet¬
opposite direction when the direction ic field of a coil can best be described
of current flow is reversed in the wire. by considering the simple condition
Another way of detecting the pres¬ of two wires placed side-by-side and
ence of the magnetic field around the carrying current in the same direc¬
conductor is by sprinkling iron filings tion.
on the cardboard and noting the pat¬ As shown in the sketches, the lines
tern of concentric circles formed by of force between the conductors op¬
the filings. The iron filings become pose each other, keeping the mag¬
magnetized by the field around the netic field around the two conductors
conductor, and the interaction of the —or around three or four or how¬
two sets of magnetic force lines the ever many conductors are placed to¬
filings up in circles, like a large num¬ gether. As a result, the lines of force
ber of compass needles. associated with a coil of wire flow in
It can be seen from the two ex¬ one direction through the core of the
periments that the magnetic field coil and flow in the opposite direction
around the wire extends some dis¬ around the outside of the coil where
tance out from the wire, and the they return to the other end of the
strength of the field is greatest close core. The end from which the flux
to the wire and decreases with dis¬ emerges is the North pole of the
tance from the wire. And another electromagnetic coil. And since all of
noteworthy fact is that the strength of the turns of the coil have current flow¬
the field can be increased by increas¬ ing in the same direction through
ing the current flowing through the them, their fields add up and polarity
wire and decreased by decreasing of the coil can be determined by a
current flowing through the wire. This variation on the “Right Hand Rule.”
can be noticed by watching the Grasp the coil in the right hand
stronger current make larger, more with the fingers wrapped around the
concentrated rings of the iron filings coil in such a way that the fingers
than weaker current is able to do. point in the direction of the current
All of the foregoing forms the flow through the turns of the wire.
basis for the so-called “Right Hand The thumb then points toward the
Rule.” This is a handy, convenient end of the coil which is the North
means of determining the relationship pole of the electromagnet.
between the flow of electric current
in a wire and the direction of the
magnetic lines of force around the
magnet. It works this way: Grasp the
T HE ABILITY of an electromag¬
netic coil to produce magnetic lines
current carrying wire in the right of force, or magnetic flux, is mea¬
hand, wrapping the four fingers sured in terms of magnetomotive
around the wire and extending the force, which is abbreviated MMF.

36
 RIGHT-HAND RULE THUMB PoI MTS
INl DIRECTION
APPLIED TO SINGLE \
OF" CURRENT
FLOW THROUGH
CURRENT FLOW conductor.
CONDUCTOR

\ fingers
r V
\
>
%
x
POINT IN
DlReCLTIOrN
_S * OF MAGNETIC
\ FIELD
\
\
\
® STR.MGHT CO»TNr>UCLX«=>VRS \

CURRENT
FLOW

RE SULTA.NT
MAGNETIC
CELED
FIELD
&ETWEEN
CONDOC-fORS

® curved* Conductors

CURRENT
FLOW

© CONDUCTORS
Joined

MAGNETIC PI ELD OF A COIL

Pzqhf ha net ru/e app/zeY fo eac/ of fu/o
aa/yacen/ conYacfvrs (/t) s/ouzs /z'nes
thumb Points
To north pole
of -force fe/ureen ouz res ranee/ racf?
o F" C.CO I l__ o//ep a/z/Z reset/fan / Y/eZY c/rc-
/iny bof/i conofucfors. PfPecf /s
urc/anyea/ ezz/Z/ ceerreY u/z res
X (3) or jo/neaZ as zrz (c). PS-
^ eZz/zona/ u/z're forms a
S' C0z/ (r>). /Ye noett fare
\ an e/ec/romayne / u/z/h
\ nor f/ aneZsoe(/f po/es.
Iznes of force frar-
^ e/ nor// -fv soct/f
FlNGEIRS
POl CNT I INI
\ ou/s/c/e Coz/; sou//
Dl I^ECJiorN -Zv nor// //Ts/cZe
OF CU VARIATIOKI OF co//.
flovm through
CO I I_ RIGHT-HAK1D RULE
APPLIED TO COIL

37
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION, fun Aomen /a / pr/nc/pfe of
//re yerrerafop Array be Aerrron s/ra/eA as sAou/ri. // conAucfor fs mo reef
up or cfourrr perperrc/'/cufar fo //re maynef/c f/e/c/, sens///re Ac vo/f-
mefer u///f sfour /rrAuceA pofenf/af across enAs of corrAucfor as //
cu/s f/nes of force fP/yfrf franc/, ur/ffr f/rryers ex fenAeA a f r/yf?f
anyfes, afforcfs nr earns of c/e ferm/n/ny cf/recf/on of Acres of force,
zrrc/ucec/ errrf or conAuc for m o vemenf uvfen fu/o of ffre P/rree are
fznou/n.

Me/er u//ff /aA/cafe jero In the magnetic circuit, magneto¬

yo/faye ur/ffr conAuefor
af resf fa rrraynef/c motive force can be considered to be
ffefcZ. the pressure which produces the
magnetic lines of force through the
reluctance of the magnetic path.
MMF is similar to EMF, or voltage,
ffov/ny corrc/uc for a/? which produces current flow through
fArouyf //rres of force
prefaces arefer reaA- the resistance of an electric circuit.
frry fr? orre c/freef for?.

The MMF of any coil depends

upon the current flowing through the
coil and the number of turns in the
fevers/cry c/freef/orr of
Corr c/ucfor- nro vem er?f coil. As either or both of these in¬
re verses me/er /r?A/~ creases, the magnetomotive force of
Ca f/orr.
the coil increases and more flux will
be produced through the given mag¬
netic circuit. The product of the cur¬
Cfs/rry a sfronyer maynef rent through the coil and the number
or /ncrea s/ny cor?c/ucfor
Speec/ /rrcrea ses nrayn/-
of turns in the coil is referred to as
ZuAe of /rrc/ucec/ ro/faye. the ampere-turns of the coil and is
taken as a measure of MMF.

From the foregoing, it is clear that

the strength of the magnetic field
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE produced by an electromagnetic coil
of a ro/f fs nreersareef fr? through a given magnetic path de¬
amp ere - furrr s •
pends upon the ampere-turns of
AMPERE - TURNS *= AMPERE1? X TURN5 MMF just as electric current through
a given circuit resistance depends
T / AMP TAPA / PAPA
= / AMPfPf - TAP/Z
upon the voltage pushing it. But, just
as current through a circuit can be in¬
creased by reducing the resistance,
mr / AMP TAPP 2 TAP AS
= 2 AArfPfPf - PAP A $
so the flux produced by an electro¬
magnetic coil can be increased by re¬
ducing the reluctance of the path
W fo AAPP5 TAP a J TAPA/f
= 30 AMPfPf- TAP/fS taken by the flux. Inserting a bar of
soft iron in a current-carrying coil of
Mayncfomof/ve force rn a maynef/c c/r- wire, for instance, produces a great
cu/f produces f/rres of force, jus fas
efeefromof/ve force fr? an e/ec/r/c reduction in the reluctance of the
C/rcu/f proAace S Cu/~renf
magnetic path. Magnetic flux finds it
much easier to exist in magnetic ma-

38
terials than in air or other nonmag¬ netic flux is obtained by an experi¬
netic materials. As a result, a ment which shows that an electro¬
tremendous increase in flux density motive force (a voltage) can be pro¬
is produced when the iron bar re¬ duced in a conductor by moving the
places air as the core of the coil. conductor through a magnetic field
in such a way that the conductor
Electromagnets, consisting of coils cuts the lines of force. This is the
with iron cores, find extensive practi¬ phenomenon of electromagnetic in¬
cal applications in a wide range of duction, discovered by Faraday in
electrical devices and machines, in 1831 and since incorporated as the
addition to direct use as lifting mag¬ basic operating principle of such im¬
nets. portant devices as the electric gen¬
erator and the transformer.
An important characteristic of
electromagnetic flux in magnetic core The basic experiment on induction
materials is saturation. When the flux is shown below.
produced by a coil around an iron
core continues to increase with in¬ A conductor, with a voltmeter con¬
crease in current, the core contains nected across its ends, is moved
more and more lines of force. But a through the magnetic field between
point is reached at which increase the poles of a horseshoe magnet in
in current through the coil—i.e., in¬ such a way that the conductor is per¬
crease in MMF—no longer produces pendicular to the lines of force and
an increase in lines of magnetic flux. cuts through them. The voltmeter
At that point, the core is said to be will indicate that a voltage of a def¬
saturated. Different magnetic ma¬ inite polarity is produced between
terials have different points of satu¬ the ends of the conductor during the
ration, for given cross-section area of time it is cutting through the flux.
cores, in accordance with their dif¬ As soon as the motion of the con¬
fering permeabilities. ductor stops, the voltage drops to
zero. Then if the conductor is moved
Further evidence of the relation through the flux in the opposite di¬
between electric current and mag¬ rection, a voltage is again produced,

39
but it has polarity opposite to that the conductors, and since the con¬
produced in the first case. Another ductors are all in series in the coil,
way of demonstrating the same ef¬ the induced voltages add together
fect is to fix the position of the con¬ to produce the output voltage of the
ductor and move the magnet so that generator.
the flux between its poles cuts the
fixed conductor. Again, the voltme¬ The same principle is used in ac
ter will indicate that a voltage has generators, although it is common to
been produced. And again, voltage find the coil of conductors fixed and
of opposite polarity can be produced the electromagnets rotated so the
by moving the magnet so that the field cuts the conductors.
flux cuts the conductor in the op¬
posite direction.
The value of EMF produced by
The production of a voltage by moving a conductor through a mag¬
relative motion between a current- netic field can be increased by add¬
carrying conductor and a magnetic ing more conductors (such as winding
field is called electromagnetic induc¬ a long conductor into a coil so that
tion. The voltage produced in the each turn of the coil has a voltage
conductor is said to be an induced induced in it and the voltages of the
voltage. If this induced voltage is turns are added to each other to
connected to a closed circuit, a cur¬ provide a higher voltage). Another
rent will flow, and such current is way to increase induced voltage is to
said to be induced current. increase the speed at which the
conductors cut through the magnetic
The most important application of flux. This can be done by increasing
relative motion between conductor the speed of rotation of the core on
and magnetic field is made in elec¬ which the conductors are wound.
tric generators. In a dc generator,
fixed electromagnets are arranged in Still another way to increase the
a cylindrical housing to set up the induced voltage is to increase the
magnetic field and a very many con¬ amount of flux so that for a given
ductors in the form of a coil are ro¬ speed of the moving conductors more
tated on a core within the magnetic lines of force are cut in a specified
field in such a way that these con¬ unit of time. Increasing the amount
ductors are continually cutting of flux means, of course, an increase
through the magnetic flux. As a re¬ in the flux density or the lines per
sult, voltage is produced in each of square inch cut by the conductors.

40
 Electromagnetic
Induction

A LL of the factors involved in the

electromagnetic induction of a
which the coil conductors cut through
the magnetic field. The polarity of
voltage in a coil actually con¬ the induced emf and the direction of
cern the rate at which the magnetic current flow which such emf will pro¬
field is being cut by the conductors duce through an external circuit is
of the coil or, to put it another way, determined by the direction or polar¬
the rate at which lines of magnetic ity of the magnetic lines of force and
flux through a coil change with time. the motion of the coil conductors
This latter evaluation is the basis of relative to the field. This relationship
a physical law known as Faraday’s is generally illustrated in Fleming’s
Law of Induction, which is stated as Right-Hand Rule, also known as the
follows: Generator Right-Hand Rule. This was
shown previously by a sketch, but
Whenever the number of lines of may be stated as follows:
force linking through a coil is
changed, an emf is induced in that
coil. And the value of the induced Extend the thumb, forefinger and
emf is proportional to the rate at middle finger of the right hand so
which the number of lines of force that each is at right angles with the
through the coil is changing. other two. Point the forefinger in the
direction of the magnetic lines of
Experiment indicates that well-de¬ force, from the North Pole to the
fined characteristics exist for the vari¬ South Pole through the air, and point
ous factors of induction. The numeri¬ the thumb in the direction in which
cal value of the induced emf depends the conductor is moving (or in the
upon the density of the magnetic direction in which one side of a ro¬
field, the length of the conductor tating coil is moving through the
making up the coil and the speed at field). The middle finger will then

41
 horse shoe
M AsGNETS
MAGNETIC INDUCTION
prfncfp/es are / '//of s fra feat by /yanct-
c raided mayryefo. Afayn/fac/e of"
ns/ucecf uo/fage. cyfe perafs upon/
(/) Speer/ a/ ujh/ch crazy/ /s far rye a/,
(2) fa/a/ tengf/y of cu/’re (or number
of fares) /ry co/f art/ (j) sfrengf/y
of mag nef/c f/e/cf creafeef
OUTPUT
terminals
by permanenf magr7ef5.
D/reefy or? of cunreryf f/our
(or p o/a r/ fy of /refucecC
ro/fage) may be reverse of
by c/yaryg/rjy &//reeffor? of
rofa f/ory.

COILS

A/echan/cat energy
fs put fryto gen¬
era forty fare -
/ryg C ran be man-
(4) ftectrfeat energy fs re mousy
uat/y-
through term/nabs
attached. to
sttdfng
contacts
2) fo/fage fs fnctucect
fn conf/nucus
/enfC/7 of u//rel
u/ounat fnto 'Z or more
co'/s fastened! to tourer
shaft, as rota.tfry cot/s
cut ffetet of magnets.

-WV^Ar [31 Current estabt/sfect Sy fnctucect trot tape

passes from u/fre to shafts a net bacp
futernat
through stfctfng contacts.
tract

point in the direction of the positive tion when the conductor is stationary
end of the conductor or conductors and the magnetic field moves.
in which an emf is induced. When
the emf so indicated is connected to Another law which relates to the
an external circuit, current will flow matter of electromagnetic induction
in the direction in which the finger is Lenz’s Law and is an expansion on
is pointing. the observations of Faraday’s Law.
According to Lenz:
This is a very handy and practical
rule and should be thoroughly under¬ Whenever a current flows as the re¬
stood for effective application in sult of an induced emf, this current
many problems concerning electro¬ sets up a magnetic field about the
magnetic induction. And although the conductor such that this conductor
rule as stated here involves a station¬ magnetic field reacts with the mag¬
ary magnetic field and a moving con¬ netic field producing the induced
ductor, just a little care in observing emf to oppose the motion of the con¬
relative motions will permit the use ductor. The two magnetic fields react
of the rule for studying generator ac¬ in accordance with the basic precepts

42
that like poles repel and unlike poles Self-induced EMF is another very
attract. The result is a physical op¬ important electrical characteristic
position to movement of the conduc¬ which is frequently involved in prac¬
tor through the inducing field, requir¬ tical applications of both ac and dc
ing a definite expenditure of external circuits. When any conductor is carry¬
energy in moving the conductor. ing currents (so far we are considering
only direct currents), a magnetic field
The foregoing actions conform to is set up in concentric rings around
the basic physical law of conserva¬ the conductor, as we have discussed
tion of energy: To get energy out of previously. If the value of current is
anything, we must first put energy changed, there is a corresponding
into it. In the case of electromagnetic change in the magnetic field intensity
induction, we are getting electric en¬ around the conductor. But any such
ergy out of the conductors moving change in magnetic field density must
through the magnetic field. This follow Faraday’s Law and therefore
electric energy is in the form of work¬ produces an induced emf right in the
ing current to light a lamp or to do conductor itself.
some other work, produced by the
induced emf. Then there must have If the current were reduced, the
been energy input to the generator number of lines linking the conductor
and this energy was that required to would be decreased and there would
overcome the opposition to movement be an emf induced with a specific
of the conductor. In the case of an polarity. If, however, the current
actual generator, the prime mover— were increased, the number of link¬
say a steam turbine or a water wheel ing lines would be increased, and
—must supply the energy to rotate there would be an emf induced with
the coils in the magnetic field in op¬ opposite polarity to the former case.
position to the reaction of the two
magnetic fields present. Thus a ro¬ In either case, though, the induced
tating, mechanical input of energy is emf acts in accordance with Lenz’
converted to electrical energy in the Law to oppose the change that pro¬
generator, with a certain amount of duced it; i.e., the induced emf is in
energy being expended as heat loss¬ a direction to oppose the change in
es in the conversion process. current in the conductor in which it

SELF-INPUCTION. u/Aeredy yo/fage /s Jrducect /A a concfuc/or /Are//~*Ay

rte magnet d/e/ct creafecf Ac/ the current d/cu/dr/g dArnu/A if; fczAes
ptace on Ac/ as /or?/ as AAe current /s in ere as/mg or </ecreasimg. tdAen
rte Current /s steac/y, Abe re /s no se/d- /nctacect i/o/dage.

