Maths

for
Science
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 Maths
for

Science
Sally Jordan, Shelagh Ross and Pat Murphy

Published by Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP in association with

The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,

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Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.

First edition published by The Open University 2002 reprinted 2003, 2005, 2008. This edition first

published by Oxford University Press in association with The Open University in 2013.

Copyright © 2013 The Open University

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available on request

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ISBN 978 0 19 964496 4

3.1

Contents
Introduction 1

Chapter 1 Starting points 3

1.1 Numbers 3

1.2 Fractions 11

1.3 Powers, reciprocals and roots 20

1.4 Doing calculations in the right order 26

1.5 Review of Chapter 1 28

Chapter 2 Measurement in science 31

2.1 Large quantities and small quantities 31

2.2 Units of measurement 34

2.3 Scales of measurement 39

2.4 How precise are the measurements? 44

2.5 Review of Chapter 2 46

Chapter 3 Calculating in science 49

3.1 Calculating area; thinking about units and significant figures 49

3.2 Calculating in scientific notation 54

3.3 Estimating answers 56

3.4 An introduction to symbols, equations and formulae 58

3.5 Review of Chapter 3 70

Chapter 4 Unit conversions 73

4.1 Unit conversion at the beginning of a calculation 73

4.2 Converting units of area and volume 74

4.3 Converting units of speed 77

4.4 Converting units of concentration and density 83

4.5 More unit conversions 85

4.6 Review of Chapter 4 87

Chapter 5 Algebra 89

5.1 Rearranging equations 89

5.2 Simplifying equations 103

5.3 Combining equations 113

5.4 Review of Chapter 5 118

Chapter 6 Putting algebra to work 119

6.1 Algebra is fun! 119

6.2 Using algebra to solve scientific problems 121

6.3 Some more uses of algebra 132

6.4 Writing maths 133

6.5 Review of Chapter 6 135

Chapter 7 Graphs and gradient 137

7.1 Graphical representations 137

7.2 Straight-line graphs 144

7.3 The equation of a straight line 153

7.4 Graphs of different shapes 160

7.5 Review of Chapter 7 169

Chapter 8 Rate of change and differentiation 173

8.1 Drawing tangents to curves 173

8.2 An introduction to differentiation 176

8.3 Differentiating exponential functions 191

8.4 Review of Chapter 8 196

Chapter 9 Angles and trigonometry 197

9.1 Measuring angles: degrees and radians 198

9.2 A quick look at triangles 204

9.3 Calculating with angles: trigonometry 206

9.4 Using trigonometry and Pythagoras’ Theorem to

help with vectors 220

9.5 Small angle approximations 223

9.6 Review of Chapter 9 226

Chapter 10 Logarithms 229

10.1 Logarithms to base 10 230

10.2 Logarithmic scales revisited 232

10.3 Rules of logarithms 234

10.4 Using logarithms to make curves straight 238

10.5 Logarithms to base e 245

10.6 Review of Chapter 10 251

Chapter 11 Probability and descriptive statistics 253

11.1 Chance and probability 253

11.2 Descriptive statistics 266

11.3 Review of Chapter 11 282

Chapter 12 Statistical hypothesis testing 285

12.1 The principles of hypothesis testing 286

12.2 Deciding which test to use; levels of measurement 290

12.3 The chi-squared goodness-of-fit test 291

12.4 The Spearman rank correlation coefficient 298

12.5 The t-test for unmatched samples 306

12.6 Other statistical tests 311

12.7 Review of Chapter 12 312

Questions: answers and comments 315

Acknowledgements 398

Index 399

 Introduction

Introduction

Welcome to Maths for Science. There are many reasons for studying maths
and a compelling motivation for many people is that it provides a way of
representing and investigating the nature of the real world. Real-world
contexts could include population statistics, or economics, or engineering.
Here, the context is science in its broadest sense.
Much of science is couched in the language of mathematics. Nearly all
courses in science will assume some mathematical skills and techniques. Some
may also require you to learn elements of maths alongside the science, which
can be hard going. The aim of this book is to equip you with the knowledge
and skills to tackle the mathematical aspects of science courses with
confidence.
It is clearly not possible in the space of one book at this level to discuss all
the mathematical techniques you might need to pursue your study of science
to degree level but, by working through this book, you will acquire a good
array of basic mathematical tools and confidence in using them. Equally
importantly, you will have a foundation that should make it much easier to
learn further mathematics if and when required.
It is no accident that the word ‘confidence’ has appeared in each of the last
two paragraphs. Maths is in some sense a language with its own alphabet,
vocabulary and rules of grammar. With any language the only route to fluency
is use and practice, so that eventually the process of constructing or
understanding sentences becomes automatic and you can then concentrate
wholly on the message behind the words. You should aim to develop a similar
confidence and fluency in carrying out certain important mathematical
operations. There are few shortcuts: the route requires practice, practice and
more practice! Keep paper, a pencil and your calculator to hand as you study,
and use them constantly. You may find it helpful to write out notes and even
to rework some of the examples given in the text as you go along. There are
questions for you to try throughout the book; you should work through each
question as you reach it. Answers and comments are given at the end of the
book, but don’t be tempted to look at these until you have made a serious
attempt at working out the answer for yourself. If you have solved all parts of
a question successfully on your own, then you are ready to move on. If not,
you would probably benefit from trying further examples on the same topic
from the Additional exercises, available with solutions on the accompanying
website. Whilst studying this book, you should expect to spend about half of
your time actually doing maths rather than just reading about it.
Since there are so many makes of scientific and graphics calculators on the
market, each operating differently, it is impossible to state the exact sequence
of keystrokes you will need in order to carry out particular calculations.
Whenever you meet a new type of mathematical operation, you should
therefore check that you know how to perform it on your own calculator. A
calculator symbol (as shown in the margin) will alert you to the points at
which you particularly need to carry out this kind of check. You should refer

1
Maths for Science

to your calculator’s instruction booklet if necessary and to the additional hints

for the use of two readily available scientific calculators which are provided
on the accompanying website.
Throughout the book, a blue-toned background is used to emphasise key
points, important rules, or definitions that you need to be able to apply
confidently. Important terms are printed in bold the first time they are used.
Definitions of these terms are given in the Maths for Science glossary.
Boxes with the background colour of Box 1.1 are used to indicate ‘sidebars’.
These are generally less important than the surrounding text, and they are
included to add interest.
The focus of this book is maths and not science, so you are not expected to
have specific prior knowledge of any particular branch of science. However,
most of the examples and questions involve the application of mathematical
tools to a real scientific purpose, so you will probably discover some
interesting science along the way. Enjoy the journey!

2
 1 Starting points

Starting points
1
The point to start from is always what you already know. It is assumed that
you are familiar with the everyday usage of the basic arithmetic operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and the use of a calculator
to carry them out, the use of decimal notation (e.g. for money) and the
interpretation of information on a chart or graph (of the kind that might, for
instance, accompany a television news item about economic trends). Many of
the early chapters begin with a brief revision of ideas and skills that you will
probably already have met. This chapter, which concentrates on ideas about
numbers – including fractions, percentages and powers – is slightly different
from later ones in that it covers concepts that are the basis for what is to
follow in the rest of the book, so more of it may constitute revision. Please
note that because of the special nature of this chapter, it contains fewer
science examples than subsequent chapters.
If the points covered in Chapter 1 are completely familiar, you need not spend
very long on them, but they are worth checking out thoroughly as they are the
foundation of much that is to follow. Even if it is only for the sake of
revision, you should test your own skills by doing the numbered questions. If
any of the material is new to you, time spent mastering it now will pay rich
dividends later.

1.1 Numbers
‘Numbers rule the universe’
(Pythagoras)

Numbers are the bedrock of mathematics, underlying measurement, calculation

and statistics, among other branches of maths. Everybody is familiar with the
counting numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.), but scientists also make use of other kinds
of numbers, so it is appropriate to begin this book with some revision of
numbers of various sorts and the ways in which they may be combined.

1.1.1 Different types of number

One convenient way to represent numbers is on a ‘number line’, as shown in
Figure 1.1. A step to the right is taken by adding 1 to the previous number
and a step to the left by subtracting 1. Positive and negative whole numbers,
including zero, are called integers.

negative numbers zero positive numbers

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 1.1 A number line showing the integers from −5 to 5.

3
Maths for Science

Fractions (formed by dividing one integer by another) and their equivalent

decimal numbers fit on the number line between the integers. For example, 12
(i.e. 0.5) is halfway between 0 and 1, and −2.5 is halfway between −2 and −3.
A number in which there is a decimal point (e.g. 0.5, 2.5, 100.35, etc.) is said
to be written in decimal notation.
Figure 1.2 illustrates how subdivision of the number line forms the basis of a
scale for measuring physical quantities that can vary continuously. In this
4
case, the scale between the integral values is divided into tenths. (Note that, in
3 order to describe a physical quantity, the numerical value has to be
accompanied by a unit of measurement, in this case the degree Celsius, °C.
2
This aspect of measuring is covered in Chapter 2.)
1
In the case of a fraction such as 213
25
, the decimal equivalent is exact to two
0 decimal places (i.e. two digits after the decimal point):
−1
213
= 8.52
−2 25
−3 This decimal equivalent of 213 25
cannot be given to more than two decimal
−4
places except by putting zeroes on the end (e.g. 8.520 000), so it is said to
terminate at the digit 2. However, if you work out a fraction like 13 on your
−5 calculator you will get a decimal like 0.333 333 333 (the number of digits
(a) (b) displayed will depend on the make of your calculator and some calculators
will display the number as 0.3j ). The fraction 33341
will come out as
70
Figure 1.2 (a) A thermometer. 0.123 123 123, and 9 as 7.777 777 778. These decimals in fact recur
(b) The inset portion covers a (i.e. repeat themselves) for ever, so they are called recurring decimals. The
range from about +4.4 °C to calculator truncates them when it runs out of digits on the display and, in the
−5.6 °C, which might represent case of the final example, also ‘rounds up’ the last digit from a 7 to an 8. In
the variation in temperature over scientific calculations, it is usually totally inappropriate to quote so many
a 24-hour period during the digits after the decimal point and the rules for deciding how to round off such
winter in the UK. numbers in real situations will be introduced in Chapter 2.
Fractions and their decimal equivalents are grouped together as the so-called
‘rational numbers’. All the rational numbers result in a decimal that either
terminates or recurs. However, there are also numbers whose decimal
equivalent neither terminates nor recurs. These numbers cannot be obtained by
dividing one integer by another, so they are called ‘irrational numbers’. Well­
known examples are 2 (the square root of 2, i.e. the number that
multiplied by itself gives 2) and π (pi, which is defined as the number
obtained by dividing the circumference of a circle by its diameter). This
would be an appropriate moment to check that you know how to use the π
button on your calculator. You should be able to get:

2 × π = 6.283 185 307

All the integers, rational and irrational numbers can be placed somewhere on
the number line, so they are grouped together as the real numbers. All the
numbers you will use in this book will be real. However, it may interest you
to know that there are also imaginary numbers based on the square root of
−1, which is usually represented by the symbol i. Numbers made up of real
and imaginary parts, such as (3 + 2i), are known as complex numbers.
Complex numbers are used quite extensively in science and have practical

4
 1 Starting points

applications in telecommunications, electrical engineering and the beautiful

patterns of fractals (Figure 1.3).
Note: many phrases used to describe different types of number have been
introduced in this section. You are not expected to remember these.

Figure 1.3 A Mandelbrot Set, named after Benoit Mandelbrot (1924–2010), is an

example of a fractal shape.

In case hearing about all these different types of numbers leads you to think
that straightforward ‘counting numbers’ hold little interest for scientists,
Box 1.1 shows how a series of numbers, which mathematicians find
interesting in their own right, have also been found to describe intricate
patterns of plant growth.

Box 1.1 Fibonacci numbers

The sequence of numbers
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89…
was first defined in 1202 by the Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa,
nicknamed Fibonacci. Each term in the sequence after the first two is
obtained by adding together the previous two (0 + 1 = 1; 1 + 1 = 2;
1 + 2 = 3; 2 + 3 = 5, etc.)
It is intriguing to discover that consecutive numbers from the Fibonacci
sequence (e.g. 8, 13 and 21) occur in the spiral patterns of plant growth,
as illustrated in Figure 1.4.

5
Maths for Science

8 13 55

89

(a) (b)

(c) 13 21

Figure 1.4 (a) In this pine cone there are 8 parallel rows of bracts spiralling
gradually and 13 parallel rows of bracts spiralling steeply. (b) In this
sunflower head, seeds spiral out from the centre: 55 rows anticlockwise and
89 rows clockwise. (c) In this pineapple, scales also follow spirals: 8 rows
spiral gradually, 13 rows spiral a little more steeply and 21 spiral very
steeply.

1.1.2 Calculating with negative numbers

Many scientific quantities can take negative values so it is essential to
understand the rules for performing the ‘arithmetic operations’ (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division) when negative numbers are involved.
Imagine a person with a credit card debt of £100 and also an overdraft of
£150. In total they owe £250:

£100 debt + £150 debt = £250 debt

Just in terms of numbers, this is equivalent to writing:

(−100) + (−150) = −250

6
 1 Starting points

Note from this example how brackets can be used to make it clear how
numbers and signs are associated. In this case (−150) is being added to
(−100).
There are several simple rules which can be applied when you need to carry
out arithmetic operations involving negative numbers. These rules are given
below, with examples of each. Note that, in line with normal convention,
positive numbers are not preceded by a + sign.

Adding a negative number is the same as subtracting the corresponding

positive number.

So, for example:

5 + (−3) = 5 − 3 = 2

(−5) + (−3) = (−5) − 3 = −8

Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding the corresponding

positive number.

So, for example:

5 − (−3) = 5 + 3 = 8

(−5) − (−3) = (−5) + 3 = −2

If you are struggling to see why subtracting 3 from −5 should give −8,
whereas adding 3 to −5 gives −2, you may find it helpful to revisit the
financial analogy. If your account is £5 overdrawn and you spend a further £3,
you will end up with an overdraft of £8. However, if your account is £5
overdrawn and you repay £3, your overdraft will be reduced to £2.

If you multiply or divide two numbers which have the same sign, the
answer is positive.

So, 5 × 3 = 15 and also (−5) × (−3) = 15.

8 ÷ 4 = 2 and also (−8) ÷ (−4) = 2.

If you multiply or divide two numbers which have different signs, the
answer is negative.

So, 5 × (−3) = −15 and (−8) ÷ 4 = −2.

7
Maths for Science

Before reading on, test your understanding of the rules by doing Question 1.1.

Question 1.1

Without using your calculator, work out:

(a) (−3) − (−4)
(b) (−10) − (−5)
(c) 6 ÷ (−2)
(d) (−12) ÷ (−6)

One important feature of both addition and multiplication is that both these
operations are commutative. This is just the mathematical way of saying that
if you add two numbers then the result (called the sum) is identical whichever
number is written first. For example:

5 + 3 = 8 and 3 + 5 = 8

(−2) + 3 = 1 and 3 + (−2) = 1

Similarly, in multiplying two numbers the result (called the product) is
unchanged if the order of the numbers is reversed. For instance:

5 × 4 = 20 and 4 × 5 = 20

(−3) × 4 = −12 and 4 × (−3) = −12

Subtraction and division, on the other hand, are not commutative:

5 − 3 = 2 but 3 − 5 = −2
and
1
8 ÷ 4 = 2 but 4 ÷ 8 =
2
The commutativity of addition and multiplication may seem rather obvious
when applied to the counting numbers, but it is worthy of attention because of
its importance in the algebraic equations that will be introduced in Chapter 3.

Worked example 1.1

One of the hottest places on Earth is Death Valley, California, where an air
temperature of 56 °C has been recorded. Probably the coldest inhabited place
is the Siberian village of Oymyakon, where the temperature has fallen to
−72 °C on occasions. What is the difference in temperature between these two
extremes?
Answer
The difference in temperature may be worked out in two ways. The first
method involves subtracting the lower temperature from the higher, i.e.
56 °C − (−72 °C), which gives a difference of +128 °C. This is the amount by
which Death Valley is hotter than Oymyakon. Alternatively, it is equally valid

8
 1 Starting points

to subtract the higher temperature from the lower, i.e. −72 °C − 56 °C, which
gives a difference of −128 °C; Oymyakon is colder than Death Valley by
128 °C.
This example shows that in scientific calculations involving negative numbers
it is important to keep the physical situation in mind.

Question 1.2

The lowest temperature in the oceans, which corresponds to the freezing

point of seawater, is 31.9 °C colder than the highest recorded temperature,
which is 30.0 °C. What is the freezing point of seawater?