U/hen a. circuit su/itch is cto sect, current U/hen SuritcA is opened, current must strop
must increase from jero to its steady- t>act to jero. Sett-induced so it aye, again
state i/aiue. Seif - induced i/citage op¬ opposing ftre change, attempts do estab¬
poses this increase, causing a si/yht lish a current d/oar in the opposite
deiau in t/me re on meat for current direction across air space between switch
to reach this i/aiue- contzcts, creating a sparf.

43
 SWITCH
MUTUAL INDUCTION may be </em-
on strafed by tAe c/rcu/t sAouvn. 77? e co/Zs
are not connected e/ectr/ca/ty and /nay'
be u/ound on 77?e Same core. d/Aen tAe
Sa//7c7? /s c/osed, current drovn battery
d/ouvs ZArouyA ro/7 A. TAe resu/t/ny may-
BATTERY fSAE-T6.S?
net/c d/e/d be//Zeds cep cutt/ny tA con¬
ductors od co/7 3. 77?e nee d/e od tz
sens it/i/e uo/fmeter, ammeter, or ya/iva nometer connected across co/Z
3 u//7t ded/ect, 7nd/cat/ny tt?at ar? emd t?as been /ndaced Zn co/d 3-
77? e r?eed/e uv/ 7/ yu/cA/y return do jerr? once tAe maynet/c tv e/d vs
du7/y estabZ/sAed and con stand

/A/ 777/S C/153, 3L3C7P0MAGA733/C /AtD(ZC 7/0/7 OC¬

CURS 33CAUSE 03 7773 tit07/077 03 7773 MAG7/3 7-
/C 3/3LD-.AU COT/Dvcroes 7A770LZ30 APE a7 PEST.

Id tAe su/vtcA 7s r?ou/ ope need, cur¬

rent ceases -to d/ouz 7n co// A and /ds
mayned/c -d/e/d co//apses. /d ayot/r?
Cuts tAe turns od co/Z 3, /nduc/ny an?
emd vn co/t 3. 7/ou/e re c tAe t/nes of
dorce r?our cut tAe co/Z vn dAe oppo-
s/te d'/recZ/or?; dAus dAe po/arv/y od dAe emd vn covZ 3 vs oppo-
S/te dAad esdab/tsAed u/Aen dde su?/tcA u/as cdosed, and dAe vnedar
uv/Z/ de/Zect 7n tAe cppos/Ae dZrect/o n.

is induced. Thus, if the current in

the original conductor were quickly
S ELF-INDUCED EMF, as discus¬
sed previously for a straight con¬
decreased, the self-induced emf ductor, refers to an emf produced
would oppose the decreasing of the in the conductor due to a change in
current. The emf would add current current flowing through the conductor.
of its own during the transition from When a conductor has the property
the higher value of current to the of opposing any change in current
lower value. On the other hand, if flow, the conductor is said to pos¬
the current in the original conductor sess self-inductance or simply induct¬
were quickly increased, the self-in¬ ance.
duced emf would oppose the increase
in current flow, retarding the estab¬ As explained, a straight conductor
lishment of the higher current level. possesses a certain amount of induct¬
Of course, in either case, the self- ance by reason of the field around
induced emf would be present only even a single wire. But if a length of
for the duration of the transition wire is wound into a coil, it will pos¬
from one current to the other cur¬ sess much greater inductance because
rent. Under steady state conditions of the flux-concentrating effect of cur¬
of current, there can be no self-in¬ rent flowing through a coil. As a re¬
duction. sult, a change of current flowing

44
through a coil will produce much more in practical electrical application has
of a Ciiange in the flux linking the cir¬ most significance in alternating cur¬
cuit. This is due to the fact that each rent circuits. This is, of course, due to
turn of a coil produces a magnetic the fact that in ac circuits the value
field which not only acts on itself in of current is varying regularly from
inducing a self-induced emf but also zero to some positive value and then
acts on adjacent turns of the coil by to some negative value, producing a
inducing emf’s in them when current constantly changing magnetic field
flow through the coil changes. The about a circuit conductor or about a
effect of this inductance of a coil is coil—such as a transformer primary,
the same as the effect of the in¬ a fluorescent ballast, a motor winding
ductance of a single conductor; in¬ or any other coil.
crease in current is opposed by the
induced emf and decrease in current In ac circuits, for instance, induct¬
produces an emf which tends to keep ance in circuit conductors—whether
current flowing. Thus, inductance op¬ service entrance conductors, feeders
poses any change in current flow or branch circuit conductors—contrib¬
through a circuit. When current flows utes to voltage drop from the source
at a constant value—without any of supply to the load. It acts in addi¬
change up or down in the current with tion to voltage drop due to resistance,
respect to time—the inductance of although it is not simply added to the
the circuit has no effect whatsoever resistive voltage drop. Voltage drop
on current flow. Under steady-state due to inductance is generally signifi¬
current conditions, the resistance of cant only in the larger sizes of con¬
the circuit is the only opposition of¬ ductors—such as 1/0 and larger. The
fered to current flow. full evaluation of inductive voltage
drop will be given later under alter¬
nating current circuits.
Although it has been described so
far in terms of varying or fluctuating When a switch is used to close the
direct current, inductance as a factor circuit from a dc supply, such as a

telephone: circuit i//astrafes RECEIVER RECEIVER

pr/ncZp/e of mufaa/ZncfacfZon. APap-

nefZc f'e/oZ of /ransm/Zfer co/'Z var¬
ies w/fb roZce currents, sZm//ar¬
ea men fs are /r7/Zuceaf Zn race/ far
co// an// are con rer feet fo sounc/
Zn f/?e re ce Zee rr

transmitter

CONTROL
CUR RE-NT
CIRCUIT ZZ/ufua/ Znc/ucfZon a/so oceans befu/een
r
-4-M- Jl. para//e/ con /factors. T/?e open/'mg or-
1 I , l1^ I 1 1 ' MAGNETIC
c/osZnp of a su/Zfcb Zn a cor?fro/
,v ‘ 1 ' I FIELD
V ^U ! cZrcaZf, for examp/e, cou//f Znc/uce
a mornenfarp current Zn an rf-
SfcKXXX Jacenf fe/epf?one /Zne, causZrrp a.

f \ c/teZ. Sp usZnp a. fwZsfecf paZr for

IfN >UCED TELEPHONE
f~be fe/epbone /Zne, epua/currents are
CURRENTS l_l N E.
Zn/ZaceoZ Zn eacf? of ff?e faro fe/epbone
con (fitc tors, canceZ/np eacf offer- oaf

45
battery, to a coil, the self-inductance menon of generator action. In one
of the coil delays the build-up of the case it was shown that an emf could
current from zero to the steady-state be generated in a coil by rotating the
value determined by the resistance. coil in a magnetic field of fixed flux
The self-induced emf opposes the cur¬ density. In a second case it was shown
rent build-up. Then, once the direct that the same emf could be generated
current has settled down to a steady in the coil by holding the coil fixed in
state value, if the switch is opened, position and rotating the magnets pro¬
the collapsing magnetic field sets up an ducing the fixed density magnetic field.
induced emf which delays the decay It is readily seen that in either case
of the current to zero. This tendency there is the necessary relative motion
to delay decay to zero can often pre¬ between lines of force and conduc¬
sent a problem in the form of an arc tors. This meets Faraday’s Law: When¬
across the terminals of the switch. ever the number of lines of force
When a highly inductive circuit is linking through a coil is changed, an
opened, the emf of self-induction may emf is induced in that coil. But this
be high enough to damage the insula¬ law can also be satisfied by two coils
tion of the coil, to damage the con¬ without relative motion between them,
tacts of the switching device or to by using the “motion” of a building
present a serious hazard due to arcing. and collapsing magnetic field instead
Arc suppression is frequently provid¬ of the fixed field as used in the two
ed to protect contacts of switches or foregoing cases.
other devices used to open inductive
circuits.
If a coil carrying varying current
is placed adjacent to another coil
Mutual Induction which is connected to a voltmeter,
the number of lines of force produced
So far it has been shown that chang¬
by the current-carrying coil and link¬
ing current in a conductor or in a
ing with the second coil will vary
coil results in change in the number
with current variations in the first
of magnetic lines of force linking the
coil. The emf produced in the second
conductor or coil and, as a result,
coil will be indicated on the voltmeter.
sets up an induced emf in the con¬
ductor or coil. And such induction is
called self induction. There is, how¬ The coil to which current is sup¬
ever, another type of induction by plied is called the primary coil and
which the varying magnetic field due the secondary coil. The “coupling” of
to changing current in a conductor the primary coil to the secondary coil
induces an emf in another conductor can be greatly increased by winding
placed close enough to the current both coils on a common iron core to
carrying conductor to be linked by intensify the magnetic field and bring
the varying field of that conductor. the two coils as physically close to¬
Or, the varying magnetic field of one gether as possible.
coil will induce an emf in another
coil placed close enough to the cur¬ Application of the phenomenon of
rent carrying coil to be linked by the mutual induction is made in circuits
magnetic field. In either case, the in¬ having alternating current or pulsat¬
duction of an emf in the conductor ing or varying direct current. Proba¬
or coil which is not producing the bly the most common application is
varying magnetic field is called mu¬ the transformer, in which energy is
tual induction. transferred from the primary coil to
the secondary coil—stepping the volt¬
Mutual induction is actually a form age up, stepping it down or maintain¬
of the previously described pheno¬ ing it at the same value.

46
 Alternating Current
O F ALL the electric energy used
today, most of it is of the alternat¬
current alternations, to use a more
precisely descriptive word—occur in
ing current (or ac) type. a uniform manner, with a fixed fre¬
Although there are many and varied quency. Consider one cycle of the
specific applications in which direct alternating current flow:
current is used today, the character¬
istics of alternating current electricity Starting from zero (no electrons
suit it to general use for power, light, moving in the conductor), current be¬
heat and signals in modem residential, gins to flow in one direction through
commercial, institutional and indus¬ the conductor. Starting slowly, the
trial buildings. A sound understand¬ amount of current flow increases to
ing of the nature and applications of some maximum value; then, with the
alternating current is essential to a same speed, the current decreases to
practical and effective background in zero. But as soon as the current gets
electrical technology. to zero, it does not stop. It immedi¬
ately makes the same variation in
value, from zero to maximum and
back to zero, but with the electrons
Basic Concept flowing in the opposite direction from
A first explanation of alternating that of the first variation. This back-
current is best given by comparing it and-forth shuttling of the current is
to direct current electricity. In a dc repeated constantly so long as the
circuit, the electron flow through the source of ac voltage is applied to the
conductors is always in one direction closed circuit.
—or the current flow is direct, from
which the name direct current comes. From the foregoing description, it
In an alternating current circuit, how¬ is seen that alternating current flows
ever, the direction of current flow is in one direction for a fraction of a
constantly reversing on a fixed time second, reverses and flows in the other
basis. These current reversals—or direction for the same fraction of a

47
second, reverses again, etc. The char¬ As a result, there are 120 reversals
acter of alternating current flow is, of of direction of current flow during
course, determined by the character each second.
of the voltage source supplying the
circuit. That is, the current is produced
by the voltage; and its alternations Method of Generation
are the result of the alternations of The common type of alternating
the voltage and the characteristics of current power used for general pur¬
the circuit through which the current pose power and light loads is pro¬
flows. Current flow through any con¬ duced by alternating current genera¬
ductor will conform to the type of
tors. In an ac generator (or alterna¬
voltage applied. A de voltage pro¬
tor) the rotor usually contains the
duces dc current. An ac voltage pro¬
electro-magnetic field which sets up
duces an ac current.
the magnetic flux lines. When the
rotor is rotated by the prime mover
driving it (steam turbine, gas turbine,
Frequency of AC water wheel, steam or combustion en¬
The most common frequency of gine), the magnetic lines of force are
alternating current power in use today made to cut through the stationary
is 60 cycles per second. Some utilities conductors of the coils mounted
make available 50-cycle current, and around the inside of the stator.
some produce 25-cycle current. Of
course, electric power of higher fre¬ As described earlier, this relative
quencies is widely generated on a motion between lines of force and
local basis for specific applications in electric conductors produces an elec¬
commercial and industrial buildings. tromotive force in the conductors.
High-frequency lighting—400 cycles, Because of the rotating action of the
840 cycles or even higher frequency lines of force cutting through the coil
—is generally supplied from motor- conductors and the varying angle at
generator sets or various converters which the lines cut the conductors,
which are themselves supplied by 60- the voltage produced in the coils al¬
cycle circuits. Various induction and ternates in polarity and varies in in¬
dielectric heating equipment is fed tensity during each half cycle. Thus
from unit converters at the point of the emf is produced in an alternating
use. And use is made in some indus¬ voltage. A simplified explanation of
trial plants of portable electric tools the generation of an alternating emf
operating at frequencies above 60 in a single conductor is given in an
cycles. accompanying sketch, where, for the
sake of simplicity, the coils are shown
The frequency of an alternating on the rotor of a 2-pole generator
current is usually expressed simply in and the field poles are represented as
terms of “cycles”. For instance, 60 fixed magnets.
cycles or 400 cycles. But this must be
understood to be a shortened form of
“cycles per second”. In the case of Variation in the value of generated
60-cycle current, the designation re¬ voltage is shown in the graph. A
veals that the current goes through curve plotted from the instantaneous
exactly 60 complete cycles of current values during one complete cycle of
alternations in each second. Each the 2-pole generator has the same
cycle consists of current variation shape as a curve would have which
fror'i zero to maximum to zero in showed the values of the sine of the
one direction and from zero to maxi¬ various angles of rotation. The wave
mum to zero in the other direction. shape is therefore called a “sine

48
ALTERNATING CURRENT genera^/'or? noay Ae urnderstoocf Sy aons/d-
ennp a s/npte conductor on tPe armatu re of a s/m/yfe 2-pxp/e gener¬
ator and appty/np Me /tr/ac/ptes 0/ e/ectno/napnef/o tnduct/on tor y&r-
taus pos/t/ons of Me corductor as tf rata Ms tr? Me maynef/'c. //'e/of.

Armature conductor at M/s pom/ (taken as 3ero

deprees) is mov/np parat/et u/itP mapnet/c //nes.
Mo tines are Pe/np rat- no 1/0/tape ts tnduced /a
conductor; no current ftoa/s.

As armature rotates, contactor bep/ns to cut

t/ax //nes, /nduc/np a ro/tape and careen f.
dpp//cat/on of r/pPt- Pand rate SACO'S Mat-
current f/ou/s into paper, /nd/cated r
by sy robot ©

iVAen conductor reaches the 90° point, tt /s cutt/np

the t/ux at r/pAt anptes and Pence at a max/mun
s rate. At ax/mum rettape ts /nduced at tA/s
Jr point
As conductor continues around. Me /nduced
uo/taye decreases, ant// conductor apa/n
mores para/tet to ftax t/nes at /so/ and no
ro/tape ts /nduced.

As tAe depree of rotat/on passes tte /8d“

point conductor /s apa/n cuf/na /tax, M/s d
t/me from /eft to r/pnt A/pAt- Pand rate '
sPou/s current nour fto u//np oat of paper
/nd/caMa' Ay symAot ©.
tnduced ro/tape reacAes max/mam at270°
tAen decreases to pens at Jda/ at a/A/cP
t/me a near cyc/e Aep/ns.

OF VOLTAGE (ORCURRENT) AT VARIOUS POlMTS OF ROTATION

MAGNITUDE MAY be. plotted AS SHOWN. CONNECTING the. plotted
POINTS GIVES THE FAMILIAR SINE WAVE ASSOCIATED WITH ALTERNATING CURRENT-

SOOTH MAGNITUDE AT ANT POINT OF THE CYCLE

POLE REPRESENTS AN INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
OF VOLTAGE OR current

MAGNITUDE AT 90° AND

/ 270° REPRESENTS T*4E
./ MAXIMUM VALUE OF
VOLTAGE OR
CURRENT cycle ends
HERE; NEW
CYCLE BEGINS.

O 30 60 90 120 150
DEGREES Of ROTATION

DIRECTION OF INDUCED
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
REVERSES AT I0O°

NOWH
POLE ONE COMPLETE CYCLE COVERS 3<&0° OF ROTA-
■--J
TION. AT GO CYCLES PER SECOND, ONE
CYCLE IS COMPLETED IN 1 /GO SECOND.

49
wave”. All references to alternating and those below the line as negative
current for power and light electrical alternations.
systems are based on the assumption
that voltages and currents are sine During the alternations of an alter¬
waves. All references to alternating nating voltage or current, the value
half cycles have the same shape but at any given time is called the “in¬
successive ones differ in polarity. stantaneous” value; and the greatest
Those above the line are commonly value reached in each half cycle is
referred to as positive alternations called the “maximum” value.

50
 AC Fundamentals
B ECAUSE of the comparatively
complex nature of alternating
grees when applied to a current or
voltage wave are actually representing
current circuits, there are many units of time, inasmuch as a cycle is a
specific characteristics of ac based on current variation with time.
the varying values of current during
each cycle. The important character¬ • Effective Value of Alternating
istics which must be clearly under¬ Current—As described previously, the
stood for effective application of ac value of current in an alternating cur¬
are as follows: rent wave is changing constantly—i.e.,
the instantaneous value is changing
• Electrical Degrees — As shown from zero to maximum to zero, with
previously, each cycle of current alter¬ alternate directions of current flow.
nation takes place in a fixed period of The instantaneous value of current at
time, depending upon the frequency any interval of electrical degrees in a
of the ac. For instance, each cycle of cycle is equal to the maximum value
a 60-cycle ac occurs in Vao of a sec¬ of current for the wave multiplied by
ond. A half cycle at this frequency the sine of the vector angle, which
occurs in Vi2o of a second. At any corresponds to the value of electrical
other frequency, the time interval for degrees for the interval at which the
a cycle or part of a cycle will, of current is taken. Instantaneous value
course, be different. of voltage is obtained in the same
manner. It is the product of the max¬
imum value of voltage times the vec¬
But there is a way of referring to a tor angle. But there is little practical
cycle or part of a cycle which is not use of the instantaneous values of
related to frequency, but which greatly current and voltage in electrical cir¬
facilitates other analysis of ac, such cuits. The more significant values are
as phase relationships. This is the use the effective values of current and
of electrical degrees. One complete voltage.
cycle is 360 degrees; one-half cycle,
180 degrees; etc. Each cycle starts at Because an alternating current is
0 degrees. The positive alternation or constantly varying in instantaneous
half-cycle occurs as the vector gen¬ value and regularly alternating in di¬
erating the sine wave moves from 0 rection, the only way to evaluate the
degrees to 180 degrees. The negative current is to determine its effective
alternation or half-cycle occurs from value. This can be done by determin¬
L80 degrees to 360 degrees. It is im¬ ing the heating effect of an alternating
portant to note that the units of de¬ current and giving the ac current the

51
MAXIMUM AND EFFECTIVE pV-fcTfr
c*ow doctor

<V
AC VOLTAGE AMD CURRENT 2
0
<&'
4
<76“ v

\
\
90* 90* /
The common ac yeneraAor proa/aces a
s
conA/naocts/y rar/aA/e ro/raye ant/cun
re/?/ AAe /nsfanfaneoc/s ro/aes of wA/cA,
a/Aen p/a/Aef aya/nsA A/me or feyrees of A comp/eAe c/rc/e from Ar/ponomeAry. AAe
ntAaA/on, form a s/r?e ware. Aas 360*. A*as / s/ne ('addre r/a Aef "s/n V
camp/e/e rero/cx - of an any/e /s fef/nea:
An AAe cf/ayra/n, AAe any/e & represent A/on of a po/n f as AAe s/ae oppos/Ae (a)
e/ecAr/ca/ decrees of roAaA/on of a f>o/nA on a conaacAor aA/r/fef dy AAe AypoA-
on a confucAor mor/ny AAroayA a map- on an armaAct re enase (c).
neA/c • f/e/f adouA AAe cenAer ax/s of corers 360*. AA
AAe OrmaAtrae. TAas, S/n &- ~c~
60 cps, / cyc/e
Aafes t/6o sec., /A /so c * 6
/Ae A/AX/Mc/M fACl/f of AAe yeneraAeZ '/z cye/e Aafes
ro/Aaye or cesrrenA (fm or ZA,) /s pro- 1//20 sec., eAc. tnrA /• o/>i a
porA/ona/ Ab AAe AypoAenuse "c" of AAe
Ar/any/e, wA/cA /s AAe me '>cts of AAe
C/rc/e.

The /A/S7XA/TAA/fOO& l09/Ll/£ of AAe ro/f-

aye or carrenA (Z; or Zy) /s Sropor- EXAMPLE 2: 7he may/mum table or s/nes
fyona./ /o AAe s/fe "a" oppos/fe any/e S. /ns/an/ameerus ro/Aaye pro- e S/n 6
a/ueetf Ay a aemeraAor /s
/AoAe /Aa A a* o aA c*. /so*. ana/ 360° o* O
/70 1/0 /As. f/nf /nsAamA-'
/J/so a* c aA yo*; a = -c aA 270 30* 0-5
aneoas ro/Aaye ra/aes a A 60° O’
TAus. Zi = o a.A o* /So* anaA 360* 30* /nferna/s orer TAe Com- 90- /. 0
an oC fy-£m a/9o--, £y . -£„, at 270* pfeAe cyc/e ana/ fmau/ AA>e /ZO° 0.866
s/ne cvare represenf/np o.s
/so-
f/?e ro/Aaye. CCfaA /s /Bo° 0
AAe effecA/re ra/Aaye 7 2/0* -o.s
ffA a// oAAer po/nAs, Zy u//7A Ae some 2400 -0. 866
ra/ue AeAu/eer> 6 ant Zm o7ur/ny tAe //A 30°. Zy - s/a £ 270* - /-o
pos/A/re ha/f of AAe cyc/e a no/ 7>e- - /70 S/n 30* 300* -0.866
Aa/een O anot -£— oAar/na -AAe neya- 330* -o.s
~ /7C x 0.6
Are A?a/f 340° O
* 8Z no/As.
f/e can f/noA AAe ra/cee of Zy a A any
po/nA of AAe cyc/e as/ny a AaAAe of
s/ne ra/aes an<A AAe forma/a.
Zy = Z„ s/n & ConA/nct/ny AA/sprocedure for a// any/es
sAoa/n /n AAe Aa//e y/res AAe fo//ow/n<y:
G 6 ey 6 £c
S/m/AarAy, o° O /■.200 /47 270* ~/70
Zy - -A/tj s/n 6 30* SS /SO* 8S 300* -Z4.7
60* /47 /so- 0 330* - 8S
rhrouoh A/yAer ma/demaA'cs, /A /s Avunf ?o* /70 2/0- -33 360* O
AAaA AAe ac f/ffcr/ff ft/fPS/AT - 2400 — /4 7
Aha/ carrenA profuc/ny AAe same AeaA-
7ny effecA as a cAc carmen A of eyaa/
mayn/Aac/e —may Ae foanoA as fo/-
Aou/S:
Ze* 0.707Jm
P/o/A/ny AA/s faAa y/res AAe s/ne a/a re
The same re/aA/onsA/p app/ses Ao ac
ro/Aayes ■■
Ze - 0.707 Z„

EXAMPLE I : TAe s/ne ware of an

a/AernaA/na currenA sAoa/s a max-
0° 90* /80° 270° 3600
/mam ra/ue of /oo amperes. WAaA
ra/ae of r/c currenA w/AA prof ace 6
//re same AeaA/ny effecA 7
fAe effecA/re ro/Aaye /n AA/s case u//AA Ae
z, r o. 707Z„ r 0.707 * /70 * /20 rv/As.
* 0.707 x /OO 7d/s /s AAe maA/ny a/A/cA wouff appear
--70. 7 amperes. on Afre macA/ne n?amep/a.Ae.

52
 same ampere designation as a direct the effective value unless specific des¬
current which will produce the same ignation is given to the contrary.
heating effect. Equipment nameplates, system desig¬
As discussed in the study of direct nations, voltage and current ratings
currents, the heating effect of direct of circuits and equipment, readings of
current is an expenditure of power test instruments and just about all
and is equal to the square of the cur¬ practical references to voltage and
rent times the resistance of the cur¬ current are based on effective values.
rent path, i.e., P=I2R. From this
• Effective Value of AC EMF—The
comparison, it can be stated that an
alternating currents discussed so far
alternating current has an effective
are caused to flow by voltage, or
value of one ampere when it will pro¬
EMF, which is the cause of the alter¬
duce the same heat in a given resist¬
nations in current flow. The same
ance as one ampere of direct current.
relationships exist, therefore, among
The value of effective current is
instantaneous, maximum and effective
given in amperes. Another common
or rms values of voltage, e.g., rms
description of this effective value is
value of a sine wave.
the “rms” value. The letters “rms”
stand for “root-mean-square.” This
expression derivesTfdnrthe’Xompari-
Ohm's Law for AC
son of ac heating effect to dc heating Application of an ac rms voltage
effect. to a circuit containing resistance will
A dc current produces heat at a produce an rms value of current flow
rate equal to I2R. The heating effect in accordance with Ohm’s Law: 1=
of an ac current half cycle is being E/R. Because rms voltage and current
produced at any instant at a rate values correspond in their nominal
equal to i2R, where “i” is the instan¬ values to direct current values which
taneous value of current at each in¬ will produce the same heating effect,
stant. The heating effect of each half the application of Ohm’s Law can be
cycle depends upon the average of the made to ac circuits in the same way
squares of the instantaneous current it is made to dc circuits. For instance,
values for the half cycle. By taking 120 volts rms ac applied to a circuit
the square root of the mean or aver¬ of 12 ohms resistance will produce a
age square of the instantaneous cur¬ current of 10 rms amperes, just as
rent values, the effective or rms value 120 volts dc would produce a 10-amp
can be determined. This value then dc current in the same resistance.
represents the heating effect, or rate Power in any ac circuit supplying
of heat production, during each half a resistive load can be computed from
cycle, regardless of the direction of the same formula used for dc power,
current flow. And so long as the cur¬ i.e., P=I2R, in which “P” is the power
rent alternations of the same value in watts, “I” is the rms value of cur¬
follow one after the other, the effec¬ rent and “R” is the resistance through
tive or rms value of the current is which the current is flowing. Varia¬
maintained at a steady level. tions on this basic power formula are,
as explained in the study of dc, the
The effective or rms value of a sine following: P=E2/R and P=EI. As an
wave alternating current is equal to example, what is the current drawn
0.707 times the maximum, or peak, by a 1,000-watt load of incandescent
value of the current wave. lamps connected on a 120-volt ac
It is important to remember that branch circuit? Using the formula
when an alternating current or ac P~El and transposing, I=P/E, or
voltage is given a value it is always I = 1000/120 = 8.3 amperes.

53
 AC Circuit Analysis
N ALTERNATING current cir¬ There are two possible “out of
cuits, some very important consid¬ phase” relations between voltage and
erations arise from the waveform current:
character of the current and the
voltage. A basic consideration is that 1. The current may pass through
of the phase relation between the its zero value and increase to a
current and the voltage waveforms. maximum at some time later than
When an alternating current volt¬ the voltage has passed through its
age is applied to a circuit containing zero and increased to its maximum.
resistance only, the current wave is In such a case, the current is said
produced by the voltage wave. In to “lag” the voltage.
such a circuit, the current and volt¬
age pass through their zero values 2. The current may pass through its
and increase to their maximum values zero value and increase to a maxi¬
in the same direction at the same time. mum at some time earlier than the
In that case, the current is said to be voltage passes through its zero and
“in phase” with the voltage. However, increases to its maximum. In this
in circuits which contain opposition to case, the current is said to “lead” the
current flow other than resistance (such voltage.
as magnetic coils or capacitor effects—
to be discussed later), the current and Depending upon the particular
voltage waves do not go through conditions of a circuit, a current may
their zero and maximum values at the lead or lag the voltage by any value
same time. Instead, there is a fixed up to 14 cycle or 90°. Using elec¬
time interval between zero and maxi¬ trical degrees as a measure of time
mum values of current and zero and (as described previously), the differ¬
maximum values of voltage. In this ence in time or the “phase difference”
latter case, the current is said to be is commonly expressed in electrical
“out of phase” with the voltage. degrees and is called the “phase

54
angle” of the circuit. The Greek
letter “theta”—0—is the usual symbol
for phase angle. CURRENT FLOW THROUGH A
Phase difference, as described RESISTANCE. encounters no oppos¬
above, is an out-of-phase relation be¬ ing emf; hence c/rcu/t co/tage ancfcur¬
tween a voltage and the current it rent r/se a not fa// together; or " /n
produces. However, there may also phase. "
be circuits in which two or more
voltages have phase differences be¬
tween them, or two or more cur¬
rents exist with phase differences.
Such conditions will be found in poly¬
phase alternating current circuits —
three-phase circuits, for example.

Load Characteristics
When a dc voltage is applied to
a circuit, the amount of current CURRENT FLOW THROUGH AN
which flows is determined wholly by
the resistance in the circuit. How¬ INDUCTANCE , however, sets up a
magnet/c f/e/ata tout the co/t u/h/ch
ever, when an ac voltage is applied
/natuces an oppos/ng emf /n the
to a circuit, the amount of current
co/t a not causes the c/rru/t current
which flows is determined not „only
aj t
to tag 6 eh/net the c/rcu/t /mpresses/
by the resistance of the circuit but
cottage.
also by
a
the amount of inductance and
capacitance. Resistance opposes cur¬
rent flow in ac circuits in much the
Cwrrenf wave beqiis Here,
same way as it opposes current flow after vo Itaqe ouave
in dc circuits. This was shown pre¬
viously in the case of Ohm’s Law for
ac. But inductance and capacitance
are circuit characteristics which affect
current only in ac circuits.

When an ac circuit contains only

resistance, the current will be in
phase with the voltage, i.e., the phase
angle will be zero. And the circuit will
conform to Ohm’s Law.
magnetic cores—motors, ballasts,
Inductance—As discussed in a pre¬ transformers, solenoids, etc.
vious section on “Electromagnetic Inductance is measured in basic
Induction,” inductance is the property units known as “henrys”. The symbol
of a circuit or circuit element, such for a henry is “L” and a circuit or
as a coil or other electromagnetic device is said to have an inductance
device, which opposes any change in of one henry if, when the current
the current flowing in the circuit. This is changing at the rate of one ampere
opposition arises from self-induced per second, the average induced
emf due to varying flux resulting counter emf is one volt.
from the alternating character of the
current. Any part of a circuit which Inductive Reactance—In an ac circuit
produces flux has inductance. This in¬ containing inductance, an emf of self-
cludes all forms of coils wound on induction is being induced con-

55
 value of inductance and the frequency
of the alternating current. Thus, the
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE value of inductive reactance in¬
/5 /he oppos/f/'on, expressed /'/?
creases with increase in inductance
ohms, presenfec/ 7b 7/re P/ou/ of and with increase in frequency of cur¬
ac curre/i 7 cfue 7o 77 e /ntfur/srrce rent alternations. The value of induc¬
7/7 -The c/rru/7 : tive reactance in ohms may be found
from the following formula:

Xt - 27J-7L
XL = 2 7T fL
yL* /rufuchi/e reacfarce (ohms)
7i = 3-74
p = frequency (cyc/es per second) where
7 - /hfucfarce (herrys)
3.14
7T —

f = frequency of current in cps

L = value of inductance in henrys

Z - effecf/re curre/yf (amperes) In a circuit containing only induct¬

f- e/fecf/re t/o/faye Cro/Zs) ance (resistance is negligible), the
only opposition to current flow is the
emf of self-induction. As a result, the
EXAMPLE: What e-Tfec-five current voltage applied to the circuit will be
will floco +hrouqh the
coil in the -following circuit ? (Re¬ equal and opposite to the emf of self-
sistance of coil is negligible.) induction. The value of self-induced
Note.- I milh-henry (mb') = henry. emf will be maximum when change
in current (and, hence, change in
T~~ flux) is maximum. This will be when
170 vo/+s 30 mh
CO cf>s the current wave is going through its
J zero point. The value of self-induced
emf will be zero when the rate of
current (and, again flux) change is
zero. This latter condition occurs at
SOLUTION :
the maximum value points in the cur¬
*L 2fffL = 2X3.14X60 x .03 rent wave. From all of these condi¬
II. 3 ohms tions, it is found that the current lags
the applied voltage by 90°in a pure¬
E 120
—— = io.6 amperes
I ly inductive circuit. And if there is
M. 3 “
any resistance in a circuit contain¬
ing inductance (which is usually the
case) the angle of current lag will be
less than 90°, depending upon the
tinuously because the instantaneous amount of resistance and inductance.
value of current is alternating in
value continuously. Because this emf
of self-induction is constantly oppos¬
ing the alternations in current, it is,
in effect, opposing the ac current and
W HEN a voltage is applied to a
circuit containing only induct¬
ance (i.e., resistance is negligi¬
its effect can be measured in ohms.
ble), the magnitude of current flow is
The opposition that inductance pre¬
determined from the value of the volt¬
sents to the flow of alternating cur¬
age and the value of inductive react¬
rent is known as “inductive react¬
ance in accordance with the following:
ance,” designated by the symbol “XL.”
E
In any circuit, the amount of in¬
ductive reactance depends upon the 1= XL

56
where, I = current in amps, field set up around the conductor. But
E = applied voltage for 60-cycle ac circuits, inductance is
XL = inductive reactance so small as to be negligible in re¬
sistive load devices — incandescent
lamps, resistance heating elements —
For example, if 120 volts, 60-cycle
and in the vast majority of circuit
ac, is applied to a circuit containing
0.02 henry of inductance, the induc¬ conductors. In larger sizes of conduc¬
tors, such as sizes No. 1/0 and larger,
tive reactance is equal to 2 x 3.14
the ratio of inductance to resistance
x 60 x 0.02 from the formula for in¬
becomes significant due to increased
ductive reactance, XL — 27rfL. This
spacing between centers of conduc¬
works out to 7.54 ohms. Then, ac¬
cording to I = E/Xl, the current flow¬ tors and the effect of inductive reac¬
ing in the circuit will be equal to tance must be taken into considera¬
120/7.54 or 15.9 amps. tion in computing voltage drop in
such circuits.