1.1.3 Working with negative numbers on a calculator

The calculations in Questions 1.1 and 1.2 were easy enough to work out by
hand, but many of the calculations you will encounter in science will require
the use of a calculator. It is therefore important to check that you know how
to input negative numbers into your own calculator.
Take the following examples:

6 + (−8) = −2

4 − (−3) = 7

5 × (−3) = −15

(−8) ÷ (−2) = 4
and make sure that you can carry out each of these on your calculator,
obtaining the correct sign on the display of the answer. With some makes of
calculator you will be able to enter the expression on the left-hand side more
or less as it is written, with or without brackets. With other makes you may
have to use a combination of the arithmetic operation keys and the +/− (or on
some makes ±) button.
When you are confident that you can input negative numbers in association
with the arithmetic operations, test your skill with Question 1.3.

Question 1.3

Making sure you input all the signs, use your calculator to work out the
following:
(a) 117 − (−38) + (−286)
(b) (−1624) ÷ (−29)
(c) (−123) × (−24)

9
Maths for Science

There is, however, one case in which the calculator does not fully deal with
signs, and that case concerns square roots. The square root of 9 is defined as
the number that multiplied by itself gives 9. One such number is 3:

3×3=9
and if you use your calculator to work out 9 you will indeed obtain the
answer 3. However, it is also true that

(−3) × (−3) = 9
So the square root of 9 is either +3 or −3. It is a mathematical convention that
the notation 9 means the positive value of the square root of 9, and this is
what your calculator displays. In cases in which the negative value of the
square root might be relevant, this is indicated by use of the sign ± (plus or
minus) before the square root sign, i.e. ± 9 .
In Section 1.1.1, the number 2 was given as an example of an irrational
number. Check that you can use the square root button on your own calculator
to get

2 = 1.414 213 562

(You may obtain more or fewer digits depending on the make and model of
your calculator. The fact that the number is irrational means that in reality it
never ends.)
■ What is the value of 5 ?
5 3
□ = 0.745 355 9925
3
Be sure to check that you can obtain this value on your own calculator, by
ensuring that you take the square root of 5 before dividing by 3. Otherwise,
you will get the positive value of the square root of 53 , which is not the same
at all!

5
= 1.290 994 449
3

1.1.4 The number zero

Zero is a number to be careful about, especially when it is used in
multiplication or division.
If you try multiplying 0 by 6 on your calculator, you will get the answer 0.
This is hardly surprising. If you start off with nothing, it doesn’t matter how
often you multiply it, you still have nothing. The commutativity of
multiplication shows that 6 × 0 is therefore also equal to 0, and your
calculator will confirm this.

The result of multiplying any number by 0 is 0.

10
 1 Starting points

In a similar way, dividing 0 by any non-zero number gives zero.

Trying to divide by zero is more problematic. If you enter 6 ÷ 0 into your
calculator, you will get an error message. To understand why, imagine
dividing 6 by successively smaller and smaller numbers: the answers will get
successively larger and larger. As the number by which you are dividing
approaches zero, the result of the division becomes too large for the calculator
to cope with. Dividing by zero does not produce a meaningful number and is
to be avoided!

1.2 Fractions
Fractions are used less in everyday life than was the case 50 years ago. In the
UK, people would measure small lengths in eighths and sixteenths of inches
and then add or subtract these. Nowadays, even if you need to add or subtract
fractions or calculate a percentage of something, most modern calculators will
do this for you. However, the ability to add, subtract, multiply and divide
using numerical fractions (without simply entering the fractions into your
calculator) is an extremely important mathematical skill, because it is the basis
for manipulating algebraic fractions which will be discussed in Chapter 5.

1.2.1 Using fractions

Fractions are characterised by a numerator (the number on top) and a
denominator (the number on the bottom). So in the fraction 83 , the numerator
is 3 and the denominator is 8.
A pictorial representation, such as that in Figure 1.5, makes it obvious that it
is possible to have fractions that have different numerators and denominators,
but are nevertheless equal to each other. A cake can be divided into two and
the shaded half further subdivided into two quarters or four eighths, but half
the cake still remains shaded. So the fractions 12 , 42 and 84 all represent the
same amount of the original cake, and can therefore be described as
equivalent fractions.

1 2 4
2 4 8

Figure 1.5 Sharing out half a cake.

Figure 1.5 exemplifies the most fundamental rule associated with fractions:

The value of a fraction is unchanged if its numerator and denominator

are both multiplied by the same number, or both divided by the same
number.

11
Maths for Science

In the case of the half cake, the numerator and denominator have been
multiplied by 2 to get the equivalent two quarters and again to get the
equivalent four eighths. In the following example of equivalent fractions,
other multiplying and dividing numbers have been used:
6 2 8 10
= = =
9 3 12 15
2
3
is the simplest form in which this fraction may be expressed, i.e. the one in
which the numerator and denominator have the smallest possible values.
The process of dividing the top and bottom of a fraction by the same quantity
is often referred to as cancellation, because it is commonly shown by striking
through the numbers being divided. For example, 155 can be simplified by
dividing the numerator and denominator by 5, and this may be shown as
1
5
15 3

1.2.2 Adding and subtracting fractions

Suppose you want to add the two fractions shown below:
3 7
+
4 16
You cannot simply add the 3 and the 7 or the 4 and the 16. The 3 represents
3 quarters and the 7 represents 7 sixteenths, so adding the 3 to the 7 would be
like trying to add 3 dollars and 7 euros without first converting the numbers
to the same currency.

In order to add or subtract two fractions, it is necessary for them both to

have the same denominator.

Fractions with the same denominator are said to have a common

denominator. In numerical work, it is usually convenient to pick the smallest
possible number for this denominator (the so-called lowest common
denominator). In the example above, the lowest common denominator is 16
and multiplying both top and bottom of the fraction 34 by 4 gives the
12
equivalent fraction 16 . So the calculation becomes
3 7 12 7
+ = +
4 16 16 16
Adding 12 sixteenths and 7 sixteenths gives 19 sixteenths:

12 7 19
+ =
16 16 16
Note that at this stage you should add the numerators not the denominators.

12
 1 Starting points

A top-heavy fraction such as 19

16
(i.e. one in which the numerator is larger
than the denominator) is sometimes referred to as an improper fraction. The
final answer could also be written as 1 163 . This notation is called a mixed
number (i.e. a combination of a whole number and a simple fraction).
However, for most scientific purposes it is better to leave things as improper
fractions.
If the lowest common denominator is not easy to spot, it is perfectly
acceptable to use any common denominator when adding and subtracting
fractions. It may be most convenient to multiply the top and bottom of the
first fraction by the denominator of the second fraction, and the top and
bottom of the second fraction by the denominator of the first. A return to the
example may make this clearer:
3 7 3 × 16 7 × 4 48 28 76
+ = + = + =
4 16 4 × 16 16 × 4 64 64 64
However, 76
64
is not the simplest form in which this fraction can be expressed.
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by 4 gives 19 16
.
Reassuringly, this is the same answer as was obtained before!

Worked example 1.2

Evaluate the following expression, giving the answer in the form of the
simplest possible improper fraction.
3 1
+
2 32
Note: the instruction to evaluate simply means ‘calculate the value of’.
Answer
Choosing 2 × 32 as the common denominator,

3 1 3 × 32 1 × 2
+ = +
2 32 2 × 32 32 × 2

96 2

= +
64 64

98

=
64
49
98
=
64 32
This cannot be simplified any further, so
3 1 49
+ =
2 32 32

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Maths for Science

Question 1.4

Without using a calculator, evaluate the following, leaving your answers in

the form of the simplest possible fractions.

2 1
(a) −
3 6
1 1 2
(b) + −
3 2 5
5 1
(c) −
28 3

1.2.3 Manipulating fractions

It is very important to remember that multiplying both numerator and
denominator by the same non-zero number, or dividing both numerator
and denominator by the same non-zero number, are the only things you can do
to a fraction that leave its value unchanged. Adding the same number to the
numerator and denominator will alter the value of the fraction, as will any
other operations. The following question will help you to convince yourself of
this, so it is particularly important that you should work through it at this
point.

Question 1.5

Take any fraction, say 164 , and evaluate it as a decimal, using your
calculator if necessary. Now apply each of the following operations to your
original fraction and, in each case, write the result as a decimal:
(a) choose any integer and add it to the numerator and denominator
(b) subtract the same integer from the numerator and denominator
(c) square the numerator and the denominator (i.e. multiply the numerator
by itself, and multiply the denominator by itself)
(d) take the square root of the numerator and the square root of the
denominator.

The results you obtained for Question 1.5 confirm that, for example, adding
the same non-zero number to the top and bottom of a fraction changes its
value, as do operations such as taking the square root of the numerator and of
the denominator. The experience of all calculations of this type can be
generalised by saying that excluding operations involving the integer zero:

A fraction is unchanged by either the multiplication, or the division, of

its numerator and denominator by the same amount. All other operations
carried out on the fraction will alter its value.

In terms of numerical fractions, this rule may seem fairly obvious. But
forgetting it once the numbers are replaced by symbols is the root cause of
many errors in algebra.

14
 1 Starting points

1.2.4 Multiplying fractions

The expression ‘three times two’ just means there are three lots of two
(i.e. 2 + 2 + 2). So multiplying by a whole number is just a form of repeated
addition. For example,
3× 2 = 2 + 2 + 2
This is equally true if you are multiplying a fraction by a whole number:
4 4 4 4 12
3× = + + =
5 5 5 5 5
The 3 could be written in the form of its equivalent fraction 13 and it is then
clear that the same answer is obtained by multiplying the two numerators
together and the two denominators together.
3 4 3 × 4 12
× = =
1 5 1× 5 5
In fact, this procedure holds true for any fractions.

To multiply two or more fractions, multiply the numerators (top lines)

together and also multiply the denominators (bottom lines) together.

So
3 7 3 × 7 21
× = =
4 8 4 × 8 32
Multiplying three fractions together is done by a simple extension of the
method used in the previous examples:
7 7 3 7 × 7 × 3 147
× × = =
16 8 4 16 × 8 × 4 512
3
In the first few sections of this book, all fractions have been written as, for x 12
4
example, 34 . However, in some maths and science books, you will find that the
alternative form, 3/4, is also used, so you will need to become equally
comfortable with both systems and to be able to swap between them at will. 3 x 12
The way in which fractions are written in printed text can also cause some 4
confusion when multiplying, for example, in finding 34 ×12 it is the 3 (the
numerator) that should be multiplied by 12, not the 4 (the denominator). It is
3
important to make this clear when writing fractions by hand, so the first two
4 x 12
expressions in Figure 1.6 are both correct but the third is not.

1.2.5 Dividing fractions

How should the expression 4 ÷ 12 be interpreted? Consider first what you are Figure 1.6 Writing the
doing when dividing by an integer. The expression 4 ÷ 2 asks you to work out multiplication of a fraction and
an integer by hand. The first two
how many twos there are in 4 (answer 2). In exactly the same way, the
expressions are correct but the
expression 4 ÷ 12 asks how many halves there are in 4. Figure 1.7 illustrates third is not.

15
Maths for Science

this in terms of circles. Each circle contains two half-circles, and 4 circles
therefore contain 8 half-circles. So
1
4÷ = 4× 2 = 8
2

Figure 1.7 Each circle contains two half-circles.

Similarly, 12 ÷ 14 asks how many quarters there are in a half. Figure 1.8
illustrates that:

. each whole circle contains 4 quarter-circles

. so each half-circle contains 12 × 4 quarter-circles.

So

1 1 1 1 4 1× 4 4
÷ = ×4 = × = = =2
2 4 2 2 1 2 ×1 2

Figure 1.8 Each half-circle contains two quarter-circles.

This may be extended into a general rule:

To divide by a fraction, turn it upside down and multiply.

So
12
4 5 4 9 4 × 9 36 36 12
÷ = × = = = =
3 9 3 5 3 × 5 15 15 5 5
Here the cancellation has been done by dividing the numerator and the
36
denominator of 15 by 3.

16
 1 Starting points

However, cancellation could equally well have been carried out at an earlier
stage,

4 9 3 4 × 3 12
× = =
31 5 1× 5 5
Note that divisions involving fractions are commonly written in several
different ways; the example above might equally well have been expressed as

4 5 4/3
or
3 9 5/9
It is important to remember that an integer is equivalent to a fraction in which
the numerator is equal to that integer and the denominator is equal to 1. For
example, the integer 3 is equivalent to the fraction 13 . So dividing by the
integer 3 is equivalent to dividing by the fraction 13 , and that, according to the
general rule about how to divide by a fraction, is the same as multiplying by
the fraction 13 . Thus
1 1 3 1 1 1×1 1
÷3 = ÷ = × = =
2 2 1 2 3 2×3 6
In this context, it may be helpful to restate the general rule in terms of a
specific example:

1
Multiplying by 2
is equivalent to dividing by 2.
1
Dividing by 2
is equivalent to multiplying by 2.

The specific example above and the cartoon both describe the relationship
between 12 and 2, but the number 2 could of course be replaced by any other
integer: it is equally true to say that dividing by 101 is equivalent to
multiplying by 10.

Question 1.6

Work out each of the following, leaving your answer as the simplest
possible fraction:

2 5 1/ 6 3 7 2
(a) ×3 (b) ÷7 (c) (d) × ×
7 9 1/ 3 4 8 7

1.2.6 Percentages
A percentage means a ‘number of parts per hundred’, so is equivalent to a
fraction in which the denominator is 100, for example
50 1
50% is the same as or
100 2
■ Express 35% as a fraction of the simplest possible form.

17
Maths for Science

□ 35
35% is the same as 100 . The numerator and denominator of the fraction
can both be divided by 5 and doing this gives
7
35 35 7
= =
100 100 20 20

This is the simplest form in which the fraction can be expressed.

One way to convert a fraction into a percentage is to multiply the numerator

and denominator of the fraction by whatever number is required to make the
denominator equal to 100. For instance:
1 1 × 25 25
= =
4 4 × 25 100
1
Hence 4
is equivalent to 25%.
Alternatively, convert the fraction into its decimal form and multiply by
100%.
1
= 0. 25 and 0.25 ×100% = 25%
4

Question 1.7

(a) Express 70% as a fraction of the simplest possible form.

(b) Express 20% as a fraction of the simplest possible form.
11
(c) Express as a percentage.

25

1
(d) Express as a percentage.

1.2.7 Calculating with fractions and percentages

Now consider how you would calculate a certain fraction or percentage of a
given number: for example, what is 34 , or 75%, of 12? Start by thinking what
3
4
of 12 means. First of all, 12 can be divided into four equal parts or
quarters (12 ÷ 4 = 3). Then, since you want three-quarters, which is three
times as big, you multiply one of these parts by three (3 × 3 = 9). So 34 of 12
is 9. This calculation can be written as
3
3 3 12
×12 = × = 3× 3 = 9
4 41 1
So ‘ 34 of’ a number means multiply 3
4
by that number. If you see ‘of’ think
‘multiply’.
Finding a percentage of a number can be done in a similar way. For example,
75% of 300 means

75 75 300
× 300 = × = 75 × 3 = 225
100 100 1

18
 1 Starting points

So 75% of 300 is 225. Note the way in which the cancellation of the zeros
has been indicated in this calculation, with each cancellation representing a
division by ten.

Question 1.8

Evaluate the following:

2 7
(a) of 20 (b) of 24 (c) 15% of 120 (d) 60% of 5

5 8

Percentages are frequently used to indicate the extent to which something has
increased or decreased. For example, if you buy something for £64 and sell it
for £60, what is your percentage loss? Note that percentage calculations of
this type are always performed relative to the initial value.
In this case, the loss is £64 − £60 = £4. Ignoring the units (£) for now – units
are very important but are considered in Chapter 2 – the loss can first be
expressed as a fraction of the initial value, then converted into a percentage
using one of the methods discussed in Section 1.2.6.
4
= 0.0625 and 0.0625 ×100% = 6.25%
64
The percentage loss is therefore 6.25%.

Worked example 1.3

The height of a sunflower plant is measured every week and is found to
increase from 160.0 cm to 199.2 cm. What is the percentage increase in
height?
Answer
Increase in height = 199.2 cm − 160.0 cm = 39.2 cm.
39.2
As a fraction of the original height this is
160.
0
39.2

= 0.245 and 0.245 ×100% = 24.5%

160.0
The percentage increase in height is 24.5%.

Question 1.9

A baby’s length increases from 60 cm to 69 cm. What is the percentage

increase?