In discussing resistance in ac cir¬

Resistance and Inductance cuits, it is important to note that
As stated previously, circuits con¬ electric conductors offer greater re¬
taining inductance and only a negligi¬ sistance to the flow of alternating cur¬
ble amount of resistance are extreme¬ rent than they do to the flow of di¬
ly rare. And it should be noted that rect current. This difference in re¬
practical electrical circuits which con¬ sistance of a given wire to ac and
tain no resistance at all are impossible dc arises from two sources.
to achieve. Any conductor of electric
current which provides the inductance One source of the increase in re¬
in an ac circuit has some resistance sistance is called “skin effect,” deriv¬
due to frictional effects of electron ing the name from the fact that al¬
flow through the molecular adhesion ternating current tends to flow along
of the conductor material itself. So the outside, or “skin,” of a conductor.
consideration must next be given to This is due to inductive action which
circuits combining resistance and in¬ forces the current to the outside of
ductance in series. the wire. But it must be made clear
that although skin effect and induc¬
A very wide range of electrical ap¬ tive reactance are both produced by
pliances and devices present a com¬ the fluctuating magnetic field, they
bination load of resistance and in¬ are completely separate and distinct
ductance to current flow through effects. Skin effect is resistive opposi¬
them. A motor, for instance, has tion and will not shift the phase rela¬
windings which have a certain amount tion between current and voltage, In¬
same can be said of fluorescent light¬ ductive reactance, as explained, is a
ing ballasts, transformers, solenoid back-emf type of opposition to cur¬
coils and electric generators. The ap- rent flow and does shift the phase be¬
of resistance and also have an ap¬ tween current and voltage.
preciable amount of inductance. The
preciable amount of inductance in A second source of increase in re¬
such devices arises from the fact that sistance for ac is called “proximity
they all contain wires wound in the effect.” This effect refers to the fact
.. i

form of coils and have magnetic cores that the varying magnetic fie11 set up
which intensify the flux produced by around a conductor carrying ac will
current flow and therefore intensify produce losses due to currents in¬
the inductance. Of course, any con¬ duced in adjacent conductors, due to
ductor carrying current, either ac or hysteresis losses in any magnetic ma¬
dc current, is subject to the effects terial (such as steel conduit) around
produced by variations in the flux the conductor, due to currents induced

57
 IMPEPANCE IN INPUCTIVE CIRCUITS kC gESISTANCE
Current through a res/stance /s /n phase u//th the MULTIPLYING FACTORS FOR
CONVERTING DC RESISTANCE
voStage; current through an inductance tags the cott¬ TO 60-CYCLE AC RESISTANCE
age by to* The res/stance (f) ant/ the /nduct/ce re¬ (Copper conduc+ors in met-
all ic-shca+hed cab/es or
actance (yc) u/h/ch prou/de oppos/t/on to these in metallic raceways')
currents may a/so he thought of as he/ng to °
SIZE FACTOR
apart. 7he net opposition to the
Current /mpedance (Z), u//tt then 3 MiG 1.0 0
be represented 6y the hypotenuse :2 1. O 1

oh the tr/ang/e thus formed S/nce I 1. O 1

the sguare of the hypotenuse of 0 1. 02

a tr/angte /s eguat to the sum o a 1. 03

of the sgaares of the offer fa/o s/des, 0 0 0 1. 04
0 0 0 0 1.05
Z1 " R2 + XL2.
2 5 0.0 0 o CM 10 6
Therefore, Jn a series circuit contain/ ng both
5 0 O, O 0 O 1. 1 3
resistance and inductance, 1,0 O 0,0 o o 1.30
2, O O 0,0 O O 1.82

The a tore data, extracted

from the A/at/onat f/ectn'ca/
/mpedance, t/he res/stance and reactance, is ex¬ fode, indicates the extent to
pressed /n ohms, ff represents the apparent u/h/ch dc and ac re s/ s f-
res/stance of a c/ccu/t to a/ternating current, ances differ The differ¬
so that ence is /ess pronounced
EFFECTIVE CURRENT =
EFFECTIVE VOLTAGE for non-meta/f/c sheathed
IMPEDANCE
cah/es, Cah/es /n air or
Or ICFP (amperes)
tEpp (voutO /a non-metai/ic conduit;
~Z_ (ohms,) and for a/uminum cah/es

in metallic raceways, either magnetic determined by multiplying the dc re¬

or non-magnetic. Because these power sistance by the factor given in hand¬
losses must be supplied by the con¬ book tables on dc to ac resistance
ductors producing them, they increase conversions. One such table is given in
the effective resistance of the circuit Chapter 9 at the end of the National
over what it would be for direct cur¬ Electrical Code.
rent, which does not produce the
above losses.
When a voltage is applied to a cir¬
cuit containing resistance in series
Both skin effect and proximity ef¬
with inductance, calculation of the
fect exist to some extent in all con¬
current flow follows a fixed proce¬
ductors carrying alternating current.
dure: First the value of inductance
But this increase in resistance is so
in henrys is taken and converted to an
small for most circuits that it need not
ohms value of inductive reactance
be considered. That is, the resistance
by XL = 27rfL. Then the ac value
of conductors to ac can be taken to
of the resistance must be combined
be the same as the dc resistance for
with the inductive reactance value in
all conductors smaller than‘500 MCM.
a way which accounts for the differing
For conductors in which skin ef¬ phase relations. The net effect of the
fect must be included in evaluating resistance and inductive reactance act¬
resistance, the ac resistance can be ing in series is to produce an opposi-

58
 004 OHM
EXAMPLE-
LOAD RESISTANCE
f or f/>e C/rcu/ V s6oa/rt f/nd - 13.36 OHMS

(A) THE INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

LOAD INDUCTANCE
Cb) the impedance
- IOO MM
(c) THE EFFECTIVE CURRENT
(D) THE MAXIMUM CURRENT

‘SOLUTION-
(a') INDUCTIVE REACTANCE Yu= 2 TT -f L
Yl - “2 x 3. 14- I «£, * «oO * O. I
r 37. 7 044 NA S
(C.) EFFECTIVE CURRENT = EFF

(B) IMPEDANCE Z * 1 R.2 + Xt2

740 VOLTS
RESISTANCE - 13.3C ♦ .004 + .004 ■ EFE 6 AMPERES
40 OHMS
«• 13.368 OUMS

(d) effective current - 0.707 x max. current

Z - lf(l3.36a)* -*■ (3T.7')a

T Ieff
= If I7B.7 ^ 1471 • 3 • MM
0.707

Cj
= if I 600 «• 40 ON MS - o.7o7 - 8.43 ampere.s

tion to current flow called “impe- Then the circuit current can be found
dance/’ designated by the symbol “Z.” from the formula —
Impedance is found from the fol¬
lowing: _
z=V R2 + x L2 This formula is the ac form of
where, Z = impedance in ohms, Ohm’s Law and applies to all ac cir¬
R = resistance in ohms cuits. An example of this calculation
X = inductive reactance is shown in the accompanying illus¬
in ohms tration.

59
 Circuit Impedances
A S DISCUSSED previously, cur¬
rent flowing through a resist¬
Es
Eg
=
=
V Er2 + El2, where
voltage impressed on circuit.
ance is in phase with the voltage Er = voltage drop across resistance, and
causing the current flow; but current El = voltage drop across the inductance.
flowing through an inductance is 90
deg out of phase with the voltage An example of the voltage relation¬
wave producing the current flow, ships in a circuit containing resistance
with the current lagging the voltage. and inductance in series is given in
the accompanying illustration. It
When a resistance and inductance should be noted that the impedance
are connected in series across a volt¬ represented by the resistance and the
age source, a single current flows inductance in series is found from a
with an in-phase relation to the volt¬ similar formula in which considera¬
age drop across the resistance and tion is given to the phase difference
a 90° lagging phase relation to the between the voltage drops.
voltage drop across the inductance.
Other variations on the basic for¬
The voltage drops—the one across
mulas for circuits containing resist¬
the resistance and the one across the
ance and inductance in series are as
inductance—are therefore 90 deg out
follows:
of phase with each other. As a result,
the simple mathematical sum of the
two voltage drops is not equal to the Es = v Er2 + El2 = v (IR)2 + (IXl)2

source voltage impressed on the cir¬ = V I2(R2 + XL2) = IV R2 + Xl2

cuit.
I = E/VR2-fXL2 = E/Z
The source voltage across the
above described circuit is equal to the
vector sum of the voltage drop across Capacitance
the resistance and the voltage across In addition to inductance, there is
the inductance in accordance with the another characteristic of importance
following formula: in ac circuits. This is “capacitance,”

60
 which has a reactive load effect
somewhat similar to inductance but
with a different phase relationship be¬
tween current and voltage.
Capacitance is an electrical char¬
acteristic based on the phenomenon
of electrostatics. So far we have dis¬
cussed electric current flow, which is
electricity in motion. But there is an¬
other form of electricity which is at
rest and does not involve a current
flow. This is static electricity.
If a source of dc voltage is con¬
nected across two conducting plates
which are placed close together but
are separated by air or other insulating
material, the plate connected to the
plus terminal will have a positive
charge (a deficiency of electrons) and
the plate connected to the minus ter¬
minal will have a negative charge (a
surplus of electrons, the ones drawn
from the positive plate by the voltage
source). Thus an electrostatic charge
exists across the plates. The slight
movement of electrons which set up
the electrostatic charge indicates the
ability of the plates to store an elec¬
tric charge. If the source of voltage
is removed, the plates will hold their
charge until the displaced electrons
can find a way to leak back to the
positively charged plate. Any two
conductors separated by a dielectric
material — an insulating material
which permits passage of electrostatic
lines of force—is a capacitor and has
capacitance or ability to store elec¬
tric charges.
Capacitors are devices used in elec¬
tric circuits and equipment to obtain
certain characteristics based on their
ability to hold electric charges. Typi¬
cal capacitor units are made for
power factor correction on circuits
and for many uses in electronics. The
most common dielectric materials
used are air, impregnated paper,
mica, ceramic and electrolytic film.
But in addition to devices intended to
provide capacitance, there are sources
of capacitance which are accidental.
These latter include: capacitance be¬
tween insulated conductors in contact

61
 nating current. When a dc voltage is
impressed across a capacitor, there is
CAPACITANCE a slight initial rush of electrons to set
//nay* re a capa c/for connected rf/rec f/y up the charged condition. Then there
to tAe terro/na/s of a battery is no more electron movement, and
BATTERY POSITIVE POTENTIAL
the circuit is effectively an open cir¬
DRAWS ELECTRONS FROM TOP cuit due to the insulator separating
I PLATE OF CAPACITOR. LEAVING
J POSITIVE CHARGE ON TOP the capacitor plates. But when an
I PLATE. THIS CHARGE AT- alternating current voltage is im¬
J TRACTS ELECTRONS TO LOW¬
ER PLATE. CREATING NEG¬ pressed across a capacitor, the back
ATIVE CHARGE THERE. NO
CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH
and forth motion of electron flow
THE AIR OR INSULATING MATELRlAL &E- alternately charges the capacitor with
TWEE N THE PLATES.
one polarity and then with the op¬
A/ous cors/cfer VAe capac/for across ary posite polarity. In effect, the capaci¬
ac yesyerafor facA paarfer of or?e tor permits alternating current to
comp/e fe cyc/e U//7Z Ae ar7a/c/jecf: flow but does act as an opposing ef¬
fect which reduces the current value
AS GENERATOR VOLTAGE E<;
INCREASES. CAPACITOR C IS from what it would be if the capaci¬
CHARGED WHEN EG REACHES
MAXIMUM VALUE, C IS AT I *T QUARTER
tor were not in the circuit.
(Maximum charge. increasing As shown in a sketch, when an ac
EC, STILL IN SAME DIRECTION, voltage wave starts from zero, cur¬
begins TO DECREASE. C BE¬
rent starts flowing into the capacitor,
GINS TO DISCHARGE CURRENT
BACK TOWARD GENERATOR. storing up the electrons. But the value
2nd QUARTER
CURRENT REACHES MAXIMUM
WHEN Eg REACHES Z.ERO.
EgDECREASING of current will be decreasing continu¬
ally from its initial value during the
AS Eg BUILDS UP IN OPPOSITE
DIRECTION, C CHARGES IN rise of the voltage wave, because as
OPPOSITE DIRECTION. CURRENT
the dielectric stores more and more
REACHES ZERO AS Eg REACHES
ITS MAXIMUM. AT TH/S POINT
3*o QUARTER electrons, it can take fewer and fewer
Eg INCREASING
C AGAIN HAS A MAXIMUM
CHARGE BUT OP THE OPPO¬
IN OPPOSITE additional electrons. When the volt¬
direction
SITE POLARITY AS IN 2 nd age wave is at its top, where there is
QUARTER-CYCLE..
no longer an increase in the potential
AS Eg DECREASES, C AGAIN applied, the flow of electrons into the
DISCHARGES, THIS TIME IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTION AS IN 4 ™ QUARTER dielectric ceases. Then as the voltage
2wo QUARTER - CYCLE. Eg DECREASING
wave decreases to zero, the electrons
stored in the dielectric are caused by
the charge on the capacitor to start
flowing back, out of the capacitor,
in the direction opposite to that in
which they entered. And the rate of
this outward flow increases from zero
to a maximum value which occurs
when the impressed circuit voltage
has decreased to zero. Electrons
then start flowing into the dielectric
with each other, with the insulation from the other side of the capacitor.
acting as the dielectric; capacitance The same process is then repeated
in the turns of transformer winding; with the opposite polarity of the volt¬
capacitance between any closely age wave and opposite polarity in the
placed conducting parts with potential charging of the capacitor. A close look
difference between them. at this diagram reveals that the ac
current “through” the capacitor “leads”
In ac circuits, capacitance—from the voltage impressed by 90 deg. This
either capacitors or from stray ac¬ then is a reactive effect and is directly
cidental effects—is an important con¬ opposite to that produced by induct¬
sideration due to its reaction to alter¬ ance.
v

62
Capacitive Reactance
A CLEAR qualitative and quantita¬
tive understanding of the phe¬
negative plate were attracted by tne
positively charged ions of the posi¬
nomenon of capacitance can be tive plate of the capacitor. The plus
obtained by considering the action and minus charges would be neutral¬
which takes place when a dc voltage ized and the capacitor would be dis¬
source, such as a battery, is con¬ charged.
nected across the plates of a capacitor: In a circuit with a battery of given
As described, a charge is produced voltage, the use of a capacitor of a
on the capacitor equal to the voltage given size will produce a certain
of the battery—with a positive charge amount of current flow when the cir¬
on the capacitor plate connected to cuit is closed. Use of a different size
the positive battery terminal and a capacitor in the same circuit will pro¬
negative charge on the plate connected duce a different momentary current.
to the negative battery terminal. This Thus, the size of a capacitor indi¬
charge was produced by a minute, cates the effect it will have as a de¬
momentary flow of electrons when the vice for storing electrons.
dc source was connected to the ca¬ Every capacitor is rated according
pacitor. And the current flow stopped to the amount of electrons that are
quickly, leaving the charge on the stored in it when a source of one volt
capacitor. And if the battery is dis¬ is connected across it. This ability to
connected from the capacitor, the store electrons is called “capacitance”
charge would remain on the capacitor and is expressed in units called “far¬
provided there was no current path ads.” A capacitor has a capacitance
from one plate of the capacitor to of 1 farad when an applied source
the other. of one volt causes the capacitor to
If the charged plates of the capaci¬ take a charge of 1 coulomb. Because
tor are then shorted—connected to¬ the farad is too large a unit of rating
gether by a piece of wire—the same for practical usage, the term “micro¬
minute, momentary current would farad” (one millionth of a farad) is
flow as the surplus electrons on the more commonly used. The symbol

63
 CAPACITANCE CAPACITORS IN SERIES
J?emem6er that current does r?of
1 To to/ capacitance of
ffou/ through a cgpxoc/tor. The constant
ty reisers//?# re/faye causes a "bach- c,0
C
I
I
circuit = C
/ / / /
and-forth " movement of e/ectrans to x c ' c. * o * G
a/temate/y chary e Me capacitor f/ rst
in one direct ion, then the often EXAMPLE • FIND C IF c, - 20 MFD,
C2 * 30 MF^ C3 = 4-0 MFD.
SOLUTION
DOTTED ARROWS
SNOW DIRECTION 4r - 4- 4- J- 4- S- = _L_ + _L 4. _!_
OF ELECTRON c Cl '-X c3 20 30 AO
MOVEMENT C-= -°S 4- .0333 •+■ .025 - .1003

C s TToSs = 9 23 MtrP
|V HALF 2MO HALF
OF CYCLE OF CYCLE

Convenhonat current is norma//y repre¬

sented as moir/ncy ausay from -Me pos-
itire termina/ of the source, opposite in area of the plates and decreases
to the acfua./ direction of e/ecfron //out: as the plates are moved further apart.
If several capacitors are connected
in series, the combined value of ca¬
pacitance will be less than the capac¬
itance value of the lowest rated ca¬
I*THALF OF CYCLE 2M°MALF OF CYCLE pacitor in the group, in accordance
X - effect/re current with the formula,
J_ _ JL 1 1

c - c~+ c,+ c3 + • • ■
capacitance a i farad u/hen / vo/t
produces a charge of / coa/omh on
where C is the combined capacitance
the capacitor value in farads and Ct, C2, C3, etc.
a coulomb is a quantity of e/ectri- are the individual values of capaci¬
city, e«puai to appro ximafe/y 6 roi/tion tance of each of the capacitors in
m/i/ion mit/ion e/ecfrons.
the group. When a number of ca¬
| FARAD = I.OQQ.OOO MICROFARADS.
pacitors are connected in parallel,
abbreviate d mod, mid, or pfd
the combined capacitance value is
equal to the numerical sum of the
individual values of capacitance of
“C” is used to represent farads of the capacitors in the group, i.e.
capacitance. C — Cj -}- C2 + C3 -|- C4 -f- . . .
For any capacitor, the capacitance
rating is directly proportional to the
area of the capacitor plates and in¬ Capacitive Reactance
versely proportional to the distance As described previously, a capaci¬
separating the plates. An additional tor connected in an alternating cur¬
factor in determining the value of rent circuit permits the current to
capacitance is the material used for flow by reason of its ability to store
the dielectric. For instance, a given current on one direction of current
set of capacitor plates with a fixed flow, then discharge the current, then
separation will have a certain rating store current as the ac current flows
of farads with air as the dielectric in the opposite direction. But the ca¬
but will have a higher value of capac¬ pacitor does offer opposition to cur¬
itance if mica or ceramic or glass is rent flow. This opposition depends
substituted for air as the dielectric. upon two factors: the value of capac¬
Capacitance increases with increase itance and the rate at which the ap-

64
 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
The oppos/h/on offeree/ 6y a capac/Zor
To fa/ capac/fance ■fo fhe f/ow of a/Zeraaffrip currer?/
of c/'rcu/f = C /s <ra//ed capac/f/ye reac/aace aad/s
measured /a oArrts.
C * C, C*2 f-3
y - --- T -
*c ~ 277 PC 1 Xc
EXAMPLE :
Xc - capac/Z/ye reacfarfce (oAms)
FIND C IP C, = 2.0 MFD, 77 - 3/4
C2 = 30 MFD, P - freaaer?ey (cyc/es per sec)
C3 * 40 MFD. C = capac/ far?ce (Parade)
I = ePPecf/ye carreaZ (amperes)
SOLUTIOM-
P = ePPeeP/re yo/Zaye (ro/Zs)
c = c, + c2 * c3
= 20 + to +• 40 = 30 MFD
£V AM PLE : FIND I, 1^ AKJD I IN THE
CIRCUIT BELOVM IF
C, = 200 MFD, Ca - IOO MFD.

plied voltage is changing—which is f ^7

740 voers
the frequency of the alternating-cur¬ 60 cvrtes
rent voltage source. With an ac volt¬ J
age connected across only a capaci¬ SOLUTION ••
I I ooo ooo
tor, an increase in either the capaci¬
yCi=2TlfC2 * (3-77'K«OOn) 6 2652 °gM5
tance of the capacitor or an increase E 2 4°
in the frequency of the ac voltage = x^: =
will decrease the opposition that the V 1 - I ooo ooo
yc, -2T.-PC, * C377*)C200^ = 13OMM5-
capacitor offers and will, as a result,
_ E 240
cause an increase in the current flow¬ " Xc, = 1-3.2€» =
ing through the circuit. The opposi¬
tion to current flow is called “capaci¬ X - I, Iz * 2 7. 15 Amps

tive reactance” and is inversely pro¬

CHECK :
portional to capacitance and frequen¬
TOTAL CAPACITANCE C * C,+C2* 300 MFD.
cy. Like resistance and inductive re¬
i ooo ooo
actance, capacitive reactance is meas¬ 2tr-rc " (577)(3oo) = 8.8+OHMS.
ured in ohms and has a value from - 240
-flft = 27. IS amps.
Xc
the formula:
1
Xc = --
27rfC
As in the case of a circuit contain¬
where f = frequency of the voltage ing only inductance, a circuit con¬
source in cycles per second, taining only capacitance will have a
77 = 3.14 and current flow equal to
C = value of capacitance in farads. E
I = -
When the capacitance is given in
Xc
microfarads, the formula becomes:
where I = effective or rms current,
1,000,000
E — rms voltage applied and
Xc = -
277fC Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms.

65
 Capacitance and
Resistance
A S STATED previously, when an
ac voltage is impressed across a
An example of the voltage relation¬
ships in a circuit containing resistance
pure capacitance, the current flow and capacitance in series is given in
through the capacitance follows an an accompanying illustration. Other
ac wave pattern which leads the volt¬ variations on the basic formula for
age wave by 90 electrical degrees. Or voltage are as follows:
another way to say it is that the volt¬
age lags the current by 90 degrees in Eg = V (IR)2 + (IXc)2
a purely capacitive circuit. But be¬
= V' I2(R2 + X2C)
cause capacitors and other capacitive
conditions are always concerned with = I V R2 + X2c
circuits made up of wires and cables,
the resistance of such wires and cables Then from those variations on the
is added to the capacitive reactance voltage formula, we derive the follow¬
so that there is no such thing as a ing on current and impedance:
purely capacitive circuit. I = Eg V R2 + X2C = Eg -T- Z
When a resistance and capacitance therefore,
are connected in series across a voltage Z = V R2 + X2C
source, a single current flows with an This last formula indicates that the
in-phase relation to the voltage drop impedance to current flow represented
across the resistance and a 90° lead¬ by resistance in series with capacitance
ing phase relation to the voltage drop can be reduced to an ohmic value if
across the capacitance. the resistance and capacitive reactance
These two voltage drops—the one are known. And the capacitive react¬
across the resistance and the one ance can be readily found from the
across the capacitance—are therefore value of capacitance involved. And if
90° out of phase with each other. As the voltage impressed pn. the circuit
was also found in the case of resistance is known, the current flow through
and inductance in series in a circuit, the circuit can be readily found from
the simple mathematical sum of the the formula I = Es -4- Z. Then the
two voltage drops is not equal to the voltage drop across the resistance can
source voltage impressed on the cir¬ be found from E = I X R. And the
cuit. drop across the capacitance can be
The source voltage across the series found from E = I X Xc.
load of resistance and capacitance is
equal to the vector sum of the voltage Circuit Reactance
drop across the resistance and the
voltage drop across the capacitance in The current wave through a capaci¬
accordance with the following formula: tance leads the voltage across the ca¬
pacitance by 90°. The current wave
Eg = V E2r + E2c where through an inductance lags the voltage
Eg = voltage impressed on circuit,
Er = voltage drop across resistance, across the inductance by 90°. When
and they are connected in series the
Ec = voltage drop across capacitance. effect of capacitance is, therefore, 180

66
 EC $ERIE$ CIRCUIT- vector relationships
Zo//ape E# across res/s/or E? /s
//? p/>ase w//A curse/?/ JT. Zo //ape
Ec across Capac//or Zaps Curses) /
6y Zo° Supp/y iro//ape £ Zaps
curses?/ Ay an as?p/e 0 o/ae Zt>
E
presence of C'dpac/Z'or /r) C/rcu/Z

degrees out of phase with the effect ance and capacitance in series will also
of inductance. This means their effects contain resistance in series with the
are exactly opposite and tend to neu¬ reactances. The combined effect of
tralize or cancel out each other. resistance and reactance is impedance
If an inductive reactance and a (the total opposition offered by a cir¬
capacitive reactance are connected in cuit to current flow). The value of
series, the combined effect is equal impedance for any circuit can be
to the mathematical difference between found from the following formula.
their ohmic values, and the resultant
effect has the character of the larger Z = V R2 + (Xl - Xc)2
of the two types of reactance. That is,
if the inductive reactance is larger
than the capacitive reactance, the net The above formula can be used to
reactance will be inductive and the determine impedance for any circuit—
current will lag the voltage. Or vice a circuit with resistance and only in¬
versa. The combined effect of the two ductive reactance, a circuit with re¬
types of reactance is simply referred sistance and only capacitive reactance
to as reactance. The formula is: or a circuit with resistance and both
inductive and capacitive reactance.
X = Xl — Xc where When one or the other reactance is
X = reactance in ohms, not included in the above formula,
XI = inductive reactance in ohms, and
it can be simply represented by a
Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms.
zero. And the appearance of a minus
sign before Xc in the event that there
Impedance is no inductive reactance or the capaci¬
Of course, as pointed out before, tive reactance is a larger ohmic value
any circuit which consists of induct¬ than the inductive reactance poses no

67
RLC 5ERIE5 CIRCUIT5
U/bere bott? inductance and capactdance are tnc/uded /n Me c/reus'd Me net
reactance X ts g/Ver? by
Y* Y<.-Yc
and Me circuit /rrjyedance tf ts gtren by

z = /'r+fc-xj2 - yr* r.

7hese diagrams ///usdate dd?is re-

/at/on gra/>d?tca//y: Resistance ts
R
-*«■ c/racur? do sca/e dor/jonda/ty; Xc and
XL are drawn ad rtghd ang/es do R
and /do0 out ofphase u/tdt each?
other 7he net reactance X ts
shown u/here XL ts greater /tan Yc
and rtce rersa.

EXAMPLE ■ SOLUTION

R^+Cx^-X^1 - Oof + (40-20)*

1 R = 50 ohms
240 v. 2500 + 400 - 2^00 * S3.85 ohms
Xcr 20 OHMS
E 2 40
XL» 40 OHMS S-b.&S -4. 46 AMPS
Z.

Er/ XR = (4.4t) (so) « 223 volts

FIND IMPEDANCE Z, EFFECTIVE
Ec IXC= (4.4fe'> (lo) • 85.2 VOLTS
CUER.ENT X, AND VOLTAGE DROPS

ACROSS R, Xc AND XL. El- IXl= (4.46) (40) * IT8.4 VOLTS

problem because a minus number of ac theory on resistance, reactance

squared is a positive number. and impedance and phase relationships.
Practical application of the theory Accompanying diagrams show the
of ac circuit operation and analysis of vector relationships involved with re¬
circuit impedance characteristics is a sistance, reactance, impedance, cur¬
vital part of modern electrical design rent and voltage in single-phase series
and construction of systems for power, circuits.
light and heat. In electrical systems for power and
Given conditions usually include the light, capacitance is usually an acci¬
circuit voltage, resistance and induct¬ dental factor contributed by the insula¬
ance of circuit conductors and the tion on wires in conduit. The insula¬
load characteristics of utilization de¬ tion acts like the dielectric, the con¬
vices—wattages of incandescent lamps, ductor is one plate of the capacitor
volt-amperes of fluorescent lamps, full¬ and the (grounded) conduit is the
load currents drawn by motors and other plate of the capacitor. At volt¬
other electrical coil devices, and watt- ages under 600 volts, this capacitive
ages of electric heating equipment. effect is negligible.
Sizing and layout of circuit con¬ Capacitance becomes a considera¬
ductors, including voltage drop calcu¬ tion when capacitors are added to a
lations and circuit power loss study, circuit to offset the effect of lagging
depend upon a sound understanding current due to inductive elements.

68
Single-Phase Circuits
T HE POWER in any ac circuit is a
function of current, voltage and the
cuit has a net value of reactance,
there will be some phase angle, with
phase angle, if any, between the the current either leading or lagging
current wave and the voltage wave. the voltage, depending upon the na¬
This differs from dc circuits, in which ture of the reactance. In such circuits,
power is simply equal to the current the power in the circuit is not simply
value times the voltage value, with the the product of voltage and current.
product expressed as watts. When the current in a circuit is out
In an ac circuit which contains only of phase with the voltage, there are
a resistive load, the current and volt¬ regularly recurring periods when the
age waves are in phase and the power voltage is positive and the current is
at any instant is equal to the instan¬ negative. Under such conditions, the
taneous value of current multiplied by product of positive voltage and nega¬
the instantaneous value of voltage at tive current in each cycle is negative,
the same instant with the product ex¬ indicating that the circuit is delivering
pressed as watts. However, a quicker power to the source of energy supply
way to express the power is to aver¬ during each cycle.
age the power over one half cycle.
Thus, the average power in each half • Reactance Only—When the cur¬
cycle is equal to the rms value of cur¬ rent and voltage waves of ac have a
rent times the rms value of voltage. 90° phase difference between them, it
As a formula, this is basically the can be shown that during one cycle
same as the power formula for dc—
the product of instantaneous values
of current and voltage will produce
P=E x I, where
equal amounts of both negative and
E=rms volts, and positive power. That is, during part
of the cycle, the energy source ap¬
I=rms amperes.
plied to the circuit delivers power
into the circuit (the positive power);
When an ac circuit contains react¬ and during another part of each cycle,
ance in addition to resistance, the the circuit returns the same amount
current and voltage waves have a of power to the source.
phase difference between them. It Taking an inductance coil, for in¬
does not matter whether the react¬ stance, during each cycle of the ac,
ance is inductive only or capacitive power is twice delivered to the coil
only (or is the difference between in¬ and is twice returned by the coil to
ductive and capacitive reactance in the source. The net result of this ac¬
the same circuit). So long as the cir¬ tion is that the power expended in the

69
 .POWER

POUItR and A V/
, voltage

CURRENT^ \

POWER FACTOR p /
/ i
/ 1
1 ) /V / \
/r' |
J 7
The product o-T The current
■e\ iTP^_L__
T y \
i and the i/ottage e at any
instant of time t yi/es the TIME

poorer p at that instant /to te that a/hen

both e and z are negative, their product, in terms ohettective raiaes,
and thus p, is positive. The re tore pouter P = El
is being expended throughout the cc/c/e. u/hen current and vo /tape are in phase.

circuit is zero when the load is either

a pure inductance or a pure capaci¬
tance. In such circuits, when voltage
is applied, current flows and has a
value determined from I=E/X, but
the product of I and E is not watts.
A purely reactive load merely ex¬
changes power back and forth with
the source, hence the use of the word
“reactive” to describe such a load.