(Note: although only one question of this type has been given in this book,

there are more in the Additional exercises for Chapter 1 on the

accompanying website.)

19
Maths for Science

1.3 Powers, reciprocals and roots

1.3.1 Powers
Most people are familiar with the fact that 2 × 2 can also be written as 22
(said as ‘two squared’) and 2 × 2 × 2 as 23 (said as ‘two cubed’). This
shorthand notation can be extended indefinitely, so 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
becomes 26 (said as ‘two raised to the power of six’ or ‘two to the power of
six’, or more usually just as ‘two to the six’). In these examples, 2 is called
the base number and the superscript indicates the number of 2s that have
been multiplied together. The superscript number is variously called the
exponent, the index (plural: indices) or the power.
‘Power’ is a slightly confusing term because it is commonly used to denote
two different quantities:
. the value of the superscript number, for example, the 6 in 26
. the complete package of base number and exponent.
The context should make it clear what is meant in any particular example.
In the following example, the base number is 5:

Exponent 1 2 3 4
Power of 5 51 52 53 54
Value 5 25 125 625

If you read this table starting at the right and stepping to the left, each time
you take a step you are subtracting 1 from the number in the top row and
dividing the number in the bottom row by five. On the basis of this pattern,
mathematicians extend this table further to the left by continuing to apply the
same rule for each step, giving:

Exponent −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Power of 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 54
1 1 1
Value 125 25 5
1 5 25 125 625

Firstly, note the extremely important result that 50 = 1. This is an example of

a much more general rule:

Any base number raised to the power of zero is equal to 1.

Next, note that

1
5−2 =
25

20
 1 Starting points

But since 25 = 52, this can be written as

1
5−2 =
52
Similarly
1 1
5−1 = 1
, 5−3 = 3 and so on
5 5
Another way of saying this is that 5−2 is the reciprocal of 52 and so on. The
reciprocal of any number is 1 divided by that number. Note that this also
works the other way round: 52 is the reciprocal of 5−2:
1 1 1
52 = −2
and similarly 51 = −1 , 53 = −3 and so on
5 5 5
The notation shown above for powers of 5 could be applied to any base
number and any exponent. In science and maths, general rules are often stated
in terms of letters and/or symbols. The notation of zero and negative powers
can be expressed in general as:

1 1
N 0 = 1 N −a = Na =
Na N −a
where N represents any base number and a represents any exponent.

Quantities such as those represented by the symbols N and a, which can take
any value, are called variables.
The notation of base numbers and exponents is particularly useful when
applied to powers of ten, because then it ties in with the normal system for
writing decimal numbers, as shown in the table below:

thousands hundreds tens units point tenths hundredths thousandths

Value 1000 100 10 1 . 0.1 0.01 0.001
Power of 10 103 102 101 100 10−1 10−2 10−3
Exponent 3 2 1 0 −1 −2 −3

In the next chapter, you will see how useful this powers of ten notation can
be in scientific work.

Question 1.10

Without using a calculator, write out and evaluate:

1 1 1
(a) 2−2 (b) (c) (d)
3−3 40 104

21
Maths for Science

Your calculator probably has an x2 button, and either an x−1 or a 1/x button,
but to evaluate other powers you will have to use a special ‘powers’ button.
On some calculators this is marked xy, on others it has the symbol ^. To input
a negative exponent, you may have to use a button marked (−) or +/− .
Make sure at this point that you can operate your own calculator to obtain
correctly:

54 = 625, 5−1 = 0.2 and 5−2 = 0.04

Question 1.11

Use your calculator to evaluate:

1
(a) 29 (b) 3−3 (c)
42
Box 1.2 presents a little anecdote about powers.

Box 1.2 An intimate knowledge of powers!

Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920), an Indian mathematician of immense
talent, came to England in 1913 at the invitation of the distinguished
British mathematician G.H. Hardy (1877–1947). In his biography of
Ramanujan, Hardy wrote:
‘I remember once going to see him when he was lying ill at
Putney. I had ridden in taxicab number 1729 and remarked that
the number seemed to me rather a dull one, and that I hoped it
was not an unfavourable omen. “No”, he replied, “it is a very
interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as the
sum of two cubes in two different ways.”’
Indeed: 1729 = 13 + 123 = 93 + 103
Evaluate 13, 123, 93 and 103 (using your calculator where necessary) and
check that 13 + 123 and 93 + 103 are indeed both equal to 1729.

1.3.2 Multiplying and dividing with powers

In scientific calculations, it is very common to have to multiply and divide by
powers, especially powers of ten. It is therefore extremely important to
become confident in manipulating powers in this way, both with and without a
calculator.
Suppose you wanted to multiply 103 by 102. You could write this out more
fully as

103 × 102 = (10 × 10 × 10) × (10 × 10) = 105

The exponent of the result (5) is the same as the sum of the two original
exponents (3 + 2).

22
 1 Starting points

The process is of course not limited to powers of ten. It works for any base
number. For example,

22 × 24 = (2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) = 26
Again, the exponent of the result (6) is the same as the sum of the two
original exponents (2 + 4).
The process also works for negative exponents. For example, since
1
5−2 =
5
2
1

53 × 5−2 = (5 × 5 × 5) × =5
5×5
5 can be written as 51, and it can be seen that adding the exponents (3 + (−2))
again gives the exponent of the answer (1).
The fact that adding the exponents gives the exponent of the product can be
written in the general form:

N a × N b = N a +b (1.1)
where N represents any base number and a and b represent any
exponents.

The rules can be extended to cover situations in which one power is being
divided by another. The previous example was:

53 × 5−2 = 53+(−2) = 51 = 5
But as you will remember from Section 1.2.5, multiplying by a fraction is the
same as dividing by that fraction turned upside down (i.e. its reciprocal). So
multiplying by 5−2 is the same as dividing by its reciprocal (52), which gives:

53 ÷ 52 = 53−2 = 51 = 5
This time, instead of being added, the second exponent has been subtracted
from the first. More generally,

N a ÷ N b = N a −b (1.2)
where N represents any base number and a and b represent any
exponents.

23
Maths for Science

Question 1.12

Without using a calculator, simplify the following to the greatest possible

extent (leaving your answer expressed as a power):

102
(a) 230 × 22 (b) 325 × 3−9 (c)
103

102 105 ×10−2

(d) (e) 10−4 ÷ 102 (f)
10−3 103

1.3.3 Powers of powers

Consider now what happens when a number that is already raised to a power,
for example 32, is again raised to a power. Suppose for example 32 is itself
cubed, which can be written as (32)3. Writing this out in full gives

(32)3 = (32) × (32) × (32) = (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) × (3 × 3) = 36

This time the exponents have been multiplied together to obtain the exponent

of the answer: 3 × 2 = 6.

More generally,

( N m ) n = N m× n (1.3)
where N represents any base number and m and n represent any
exponents.

Equation 1.3 applies for all values of N, m and n whether positive or negative.
So for example:
3
⎛ 1 ⎞ −20 3 (−20)×3 = 10 −60 = 1
⎜ 20 ⎟ = (10 ) = 10
⎝ 10 ⎠ 1060
This is equivalent to saying that
3
⎛ 1 ⎞ 13 1 1
⎜ 20 ⎟ = = 20 ×3 = 60
⎝ 10 ⎠ 20
(10 ) 3 10 10

Question 1.13

Without using a calculator, simplify the following to the greatest possible

extent, leaving your answer expressed as a power:
6
(a) (416)2 (b) (5−3)2 (c) (1025)−1 (d) ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
⎝ 33 ⎠

24
 1 Starting points

1.3.4 Roots and fractional exponents

Finally, how should you interpret a power with a fractional exponent, such as
21/2? The rule for multiplying powers gives a clue. Suppose you were to
multiply 21/2 by itself. Applying Equation 1.1 suggests that:
1+1
21/ 2 × 21/ 2 = 2 2 2 = 21 = 2
But the positive number that multiplied by itself gives 2 is more commonly
written as 2 . The two notations, 21/2 and 2 are often used
interchangeably.
Similarly, the number that when cubed gives 125 is sometimes written as
3
125 (said as ‘the cube root of 125’), but more commonly written in science
as 1251/3 or (125)1/3. The number that when cubed gives 125 is 5 (you can
check that 53, i.e. 5 × 5 × 5, is 125) and you should notice the
correspondence:

53 = 125 and conversely 1251/3 = 5

More generally,

n
The positive nth root of a number N can be written as either N or
as N1/n.
In practice, the first type of notation is only used when n = 2 or n = 3,
and square roots are written simply as N not 2 N .

Question 1.14

Write the following as fractional powers or cube/square roots and then

evaluate them, preferably without using a calculator.
(a) 16 (b) 3 1000 (c) 251/2 (d) 491/2

The rules expressed in Equations 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 all apply to fractional
powers, as Worked example 1.4 illustrates.

Worked example 1.4

(21/ 2 )7
Without using a calculator, evaluate 3 1/ 2 .
(2 )
Answer
From Equation 1.3
1
(21/ 2 )7 = 2 2 ×7 = 27/ 2
and
3× 1
(23 )1/ 2 = 2 2 = 23/ 2

25
Maths for Science

So

(21/ 2 )7 27/ 2
=

(23 )1/ 2 23/2

From Equation 1.2

27/2 7−3

3/2
= 22 2
2
4
= 22
= 22
=
4

Equation 1.3 can also be used to bring meaning to a number such as 272/3.
Since 23 = 13 × 2 , applying Equation 1.3 shows that 272/3 = (271/3)2, i.e. the
square of the cube root of 27. The cube root of 27 is 3, so 272/3 is equal to
32 or 9.

Question 1.15

Without using a calculator, evaluate the following.

(a) (24)1/2 (b) 104 (c) 1003/2 (d) (125)−1/3

1.4 Doing calculations in the right order

In Section 1.1.2, brackets were used to make it clear that the minus signs were
tied to particular numbers. Brackets can also be used to show the order in
which calculations are to be performed.
If a calculation were written as

3+2×5=
should you do the addition first or the multiplication first? Try entering this
expression into your calculator exactly as it is written. Do you get the
answer 13?
If so, your calculator (in common with most modern scientific calculators)
knows the convention adopted by mathematicians everywhere that
multiplication takes precedence over addition. The calculator has remembered
the 3 until it has worked out the result of multiplying 2 by 5 and has then
added the 3 to the 10. According to the rules all mathematicians follow, if you
wanted to add the 3 and the 2 first and then multiply that result by 5 you
would have to write

(3 + 2) × 5 = 25
The brackets mean ‘do this first’. Again, check that you can use the bracket
function on your calculator to enter this expression exactly as written on the
left-hand side of this equation and that you obtain the correct answer.

26
 1 Starting points

There are similar rules that govern the order of precedence of other arithmetic
operations, which are neatly encapsulated in the mnemonic BEDMAS.

Order of arithmetic operations

Brackets take precedence over
Exponents. Then…
Division and
Multiplication must be done before…
Addition and
Subtraction.

So in the calculation −3 − 12 ÷ 6, the BEDMAS rules tell you to do the

division (12 ÷ 6 = 2) before the subtraction (−3 − 2 = −5). Try this on your
calculator too; you may have to use the +/− button to input the −3.
Many people, including scientists, find it hard to visualise the rules in a string
of numbers. They often opt to use brackets to make things clear, even when
those brackets simply reinforce the BEDMAS rules. So you could choose to
write

(12 ÷ 3) + 2 = 6
There is nothing wrong with adding such ‘redundant’ brackets – they are
simply there for clarity and can even be entered into your calculator (try it).
Far better to have a few additional brackets than to be confused about the
order in which the calculation should be carried out!
A square root sign and a horizontal line used to indicate division can both be
thought of as containing invisible brackets, i.e. the square root sign applies to
everything within the sign and the division applies to everything above the
line. For example, consider
9+7
and 3 × 9 + 7
8
In each case, the addition (9 + 7) should be carried out first, giving
9 + 7 16
= =2
8 8
and

3 × 9 + 7 = 3 × 16 = 3 × 4 = 12

27
Maths for Science

There is one final quirk associated with the use of brackets. In mathematics,
the multiplication sign is often left out (though its presence is implied)
between numbers and brackets, and between brackets and brackets. So

2(3 + 1) = 2 × 4 = 8
and

(1 + 1) (4 + 3) = 2 × 7 = 14
Some calculators ‘understand’ this convention and some do not. Check your
own calculator carefully using the two examples above.
The next operation in precedence after brackets involves exponents. If there
are powers in the expression you are evaluating, deal with any brackets first,
then work out the powers before carrying out any other arithmetical
operations.
■ Evaluate 2 × 32 and (2 × 3)2.
□ In the first case, there are no brackets so the exponent takes precedence:

2 × 32 = 2 × 9 = 18

In the second case, the operation in the brackets takes precedence over
the exponent

(2 × 3)2 = 62 = 36

Question 1.16

Evaluate the following (preferably without using your calculator):

(a) 35 − 5 × 2
(b) (35 − 5) × 2
(c) 5(2 − 3)
(d) 3 × 16 + 9
(e) 23 + 3
(f) (2 + 6)(1 + 2)

1.5 Review of Chapter 1

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. carry out addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations
involving negative numbers
. add two or more fractions
. subtract one fraction from another
. multiply a fraction by an integer or by another fraction

28
 1 Starting points

. divide a fraction by a non-zero integer or by another fraction

. express a percentage as a fraction and vice versa
. calculate a fraction or percentage of a number and express an increase or
decrease as a percentage
. evaluate powers involving any base and positive, negative or fractional
exponents
. multiply or divide two powers involving the same base
. evaluate any given power of a number already raised to a power
. do calculations in the correct order.

Question 1.17

Check your understanding of Chapter 1 by answering the following:

(a) Evaluate (−5) − (−7).
(b) Express the following as a single fraction
4 2
+
5 3
(c) Express the following as a single fraction
4 2
×
5 3
(d) Express the following as a single fraction
4 2
÷
5 3
3
(e) Express as a percentage.

(f) Find 15% of 250.

(g) A train fare increases from £50 to £56. What is the percentage increase?
(h) Write out the meaning of 2−3 and then express this as a simple fraction.
(i) Simplify 73 ÷ 7−4, leaving your answer expressed as a power.
(j) Simplify (73)4, leaving your answer expressed as a power.
(k) Evaluate (41/2)4.
(l) Evaluate 4 + 3 × 23.

29
 2 Measurement in science

Measurement in science
2
Observation, measurement and the recording of data are central activities in
science. Speculation and the development of new theories are crucial as well,
but ultimately the predictions resulting from those theories have to be tested
against what actually happens and this can only be done by making further
measurements. Whether measurements are made using simple instruments
such as rulers and thermometers, or involve sophisticated devices such as
electron microscopes or lasers, there are decisions to be made about how the
results are to be represented, what units of measurements will be used and the
precision to which the measurements will be made. This chapter will consider
these points in turn. Then Chapter 3 goes on to consider how measurements
of different quantities may be combined, and what significance should be
attached to the results.

2.1 Large quantities and small quantities

Scientists frequently deal with enormous quantities – and with tiny ones. For
example, it is estimated that the Earth came into being about four and a half
thousand million years ago and that the first signs of life appeared around six
hundred million years later. The earliest forms of life on Earth included
bacteria, which are so small that they bear roughly the same proportion to the
size of a pinhead as the size that pinhead bears to the height of a four-year­
old child.
The previous chapter showed how powers of ten could be used as a way of
writing down very large or very small numbers. For example,
1
106 = 1000 000 (a million ) and 10−3 = = 0.001 (a thousandth )
1000
This shorthand can be extended to any quantity, simply by multiplying the
power of ten by another number. For instance,

2 × 106 = 2 × 1000 000 = 2000 000 (two million)

(The quantity on the left-hand side would be said as ‘two times ten to the
six’.) Similarly,

3.5 × 106 = 3500 000 (three and a half million)

7
7 × 10−3 = = 0.007 (seven-thousandths)
1000
Scientists make so much use of this particular shorthand that it has come to be
known as scientific notation (although in maths texts you may also find it
referred to as ‘standard index form’ or ‘standard form’).

31
Maths for Science

A quantity is said to be expressed in scientific notation if its value is

written as a number multiplied by a power of ten. The number can be a
single digit or a decimal number, but must be greater than or equal to 1
and less than 10.

Note the restriction: 75 × 102 is not in scientific notation and nor is

0.75 × 104, though these are both equivalent to 7.5 × 103 which is in
scientific notation.

Scientific notation can be defined more succinctly by making use of some of

the mathematical symbols denoting the relative sizes of quantities. These

symbols are:

> greater than (e.g. 3 > 2)

≥ greater than or equal to (e.g. a ≥ 4 means that the quantity a may take

the exact value 4 or any value larger than 4)

< less than

≤ less than or equal to.