• Reactance and Resistance — All

practical circuits contain resistance
\ and may or may not contain react¬
POWER.
RETURNED ance. Circuits in electrical systems for
TO LINE power and light almost never contain
T series capacitance but they do fre¬
quently contain series inductance—
FOR. WORK)
such as motor windings, ballasts, sole¬
noids and other coil devices. When a
circuit contains resistance and induct¬
ance, the current wave is out of
phase with the voltage, lagging it by
some phase angle between 0 and 90°.
EXAMPLE: P current oh 7 In such a circuit, the average power
amps taps a vv/taye is not simply E x I but can be found
oh 240 uotts 6y 30°. Uitzat is the from the formula P=E x I x cos 0,
p&u/er haC tor an<t the true pou/er in which 0 is the angle by which the
taken hy the toad ? current wave lags the voltage. The
FROIM TRIGONOMETRIC TWbLES,
cosine of the angle 0 is called the
COS 30° = 0.866
“power factor” of the circuit and is a
measure of the amount of power
THEREFORE, POUJER FACTOR - O. S€6
which is being consumed by the re¬
OR fife. 6 Vo.
sistive part of the load, taking into
TRUE POUJER. r El COS ©
=. (240>)(t') (o. S<2>6)
account the effect of the inductance
■ M-55 VAJAsTTS
on the circuit.
In a series circuit containing re¬
sistance and inductance, the opposi-

70
tion to current flow is provided by the
total impedance in accordance with
Z = \/f^ + X2l. The current follows R-L CIRCUIT
from l—E/Z. the apparent power de¬ /n a series circuit con/aininy resist¬
livered into the combined load is the ance and /nduc/ance, /he current /ays
circuit voltage times the circuit cur¬ /he ro/taye by an any/e & //ur/ay
rent, E x I. But the only part of the part of each cyc/e, the vo/taye /s
load consuming power is the resist¬ neyative ou/rZ/e /he current /s posi¬
ance. The inductance consumes no tive ; therefore their product /S
power. The power consumed in the negative. This "neyotive "power /s
resistance is equal to the voltage not ava//a6/e for u/orf; H /s ac¬
across the resistance times the current ta a//y power returned to the /Zac.
through the resistance; or, since the ThZs may 6e represented 6y a,

voltage across the resistive part of the r/qht trianq/e, as shown by the

load is equal to I x R, the power in drau/iny at the /eft. from frZyo-

nometry,
the resistance is equal to I x I x R—
true, power p = El COS ©,
which is I2 R. This is the true power
u/bere a// va/ues are effective ua/-
being consumed in the circuit.
ues. the factor Cos & d a/so Pnau/n
The cosine of the phase angle of a
as the "power factor.
circuit is the power factor of the cir¬
cuit and is the factor which deter¬
mines what portion of the “apparent EXAMPLE: P motor rated
power” is “true power”. The cosine 24-0 uo/ts,
amps c/rau/s /72S a/atfs a-t
of the angle will vary from 1, when
-fa// to a of- //that /s /fs pow¬
the phase angle is zero and the load is
er factor f
purely resistive, to 0, when the phase
angle is 90° due to a purely reactive p = ei cos e
load. The words “Power Factor” or
IT 7.8 = ('24o')(3")(^CoS ©)
simply the letters “PF” are commonly
IT-28 1-7-28
used instead of “cos 0” to designate
COS © »;-“—” -
power factor. As a result, the formula
for power in reactive circuits is often
given as P = E x I x Power Factor. By ROUlEJC. FACTOR.- 0*8 OR- 8Q%

transposing this formula, it can be

seen that Power Factor =P -f- (E x I)
or true power -4- apparent power.
When 0 is zero, the formula be¬
comes P = E x I x 1, or P = E x I, the power factor is 1.0 or 100%, that is,
formula for in-phase operation. When the current and voltage are in phase.
0 is 90°, P = ExIx0 = 0, indicating In circuits with a phase angle be¬
that no power is being considered in a tween current and voltage, the simple
purely relative load. product of voltage times current
Power factor may be expressed as (which was described above as “ap¬
a decimal, having the exact numerical parent watts”) is most commonly
value of the cosine of the phase angle, called the “volt amperes” rating of
e.g., a power factor of 0.7, a power the circuit. The kva (kilovolt-ampere)
factor of 1.0 (the maximum), etc. Or rating of a circuit or device is equal
the decimal value of the cosine may to voltage times current divided by
be converted to percentage, such as a 1000. A value of volt-amperes or
power factor of 70% or of 95% or of kilovolt-amperes for a circuit can be
100%. multiplied by the power factor of the
circuit to determine the watts or kilo¬
• Unity power factor is another ex- watts of power being consumed in the
pression for the condition where the circuit.

71
 Parallel Circuits
T HUS FAR, discussion of ac circuits
has covered single-phase series
the load and the total current of the
parallel circuit is equal to the vector
circuits. Such circuits are cer¬ sum of the currents through the
tainly common in electrical systems parallel loads.
for power, light, heat, signals and In practical electrical systems,
communications. Two wires feeding an branch circuits from lighting and
incandescent lamp constitute a series appliance panelboards are parallel
circuit with a resistive load. Two wires circuits. The voltage across the two
supplying a motor or solenoid coil wires of the circuit (120 volts in the
make up a series circuit with a load typical case) is applied across a
impedance combining both resistance number of lighting fixtures and/or
and inductance. appliances connected in parallel. The
Operation and calculations of such current which the circuit must supply
circuits have been covered. But prac¬ (commonly called the “load” on the
tical electrical systems are always made circuit) is the vector sum of the cur¬
up of both series circuits and parallel rents drawn by the individual lighting
circuits. units and/or appliances.
The basic approach to analysis of In the same way, the feeder to this
parallel circuits is to recognize that the lighting and appliance panelboard
voltage impressed across each of the makes up a parallel circuit which has
loads in parallel is the same and that a given voltage across the branch
the current through each load will be circuits and the total current of the
determined by the size and nature of feeder parallel circuit is the vector
each load—how much resistance and/ sum of the currents drawn by the indi¬
or reactance is each. Then the currents vidual branch circuits. And similarly,
through the individual branches must the feeder to a switchboard consists
be combined to obtain the resultant of circuit with the sub-feeders in
current of the parallel combination. parallel. Thus it can be readily seen
It should be noted that there is a set that any system is a tree-like combina¬
of opposite relationships between a tion of series and parallel circuits.
series circuit and a parallel circuit. In As described previously under dc
a series circuit, there is one value of circuits, if a number of resistances are
current through the series loads, the connected in parallel across a source
voltage across any one load is equal to of voltage, each resistance will draw
the current multiplied by the imped¬ current in accordance with I = E/R
ance of the load and the voltage im¬ and the total current drawn by the
pressed on the circuit is equal to the parallel combination will be simply the
vector sum of the voltages across the arithmetical sum of the individual load
series loads. In a parallel circuit, there currents (which is the vector sum when
is one value of voltage across all of the all of the currents have the same phase
loads connected in parallel, the current relationship).
through any one load is equal to the For example, if five lamps, each
voltage divided by the impedance of having a resistance of 120 ohms, are

72
 It

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
The ro/taqe, current; and. poorer
re/ationsbips in an aitematiny
cumenf circuit- containing re¬
sistance, inductance and cap¬
acitance can best he investi¬
gated by co nsi der/ny a specific ex-
arnp/e. in tte circu.it- sbourn above,
the fot/ou/iny retot/on strips are A nourn 30
\
• Tue CURREKJT TUROU6U R UJ I l_L- e>E.
1 "" E
30*
IN PWPvEE WITH THE VOL-TA><3>e_

• THE COR.K6NT THROUGH L WIL-U LA>G> 'ic VECJOR. DIAGRAsM

THE VOLTAGE E>Y 30°.
• THE crop RENIT THROUGH C UJ ILL LEA>D THE VOLTAGE B>Y <3>0o
• THE M^cGNl ITUDES OP THE CURRENTS THROUGH R, L_ A^rHE? C W'L-L tee¬
PEKJE? UPON "THE I MFTt>^NCES OF EACH.

the TOTAvL CIRCUIT CURRENT Lj VaJU- l_ &E TUI VECpR. SUM OF

THE CURRENTS THROUGH R. L_ AnnID C.

connected to a 120-volt branch circuit IT = total current of parallel circuit,

(using standard parallel connection), IR — current drawn by resistance, and
each lamp will draw 1-amp current IL = current drawn by inductance.
(I = E/R = 120/120) and the total It should be noted that the two
current load on the circuit will be 5 currents of the parallel loads are 90°
amps. But when the parallel loads com¬ out of phase with each other.
bine resistance and reactance, phase If a resistance and capacitance
angles must be considered; and solu¬ are connected in parallel, a similar
tion of the circuit is more complicated. analysis is made. The currents through
Consider first a voltage impressed the loads will again be 90° out of
across a resistance connected in par¬ phase, but this time the current
allel with an inductance. The current through the capacitance will be lead¬
through the resistance will be equal to ing the current through the resistance.
E/R and will be in phase with the But the resultant current is found from
voltage. The current through the in¬ the same formula:
ductance will be equal to E/XL and
will be lagging the voltage by 90°. It = VV + V, where
Ic = current drawn by capacitance.
So far, we have treated each load as a
Another example of the parallel cir¬
series circuit. Now the two values of
cuit consists of resistance, inductance
current obtained can be vectorially
and capacitance in parallel. In such a
combined to find the resultant current.
circuit, the current is first found for
This is readily found from the follow¬
each of the parallel loads. Then, be¬
ing formula (which is basically the
cause the current through the induct¬
same as the formula previously used to
ance is lagging the impressed voltage
obtain the vector sum of two voltages
by 90° and the current through the
with a 90° phase difference between
capacitance is leading the impressed
them):
voltage by 90°, these two currents are
It = VV + Iij2» where 180° out of phase or, as it is some-

73
CURRENT FLOW:
cuie.R.e.siT twrousm R. CiEjCUIT CURRENT 1T
Ic AMMO IL AT8.& \&0° APART, OR.
! «=-§-= = It, A^WPS. Otp-ac-Ti-Y opposite therefore
* R IE =====
THEY CMCtL EACH OTHER. To
A OE-tSTAltS EXTENT1
C(Jfc(2EHT TWROU6M L.
E 240 Ic - = 30- J'Z - IS
IL • X.' W-
THERE IS THUS A. R-ESU Ef AN T
CURPiMJ TKROOGK C I ft /VMPS OP CA.PAKC.ITIV6 COt?-
R.ENT, AS SHOWN IN THE VEC¬
I0 = T%- " - 30 AMPS. TOR. O^SRXM ANT "THE LEFT.
Xj. --—

the RESULTANT op THIS, current

and Ip. is found as follows-

it - Vcifty •*- (ioi

- V 3>24- 256

= / 5 80

= 24. I AMPS

POWER FACTOR: POWER :

APJAcerrr side
cos © TRUE POWER. TARJEN E>Y COMBINED
HYPOTENUSE LO AX? OF R., l_ ANO C
16
= 0.664 P - EX COS 6
24. I
= (2Ho)(24. 0(- 66 4)
POU)ER FACTOR. = 6 6. 4- °/o ■=• 3841 WATTS

times stated, are in phase-opposition. not be equal to voltage times current.

The resultant of two such currents Instead, just as in the case of phase
is the arithmetical difference between difference between current and voltage
them. Then this difference current is in a series circuit, the power can be
combined with the current through the found from the formula—
resistance load, in accordance with
either of the above formulas, to find P = E x I x cos 6, where
the resultant current of the parallel p = power in watts,
circuit. E = circuit voltage,
In parallel circuits which include
I = resultant current, and
reactance of either type, the resultant
6 = phase angle of circuit.
current drawn by the parallel load
will not be in-phase with the voltage
impressed on the circuit. The resultant The cos 0—which is the power fac¬
current will lead or lag the circuit tor of the circuit—is equal to IR -4- IT,
voltage depending upon the type and the current through the resistive load
amount of net reactance of the cir¬ divided by the resultant current. The
cuit—inductive or capacitive—and the simple product of E x I is the volt-
value of the resistance. As a result, the ampere value of the circuit, the ap¬
power consumed in such a circuit will parent power of the parallel load.

74
 Complex Circuits
S O FAR, single-phase circuits have
been considered as series or par¬
in parallel. For instance, a branch
circuit with 10 lamps connected from
allel connections of resistances, phase to neutral and each drawing 1
inductances or capacitances. amp of current can be readily con¬
In the case of parallel circuits, verted to a single-resistance load
idealistic conditions were assumed in drawing 10 x 1 or 10 amps. And at
which a pure resistance was connect¬ 120 volts across this load, the effec¬
ed in parallel with a pure inductance tive resistance of the total load is
and/or in parallel with a pure capaci¬ 120/10 or 12 ohms. Then the effec¬
tance. Although such conditions are tive resistances of all of the branch
possible in practical circuits, it is circuits supplying only resistive lamp
much more common to find, say, a loads can be combined, as parallel
pure resistance in parallel with anoth¬ resistances, into a single resistive load
er load made up of a resistance and connected from phase to neutral
inductance in series. Or, a capacitance across the feeder to the panel.
might be connected in parallel with a
load made up of resistance and in¬ Then, if the panel has branch
ductance in series. Such circuits are circuits which supply motor loads or
actually combinations of series and motor-plus-lighting loads, these loads
parallel circuits. can be successively treated as series
A typical example of a complex and parallel circuits. From this, a
circuit in common use would be a single equivalent series load of resist¬
120-volt branch circuit supplying an ance plus inductance can be obtained.
incandescent lamp load and a motor Then this series load is combined in
load. The loads would be connected parallel with the purely resistive lamp
in parallel. The lamp load would be load determined previously. From this
a pure resistance and the motor load final parallel hookup, we can deter¬
would be represented by a series con¬ mine the current, total load imped¬
nection of the resistance and induct¬ ance characteristics and power factor
ance of the motor coil windings. Such of the 120-volt feeder to the panel.
a circuit could be one lamp in parallel Basic analysis of a complex circuit
with one motor, or it might be several can be made by considering a pure
lamps and a number of motors—all resistance connected in parallel with
connected in parallel. a series load of resistance and induct¬
Another example of a complex cir¬ ance. With a known voltage across
cuit would be a panelboard, in which the two parallel loads, the current
branch circuits are connected in par¬ through the pure resistance can be
allel to the busbars in the panel. Each determined from I = E/R, and this
branch circuit could be reduced to a current is in phase with the voltage.
single equivalent load, and then all of Then the series load of resistance and
these loads are considered connected inductance must be considered by it-

75
 VECTOR ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX CIRCUIT

fac/or of ffe <?c/T7/?/e/e c/rcoc/'f.

self. The inductance is converted to appropriate phase angle, as indicted

inductive reactance from XL = 27rfL. by the power factor of the R-plus-L
The impedance of the series load load. The two current vectors are
is obtained from Z = y/R2 + XL2. then vectorially combined to find the
Then the current through the series resultant current drawn by the par¬
load is E/Z. And the power factor of allel combination. And the cosine of
the series load circuit is R/Z, repre¬ the angle by which this resultant cur-
senting the value of the cosine of the rent lags the impressed voltage is the
angle by which the current through power factor of the complete parallel
the series load lags the voltage im¬ circuj|. The effective impedance of
pressed across the load. the parallel circuit is obtained by di¬
The above parallel circuit is solved viding the impressed voltage by the
by vector analysis, observing basic resultant current.
geometric relationships. The voltage A common application of the par¬
vector, which is common to both of allel circuit is that of a power factor
the parallel current paths, is laid off correcting capacitor connected in par¬
to the right, with the current vector allel with a series R-plus-L load.
for the purely resistive load in phase When a load connected across cir¬
with the voltage vector and the cur¬ cuit conductors consists of resistance
rent vector for the series R-plus-L and inductance in series—such as a
load lagging the voltage vector by the single motor on a branch circuit, or

76
the effective load of motors and light ing the reactive part of the load cur¬
ing on a branch or feeder circuit— rent, the capacitor reduces the total
the current will lag the voltage by current drawn from the line to supply
some value, depending upon the ratio the given amount of watts load.
of R to L. That is, the power factor When a capacitor corrects the cir¬
will be less than unity and the product cuit power factor to unity, the product
of voltage times current (voltamperes) of volts times amps does equal the
will be greater than I2R (the wattage wattage of the load. And the reduc¬
of the load). Part of the current being tion in line current produced by pow¬
drawn is magnetizing current and not er factor correction reduces line volt¬
useful current. The lower the power age drop and, consequently, power
factor of the load, the greater will be loss and increases the ability of con¬
the magnetizing current. ductors to supply real power to loads.
Thus a number of low-power-factor
induction motors on a system can rep¬ It is important to understand that
resent a sizable magnetizing current. when the line current drawn by a
Because a capacitor draws leading series R-plus-L load is reduced by
current, the right size of capacitor connection of a PF correcting capaci¬
can be used in parallel with the series tor, the current through the series
R-plus-L to provide the magnetizing load remains unchanged. It still takes
current to the load. In doing this a the same current through it as it took
capacitor cancels the reactive com¬ before the capacitor was applied. But
ponent of the current drawn by the the reactive part of the current to the
series load. The reactive component series load is being supplied by the
of the series load current and the capacitor and the line only has to
purely reactive current drawn by the supply the active component of cur¬
capacitor are 180° out of phase (90° rent for the resistive part of the
leading and 90° lagging). By eliminat¬ series load.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

/n Me o'rru// s/ou/r? aS /e/Y, assume Z= /P3 araps
a / Yd// /oat/, power Yac/or = 0.7. /ttrrer}/ T
/ays Me aa/Yaye P /y
E ar? ar?y/e ^/as p> - 0-7
1A; -- J/bs <p * /YJ x 0.7
JL -- /OO a raps.

T/ a capacr/or / s Cta-
nec/et/ across z/e mo/vc
>* ^
-« — ~1 c- as s/ou/a 7b ca/se Ms c/r-
1 MOTOR ■v
\
I2' Cur / power Pa c/or /b /.O,
|r\ E //}<? ouera// pou/er facPr
fc. H 1 I
V any/e 0= O ar? o' //e /ear¬
CAPACITOR \)
ner)/ Tz Parn/s/et/ /y
» 1

//>€ //ne /s eyua/ 7b Zy

K
or /OO a raps

77
Three-Phase Circuits
A LTHOUGH single-phase ac cir¬
cuits are widely used and are
When the rotor is rotated, the coil
windings on the rotor are made to cut
involved in just about every through the magnetic lines of flux pro¬
electrical system, generation and dis¬ duced by the field poles of the genera¬
tribution of ac electric power is most tor. A sinusoidal voltage is produced
commonly done with three-phase cir¬ in each of the three windings. But be¬
cuits. cause the coils are displaced 120 de¬
Large utility generators are general¬ grees from each other, the voltage
ly three-phase machines, transmission wave generated in any one coil will
is made over three-phase lines and be 120 degrees ahead of the wave in
most industrial and commercial elec¬ one of the other coils and 120 de¬
trical systems in buildings use three- grees behind that in the third coil.
phase circuits for power distribution. Assuming counterclockwise rotation
Three-phase circuits require less of the rotor, it can readily be seen
weight of conductors than single-phase that each coil passes through the flux
circuits of the same power rating. And lines at a different time. As explained
three-phase motors are generally small¬ previously, such difference in time is
er, lighter in weight and more effi¬ referred to as a phase difference. The
cient than single-phase motors of the three voltage waves produced are,
same horsepower. Overall, three-phase therefore, 120 degrees out of phase
circuits are used because they are with each other. Designating one coil
more efficient than single-phase. “A” and the one that immediately
As shown in an accompanying dia¬ follows it in rotation as “B” and the
gram; three-phase power is basically one that follows B as “C”, the phase
derived from a generator with three sequence of voltages is A, B, C.
separate windings. These windings are There are two basic connection ar¬
spaced around the circular cross sec¬ rangements used for three-phase sys¬
tion of the rotating cylinder, with each tems. One is called the “wye” con¬
winding taking up one third of the nection and the other is called the
circumference of the rotor. Thus, “delta” connection. Voltage sources
each winding takes up % of the 360 (generators and transformer secondar¬
degrees of the circumference. This ies) and load devices may be con¬
means each winding takes up 120 de¬ nected either in wye or delta.
grees, and any turn of one winding is
physically displaced 120 degrees from Wye Connection
the same turn on either of the other As shown, the ends of the three
two windings. windings are designated, a, a’, b, b’, c

78
 3-PHASE GENERATOR. UJye~(or S/ar-) conrecfec/ rofvr /s sfourr?
-fee c/:r7j a u/<ye- aorreefed foad. S’z/vphfs'ed dzayram //)d'C&&s /rferr?-
af cortrtecfiorts fo /yen fra/po/rtf ard S'/y rmys.
3-P«*$£ low? i-s supplied
TUEDU6U C.LIP r?. VMr,< OrAE EKiC> of EtxCf^ MOl

OKIE EMP OP EfsCH LM iMD'

feROOOiWX OOP T<=> ^LlP

and c\ If the ends marked a’, b’ and mon or neutral point. The vector lay¬
c’ are connected together, the voltage out forms the letter “Y”. Each con¬
relationships remain the same in the ductor from one of the outer ends of
windings. The connection produces a the Y ( usually referred to as “wye”)
source of ac voltage which is called is called a phase conductor. The con¬
“three-phase, wye connected.” The ductor from the neutral point is called
wires of this system are brought out the neutral conductor.
of the generator—one wire is brought Typical generators used by the elec¬
from each of the individual ends of tric utility companies generate three-
the windings (ends a, b and c) and one phase voltage at high levels, such as
wire may or may not be brought out 13,000 volts. Through the use of trans¬
from the common point connection of formers, these voltage levels are gen¬
a’, b’ and c’. Although the generator erally stepped up for transmission and
described here has the voltage pro¬ distribution and stepped down for util¬
duced in the windings on the rotor, ization purposes. But throughout trans¬
with slip rings required to bring the mission, distribution and utilization,
leads out, the magnetic field could be certain relationships among the volt¬
placed on the rotor and the generated age phases are retained. For instance,
voltage produced in windings around when the voltage windings are con¬
the stationary frame of the generator. nected in a wye, two levels of voltage
The common point of the generator are available from the connection. One
windings (the connection of a’, b’ and voltage level is the voltage generated
c’) is called the neutral point of the in each phase winding, the voltage
wye connection. The word “wye” is from any one of the phase conductors
taken from the layout of the voltage to the neutral point. The other volt¬
vectors which represent this type of age level is the voltage between any
connection for study purposes. The pair of phase conductors.
three vectors are laid out on paper If, for instance, a wye-connected
with 120° between each pair and with generator produced 8,000 volts in each
all vectors originating from the com¬ set of phase windings, that much volt-

79
 REVOLVING FIELP
yenera/ur re pushes ar?/y
7as0 sty r/'rigs Z& carry
cZ/recZ current z& Zlr'e/zp
lo kd
po/rs. SZ& Z/crCry arrrz-
CO(0DUC(' EKClTtR.
aZane (sZ&Zor) cvirtd'zrxps' <=*Z-S DC FOR.
are acrcer/erZ r//rec/Z<y f-iGUD
OjiWDiKiG 9
7b /racZ c/r&sc/f cort/uc/-
erc. S’Ac/eZ S'doers (T-fe/fc
rv/or

age would be measured between any phase, four-wire, wye arrangement are
phase conductor and the neutral of the 120/208-volt system and the
the generator. But the voltage between 480/277-volt system. In the former,
any pair of phase conductors would 120 volts can be obtained between the
be equal to 1.73 x 8,000 or 13,840 neutral conductor and any one of the
volts. This latter voltage is the result three phase wires, and 208 volts exists
of combining two phase-to-neutral between any pair of phase wires. In
voltages which are themselves 120° out the latter system, 480 is the phase-to-
of phase. Such a generator would be phase voltage and 277 is the phase-to-
described as a 13,840Y/8,000 volt, neutral voltage. Such systems are gen¬
three-phase, four-wire generator. erally obtained from transformers, or
It should be noted that each voltage sometimes produced by generators.
level in a wye system has one value,
but that one value applies to each of
three different phases. That is, taking
the generator discussed above, there
W HEN a voltage source (genera¬
tor or transformer secondary) is
are three phases of 13,840 volts and connected in wye, a conductor
three phases of 8,000 volts. may or may not be brought out
The voltage characteristics de¬ from the neutral point of the wye.
scribed here for a four-wire wye gen¬ If single-phase load devices with
erator also apply to transformer con¬ voltage rating equal to the phase-to-
nections made in wye, and to wiring neutral voltage of the wye are to be
systems themselves when supplied by supplied, the fourth wire—the neu¬
wye connected voltage sources—gen¬ tral wire—must be made available to
erator or transformer. There is a given obtain the required voltage. If, for
value of voltage between any pair of instance, a 480Y/ 277-volt transform¬
phase conductors, and another value er secondary is to be used to supply
of voltage between each phase wire 277-volt fluorescent ballasts, the neu¬
and the neutral. Phase-to-phase volt¬ tral must be brought out of the trans¬
age is equal to 1.73 x phase-to-neutral former. But, if the same transformer
voltage, and phase-to-neutral voltage secondary had to supply only three-
is equal to phase-to-phase voltage phase motors and, say, one or more
-f- 1.73. three-phase transformers for stepping
Common secondary distribution and down from 480 volts to 120/208
utilization systems based on the three- volts, three-phase, four-wire, there

80
would be no need for bringing the nected sources are generally trans¬
neutral out of the transformer. former secondaries. The common
In this latter case, only the three loads fed from such sources are sin¬
phase wires from the outer ends of gle-phase devices rated for the phase-
the wye are needed to supply 480 to-neutral voltage (incandescent lamps,
volts phase-to-phase to the motors and appliances, fluorescent lamps, single¬
to the primaries of the step-down phase motors) and three-phase de¬
transformers. And that is true whether vices rated for the phase-to-phase
wye or delta connection is used in the voltage (three-phase motors and
motors. The neutral in a wye sys¬ three-phase step-down transformers).
tem is brought out only when needed. When three-phase motors are fed
from the wye source, the normal cur¬
Currents in Wye rent flow is the same in all three line
conductors and the neutral is not used.
In a wye-connected generator,
That is called a balanced load. But
when the output leads are connected
when a wye source feeds a number
to a load, current will flow through
each phase winding into the line con¬ of single-phase loads connected from
ductor connected to the winding, then phase to neutral, the loads may or
through the external circuit and the may not represent balanced loading.
load and back to the generator wind¬ For instance, on a 120/208-volt,
ing. This current flow will take place 4-wire wye system, two lighting fix¬
either with or without a neutral con¬ tures might be connected from phase
ductor, depending upon the type of A to neutral, five fixtures from phase
load on the generator. B to neutral and four fixtures from
The important relationship to re¬ phase C to neutral. If all of the light¬
member is that the current in any ing fixtures are the same rating and
phase conductor from the generator each draws 2 amps, the current for
to the load is equal to the current phase A line will be 4 amps; for
flowing through the corresponding phase B, 10 amps; and for phase C,
phase winding on the generator. This 8 amps. The neutral conductor of the
is stated: IL (line current)=IP (phase system will carry the vector sum of
winding current). The same relation¬ these three currents which are 120°
ship holds for transformer windings. apart. If, however, the loads were bal¬
In the common applications of anced on the three phases, so that
today’s electrical systems, wye-con¬ each line conductor was carrying, say,

PU^E-TO-pU^E
VOCpK&ES
TWO VOLTAGE LEVELS
are. asaj/a.6/e. ■ one /nom
N A.
one p/><zse -fo ano'rfer',
one Ofnc/ ^74 se 7*b
"PVAKSE B
necc7*r^iZ -•

UJiUT^\^6$
•PUKSt- fb- VoCJ/KCbE.
PUtsCjE C
g 1.73
(
1
/V ~7~
\lO\%NhES

81
10 amps, the vector sum of these b to a’. Then a conductor is brought
equal currents would be zero and the out from each of the junctions. And
neutral would carry no current. there is only one voltage value asso¬
Of course, even with balanced load¬ ciated with each phase of the genera¬
ing on the three phases of a four-wire tor—that is the phase-to-phase volt¬
wye system, there is the possibility that age, or the “line voltage” as it is
not all of the loads will be operating frequently calldcT
at the same time. Thus there will be an In the delta connection, the volt¬
operating unbalance and the neutral age of each of the generator phase
will carry current. windings is the same as the voltage
In determining currents in the line between each pair of line conductors.
wires of a four-wire wye system, each As discussed previously, the voltage
phase can be treated as a separate of the phase winding of the wye gen¬
single-phase circuit, but the neutral erator is the phase-to-neutral voltage,
current must be determined as the and the phase-to-phase or line volt¬
vector sum of the three phase cur¬ age is 1.73 x the phase winding volt¬
rents flowing into the neutral junction age. Delta connection, like wye con¬
point of the load devices. nection, can be used for transformer
Note: With balanced loading on a 60-cycle as well as generator windings.
ac four-wire wye system, the neutral wire The delta connection gets its name
carries no current. But it has been estab¬ from the triangular layout used for
lished by test that a balanced load of ballasts the three coils. If the vectors repre¬
for fluorescent or mercury vapor lighting will
senting the magnitude and direction of
produce third harmonic neutral current flow
approximating phase currents in magnitude. voltage in the coils are connected end-
There will be no 60-cycle current in the to-end, they form a triangle which
neutral but there will be 180-cycle current. is the symbol for the Greek letter
“delta.” In diagrammatic form, delta
Delta Connection connected generator and transformer
Delta connection of the three 120°- coils are shown in a triangle layout.
displaced phase windings of the pre¬ Currents related to delta connected
viously discussed generator can be voltage sources involve two different
made by connecting the windings end- values of current, similar to the way
to-end. In the basic generator de¬ in which wye connections involve two
scribed, the winding ends are con¬ different voltage levels. The current
nected as follows: a to c’, c to b’ and flowing in each phase winding (of

3 -WIRE WYE WTEM

Mo rtetrfra/ cort/uc/or /s re-
480 v <pu/ret/ //7 a toye sysZesr/
480v
toAtf/7 er>Z/re eorree/et/ dxrt/
NEUTRAL
/s rafetsf a A //Me-/d-//Me
POINT. fifififiSfifir*-
i/o/Zaye. //</<////ora/ s/e/r-
480v
■?>- PHASE abo/r /raas/orroers sr/ay
TRANSFORMER
he. zos/a/Zeo/ as sAoton Zb
SECONDARY
pro ozt/e /ocoer ra/Zayes

3-PHASE, 4-WlRE, 4eoy 1-20/206 V

48C-V IVVOTtfRS STEP- DOWN TRANSFORMER

82
 4-UJIRE UiVE MTEM PANE.L&OA.RD

+PHASE CfiS amps I-

3-PHASE
TRANSFORMER,
SECONDARY

■JtSJtiStUr
20S

i 1
V

?0&>J
1
120 >/
i :
“i'PHASE B-Mio amps 4»

208 v 120 v I ! 170 v LAM PS ^

2 AMPS EACH
i i
r
—J-PHASE A-jH 4- aJps
±
120 v
I _
zn 4-weutrmH- S.29 A*PS

VECTOR
SUMMARY OF VOLTAGE-CURREMT RELATIONSHIPS, PIA6RAM
WVE-PELTA CONNECTION1? (8ALANCEP COMPITIOMS)

il =■ iP ie*K>
WYE
I^'-5.Z9
~T“
El
L El- 1.73 Ep
1/nAa/ancec/ /oac/S/7p 0/7
~r 4-w/re, 3-pAase a/c/e c/r-
IL. M3 IP
& X. c'u/'A resuSSs //7 a cur-
DELTA oif *>c
re rf //oou Sr? AAe net/Sm/
b b' E,= Ep
conc/ucSor. A/apr?/Auc/e
a/ AA/s Currer)/ Ss SA&
IL • Lime cuR.TRts.wr BL = lime voltage vec /or cum 0/ -Me -Mree
XP * Phase current EP= phase voltage pAace currents.

the generator or transformer) has one

value and is called the phase current.
But since each line conductor from
B ASED on foregoing discussion of
wye- and delta-connected voltage
sources, there are three basic con¬
the source is connected at a junction siderations in analysis of three-phase
of two of the phase windings, the cur¬ electrical circuits:
rent flowing in each line conductor 1. The type of connection of the
from the source to the load is the voltage source,
vector sum of two phase currents. 2. The makeup of the circuit con-
With balanced loading on the delta, auctors which connect the source to
the phase current will be the same in
the load, and
all three windings and the line cur¬ 3. The type of connection of the load
rent will be the same in all three line
to which the circuit delivers power.
conductors. For any balanced delta The source — which, in building
connection, the relationship between
electrical systems, is most commonly
phase and line current is—
a transformer secondary, but might
occasionally be a generator—may be
IL=IP x 1.73, where wye connected or delta connected. A
wye source is generally used when
IL = line current, and single-phase load devices are to be
IP = phase winding current. supplied—such as incandescent and

83
fluorescent lighting, appliances and nected transformer without use of the
small motors. The common systems neutral conductor is to supply single¬
used are 3-phase, 4-wire wye, 120/ phase loads which are rated for the
208 volts or 277/480 volts. In either phase-to-phase voltage of a wye sec¬
system, the phase-to-neutral voltage is ondary—such as 208-volt load de¬
the one that is usually required for vices on a 120/208-volt wye system
the single-phase loads, although some or 480-volt single-phase loads on a
single-phase loads might be rated for 480/277-volt wye system.
the phase-to-phase voltage. But such
a source also makes available the Delta-connected sources are gen¬
three-phase connections for three- erally reserved for purely three-phase
phase motors and other three-phase loads which require only three con¬
load devices. ductors to them. When a delta source
A wye-connected source might also is required to supply both single-phase
be selected to serve purely three-phase lighting loads as well as three-phase
loads, without using a neutral con¬ loads, a four-wire system may be es¬
ductor, when the advantages of a tablished by deriving a fourth conduc¬
grounded-neutral system are desired. tor from the mid-point of one of the
When the neutral point of a wye three transformer windings which
transformer is connected to ground, make up the delta. Such a system is
any accidental ground on one of the commonly called a “red leg” or “high
phase ^nducf6fs"will cause fault cur¬ leg” delta system. The usual voltage
rent to flow and operate theTcircuit setup in such a system is 240 volts
protective device (fuse or CB), open¬ from phase to phase and 120 volts
ing the faulted circuit before a phase- from the mid-phase (or neutral) con¬
to-phase fault might develop. A wye- ductor to each of the phase conductors
connected transformer might also be connected to the winding ends. With
used to supply only three-phase loads this system, single-phase lighting and
when the primary-to-secondary turns appliance loads are fed from the 120-
ratio of the transformer is such as to volt terminals, and three-phase motor
give the needed phase-to-phase volt¬ loads are fed from the phase conduc¬
age for the secondary load. Still tors, although single-phase 240-volt
another application for a wye-con¬ loads could be fed by phase wires.