Note that a ≥ 4 and 4 ≤ a convey exactly the same information.

Using these symbols, scientific notation may be defined as a notation in which

the value of a quantity is written in the form a × 10n, where n is an integer

and 1 ≤ a < 10.

To move from scientific notation to integers or to decimal notation, first deal

with the power of ten, then carry out the multiplication or division.

Worked example 2.1

Express the following numbers as integers or in decimal notation:
(a) 4.53 × 103 (b) 8.371 × 102 (c) 6.4 × 10−3
Answer
(a) 4.53 × 103 = 4.53 × 1000 = 4530
(b) 8.371 × 102 = 8.371 × 100 = 837.1

1 6.4
(c) 6.4 ×10−3 = 6.4 × = = 0.0064
1000 1000

Question 2.1

Without using your calculator, express the following numbers as integers or

in decimal notation. Note that (a) and (b) are in scientific notation, while
(c) is not.
(a) 5.4 × 104 (b) 2.1 × 10−2 (c) 0.6 × 10−1

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 2 Measurement in science

Moving from an integer or decimal notation to scientific notation is equivalent

to deciding what power of ten you need to multiply or divide by in order to
convert the number you are starting with into a number that lies between 1
and 10.

Worked example 2.2

Express the following numbers in scientific notation:
(a) 356 000 (b) 49.7 × 104 (c) 0.831
Answer
(a) 356 000 = 3.56 × 100 000 = 3.56 × 105
(b) 49.7 × 104 = 4.97 × 10 × 104 = 4.97 × 10(1+4) = 4.97 × 105

8.31
(c) 0.831 = = 8.31 ×10−1
10

In Worked examples 2.1 and 2.2, all the steps in converting from one form of
a number to another have been written out in full. You may be able to manage
with fewer steps in your own calculations – just use as many or as few as you
feel comfortable with in order to get the right answer.

Question 2.2

Without using your calculator, express the following numbers in scientific

notation:
(a) 215 (b) 46.7 (c) 152 × 103 (d) 0.000 0876

It is only too easy to lose track of the sizes of things when using scientific
notation, so you should make a habit of thinking carefully about what the
numbers mean, bearing in mind that numbers may be positive or negative. For
example:

−1 × 1010 is a very large negative number

−1 × 10−10 is a very small negative number

1 × 10−10 is a very small positive number.

Some numbers in scientific notation are placed on the number line in
Figure 2.1. You may find this helps you to visualise things.
This chapter started by considering the early Earth and the first appearance of
life. Using scientific notation, the age of the Earth can be neatly expressed as
4.6 × 109 years and the size of one type of those early bacteria as
1.2 × 10−6 metres. The values quoted depend on the choice of units of
measurement – years and metres here. However, time could be measured in
minutes, seconds or milliseconds; distance could be measured in millimetres,
kilometres or even miles.

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Maths for Science

−5 × 102

−500 −400 −300 −200 −100 0 100 200 300 400 500

−5 × 100 5 × 101

−50 −40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40 50

−5 × 100 −5 × 10−1

−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10

−5 × 10−1 5 × 10−2

−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

Figure 2.1 Portions of the number line, showing the positions of a few large and
small numbers expressed in scientific notation.

2.2 Units of measurement

Figure 2.2 illustrates the fact that two systems of units are in everyday use in
the UK. Old imperial measures are still used for some things: milk is still
usually sold in pints and road signposts indicate distances in miles. But for
many other everyday measurements metric units have been
adopted: petrol is sold in litres and sugar is sold in kilogram
bags. A great advantage of metric units is that laborious
conversions from imperial units, such as gallons, feet and
inches, are no longer necessary in order to trade with
continental Europe. Also, because the metric units use a
decimal system (i.e. they are related to each other in terms of
powers of ten), calculations are easier. Similar advantages were
the main consideration when in 1960 an international
conference formally approved a standard set of scientific units,
thus replacing at a stroke the many different systems of
measurement that had been used up until then by scientists of
km/h different nationalities. This ‘universal’ system for scientific
measurement is referred to as SI units (short for Système
mph International d’Unités).
In SI, there are seven ‘base units’, which are listed in Table 2.1
in Box 2.1. Surprising as it may initially seem, every unit for
every other kind of quantity (speed, acceleration, pressure,
Figure 2.2 A car speedometer showing the
energy, voltage, heat, magnetic field, properties of radioactive
everyday use of imperial units (miles) and metric
units (kilometres). materials, indeed whatever you care to name) can be made up
from combinations of just these seven base units. For instance,

34
 2 Measurement in science

speed is measured in metres per second. Some other combinations of base

units will be described in Chapter 3.

Box 2.1 The SI base units

Table 2.1 The seven SI base units

Physical quantity Name of Symbol for unit

unit
length metre m
time second s
mass kilogram kg
temperature kelvin K
amount of mole mol
substance
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela cd

Most of the seven SI base units are now defined in terms of unchanging
properties of nature. The SI base unit of time, the second, is defined as
the period over which the waves emitted by caesium atoms under
specific conditions cycle exactly 9192 631 770 times. Then the SI base
unit of length, the metre, is defined by stating that the speed of light in a
vacuum, which is a constant throughout the Universe, is exactly
299 792 458 metres per second.
The SI base unit of mass, the kilogram, is the only fundamental unit that
is still (in 2012) defined in terms of a specific object. The metal cylinder
which constitutes the world’s ‘international prototype kilogram’ is kept in
France (Figure 2.3).
Note that the kilogram is actually the standard unit of mass, not of
weight. In scientific language, the weight of an object is the downward
pull on that object due to gravity, whereas its mass is determined by the
amount of matter in it. When astronauts go to the Moon, where the pull
of gravity is only about one-sixth of that on Earth, their mass remains
the same but their weight drops dramatically! And in zero gravity, they
experience a condition known as ‘weightlessness’.
The SI base unit of temperature is the kelvin, which is related to the
everyday unit of temperature, the degree Celsius:

(temperature in kelvin) = (temperature in degrees Celsius) + 273.15

(You will find some of the rationale for the kelvin scale of temperature in
Box 7.4.)

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Maths for Science

Figure 2.3 The international prototype kilogram (IPK) is stored under three
vacuum jars in an environmentally monitored safe in the basement of a
building belonging to the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures on the
outskirts of Paris.

The amount of a pure substance is expressed in the SI base unit of the

mole. Whatever the smallest particle of a given substance is, one mole of
that substance will contain 6.022 14 × 1023 (known as Avogadro’s
number) of those particles.

You will have noticed that while the base unit of length is the metre, not the
kilometre, the base unit of mass is the kilogram, not the gram.
It is important to realise that, although in everyday usage it is common to say
that you ‘weigh so many kilos’, there are two things wrong with this usage
from the scientific point of view. First, as noted in Box 2.1, the kilogram is
not a unit of weight, but a unit of mass. (The SI unit of weight, the newton,
will be discussed in Chapter 3.) Secondly, in scientific language, ‘kilo’ is
never used as an abbreviation for kilogram, in the sense of the everyday
phrase ‘he weighs so many kilos’. In science, kilo is always used as a prefix,

36
 2 Measurement in science

denoting a thousand: one kilometre is a thousand metres, one kilogram is a

thousand grams.
Another prefix with which everybody is familiar is ‘milli’, denoting a
thousandth. One millimetre, as marked on ordinary rulers, is one-thousandth
of a metre; or put the other way round, a thousand millimetres make up a
metre. There are many other prefixes in use with SI units, all of which may be
applied to any quantity. Like kilo and milli, the standard prefixes are based on
multiples of 1000 (i.e. 103). The most commonly used prefixes are listed in
Box 2.2.
It is very important to use the correct case when writing unit prefixes (and the
units themselves). For example, the prefixes ‘m’ and ‘M’ have very different
meanings and the kilogram should be abbreviated to kg and never Kg or KG.

Box 2.2 Prefixes used with SI units

Prefix Symbol Multiplying factor

exa E 1018 = 1000 000 000 000 000 000
peta P 1015 = 1000 000 000 000 000
tera T 1012 = 1000 000 000 000
giga G 109 = 1000 000 000
mega M 106 = 1000 000
kilo k 103 = 1000
– – 100 = 1
milli m 10−3 = 0.001
micro μ* 10−6 = 0.000 001
nano n 10−9 = 0.000 000 001
pico p 10−12 = 0.000 000 000 001
femto f 10−15 = 0.000 000 000 000 001
atto a 10−18 = 0.000 000 000 000 000 001

* The Greek letter μ is pronounced ‘mew’.

Note that, for example, 1 μg = 10−6 g (this is written in scientific

notation as 1 × 10−6 g) and therefore
1
1g = μg = 106 μg
10−6
Similarly, 1 Gs = 109 s and therefore
1
1s = Gs = 10−9 Gs
109

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Maths for Science

The following data may help to illustrate the size implications of some of
the prefixes:
. the distance between Pluto (which lost its status as a planet in 2006)
and the Sun is about 6 Tm
. a century is about 3 Gs
. eleven and a half days contain about 1 Ms
. the length of a typical virus is about 10 nm
. the mass of a typical bacterial cell is about 1 pg.

Although scientific notation, SI units and the prefixes in Box 2.2 are universal
shorthand for all scientists, there are a few instances in which other
conventions and units are adopted by particular groups of scientists for
reasons of convenience. For example, the age of the Earth, about
4.6 × 109 years, could be written as 4.6 ‘giga years’, but geologists find
millions of years a much more convenient standard measure. They even have
a special symbol for a million years or a million years ago: Ma (where the ‘a’
stands for annum, the Latin word for year). So in Earth science texts you will
commonly find the age of the Earth written as 4600 Ma. It won’t have
escaped your notice that the year is not the SI base unit of time – but then
perhaps it would be a little odd to think about geological timescales in terms
of seconds!
A few metric units from the pre-SI era also remain in use. In chemistry, you
may come across the ångström (symbol Å), equal to 10−10 metres. This was
commonly used for the measurement of distances between atoms in chemical
structures, although these distances are now often expressed in either
nanometres or picometres. Other familiar metric but non-SI units are the litre
(symbol l), which is further discussed in Chapter 4, and the degree Celsius
(symbol °C), introduced in Chapter 1.
There are also some prefixes in common use, which don’t appear in Box 2.2
because they don’t conform to the ‘multiples of 1000’ rule, but that when
applied to particular units happen to produce a very convenient measure. One
you will certainly have used yourself is centi (hundredth): rulers show
centimetres (hundredths of a metre) as well as millimetres, and standard wine
bottles are marked as holding 75 cl. One less commonly seen is deci (tenth),
but this is routinely used by chemists in measuring volumes and
concentrations of chemicals, as you will see in Chapter 4. In the next section
you will also come across the decibel, which is used to measure the loudness
of sounds.

Worked example 2.3

Diamond is a crystalline form of carbon in which the distance between
adjacent carbon atoms is 0.154 nm. What is this interatomic distance
expressed in picometres?

38
 2 Measurement in science

Answer
From the definition of the prefix ‘nano’, 1 nm = 10−9 m.
From the definition of the prefix ‘pico’, 1 pm = 10−12 m, so
1
1m = pm = 1012 pm
10−12
then

0.154 nm = 0.154 ×10−9 m

= 0.154 ×10−9 ×1012 pm
= 0.154 ×10(−9 + 12) pm
= 0.
154 ×103 pm
= 154 pm

This could be written in scientific notation as 1.54 × 102 pm.

Question 2.3

Using scientific notation, express:

(a) 3 Gs (a time interval of approximately a century) in seconds
(b) 150 pm (the radius of a typical atom) in metres
(c) 0.8 s (a typical time between human heartbeats) in ms
(d) 8 μm (the diameter of a capillary carrying blood in the body) in nm.

2.3 Scales of measurement

In thinking about the sizes of things, it is sometimes useful to do so in quite
rough terms, just to the nearest power of ten. For example, 200 is nearer to
100 than it is to 1000, but 850 is nearer to 1000 than it is to 100. So if you
were approximating to the nearest power of ten you could say 200 was
roughly 102, but 850 was roughly 103. This process is called reducing the
numbers to the nearest order of magnitude.

The approximate value of a quantity expressed as the nearest power of

ten to that value is called the order of magnitude of the quantity.

The easiest way to work out the order of magnitude of a quantity is to express
it first in scientific notation in the form a × 10n. Then if a is less than 5, the
order of magnitude is 10n. But if a is equal to or greater than 5, the power of
ten is rounded up by one, so the order of magnitude is 10n+1. For example,
the diameter of Mars is 6762 km. This can be written as 6.762 × 103 km, and
because 6.762 is greater than 5, the diameter of Mars is said to be ‘of order
104 km’.

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Maths for Science

This is normally written as:

diameter of Mars ~ 104 km

where the symbol ~ denotes ‘is of order’.
■ What is the order of magnitude of the mass of the Earth, 6.0 × 1024 kg?
□ Mass of the Earth ~ 1025 kg (since 6.0 is greater than 5, the power of ten
has been rounded up).

■ What is the order of magnitude of the mass of Jupiter, 1.9 × 1027 kg?
□ Mass of Jupiter ~ 1027 kg (since 1.9 is less than 5, the power of ten
remains unchanged).

■ What is the order of magnitude of the average lifetime of unstable ‘sigma

plus’ particles, 0.7 × 10−10 s?
□ The order of magnitude can be found as follows:

particle lifetime = 0.7 ×10−10 s

= 7 × 10−11 s in scientific notation
~ 10−11 +1 s (as 7 is greater than 5, the power of ten
must bee rounded up)
~ 10−10 s

The phrase ‘order of magnitude’ is also quite commonly used to compare the
sizes of things, for example a millimetre is three orders of magnitude smaller
than a metre.

Worked example 2.4

To the nearest order of magnitude, how many times more massive is Jupiter
than the Earth?
Answer
From above:
mass of Jupiter ~ 1027 kg
and mass of Earth ~ 1025 kg.
mass of Jupiter 1027
~ 25 ~ 1027−25 ~ 102
mass of Earth 10
Therefore, Jupiter is two orders of magnitude (i.e. roughly 100 times) more
massive than the Earth.

40
 2 Measurement in science

Question 2.4

What is the order of magnitude of the following measurements?

(a) The distance between Pluto and the Sun: five thousand nine hundred
million kilometres.
(b) The diameter of the Sun, given that its radius is 6.97 × 107 m.
(c) 2π.
(d) The mass of a carbon dioxide molecule: 7.31 × 10−26 kg.

Sophisticated instrumentation now allows scientists to measure across more

than 40 orders of magnitude, as shown in Figure 2.4. If you turn back to
Figure 1.2, you will see that the nature of the vertical scale there is quite
different to that in Figure 2.4. On the thermometer, the interval between
marked points is always the same, with marked points at −0.1, 0, 0.1, 0.2, etc.
In other words, each step from one division to the next on the scale represents
the addition or subtraction of a fixed amount (0.1 in this case). This kind of
scale is called linear. In Figure 2.4, on the other hand, each step up or down
the scale involves multiplication or division by a fixed power of ten (102 in
this particular case). As a result, the intervals between divisions are all
different. This kind of scale is called logarithmic. Question 2.5 allows you to
investigate some of the properties of the scale used in Figure 2.4.

Question 2.5

(a) In Figure 2.4, what is the difference in value between:

(i) the tick marks at 10−2 m and 100 m
(ii) the tick marks at 100 m and 102 m, and
(iii) the tick marks at 102 m and 104 m?
(b) From Figure 2.4, calculate to the nearest order of magnitude the

following (Hint: you may find it helpful to look back at Worked

example 2.4.):

(i) how many times taller Mount Everest is than a four-year-old child
(ii) how many typical viruses laid end to end would cover the thickness of
a piece of paper.

In Figure 2.4, a logarithmic scale has been used for ease of display, and the
power of ten for the multiplying factor (102) was chosen because it was the
one that best fitted the page (in drawing diagrams and graphs, you are always
free to choose the scale divisions). Logarithmic scales are used in a number of
fields to measure quantities that can vary over a very wide range. In such
cases, an increase or decrease of one ‘unit’ always represents a
tenfold increase or decrease in the quantity measured. Box 2.3 gives two
examples.