84
 As noted previously, the number of is used with a neutral conductor or
conductors used to connect a voltage when a “red leg” delta system supplies
source to its load devices depends upon a combination lighting and motor load.
the load devices and how they are It should be noted that when a 4-wire
connected. To supply only three-phase wye distribution system is used to sup¬
motor loads, only three conductors are ply lighting and power loads, there is
needed. A wye source can supply three no need to use the neutral wire for
wires to feed either a wye- or delta- connecting to the three-phase load de¬
connected motor. Or a delta source vices. If, for instance, a 480/277-volt
can also supply three wires to feed system is to supply a three-phase step-
either a wye- or delta-connected down transformer to provide 120/
motor. And the current and voltage 208 volts for lighting and receptacle
relationships for wye and delta are outlets, only three wires have to be
the same for load connections as for connected to a delta hookup of the
source connections. transformer primary windings. Thus
Four conductors are required for the 480 volts phase-to-phase of the
the supply circuit when a wye system wye are connected phase - to - phase

GROUNDED NEUTRAL POINT of f-connected

source perm its phase-tv -pround fau/t detect/on,
such as contact between phase conductor and race¬
way, thus etiminatinp shock hajard of enerp/yed
raceu/ay and other epuipment

POWER IN 3-PHASE CIRCUITS

For both Y- and de/ta-connected systems ■

p* TS el iu pf

tot ere P * tota-l power, (uiatts)

1.732
El= une*TO-LINE VOL.TA.6E (VOL.TS)
ILr LIME CURRENT (AMPERES)
pf * power factor (expressed as decimal)

ttor£ .* fmitt/np the poorer factor tn the poorer

formu/a. p/res ro/t-amperes -

VOLT-AMPERES = /3 EL IL^

EXAMPLE:
do a/many kdou/atts and ro/t-amperes are drawn
from a 3-phase source when /t /s de/iuer/np
40 amps at 240 ro/ts to a motor with SO Vo pp f
TRANSFORMER P sf3ELItPF = L732 * 240 * 40 * -66
u/ith 4-u//re secondary
- 14, 233 WATTS - 14. 2> KW
needs onty a 3-u//'re con¬
nection to primary from VOLT-AMPERES = Y3 EL IL * 1732 * 240 * 40
4-wire source. Source -- 16,627 volt-amperes
ncu fra / / s not required
- 16.63 KILOVOLT-AMPEgES ( KVA.)
by transtormer

85
across the delta-connected transformer phase windings of the source have the
primary windings. Then, with a 4-to-l same current rating and the same
step-down ratio from each primary voltage rating. The same formula is
winding to its secondary winding, the used to obtain the power taken by a
120-volt secondary windings are con¬ three-phase load of balanced current
nected in a wye to obtain 120 volts and voltage ratings.
phase-to-neutral and 208 volts phase- If the power factor of the three-
to-phase. It is not necessary to use a phase load is other than unity, power
primary wye connection for a trans¬ factor being the cosine of the angle
former fed from a 4-wire wye system. between phase current and phase volt¬
age, the formula for power in watts
Three-Phase Power becomes P — \/3xELxILx Power
Factor. For other than unity power
The power delivered by each phase
factor, the y/3 x EL x IL gives the volt-
winding of a wye source operating at
amperes of the system and dividing
unity power factor is equal to Phase
that figure by 1000 gives the kva (or
Voltage times Phase Current, i.e.,
kilovoltamperes) of the system.
Pp = EP x IP. The total power deliv¬
In a delta-connected system, the
ered by all three windings is 3 x EP x
same formulas are used to obtain
IP. But, since phase current is line cur¬
power and kva ratings of sources and
rent in a wye and since phase voltage
loads. Basically, the power of a bal¬
is equal to line voltage divided by
anced delta system is equal to 3 x EP
\/3, the power rating of a wye source x IP x Power Factor. But since phase
at unity power factor can be ex¬ voltage is equal to line voltage and
pressed as— phase current is equal to line current
P = \/3 x El x IL where, divided by y/3, the formula can be
P = watts, El — line or phase-to-phase
expressed as P = 3 x
voltage, and
El x II x PF=\/3 x El x II x PF.
IL = line current.
The foregoing assumes that all

86
 Practical Circuits
A pplications of electrical
equipment in modern systems for
be loaded in excess of 80% of the
circuit rating. This means the load on
power, light and heat demand a a 30-amp, 120-volt circuit must not
variety of practical circuit calcula¬ be greater than 0.8 x 3600 or 2880
tions. Typical circuit layout tasks are watts. To conform to this load limit,
as follows: only 5 of the 500-watt units can be
used on each 30-amp circuit. But
voltage drop also has to be consid¬
Circuit Loading ered, so assume that only four lumi¬
Assume a certain large convention naires can be used if we want to keep
hall is to be lighted with 500-watt voltage drop below 1%.
120-volt incandescent luminaires re¬ If four units are to be used on
cessed in the ceiling. Lighting design each 30-amp circuit, the total of 16
indicates that 16 units will provide units will require the use of four 30-
the lumen output to obtain a required amp circuits. Now a 4-circuit panel
footcandle level in the auditorium. could be used, but good design dic¬
This is a total of 16 x 500 or 8000 tates the use of a slightly larger panel
watts. Because the ceiling of the to obtain a couple of spare circuits for
hall is very high, it is decided to serve future load expansion. A 6-circuit panel
these lighting units from a separate was chosen to provide two spares.
panelboard placed in a room above As shown in the diagram, a mag¬
the ceiling of the hall. With such an netic contactor is used in the panel
arrangement, the lengths of the to provide control of the mains. The
branch circuits can be kept to a min¬ control circuit of the contactor is
imum, with a 120/240-volt, 3-wire, then carried down to a pushbutton
single-phase feeder run to the panel. station on the main floor level of the
To minimize the number of circuits convention hall, to provide conven¬
and to reduce the size of panelboard ient control of the ceiling lighting.
required, 30-amp circuits will be used
to supply the total load. The total Feeder Sizing
wattage capacity of each such circuit is In the above example, a total of
30 amps x 120 volts or 3600 watts. 8000 watts of lighting load is being
It might appear that 7 of the 500- served by a 120/240-volt panel.
watt units could be used on such a cir¬ Since the luminaires are rated at 120
cuit since 3600^500 is 7 plus. But volts, half of them will be connected
the National Electrical Code requires from one panel bus to the neutral,
that circuits which operate continuous¬ and half will be connected from the
ly for long periods of time must not other panel bus to the neutral. There

87
 CIRCUIT CONDUCTOR LIGHTING

-1
PANELBOARD

SIZING
NEUTRAL
4 500-WATT LAMPS &AR
PER CIRCUIT

/ 8.0 1
30 A
01 BL
30 A

BRANCH
E E E
CIRCUITS 30 A
01 E E E t~\
30A
E E E
Remote pushbutton station opens a net SPARE
doses 120-uo/t contactor co/Zcircuit
CIRCUITS
tapped from feeden z~\
6RANCH CIRCUITS =
2000 WATTS
CURRENT --- 16-67
12.0 VOLTS
. __
A»APS

(<JSE *IO CONDUCfORS)

rj
lO 1 |
ILJ
o 1- ilt
CONTACTOR >T- -T-J

FEEDER:
I_
12 000 WATTS
CURRENT* - - 50 AMPS FEEDER
240 VOLTS

(*6 CONDUCTORS MAT BE TOO SMALL, DEPENDING ON

VOLTAGE DROP AND POSSIBLE IOO°/o CONTINUOUS LOAD)

will be two branch circuits connected spare circuit on each bus. This then
to one bus and two to the other. This gives a total of 6000 watts on each
will place 4000 watts on each panel busbar, requiring a total capacity of
bus, and the feeder conductor to each 12,000 watts to be served by the
panel bus must have sufficient cur¬ 120/240-volt feeder to the panel.
rent-carrying capacity for such a load. The required current rating of the
But this would be sizing the feeder phase conductors of the feeder is ob¬
conductors only for the present load, tained by finding out how much cur¬
with nothing for load growth. rent must be supplied at 240 volts to
There are several ways in which equal 12,000 watts. That is, 1—12,000
the size of the required feeder con¬ -T- 240 or 50 amps. This can also be
ductors can be determined. Consid¬ arrived at by considering that the load
ering each bus in the panel, as in current from either busbar to the
the previous paragraph, the current neutral is equal to 6000 watts 120
capacity of the feeder conductor volts, which is again 50 amps. The
should include the present load, 4000 neutral conductor of the 3-wire 120/-
watts, and should include capacity for 240-voIt feeder must also have a rating
addition of future load up to the of 50 amperes because that would be
ability of the present circuits and the the load imposed on the neutral if the
spare circuits to handle more load. two circuits connected to one busbar
Of course, inclusion of spare capacity were operating and the two circuits
is an arbitrary thing and depends upon connected to the other busbar were
the particular conditions in any spe¬ not operating. This latter condition
cific case. Here, assume an additional is referred to as maximum unbalance
future load of 2000 watts for the one of the load. The NE Code, in Sec.

88
220-4 (d), says that the neutral must R and, consequently, the lower is the
be capable of carrying the maximum voltage drop for the given current.
unbalance of the load. Under the con¬
dition that the 4000-watt load and the Transformer Calculations
future 2000-watt load on each busbar
Assume a 75-kva transformer is to
are operating, the two phase conduc¬
be used to supply 120/208-volt loads
tors (i.e., the two wires with 240 volts
from a 480-volt, three-phase distri¬
between them) will be carrying 50
bution system. The transformer was
amps; but the neutral conductor will
selected, say, as the next larger size
have zero current flow.
to a demand load of 60 kva at 120/-
The feeder conductors can then be
208 volts. Sizing of the primary and
selected from the Code Tables (310-
secondary feeder conductors is done
12 through 310-15) to find the re¬
quired size of conductor, with specific according to the formula kva — V3
insulation, rated for 50 amps. For in¬ x E x 1/1000. From this, I = kva x
stance, No. 6 types TW or RHW, or 1000/V3 x E. Primary current rating
No. 8 type RHH might be used for of transformer—I = 75kva x 1000/-
this job. But the Code table only in¬ 1.73 x 440 = 99 amps. This would
dicates that the wire is suitable for use require conductors not smaller than
from the standpoint of temperature No. 1 TW or No. 3 RHW. Secondary
rise. Voltage drop would have to be current rating—I = 75kva x 1000/V3
taken into consideration and that will x 200 = 214 amps. This would require
frequently demand the use of larger conductors not smaller than 250
size of the copper cross section to MCM TW or No. 4/0 RHW.
minimize the voltage drop in the wire Note that low values of line-to-
due to current flow x resistance of line voltage were used (440 and 200)
the wire (the IxR drop). The larger to obtain the higher current values
the size of wire, the lower is the for sizing feeder conductors.

TRANSFORMER CONPUCTOR SIZING

^ DISCONNECT AND PUSE-5

15 KVA
II0/2.O8 VOLTS
TRAN S-
3-PWASE, 4-WIRE
FOR.MER,
SECONDARY

3-PHASE VOLT-AMPERES* ft * VOLTAGE X CURRENT PR INAARY :

T5 KVA X IOOO
fb x voltage x current CURRENT 1 -- = ^ AMPS
3 -PHASE KVA
1.73 M 440 VOLTS
1000

KVA X IOOO (use *| TW OR *3 RUVV)

THUS CURRENT - -
\TS x VOLTAGE
SECOMPAR.Y:
For currcn / ca/cu/o -//'on s yo/M.ye
75 KVA X IOOO
ira/aes are <Je//6crafe/y chosen /oouer
CURRENT* -• 214 AMPS
/han rafet/ fo assure acfejuafe, 00n- 1.73 X -200 VOLTS

a/ucfor ca/oac/fy under poss/t>Je /oca

syshrm i/o/rit<?e cond/h'ons. (USE 250 MCM or * 4/0 RHW/

89
INDEX

Alternating current, basic concept, 47 Mils, wire sizes in, 23, 24

definition, 6
effective value, 51, 52 Ohm’s law, 6, 7
generation, 48, 49 a-c, 53
Ammeter, 22
Ampere, definition of, 1 Parallel circuit, 11,13
Permeability, magnetic, 33
Capacitance, 60, 62 Phase relations for a-c, 54, 55
resistance plus, 66 Power, definition of, 18
Capacitors, 61 electric, 20
series or parallel, 64, 65 three-phase, 85
Circuit, basic nature, 4 Power factor, 71
Conductor materials, 23 correction of, 77
Conductors, 29 Proximity effect, 57
Current flow, 2, 3
Currents, delta connection, 82 Reactance, capacitive, 64
wye connection, 81 inductive, 55, 56
Reactances in parallel, 72, 73
Degrees, electrical, 51 Reluctance, magnetic, 34
Delta connection, 82, 83 Resistance, 25, 26
four-wire, 85 temperature effect on, 28
Dielectrics, 1 Resistivity of metals, 24
Direct current, fundamentals of, 5 Right-hand rule, generator, 39
magnetic, 37
Electromagnetism, 35 Rms value of sine wave, 53
Electron theory, 1, 2
Energy, definition of, 18 Self induction, 43
electric, 20 Series circuit, basics of, 8, 9
Series-parallel circuits, 14-16
Faraday’s law of induction, 41
Single-phase circuits, 69
Flux, magnetic, 34
power in, 70
Frequency of a-c, 48
Sizing of circuits, 87, 88
Gage, AWG, of wires, 24, 27 Skin effect, 57
Generator, three-phase, 79 Solenoid coil, 33

Impedance, a-c circuit, 58, 59, 67 Three-phase circuits, 78

Inductance, 44, 46 Three-wire circuits, 30, 31
in a-c circuits, 55
resistance plus, 57 Vector analysis of circuit, 76
Induction, electromagnetic, 38, 41 Voltage, definition of, 3
mutual, 44 delta connection, 82
wye connection, 80
Lenz’s law, 42 Voltage drop, 7, 26
Lines of force, magnetic, 34 Voltage sources, 29
Load devices, 30 Voltmeter, 21

Magnet, electro-, 33 Watt, definition of, 18

permanent, 32 Watthour meter, 22
temporary, 33 Wattmeter, 22
Magnetic field, 33, 37 Wires, fundamentals of, 23
Magnetism, fundamentals of, 32 sizes of, 25
laws of, 34, 35 Work, definition of, 17
Magnetomotive force, 36 Wye connection, 78
Meters, connections for, 21 four-wire, 83
90
 \ ‘ V.

'

<y
fa
A
 By JAMES ADAMS
Director-Instructor
School of Industrial Electricity
Madisonville, Kentucky

Here, in a single volume, is complete,

practical coverage of modern industrial
electricity. After a thorough introduction
to the basic principles of electricity, mag¬
netism, and electromagnetic induction, the
book covers the areas of installation, main¬
tenance, rewinding, and repair of electrical
equipment commonly used in industrial
and commercial situations.
In addition to the standard study of
electricity, this book includes related sub¬
jects of vital importance to the practicing
electrician, such as: electrical conductors;
electrical drafting, symbols, and blueprint
reading; standard terminal markings for
single- and three-phase motors, genera¬
tors, and transformers (including standard
charts); a-c and d-c charts showing con¬
nections for voltages and rotations.
Hundreds of illustrations, diagrams,
charts, tables, and cut-away views of elec¬
trical equipment help you grasp quickly
and firmly the principles and practices
presented.
From practical hints for efficient elec¬
trical maintenance and testing with instru¬
ments ... to standard terminal identifica¬
tion and diagnosing trouble by sight and
sound—this book covers virtually every¬
thing an electrician needs to know, not
only on electrical subjects but in many
other related areas of his work.
 Other Important Books in This Field
FRACTIONAL & SUBFRACTIONAL AMERICAN ELECTRICIANS’ HANDBOOK
HORSEPOWER ELECTRIC MOTORS, 3 Ed. 9th Ed. by T. Croft, C. Carr, and J. Watt.
By C. G. Veinott. 475 pp. 307 illus. 1,569 pp. 1,640 illus.

What kinds are available . . . how they This latest edition of the how-to-do-it
work and what they will do . . . how to “bible” for practical electrical men
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gives authoritative, completely detailed ready some 350,000 men have used
answers. It covers just about any ques¬ this world-famous handbook to solve
tion on today’s small electric motors. In problems right on the job, and de¬
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should know about construction fea¬ of practical facts and up-to-date data
tures common to popularly used mo¬ to solve virtually any problem. It is
tors; testing the various types of motors, not only a perfect guide to selection,
including instrumentation; what tests installation, operation, and mainte¬
to take; vibrations and noise measure¬ nance, but the kind of book that will
ments, etc. A very important section help the user advance in his specialty.
shows how to select the right motor for
just about any specialized job you can
name.

PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES OF RAPID ELECTRICAL ESTIMATING

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL DESIGN AND PRICING, 2 Ed.
By Lionel B. Roe. 262 pp. 123 illus. By C. Kenneth Kolstad. 320 pp. 297 illus.
An indispensable reference for every¬ Here is a revised and updated edition
one concerned with industrial electrical of a practical down-to-earth working
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ly. With this working tool he can in¬ method available. The author’s ingeni¬
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