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Maths for Science

1028
distance to the edge of the
1026 observable Universe
1024
1022 diameter of the
our Galaxy:
1020 Milky Way Galaxy
the Milky Way
1018 distance to the nearest star
1016 (Proxima Centauri)
1014
average distance to Pluto
1012 our Solar System
1010
length in metres

radius of the Sun

108
106 radius of the Earth

104 height of Mt Everest

102 planet Earth: we can
100 height of a four­ directly see or experience
year-old child distances within this scale
10−2 size of a pinhead
10−4 thickness of a sheet of paper
size of a pollen grain
10−6
10−8 length of a typical virus DNA carries the genetic
length of a coil of DNA information in our cells
10−10
radius of a hydrogen atom
atoms are made up of
10−12
protons, neutrons and
10−14 electrons; hydrogen has
radius of a proton the smallest atom
10−16
10−18
quarks must be smaller quarks may be the smallest
than 10−18 m building blocks of matter

Figure 2.4 The scale of the known Universe.

Box 2.3 Logarithmic scales in practice

Sound waves
The decibel (symbol dB) is the unit used to measure the relative
loudness of sounds. The ‘intensity’ of a sound is related to the square of
the variation in pressure as the sound wave passes through the air, and
the range of intensities that people can detect is enormous. The sound
that just causes pain is 1012 times more intense than the sound that is
just audible! To deal with this huge range, a logarithmic scale for
loudness was devised, according to which every 10 dB (or ‘1 bel’)
increase in sound level is equivalent to a tenfold increase in intensity.
The decibel is also a convenient measure because a sound level of 1 dB

42
 2 Measurement in science

is just within the limit of human hearing, and a change of 1 dB is about

the smallest difference in sound that the ear can detect (see Figure 2.5).

sound level in dB
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

jet taking off (at 30 m)

pneumatic drill (at 2 m)
threshold of pain
rock group
underground train
food blender
alarm clock
ordinary conversation
city street
pedestrianised
quiet whisper
rustling leaves
threshold of
human hearing

Figure 2.5 Some common sounds on the decibel scale.

Earthquakes
The Richter scale describes the magnitude of earthquakes. An instrument
called a seismometer is used to measure the maximum ground movement
caused by the earthquake, and a correction factor is applied to this
reading to allow for the distance of the seismometer from the site of the
earthquake. Seismometers are very sensitive and can detect minute
amounts of ground movement (they have to be shielded from the effects
caused just by people walking near them), but some earthquakes can
produce ground movements millions of times greater than the minimum
detectable limit. To cope with this huge variation, the Richter scale is
logarithmic: an increase of one unit on the scale implies a tenfold
increase in the maximum ground movement. A magnitude 2 earthquake
can just be felt as a tremor. A magnitude 3 earthquake produces 10 times
more ground motion than a magnitude 2 earthquake. Damage to
buildings occurs at magnitudes in excess of 6. The devastating
earthquake close to the coast of Japan in March 2011 had a magnitude
of 9.0.

Worked example 2.5

A whisper corresponds to a sound level of about 20 dB, and a shout to a level
of about 80 dB. How much greater is the intensity of a shout compared to that
of a whisper?
Answer
The increase in sound level is

80 dB − 20 dB = 60 dB

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Maths for Science

This can be expressed as

10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB
and each 10 dB increase corresponds to multiplying the intensity by 10.
So the intensity of a shout is (10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10) = 106 times
greater than a whisper.

Question 2.6

How much more ground movement is there in an earthquake measuring

7 on the Richter scale compared to one measuring 3?

The basis of logarithmic scales will be discussed in Chapter 10.

2.4 How precise are the measurements?

The more precisely you know a value, the more digits it seems reasonable to
include; remember that writing down all the digits given on a calculator
display cannot usually be justified. Quoting answers to a specified number of
decimal places can be helpful, but the number of places of decimals does not
specify precision uniquely. For example, suppose you have been asked to
specify a distance of 22 342.123 m to two decimal places. Expressed in
metres, this would be 22 342.12 m, but in kilometres it would be 22.34 km,
and if you were to choose to use scientific notation, it would be 2.23 × 104 m.
It is frequently more meaningful to quote answers to a specified number of
significant figures where, in straightforward cases, the number of significant
figures is found simply from counting the number of digits. So a temperature
of 16.222 °C is quoted to five significant figures whilst 16.22 °C is quoted to
four significant figures, 16.2 °C to three significant figures and 16 °C to two
significant figures. The number of significant figures quoted reflects the
certainty with which the value is known; in general, the last digit will be
somewhat uncertain, but you can be confident of the other digits.
■ How many significant figures are quoted in each of the following
quantities: 1221 m; 223.4 km; 1.487 km?
□ Each of the quantities is quoted to four significant figures.

If you need to quote a number to a specific number of significant figures, you

need to apply the rules of rounding in a similar way to that described in
Section 2.3. If you want to round 1.2645 m to three significant figures, you
need to look at the first digit to be removed – in this case the 4. If the first
digit removed is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, the last remaining digit – in this case the 6 –
is left unchanged. So expressing 1.2645 m to three significant figures gives
1.26 m.
However, if the first digit to be removed is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, the last remaining
digit is increased by one, a process described as ‘rounding up’. So 1.2645 m

44
 2 Measurement in science

would be quoted as 1.3 m to two significant figures – the first digit removed
is 6, so the 2 is rounded up to 3.
The reason for rounding up when the first digit removed is 5 or greater is
clear if you bear in mind that the number that is midway between 1.2 and 1.3
is 1.25. So all numbers between 1.25 and 1.3 are closer to 1.3 than they are to
1.2. Therefore, it makes sense to round up the last remaining digit whenever it
has been followed by a digit between 5 and 9. Note that, by convention, the
digit 5 is rounded up.
It is worth noting one common pitfall of rounding. If you were asked to round
3.749 m to two significant figures, the answer would be 3.7 m. It is clear that
3.749 m is less than 3.75 m so do not be tempted to round twice, i.e. to round
first to 3.75 m and then to 3.8 m. However, sometimes a legitimate ‘chain
reaction’ occurs when rounding. Imagine that you want to express 89 999.7 m
to five significant figures. The sixth digit is a 7 so you need to round up, so
the fifth digit should be increased by one. However, as the fifth digit is 9,
adding one to it turns it to 10, which means that you have to add one to the
fourth digit, and so on. So 89 999.7 m to five significant figures is 90 000 m.
Sometimes rounding will produce a zero as the final digit; for example both
1.803 m and 1.798 m round to 1.80 m to three significant figures. Don’t be
tempted to ignore the final zero in cases such as this; it contains important
information. In the example, the zero makes it clear that the number is given
to three significant figures (1.8 m implies two significant figures). In general,
trailing zeros after a decimal point ‘count’ as significant digits when
determining the number of significant figures in a value.

Question 2.7

Round 1.274 99 m to (a) two significant figures; (b) three significant

figures; (c) four significant figures; (d) five significant figures.

Leading zeros (as in 0.082 m) also require care. These initial zeros only tell
you about the size of the number and not about the precision to which it is
known. The first significant digit in this value is 8, i.e. the number is
expressed to two significant figures. In general, leading zeros do not count as
significant digits when considering the precision of a value.
The temperature quoted above as 16.222 °C (five significant figures) is likely
to actually lie between 16.2215 °C and just less than 16.2225 °C (16.2214 °C
would round down to 16.221 °C and 16.2225 °C would round up to
16.223 °C). In contrast, the temperature quoted as 16.2 °C is likely to lie
between 16.15 °C and just less than 16.25 °C, i.e. it is much less precisely
known. Now consider the value 90 000 m, which was arrived at earlier in this
section by rounding 89 999.7 m to five significant figures. If 90 000 m had
been given with no indication of the number of significant figures, there
would be no way of telling whether the value was given to five significant
figures (i.e. actual value between 89 999.5 m and just less than 90 000.5 m)
or to one significant figure (actual value between 85 000 m and just less than
95 000 m), or any level of precision in between. One way round this
ambiguity is to state clearly the number of figures that are significant; for

45
Maths for Science

example, to quote ‘90 000 m to five significant figures’. A better solution is to

use scientific notation. Thus 9.0000 × 104 m, 9.000 × 104 m, 9.00 × 104 m,
9.0 × 104 m and 9 × 104 m are all 90 000 m, but expressed to five significant
figures, four significant figures, three significant figures, two significant figures
and one significant figure, respectively.

Worked example 2.6

The average diameter of Mars is 6762 km. What is this distance in metres,
expressed to three significant figures?
Answer
The only way to express this quantity unambiguously to fewer than the four
significant figures originally given is to use scientific notation.

6762 km = 6.762 ×103 km

= 6.762 ×103 ×103 m

= 6.762 ×10(3+3) m

= 6.762 × 106 m

The final digit is a 2, so no rounding up is required and the average diameter

of Mars is 6.76 × 106 m to three significant figures.

Question 2.8

State each of the following to three significant figures:

(a) 0.004 123 m (b) 50.19 °C (c) 700.1 °C

Care needs to be taken not to use unjustified precision when the results of
measurements are used as the basis for calculations. This will be discussed
further in the following chapter. Chapter 3 will also discuss the units of
calculated values and the points to be noted when using your calculator for
calculations involving scientific notation.

2.5 Review of Chapter 2

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. convert quantities expressed as integers or in decimal notation to scientific
notation and vice versa
. use prefixes in association with the SI base units and convert between
prefixes
. express a given quantity as an order of magnitude
. state the number of significant figures in any given quantity
. state a given quantity to any stipulated number of decimal places or
significant figures, rounding when necessary.

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 2 Measurement in science

Question 2.9

Check your understanding of Chapter 2 by answering the following:

(a) Express 400 nm in SI base units, scientific notation and to three
significant figures.
(b) Express 0.0346 g in SI base units, scientific notation and to two
significant figures.
(c) Express the number 9.2499 to (i) two significant figures; (ii) two
decimal places; (iii) four significant figures; (iv) the nearest order of
magnitude.

47
 3 Calculating in science

Calculating in science
3
There comes a point in science when simply measuring is not enough and it is
necessary to calculate the value of a quantity from values for other quantities
that have been measured previously. Take, for example, the piece of granite
shown in Figure 3.1. If you have measured the lengths of its sides and its
mass, with a little calculation you can also find its volume, its density, and the
speed at which seismic waves will pass through a rock of this type following
an earthquake.
This chapter looks at several scientific calculations and, in the process,
considers the role of units, significant figures, scientific notation and
estimating when calculating in science. In addition, it introduces the use of
formulae and equations.

3.1 Calculating area; thinking about units and

significant figures
Suppose you want to find the area of the top of the granite specimen shown
in Figure 3.1. The lengths of its sides, measured in centimetres, are shown in
Figure 3.2, and the area of a rectangle is given by Figure 3.1 A specimen of
granite.
area of rectangle = length × width

8.4 cm
5.7 cm

4.8 cm

Figure 3.2 The lengths of the sides of the specimen of granite.

Thus the area of the top of the granite is

area = 8.4 cm × 5.7 cm

Multiplying the two numbers together gives 47.88. However, if given as a
value for the area, this would be incomplete and incorrectly stated for two
reasons.

49
Maths for Science

1 No units have been given.

2 The values for length and width are each given to two significant figures,

but 47.88 is to four significant figures. This is too many.

3.1.1 Units in calculations

The length and the width of the specimen of granite aren’t just numbers, but
physical quantities, with units. The area – the result of multiplying the length
by the width – is a physical quantity too and it should also have units. The
units which have been multiplied together are cm × cm, which can be written
as (cm)2, or more commonly as cm2. In fact any unit of length squared will be
a unit of area. Conversely, a value given for area should always have units of
(length)2.

All measurements should be given with appropriate units, and when

performing calculations the units of the answer must always be
consistent with the units of the quantities you input.

Care needs to be taken when multiplying together two lengths which have
been measured in different units. Suppose, for instance, that you wanted to
find the area of a 1 cm by 4 m rectangle. Units of cm × m are meaningless;
you would need to convert the units into the same form before proceeding,
and if in doubt it is best to convert into SI base units. Since 1 cm = 0.01 m,
this gives an area of 0.01 m × 4 m = 0.04 m2.

Question 3.1

Which of the following are units of area:

(inch)2; s2; m−2; cm2; km3; square miles?

Note: the symbols used for SI units are as given in Box 2.1.

3.1.2 Significant figures in calculations

It is not appropriate to quote answers to calculations to an unlimited number
of significant figures. Suppose that, as part of a calculation, you were asked to
divide 3.4 (known to two significant figures) by 2.34 (known to three
significant figures). Entering 3.4 ÷ 2.34 on most scientific calculators gives
1.452 991 453, but to quote a result to this number of significant figures
would imply that you know the answer far more precisely than is really the
case. The fact that 3.4 is quoted to two significant figures implies that the first
digit is precisely known, but there is some uncertainty in the second digit;
similarly the fact that 2.34 is quoted to three significant figures implies that
there is some uncertainty in the third digit. Yet in giving the result as
1.452 991 453 you would be claiming to be absolutely confident of the
answer as far as 1.452 991 45, with just some uncertainty in the final digit.
This is clearly nonsense!

50
 3 Calculating in science

The sensible number of significant figures to quote in any answer depends on

a number of factors. However, in the absence of other considerations, two
simple ‘rules of thumb’ are useful, the first of which is:

When multiplying and dividing numbers, the number of significant

figures in the answer should be the same as the number of significant
figures in the least precise value in the calculation.

This is similar to the concept of a chain only being as strong as its weakest
link. An answer is only as precise as the least precise value in the calculation.
For example, in the calculation 3.4 ÷ 2.34 above, the least precise number is
3.4, which has two significant figures. Thus the answer does not justify any
more than two significant figures and should be given as 1.5. Similarly, the
result of the multiplication 8.4 cm × 5.7 cm (used in finding the area of the
top of the granite specimen) should be given as 48 cm2, again to two
significant figures.
■ To how many significant figures should the answer to each of the
following calculations be given:
(a) 5.7 × 4.123
(b) 4.50 × 0.0567
(c) 44.12 ÷ 0.9
(d) (1.23 × 105) ÷ (4.5 × 103)
□ (a) Two significant figures
(b) Three significant figures
(c) One significant figure
(d) Two significant figures.

You should note that the rule is essentially saying that you should identify the
value that has the lowest number of significant figures, and use that to define
the number of significant figures to use in the answer. However, there is one
situation that can catch people out. That is when calculations have exact
numbers in them. For example, if the length of a piece of string is 111 mm,
how long would a piece of string be that was exactly double this length? You
can immediately see that the answer is 222 mm. However, formally, the
calculation here is 2 × 111 mm and, if you had looked for the value with the
lowest number of significant figures (i.e. the 2), you would have concluded
that the answer merited only one significant figure. In fact, the 2 is an integer,
an exact whole number. It is not ‘about 2’ or 2.0 or 1.999 9999; it is exactly
2. In this respect, an integer is the most precise type of number that you can
imagine. Thus, in your simple calculation, the 2 is absolutely precise and the
111 mm is the least precise term. Thus, the answer should be quoted to three
significant figures, i.e. as 222 mm.

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Maths for Science

The second rule of thumb is:

When adding and subtracting numbers, think in terms of decimal places

rather than in terms of significant figures. Identify the least precise value
in the calculation and use the same precision in the answer. Thus the
number of decimal places in the answer should be the same as in the
value with the smallest number of decimal places in the calculation.

For example, if the mass of a bag of potatoes was measured as 12.8 kg, and
you added to it a potato with mass 0.33 kg, the calculated value of the total
mass would be 13.13 kg. However, since the first mass was measured to only
one decimal place, you should quote the total mass to one decimal place too,
i.e. as 13.1 kg (which happens to be three significant figures).
Note that this rule assumes that either the numbers are not written in powers
of ten notation, or the numbers all involve the same power of ten. So if you
are required to add 1.12 × 103 kg and 2.34 × 102 kg, you should write the
calculation either as
1.12 × 103 kg + 0.234 × 103 kg = 1.354 × 103 kg
The base number should then be quoted to two decimal places (since the
1.12 in 1.12 × 103 kg is given to two decimal places), i.e. the answer is
1.35 × 103 kg.
or as
11.2 × 102 kg + 2.34 × 102 kg = 13.54 × 102 kg
The base number should then be quoted to one decimal place (since 11.2
in 11.2 × 102 kg is given to one decimal place), giving an answer of
13.5 × 102 kg or 1.35 × 103 kg, the same as previously.

Question 3.2

(a) Do the following calculations and express your answers to an

appropriate number of significant figures or decimal places.

6.
732
(i)
1.51

(ii) 2.0 × 0.025

(iii) 37.6 + 1.23
(iv) 3.71 × 106 + 5.23 × 104
(b) What is the total mass of three 1.5 kg bags of flour?

3.1.3 Avoiding rounding errors

You should round your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures
at the end of a calculation. However, be careful not to round too soon, as this
may introduce unnecessary errors, known as rounding errors. As an example

52
 3 Calculating in science

of the dangers of rounding errors, consider again the example from the
beginning of Section 3.1.2:

3.4 ÷ 2.34 = 1.452 991 453

Or, giving the answer to two significant figures:

3.4 ÷ 2.34 = 1.5

Suppose that you now need to multiply the answer by 5.9:

1.452 991 453 × 5.9 = 8.572 649 573 = 8.6 to two significant figures
However, using the intermediate answer to two significant figures gives:

1.5 × 5.9 = 8.85 = 8.9 to two significant figures

Rounding too soon has resulted in an incorrect answer.
Scientific calculators enable you to work to a large number of significant
figures and so to avoid rounding errors. If this is not possible, you should
follow the following advice:

Work to at least one more digit than is required in the final answer, and
just round at the end of the whole calculation.

In the example above, the final answer should be given to two significant
figures, which means that you should work using the result of the first
calculation to at least three significant figures (1.45):

1.45 × 5.9 = 8.555 = 8.6 to two significant figures.

Worked example 3.1

Carry out the following calculation, giving your answer to an appropriate
number of significant figures or decimal places.
3.3 + 1.
21
3.3 − 1.21

Answer
The addition and subtraction should be carried out first. (There are ‘invisible
brackets’, as described in Section 1.4, around the (3.3 + 1.21) and the
(3.3 – 1.21).)
3.3 + 1.21 4.51
=
3.3 − 1.21 2.09
Since 3.3 is given to one decimal place, the results of the addition and
subtraction are only justified to one decimal place, i.e. as 4.5 and 2.1,
respectively. In considering the division, you then need to think in terms of

53
Maths for Science

significant figures. Both 4.5 and 2.1 have two significant figures, so the final
result should be given to two significant figures too. However, you should
follow the advice to work to at least one additional digit, only rounding at the
end of the calculation:

3.3 + 1.21 4.51

=
3.3 − 1.21 2.
09
= 2.
158

= 2.2 to two significant figu

ures

Note that if you had rounded too soon, and divided 4.5 by 2.1, a rounding
error would have resulted in an incorrect final answer of 2.1.

Question 3.3

Do the following calculations and express your answers to an appropriate

number of significant figures or decimal places.
2
(1.2 + 0.355)

(a) ⎛⎜ 4.2 ⎟

⎞ (b)
⎝ 3.1 ⎠ 9.5

3.2 Calculating in scientific notation

In science it is very often necessary to do calculations using very large and
very small numbers, and scientific notation can be a tremendous help in this.

3.2.1 Calculating in scientific notation without a calculator

Suppose you need to multiply 2.50 × 104 and 2.00 × 105.
(2.50 × 104) × (2.00 × 105) can be written as (2.50 × 2.00) × (104 × 105)
because of the commutative nature of multiplication, then

(2.50 ×104 ) × (2.00 ×105 ) = (2.50 × 2.00) × (104 ×105 )

= 5. 00 ×104+5
= 5.00 × 109
All of the rules for the manipulation of powers discussed in Chapter 1 can be
applied to numbers written in scientific notation, but care needs to be taken to
treat the decimal parts of the numbers (such as the 2.50 in 2.50 × 104) and the
powers of ten separately. So, for example

2.50 ×104 2.50 104 2.50

= × = ×104−5 = 1. 25 × 10−1
2.00 ×105 2.00 105 2.00
and

(2.50 ×104 ) 2 = 2.502 × (104 ) 2 = 2.502 ×104 × 2 = 6.25 × 108

54
 3 Calculating in science

Question 3.4

Evaluate the following without using a calculator, giving your answers in

scientific notation:
(a) (3.0 × 106) × (7.0 × 10−2)

8 × 104
(b)
4 × 10−1
(c) (3.00 × 108)2

3.2.2 Using a calculator for scientific notation

In your future studies of science, you are likely to be doing many calculations
with numbers in scientific notation, so it is vitally important that you know
how to input them into your calculator efficiently and how to interpret the
results.
First of all make sure that you can input numbers in scientific notation into
your calculator. You can do this using the button you used to input powers in
Section 1.3.1, but it is much better to use the special button provided for
entering scientific notation. This might be labelled as ×10x, but it might also
be labelled as EXP, EE, E or EX – there is considerable variation between
calculators. Make sure that you can find the appropriate button on your
calculator. Using a button of this sort is equivalent to typing the whole of
‘ × 10 to the power’. So, on a particular calculator, keying 2.5 EXP 12 enters
the whole of 2.5 × 1012. In addition to being able to enter numbers in
scientific notation into your calculator, it is important that you can understand
your calculator display when it gives an answer in scientific notation. Enter
the number 2.5 × 1012 into your calculator (you may also need to press ‘=’)
and look at the display. Again there is considerable variation from calculator
to calculator, but it is likely that the display will be similar to one of those
shown in Figure 3.3. The 12 at the right of the display is the power of ten,
(a)
but notice that the ten itself is frequently not displayed. If your calculator is
one of those which displays 2.5 × 1012 as shown in Figure 3.3e, you will
need to take particular care; this does not mean 2.512 on this occasion. You
should be careful not to copy down a number displayed in this way on your (b)
calculator as an answer to a question; this could cause confusion at a later
stage.
(c)

No matter how scientific notation is entered and displayed on your

calculator or computer, when writing it down (either by hand or when
using a word-processing package) you should always use the form (d)
exemplified by 2.5 × 1012.

(e)
To enter a number such as 5 × 10−16 into your calculator, you may need to
use the button labelled something like (−) or +/− (as used in Section 1.1.3) in
Figure 3.3 Examples (a–e) of
order to enter the negative exponent. how various calculators would
display the number 2.5 × 1012.

55
Maths for Science

To enter a number such as 108 into your calculator using the scientific
notation button, it can be helpful to remember that 108 is written as 1 × 108 in
scientific notation, so you will need to key something like 1 EXP 8.

Question 3.5

Use your calculator to evaluate the following:

(2.4 ×104 ) 2
(a)
1.44 ×10−3

104 × (1.25 × 107 )

(b)
(2.5 × 10−5 ) × (5 × 103 )
Question 3.6

A square integrated circuit, used as the processor in a computer, has sides

of length 9.78 × 10−3 m. Give its area in m2 in scientific notation and to an
appropriate number of significant figures.

3.3 Estimating answers

Imagine that, in answering Question 3.6, you forgot to enter the power of ten
into your calculator. This would give an answer of 95.6 m2. It is sensible to
get into the habit of checking that the answer your calculator gives is
reasonable, by estimating the likely answer. In the case of Question 3.6, the
answer should be approximately (1 × 10−2 m)2 which you can see (without
using a calculator!) is 1 × 10−4 m2. So an answer of 95.6 m2 is clearly wrong.
In addition to being useful as a way of checking calculator answers, estimated
answers are, in their own right, quite frequently all that is needed. Chapter 2
began with a comparison between the size of a bacterium and the size of a
pinhead. You could use precise measuring instruments to find that the
diameter of a particular bacterium is 1.69 μm (i.e. 1.69 × 10−6 m) and that the
diameter of the head of a particular pin is 9.86 × 10−4 m. The diameter of the
9.86 × 10−4 m
pinhead would then be −6 m
= 5.83 × 102 times bigger than that of the
bacterium. 1 .69 ×10

However, to get a feel for the relative sizes, you only really need to estimate
the answer. If an estimate is all that is required, it is perfectly acceptable to
work to one significant figure throughout (indeed, working to the nearest order
of magnitude is sometimes sufficient) and since the final answer is only
approximately known, the symbol ‘≈’ (meaning ‘approximately equal to’) is
used in place of an equals sign.

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 3 Calculating in science

Worked example 3.2

Working to one significant figure throughout, and without using a calculator,
estimate how many times bigger a pinhead of diameter 9.86 × 10−4 m is than
a bacterium of diameter 1.69 × 10−6 m.
Answer
Diameter of pinhead ≈ 1 × 10−3 m.
Diameter of bacterium ≈ 2 × 10−6 m.
Thus,

diameter of pinhead 1 × 10−3 m

≈
diameter of bacterium 2 × 10−6 m
1 10−3
≈ ×
2 10−6
≈ 0.5 × 10−3−(−6)
≈ 0.5 × 103
≈ 5 × 102
So the diameter of the pinhead is approximately 500 times that of the
bacterium.

It is important that you write out your mathematical calculations carefully, and
one of the functions of the worked examples scattered throughout this book is
to illustrate how to do this. There are three particular points to note from
Worked example 3.2.

Taking care when writing maths

1 Note that the symbols = and ≈ mean ‘equals’ and ‘approximately
equals’ and should never be used to mean ‘thus’ or ‘therefore’. It is
acceptable to use the symbol ∴ for ‘therefore’; alternatively, don’t be
afraid to write words of explanation in your calculations.
2 It can make a calculation clearer if you align the = or ≈ symbols
vertically, to indicate that the quantity on the left-hand side is equal
to or approximately equal to each of the quantities on the right-hand
side.
3 Note that the diameter of the bacterium and the pinhead each have
metres (m) as their units, so when one diameter is divided by the
other, the units cancel to leave a number with no units.

The handling of units in calculations is discussed further in Section 3.4.4 and

in Chapter 6.

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Maths for Science

Question 3.7

The average distance of the Earth from the Sun is 1.50 × 1011 m and the
distance to the nearest star other than the Sun (Proxima Centauri) is
3.99 × 1016 m. Working to one significant figure throughout, and without
using a calculator, estimate how many times further it is to Proxima
Centauri than to the Sun.

3.4 An introduction to symbols, equations and

formulae
To progress further in the exploration of ways of calculating in science, it is
necessary to enter the world of symbols, equations and formulae. The word
algebra is used to describe the process of using symbols, usually letters, to
represent quantities and the relationships between them. Algebra is a powerful
shorthand that enables you to describe the relationships between physical
quantities briefly and precisely, without having to know their numerical
values. Some people consider algebra to be a beautiful thing: others are filled
with terror by the very word. This book may not convince you of algebra’s
beauty, but it should at least illustrate its usefulness and give you an
opportunity to learn and practise new techniques or revise old ones.
You will return to algebra in Chapter 5, where the techniques of simplifying,
rearranging, and combining equations are introduced. The remainder of
Chapter 3 simply introduces the language of algebra by looking at a few
equations very carefully, and substituting values into them.
The term equation is used for an expression containing an equals sign. The
quantities under consideration may be described in words, in which case the
equation is known as a word equation, for example
mass
volume = length × width × height or density =
volume
Alternatively, the quantities in the equation may be represented by symbols,
for example
m
V = lwh or ρ =
V
The important thing to remember is that what is written on the left-hand side
of the ‘=’ sign must always be equal to what is written on the right-hand side.
Thus, as explained in Taking care when writing maths in Section 3.3, you
should never use the symbol = as a shorthand for anything other than ‘equals’.
The word formula (plural: formulae) is used in mathematics to mean a rule
m
expressed in algebraic symbols. Thus ρ = is a formula which tells you
V
that the density, ρ, of a substance can be obtained by dividing the mass, m, of
a sample of the substance by the volume, V, of the sample. Strictly speaking,
not all equations are formulae, but the words tend to be used interchangeably.

58
 3 Calculating in science

Note that this use of the word ‘formula’ is different from the one that
chemists use in writing, for example, CO2 for carbon dioxide.

3.4.1 What do the symbols mean?

Mathematics textbooks teaching algebra frequently contain page after page of
equations of the form:

x+3=8 (3.1)

y=x+4 (3.2)

In Equation 3.1, x can only have one value, i.e. it is a constant. In this case x
has the value 5. In Equation 3.2, x and y are variables which can each take an
infinite number of values, but y will always be 4 greater than x. The values
(of x and y, etc.) which satisfy a particular equation are known as solutions
and if you are asked to solve an equation you need to look for solutions.
In both Equation 3.1 and Equation 3.2, x and y represent pure numbers.
Equations in science are often rather different. Rather than representing pure
numbers, the symbols usually represent physical quantities and will therefore
have units attached.

3.4.2 Which symbols are used?

Box 3.1 shows a range of scientific formulae, along with a brief explanation
of the meaning of each symbol used. Don’t worry about the detail of the
equations at this stage; you are not expected to learn them or to understand
the meanings of the scientific terms introduced. The equations in the box will
be used as examples in the next few chapters, and are numbered for ease of
reference.

Box 3.1 Some scientific formulae

C = 2πr (3.3)
where C is the circumference of a circle of radius r.

A = πr2 (3.4)
where A is the area of a circle of radius r.

V = 43 πr 3
(3.5)
where V is the volume of a sphere of radius r.

F = ma (3.6)
where F is the magnitude of a force on an object, m is its mass and a is
the magnitude of its acceleration.

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Maths for Science

E = mc2 (3.7)
where E is energy, m is mass and c is the speed of light.

GPP = NPP + R (3.8)

where GPP is the gross primary production of energy by plants in an
ecosystem, NPP is net primary production and R is energy used in plant
respiration.
m
ρ= (3.9)
V
where ρ is the density of an object of mass m and volume V.

μ
vs = (3.10)
ρ
where vs is the speed of an S wave travelling through rocks of density ρ
and rigidity modulus μ.

P = ρgh (3.11)
where P is the pressure at depth h in a liquid of density ρ, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.

Ek = 12 mv 2
(3.12)
where Ek is the kinetic energy of an object with mass m and speed v .
v = fλ
(3.13)
where v is the speed of a wave, f is its frequency and λ is its
wavelength.

q = mcΔT (3.14)
where q is the heat transferred to an object, m is its mass, c is its specific
heat capacity and ΔT is the change in its temperature.
vi + vf
vav = (3.15)
2
where vav is average speed, vi is initial speed and vf is final speed.
v x = u x + a xt
(3.16)
where ux, vx and ax are respectively initial speed, final speed and
acceleration, all in the direction of the x-axis, and t is time.

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 3 Calculating in science

sx = u xt + 12 axt 2
(3.17)
where sx, ux and ax are respectively distance, initial speed and
acceleration, all in the direction of the x-axis, and t is time.
m1m2
Fg = G (3.18)
r2
where Fg is the magnitude of the gravitational force between two objects
of masses m1 and m2, a distance r apart. G is a constant called Newton’s
universal gravitational constant.
1/ 2
⎛ 2GM ⎞
vesc = ⎜ ⎟ (3.19)
⎝ R ⎠
where vesc is the escape velocity, i.e. the speed with which an object
must be fired from the surface of a planet of mass M and radius R in
order just to escape from it. G is Newton’s universal gravitational
constant.

d = [ L (4πF )]1/ 2
(3.20)
where d is the distance at which light from a star of luminosity L has a
flux density of F.

The symbol chosen to represent something is often the first letter of the
quantity in question, for example m for mass, t for time and l for length, but it
isn’t always so simple. Greek letters are also frequently used as symbols, for
example λ (lambda) for wavelength in Equation 3.13 and ρ (rho) for density in
Equations 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11. In a sense it doesn’t matter which symbol you
use to represent a quantity, since the symbol is only an arbitrarily chosen
label. For instance, Einstein’s famous equation (Equation 3.7) is usually
written as E = mc2, but the equation could equally well be written using any
symbols you wanted to use, for example p = qr2, provided you also made it
clear that p was used to represent energy, q was used to represent mass and r
was used to represent the speed of light. However, the use of conventional
symbols, such as E for energy, saves scientists a lot of time in explaining their
shorthand. This book follows convention as far as possible in its use of
symbols. Sometimes the reason for the choice of symbol will be obvious but
unfortunately this is not always the case.
Sometimes a subscript is used alongside a symbol in order to make its
meaning more specific, as in vi , vf and vav used in Equation 3.15 to mean
initial, final, and average speed, and ax in Equations 3.16 and 3.17 used to
mean acceleration along the x-axis. Note that although ax, for example, uses
two letters, it represents a single physical entity; note also that ax is not the
same as ax. The symbol Δ (the Greek upper case delta) is frequently used to
represent the change in a quantity, so ΔT in Equation 3.14 means a change in
temperature T; again a single physical entity is represented by two letters.

61
Maths for Science

A few letters have more than one conventional meaning, for example c in
Equation 3.7 represents the speed of light, but in Equation 3.14 the same letter
represents specific heat capacity. The intended meaning should be clear from
the context. Other letters have two meanings but lower case is conventionally
used for one meaning and upper case for the other, for example v for speed
(or velocity, discussed further in Section 9.4) and V for volume, or t for time
and T for temperature. Care needs to be taken to use the correct case.
Unfortunately some Greek letters look rather like everyday English ones; for
example ρ (rho), used for density, can look rather like the English lower case
p. Some textbooks use lower case p for pressure (this book uses capital P)
and Equation 3.11 (p = ρgh) can then appear to have the same quantity on
both the left- and right-hand sides of the equals sign, especially when written
out by hand. In reality, this formula has pressure on the left-hand side and
density (and other things) on the right-hand side. A similar confusion can arise
because the letter l can look like the number 1.
A final possible source of confusion stems from the fact that the same letter
may sometimes be used to represent both a physical quantity and a unit of
measurement. For example, an object with a mass of 6 kilograms and a length
of 2 metres might be described by the relationships m = 6 kg, l = 2 m, where
the letter m is used to represent both mass and the units of length, metres. In
this book and most other textbooks, letters used to represent physical
quantities are printed in italics, whereas those used for units are not.

3.4.3 Reading equations

To understand, and thus use, the equations in Box 3.1 you need to be aware
of a few rules and conventions. Many of these are extensions of things
considered earlier in the book. First:

When using symbols instead of words or numbers, it is conventional to

drop the ‘×’ sign for multiplication.

So in Equation 3.6, ma means mass times magnitude of acceleration and in

Equation 3.11, ρgh means density times acceleration due to gravity times
depth.

Rules of arithmetic, such as the fact that addition and multiplication are
commutative, and the BEDMAS order of operations, apply when using
symbols too.

The fact that multiplication is commutative means that equations involving

several multiplications can be written in any order. So Equation 3.14 could be
(and sometimes is) written as q = cmΔT instead of q = mcΔT. Addition is also
commutative, so Equation 3.16 could be written as vx = axt + u x instead of
v x = u x + a xt .

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 3 Calculating in science

Although the order in which multiplications are written doesn’t matter, various
conventions are generally applied. Note that in Equation 3.3 (C = 2πr), the
number 2 is written first, then the constant π, then the variable r. This order
(numbers, then constants, then variables) is the one that is generally applied.
Similarly, E = mc2 (Equation 3.7) could be written as E = c2m, but it
generally isn’t! Variables that are raised to a power tend to appear at the end
of equations.
It follows from the BEDMAS rules (Section 1.4) that operations within
brackets take precedence, i.e. operations inside brackets should be evaluated
before those outside the brackets. When working with symbols, this means
that an operation applied to a bracket applies to everything within the bracket.

⎛ 2GM ⎞ 1
So in Equation 3.19, the whole of ⎜ ⎟ is raised to the power 2 .
⎝ R ⎠
Equation 3.20 uses two sets of brackets (different styles of brackets have been
used to avoid confusion). The inner, round brackets ( ) are used to indicate
that L should be divided by the whole of (4πF) and the outer, square brackets
[ ] are used to indicate that the whole of L/(4πF) should be raised to the
power 12 .
As discussed in Section 1.4, a square root sign and a horizontal line used to
indicate division can both be thought of as containing invisible brackets. So,
⎛μ⎞
in Equation 3.10, the square root applies to the whole of ⎜ ⎟ and in
⎝ρ⎠
Equation 3.15 the whole of ( vi + vf ) should be divided by two. Throughout
this book, brackets are sometimes used for added clarity even when this is not
strictly necessary. In addition, you are encouraged to add your own brackets
whenever you think doing so would make the meaning of an equation clearer.
It follows from the ‘E’ in BEDMAS that exponents take precedence over
divisions and multiplications, so in Equation 3.7 (E = mc2) the c must be
squared before being multiplied by m. This means that it is only the c that is
squared, not the m. For clarity you could write this as E = m(c2) and it is very
important to remember that mc2 ≠ (mc)2, i.e. that mc2 ≠ m2c2, where the
symbol ≠ means ‘is not equal to’.
The mnemonic BEDMAS also serves of a reminder that multiplications should
be carried out before additions and subtractions, so in Equation 3.16
( vx = u x + axt ), the ax and the t should be multiplied together before the ux is
added.
Finally, note that all of the rules discussed in Chapter 1 for the writing and
manipulation of fractions and powers apply when using symbols, in exactly
the same way as they do when using numbers. So, Equation 3.17 could be
written as

a xt 2
s x = u xt + instead of sx = u xt + 12 axt 2
2

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Maths for Science

Equation 3.18 could be written as

Gm1m 2 mm
Fg = 2
instead of Fg = G 1 2 2
r r
and the following two representations of Equation 3.20, although they look
very different, are actually identical in meaning:

L
d= d = [ L (4πF )]1/ 2
4πF

Question 3.8

Which two pairs of equations given below are equivalent? You should be
able to answer this question by just looking at the equations, but you might
like to check your answer by substituting values such as x = 3, y = 4,
z = 5.
(i) a = x(y + z) (ii) a = xy + z (iii) a = (y + z)x
(iv) a = x + yz (v) a = z + yx

Question 3.9

Two of the equations given below are equivalent. Which two? Again, you
should attempt this question initially by simply looking at the equations.

bac 2 b 2c 2 bc 2
(i) m = (ii) m = a (iii) m = a
d d d

abc 2 b 2 a 2c 2
(iv) m = (v) m =

ad d

3.4.4 Using equations

Substituting values into equations provides a way of checking your
understanding of many of the techniques introduced in this chapter, especially
the correct reading of equations, the use of scientific notation, and the need to
quote answers to an appropriate number of significant figures. It also provides
an opportunity for you to extend your understanding of the handling of units
in calculations. Don’t worry about the science in the worked examples in this
section; they are given as illustrations of good practice for substituting values
into equations.

The notation of negative exponents, introduced in Section 1.3.1, can also

be used for units. So, for example, 1/s can be written as s−1 and 1/m3
can be written as m−3. It follows that the SI unit of speed, m/s (metres
per second) can be written as m s−1 and the SI unit of density, kg/m3
(see Box 3.2) can be written as kg m−3.

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 3 Calculating in science

Box 3.2 Density

The density of a piece of material is found by dividing its mass by its
volume. In other words
mass
density =
volume
The units of density can be found by dividing the units of mass by the
units of volume. If mass is measured in kg and volume is in m3, then it
follows that the unit of density will be kg/m3 (said as ‘kilograms per
metre cubed’) or kg m−3.
The density of pure water is 1 × 103 kg m−3; materials with a density
greater than this (such as steel of density 7.8 × 103 kg m−3) will sink in
water whereas materials of lower density (such as wood from an oak
tree, density 6.5 × 102 kg m−3) will float.
If mass is measured in g and the volume is in cm3, then the units of
density will be g cm−3. Note that these are not SI units, but are
nevertheless quite frequently used. Conversions between units will be
discussed in Chapter 4.

Worked example 3.3

Consider the Earth to be a sphere of radius 6.38 × 106 m and mass
5.98 × 1024 kg.
(a) Use V = 43 πr 3 (Equation 3.5) to calculate the Earth’s volume.
m
(b) Use ρ = (Equation 3.9) and your answer to part (a) to calculate the
V
Earth’s average density.
Give your answers in SI units, scientific notation and to an appropriate
number of significant figures.
Answer
(a) r = 6.38 × 106 m
Substituting this value into Equation 3.5 gives

V = 43
πr 3
4 × π × (6.38 × 106 m)3

=
3
= 1.0878 ×1021 m3
= 1.09 ×1021 m3 to three significant figures
i.e. the Earth’s volume is 1.09 × 1021 m3.

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Maths for Science

(b) m = 5.98 × 1024 kg

V = 1.0878 × 1021 m3 (using more than three significant figures to avoid
rounding errors).
Substituting these values into Equation 3.9 gives
m
ρ=
V
5.98 ×1024 kg
=
1.0878 ×1021 m3

= 5.
4973 ×103 kg m −3

= 5.50 × 103 kg m −33 to three significant figures

i.e. the Earth’s average density is 5.50 × 103 kg m−3.

Note, from Worked example 3.3, the following point about the handling of
units.

Units have been included next to values at all times, and the units in the
final answers are both consistent with the working and what you would
expect the units of the final answer to be.

Question 3.10

(a) The granite block shown in Figures 3.1 and 3.2 has a length of
8.4 × 10−2 m, a width of 5.7 × 10−2 m and a height of 4.8 × 10−2 m. Use
the word equation volume = length × width × height to calculate the
volume of the block.
(b) Use your answer to part (a) and the fact that the mass of the block is
0.620 kg to calculate its density. You will need to use Equation 3.9 from
Box 3.1.

ux = 1.5 m s−1 Give your answers in SI units, scientific notation and to an appropriate

number of significant figures.

Worked example 3.4 illustrates the way in which units should be handled in a
more complicated example.

ax = 9.81 m s−2
Worked example 3.4
Use Equation 3.16 from Box 3.1
v x = u x + a xt
(3.16)

to find the speed reached after 0.45 s by a stone thrown downwards from a
cliff with initial speed 1.5 m s−1. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 A stone being
thrown from a cliff.
You can assume that the magnitude (size) of the acceleration is 9.81 m s−2,
where m s−2 is the SI unit of acceleration.

66
 3 Calculating in science

Answer
Equation 3.16 states that vx = u x + axt , and you are trying to find vx . The
question tells you that
ux = 1.5 m s−1 ax = 9.81 m s−2 t = 0.45 s
Thus

vx = (1.5 m s −1) + (9.81 m s −2 × 0.45 s)

The units of ax can be written as
m 1
m s −2 = 2
since s −2 = 2
s s
The units of t are s.

The units of axt are found by multiplying the units of ax and the units of t:

m m× s m
×s = = = m s −1
s 2 s× s s
Then, returning to the calculation

vx = 1.5 m s −1 + 4.4145 m s −1
= 5.9 m s −1 to two significant figures
i.e. the speed after 0.45 seconds is 5.9 m s−1.

In Worked example 3.4, values were input with units of m s−1 for initial
speed, units of s for time, and units of m s−2 for acceleration, and the units for
final speed worked out to be m s−1. The units for final speed were not simply
assumed to be m s−1, but rather they were calculated at the same time as the
numerical value. Handling units in this way ensures that the answers are
expressed as physical quantities (with units), not just numbers. It also gives an
easy way of checking a calculation. If the final units in Worked example 3.4
had come out as m2 s−1, you might have realised that, since these are not
units of speed, you must have made a mistake.
It is good practice to work out the units in this way in all your scientific
calculations. To enable you to do this, Box 3.3 explains a little more about
some of the derived units that you will encounter in your study of science.

Box 3.3 Derived SI units

Box 2.1 introduced the SI base units, and since then you have
encountered the SI units of m s−1 for speed, kg m−3 for density and
m s−2 for acceleration. These units are combinations of the base units m,
kg and s; other physical quantities have units involving other base units
too. Some physical quantities are so commonly used that their units have
names and symbols of their own, even though they could be stated as a
combination of base units. Several of these derived units are listed in
Table 3.1. Note that if you become a sufficiently famous scientist you are

67
Maths for Science

likely to end up with a unit named after you! The units in Table 3.1 are
named after Sir Isaac Newton, James Prescott Joule, James Watt, Blaise
Pascal and Heinrich Hertz, respectively.

Table 3.1 Some derived units.

Physical quantity Name of unit Symbol for unit Base unit equivalent
force, such as weight newton N kg m s−2
energy joule J kg m2 s−2
power watt W kg m2 s−3
pressure pascal Pa kg m−1 s−2
frequency hertz Hz s−1

Note also that many of the derived units are interlinked:

1J=1N×1m
1J
1W =
1s
1N
1 Pa =
1 m2
The following data may help to illustrate the sizes of the units:
. An eating apple has a weight of about 1 N on Earth.
. An athlete with mass 75 kg, sprinting at 9 m s−1, has a kinetic energy
(energy of movement) of about 3000 J.
. A domestic kettle has a power rating of about 2500 W.
. Atmospheric pressure at sea-level is about 105 Pa.
. A human heart beats with a frequency of about 1.2 Hz when at rest.

The unit prefixes, introduced in Box 2.2, are also used with derived
SI units, for example

1 MW = 106 W
A unit prefix not introduced previously, hecto (abbreviated h and
meaning one hundred) is sometimes used when discussing atmospheric
pressure:

1 hPa = 100 Pa

Worked example 3.5 makes use of the fact (from Table 3.1), that
1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2 and Worked example 3.6 makes use of the fact that
1 N = 1 kg m s−2.

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 3 Calculating in science

Worked example 3.5

Use Equation 3.12 from Box 3.1

Ek = 12 mv 2 (3.12)

to find the kinetic energy of the stone shown in Figure 3.4, which has a mass
of 0.175 kg, when its speed is 7.8 m s−1.
Answer
m = 0.175 kg
v = 7.8 m s−1
Substituting into Equation 3.12 gives

Ek = 12
mv 2
= 12
× 0.175 kg × (7.8 m s −1) 2

0.175 kg × (7.8) 2 (m s −1) 2

=
2
= 5.3235 kg m 2 s −2
Now consider the significant figures and the units. Since the speed is given to
two significant figures, whilst the mass is given to three significant figures, the
answer should be given to two significant figures. Since 1 kg m2 s−2 = 1 J, the
units have worked out to be joules, as expected for units of energy.
The answer should be written as Ek = 5.3 J to two significant figures. The
stone has an energy of 5.3 J when the speed is 7.8 m s−1.

Worked example 3.6

Use Equation 3.19 from Box 3.1
12
⎛ 2GM ⎞
vesc = ⎜ ⎟
(3.19)
⎝ R ⎠
to find the escape velocity, vesc , needed for an object to escape from the
Earth’s gravitational attraction. The mass of the Earth, M = 5.98 × 1024 kg,
the radius of the Earth, R = 6.38 × 106 m and G = 6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2.
Answer
Substituting the given values into Equation 3.19 gives
1/ 2
⎛ 2GM ⎞
vesc = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ 2 × 6.673 ×10−11 N m 2 kg −2 × 5.98 ×1024 kg ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6.38 × 106 m ⎠

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Maths for Science

1
then, since 1 N = 1 kg m s−2 and kg−2 =
kg 2
1/ 2
⎛ 2 × 6.673 ×10−11 × 5.98 ×1024 kg m s −2 m 2 kg ⎞
vesc = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6.38 ×106 m kg 2 ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ 2 × 6.673 ×10−11 × 5.98 × 1024 kg m s −2 m 2 kg ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎜ 6.38 ×106 m kg 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= (1.2509 ×10 m s )
8 2 −2 1/ 2

Taking the square root of both 1.2509 × 108 and m2 s−2 gives
vesc = 1.12 × 104 m s−1 to three significant figures.
The escape velocity is 1.12 × 104 m s−1, with units of m s−1, as expected for
a speed.

Question 3.11

Use F = ma (Equation 3.6 from Box 3.1) to find the force experienced by a
mass m = 2.1 kg subject to an acceleration a = 4.6 m s−2.

Question 3.12

The rigidity modulus μ (a measure of the rock’s ability to resist

deformation) of granite near the surface of the Earth is 3.0 × 1010 N m−2.
Use this value, and the value you calculated in Question 3.10 for the
density of granite, to find the speed of S waves travelling through granite.
You should use Equation 3.10 from Box 3.1.

3.5 Review of Chapter 3

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. perform calculations to an appropriate number of significant figures or
decimal places
. carry out calculations in scientific notation, both with and without the use
of a scientific calculator
. estimate answers to one significant figure
. demonstrate understanding of the rules and conventions used in scientific
formulae
. substitute values (numbers and units) into scientific formulae
. give answers to calculations in appropriate SI units.

70
 3 Calculating in science

Question 3.13

Check your understanding of Chapter 3 by answering the following.

(a) Evaluate the following to an appropriate number of significant figures or
decimal places
(i) 3.77 × 0.053
(ii) 1.10 × 106 + 2.07 × 105
(iii) (2.5 + 0.25) × (2.5 − 0.25)
(b) Use your calculator to find the value of 1.012 × 108
9.9 ×104 ×10−7
(c) Without using your calculator, estimate the answer to part (b) to one
significant figure.
(d) Nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion produce energy as a result
of a small loss of mass in the reaction. The mass deficit, m, and energy
produced, E, are linked by Einstein’s equation E = mc2 (Equation 3.7 from
Box 3.1) where c is the speed of light. Find the energy corresponding to a
mass deficit of 1 g (1 × 10−3 kg). Assume c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1.
(e) The Earth has a mass of 5.97 × 1024 kg and the Moon has a mass of
7.35 × 1022 kg and they are 3.84 × 108 m apart. Use Equation 3.18 from
Box 3.1 and G = 6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 to calculate the magnitude of
the gravitational force between the Earth and the Moon (in newtons).
Note: on this occasion you should be able to work out the final units of
your answer without expressing newtons in the form of base units. This is
discussed further in the answer to the question.

71
 4 Unit conversions

Unit conversions
4
Units of measurement were introduced in Chapter 2 whilst Chapter 3
emphasised the importance of working out units as well as numerical values
in calculations. You have learnt to convert, say, from picometres (pm) to
metres (m) but the more complicated units introduced so far in this book, for
quantities such as speed, density and energy, have all been in the form of
SI units, expressed or expressible in terms of the base units of metres,
kilograms and seconds. However, quantities are not always expressed in SI
units. This short chapter considers methods for converting values from one set
of units to another.
Note that there are many different methods for converting between units.
Provided that you can obtain the answers given to the questions in this
chapter, and understand why, it is acceptable to use methods other than those
given here.

4.1 Unit conversion at the beginning of a

calculation
When performing a calculation, for example finding the area of the top of the
granite block in Section 3.1, best practice is to convert the values into SI units
(in this case to convert the lengths from cm to m) before starting the
calculation itself.
In this case, length = 8.4 cm = 8.4 × 10−2 m (since 1 cm = 1
100
m = 10−2 m)
and width = 5.7 cm = 5.7 × 10−2 m, so

area = (8.4 ×10−2 m) × (5.7 ×10−2 m)

= 4.8 ×10−3 m 2 to two significantt figures
In this simple example, it is also possible to convert your previously
calculated value for area from cm2 to m2, and you will do this in Section 4.2.
However, in other calculations, inputting values with non-SI units will lead to
a meaningless result. Consider, for example, Worked example 3.5 in which the
equation Ek = 12 mv 2 was used to find the kinetic energy of a stone. The mass
was input in kg and speed was input in m s−1, resulting in an answer
expressed in J. However if the mass had been input in g, with the speed still
in m s−1, then the answer would not have been expressed in any conventional
system of units, and it would have been meaningless. To avoid problems of
this sort, you should heed the following advice:

Whenever possible, convert all units to SI units before starting on a

calculation.

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Maths for Science

Question 4.1

Use v = f λ (Box 3.1 Equation 3.13) to find the speed of waves of

frequency ( f ) 4.83 × 1014 Hz and wavelength (λ) 621 nm.

4.2 Converting units of area and volume

Unfortunately it is not always possible to convert units before commencing a
calculation; sometimes you will be given an area in, say, cm2, without
knowing how the area was calculated, and you will need to convert this into
an area in m2. This section discusses how to convert units of area and volume.
Figure 4.1 illustrates an example which is relatively easy to visualise. Suppose
you want to know how many mm2 there are in a cm2. There are
10 millimetres in a centimetre, so each side of the square centimetre in
Figure 4.1 measures either 1 cm or 10 mm. To find the area, you need to
multiply the length by the width.
Working in centimetres gives
10 mm
area = 1 cm × 1 cm = (1 cm)2 = 12 cm2 = 1 cm2
Working in millimetres gives
10 mm
1 cm

area = 10 mm × 10 mm = (10 mm)2 = 102 mm2 = 100 mm2

1 cm 1
Thus 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 and 1 mm2 = cm2.
100

If you want to convert from cm2 to mm2 you need to multiply by 100; if you
Figure 4.1 A square centimetre want to convert from mm2 to cm2 you need to divide by 100.
(not to scale).
Figure 4.2 illustrates another example which is a little harder to visualise.
Each side of the square measures either 1 km or 1000 m (103 m).
Working in kilometres gives
103 m
area = 1 km × 1 km = (1 km)2 = 12 km2 = 1 km2
Working in metres gives
103 m
1 km

area = 103 m × 103 m = (103 m)2 = (103)2 m2 = 106 m2

Thus
1 km 1
1 km 2 = 106 m 2 and 1 m 2 = km 2
106
Figure 4.2 A square kilometre To convert from km2 to m2 you need to multiply by 106; to convert from m2
(not to scale). to km2 you need to divide by 106.
The number by which it is necessary to divide or multiply in order to convert
from one unit to another is known as the conversion factor.

74
 4 Unit conversions

In general, to convert between units of area you need to square the

conversion factor which you would use to convert corresponding lengths.

■ Convert an area of 48 cm2 to m2.

□ 1 cm = 10−2 m (from Section 2.2),
so 1 cm2 = (10−2 m)2 = (10−2)2 m2 = 10−4 m2
So

48 cm 2 = 48 × 10−4 m 2
= 4.8 × 10−3 m 2 in scientific notation

This is the area of the top of the granite block and reassuringly you can
now see that the same answer was obtained in Section 3.1 and in
Section 4.1.

As a final example of the conversion of units of area, consider a conversion

between km2 and mm2. There are 103 millimetres in a metre and 103 metres in 106 mm
a kilometre, so there are 106 millimetres in a kilometre as illustrated in
Figure 4.3. To convert from kilometres to millimetres you need to multiply by
106; however to convert from km2 to mm2 you need to multiply by (106)2,

106 mm
1 km
i.e. 1012. Similarly, to convert from mm2 to km2 you need to divide by
(106)2, i.e. 1012.

Question 4.2
1 km
A desk has an area of 1.04 m2. Express this area in:
(a) cm2 (b) μm2 (c) km2
Figure 4.3 A square kilometre
The method for converting between different units of volume is a direct (not to scale).
extension of the method for converting between different units of area.
Suppose you want to know how many mm3 there are in a cm3. There are
10 mm in 1 cm, so each side of the cubic centimetre in Figure 4.4 measures
either 1 cm or 10 mm. The volume can be written as either 1 cm3 or
103 mm3. Thus 1 cm

1 cm
1
1 cm3 = 103 mm3 and 1 mm3 = cm3
10 mm

103
To convert from cm3 to mm3 you need to multiply by 103; to convert from
1 cm

mm3 to cm3 you need to divide by 103.

10 mm
In general, to convert between units of volume you need to cube the
10 mm
conversion factor that you would use to convert corresponding lengths.

Figure 4.4 A cubic centimetre

■ Convert a volume of 2.3 × 102 cm3 into m3. (not to scale).

75
Maths for Science

□ 1 cm = 10−2 m, so 1 cm3 = (10−2 m)3 = (10−2)3 m3 = 10−6 m3

So 2.3 × 102 cm3 = 2.3 × 102 × 10−6 m3 = 2.3 × 10−4 m3

One of the mistakes that people make when doing unit conversions is to do
the conversion the wrong way round, i.e. to divide by the conversion factor
instead of multiplying or vice versa. The best way to avoid errors of this type
is to apply common sense. If you were asked to convert 3.7 m3 into cm3, you
would expect the numerical answer to be a lot bigger than 3.7 (there are a lot
of cubic centimetres in a cubic metre!). So an answer of 3.7 × 106 cm3 seems
reasonable, whilst an answer of 3.7 × 10−6 cm3 is clearly wrong.
Another common mistake when converting units of area and volume is to
forget to square or cube the conversion factor used for corresponding lengths.
Recall from Section 2.2 that a decimetre (dm) is a tenth of a metre,
i.e. 1 dm = 10−1 m. The dm3 is used by chemists as a unit of volume. The
litre (l) (also mentioned in Chapter 2) was defined in 1901 as the volume of a
kilogram of water at 4 °C, under standard atmospheric pressure. This volume
turns out to be 1.000 28 dm3, and since 1969 a litre has been defined to be
1 dm3. Worked example 4.1 illustrates the magnitude of the litre relative to
other volumes. (Note: it is very easy to confuse the letter ‘l’, used as the
symbol for litres, with the number 1. Take care!)

Worked example 4.1

Convert a volume of 1 dm3 (1 litre) into:
(a) m3 (b) cm3
Answer
(a) 1 dm = 10−1 m
So 1 dm3 = (10−1 m)3 = (10−1)3 m3 = 10−3 m3
(b) 1 m = 10 dm and 1 m = 100 cm so 1 dm = 10 cm.
So 1 dm3 = (10 cm)3 = 103 cm3
Thus a litre is a thousand times smaller than a cubic metre and a thousand
times bigger than a cubic centimetre. You may already have been aware that
1 litre = 1000 cm3. Thus 1 ml = 1 cm3.

Figure 4.5 is a summary of unit conversions for length, area and volume, but
you should try to remember the general principles involved rather than
memorising individual conversion factors.

Question 4.3

Express each of the following volumes in scientific notation in m3:

(a) the volume of the planet Mars, which is 1.64 × 1011 km3
(b) the volume of a ball bearing, which is 16 mm3.

76
 4 Unit conversions

vert divide by 10 3 vert divide by 10 3

to con to con

length in mm length in m length in km

to co 3 to co 3
nvert multiply by 10 nvert multiply by 10

nvert divide by (10 3) 2 nvert divide by (10 3) 2

to co to co

area in area in area in

mm2 m2 km2

to c 2 to c 2
onvert multiply by (103 ) onvert multiply by (103 )

nvert divide by (10 3) 3 nvert divide by (10 3) 3

to co to co

volume volume volume

in mm3 in m3 in km3

to c 3 to c 3
onvert multiply by (103 ) onvert multiply by (103 )

Figure 4.5 Unit conversions for length, area and volume.

4.3 Converting units of speed

The average speed with which an object moves can be found by dividing the
total distance travelled by the total time taken, so when Usain Bolt broke the
world 100 metres record in Berlin in 2009 in a time of 9.58 s, his average
speed was
100 m
average speed = = 10.4 m s −1
9.58 s
Similarly, if a girl grows a total of 116 cm in 12.5 years, her average rate of
growth is
116 cm
growth rate = = 9.28 cm year −1
12.5 years
Note that it is appropriate to give the answers to both examples to three
significant figures (assuming that the length of the running track was known
to at least three significant figures).

77
Maths for Science

Many things move and/or grow in the world around us, and it is useful to
compare different values for speed or rate of growth. Different speeds are
frequently measured in different units, so in order to be able to compare like
with like it is necessary to convert between different units for distance, time
and speed. Box 4.1 considers various examples of speed and growth, and the
text immediately following the box looks at ways of converting from one unit
to another.

Box 4.1 How fast?

Light (and other forms of radiation such as X-rays and radio waves)

travels in a vacuum with a constant speed of 3.00 × 108 m s−1. It is

currently believed that nothing can travel faster than this.

Towards the opposite extreme are stalactites and stalagmites (see

Figure 4.6a), which grow just fractions of a millimetre each year. A
typical growth rate is 0.1 mm year−1. Stalactites form when water drips
from the roof of an underground cave, depositing calcite (frequently from
the limestone in the rock above the cave) in an icicle-shaped formation
as it does so. Stalagmites form as the water drips onto the floor of the
cave, depositing further calcite.
It is not normally possible to detect the motion of a glacier by eye, but
there is considerable variation in the speed with which they move. The
Franz Josef Glacier in New Zealand is particularly fast moving, with an
average speed of about 1.5 m day−1. The speed of the Saskatchewan
Glacier in Canada (see Figure 4.6b) is rather more typical, at about
12 cm day−1.
In addition to geological processes such as glacier flow and stalactite
formation, the theory of plate tectonics tells us that the surface of the
Earth is itself moving. The Earth’s surface is thought to comprise seven
major tectonic plates and numerous smaller ones, each only about
100 km thick but mostly thousands of kilometres in width. Evidence,
including evidence from sea-floor spreading (to be discussed in
Chapter 7) indicates that plates move relative to one another with speeds
between about 10 km Ma−1 and 100 km Ma−1 (where Ma is the
abbreviation for a million years or a million years ago, as discussed in
Section 2.2).
Earthquakes and volcanoes occur all over the Earth, but they are more
common close to the boundaries of tectonic plates than elsewhere.
Following an earthquake, seismic waves (the word ‘seismic’ is from the
Greek for ‘shaking’) travel out from the centre of the quake and are
recorded by seismometers at various locations. There are several different
types of seismic waves, including P waves, S waves, Love waves and
Rayleigh waves, each travelling at different speeds (and sometimes also
by different routes), so reaching a given seismometer at different times
(see Figure 4.7). P waves travel fastest, with an average speed of about
5.6 km s−1 in rocks close to the Earth’s surface, so reach the

seismometer first (the name P wave was originally an abbreviation for

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 4 Unit conversions

primary wave). S waves (S for secondary) travel with an average speed

of about 3.4 km s−1 in rocks close to the Earth’s surface.
Perhaps the most dangerous sort of volcanic eruption is one that leads to
a high-speed pyroclastic flow (a mixture of rock fragments and gases,
moving as a fluid) away from the volcano. Pyroclastic flows are
particularly destructive both because of their high temperatures (typically
between 200 °C and 700 °C) and the high speed at which they travel (up
to about 100 km hour−1).

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.6 (a) Stalactites and stalagmites growing (very slowly!) in the
Treak Cliff Cavern, Derbyshire, England. (b) The Saskatchewan Glacier,
Banff National Park, Canada.

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Maths for Science

P waves S waves Love waves Rayleigh waves

5 minutes

Figure 4.7 A seismogram (the printout from a seismometer) showing the

arrival of P waves, S waves, Love waves and Rayleigh waves from a distant
earthquake. Elapsed time increases from left to right.

The speeds given so far in this box have related to processes on the
Earth, but remember that the Earth itself is moving too. The rotation of
the Earth on its axis leads to a movement of up to 0.5 km s−1 at the
surface. In addition, the Earth is orbiting the Sun at about 30 km s−1 and
the entire Solar System is moving around the centre of the Galaxy at
about 250 km s−1.

To convert from one unit of speed to another, it may be necessary to convert

both the unit of distance and the unit of time. To start with, consider the
rather more straightforward case where it is only necessary to convert the unit
of distance, for example in converting from mm s−1 to m s−1.
Since 1 mm = 10−3 m, it follows straight away that

1 mm s−1 = 10−3 m s−1

(simply applying the same conversion factor as in converting from mm to m).
Note that the answer makes sense: it is reasonable to expect that the numerical
value of a speed in m s−1 will be smaller than the same speed when given in
mm s−1.

Worked example 4.2

Convert the speed of the Earth as it orbits the Sun (given in Box 4.1 as
30 km s−1) into a value in m s−1.
Answer
1 km = 103 m
So 1 km s−1 = 103 m s−1 and

30 km s −1 = 30 ×103 m s −1
= 3.0 ×104 m s −1 in scientific notation

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 4 Unit conversions

The Earth orbits the Sun with a speed of about 3.0 × 104 m s−1. Again the
answer makes sense: it is reasonable to expect that the numerical value of a
speed in m s−1 will be larger than the same speed when given in km s−1.

Next consider what happens when you need to convert only the time part of
units of speed, for instance in converting from km hour−1 to km s−1.
You know that there are 60 minutes in an hour and 60 seconds in a minute, so

1 hour = 60 × 60 s = 3600 s
However, in this case you don’t want to convert from hours to seconds, but
rather from kilometres per hour to kilometres per second. The way forward
comes in recognising that the word ‘per’ and the use of negative exponents in
hour−1 and s−1 indicate division. So to convert from hour−1 to s−1 (or from
km hour−1 to km s−1) you need to find the conversion factor from hours to
seconds and then divide by it.
Since 1 hour = 3600 s,
1
1 km hour −1 = km s −1
3600
In deciding whether to divide or multiply by a particular conversion factor,
common sense can again come to your aid. It is reasonable to expect that a
speed quoted in km s−1 will be smaller than the same speed when quoted in
km hour−1, so it is reasonable to divide by the 3600 on this occasion.

Worked example 4.3

Two tectonic plates are moving apart at an average rate of 35 km Ma−1.
Convert this to a value in km year−1.
Answer
1 Ma = 106 years
So, dividing by the conversion factor from Ma to years
1
1 km Ma −1 = km year −1
106
Therefore

35
35 km Ma −1 = km year −1
106
= 35 ×10−6 km year −1
= 3.5 ×10−5 km yeear −1 in scientific notation
The plates are moving apart at an average rate of 3.5 × 10−5 km year−1. This
answer is reasonable: you would expect the rate of separation quoted in
km year−1 to be smaller than the same rate quoted in km Ma−1.

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Maths for Science

Question 4.4

Convert the average speed of the Saskatchewan Glacier (12 cm day−1) to a

value in: (a) m day−1, (b) cm s−1.

Finally, consider conversions for speed in which both the units of distance and
the units of time have to be converted. This is simply a combination of the
techniques illustrated in Worked examples 4.2 and 4.3. Suppose you want to
convert from km hour−1 to m s−1.

1 km = 103 m

1 hour = 3600 s
To convert from km hour−1 to m s−1, you need to multiply by 103 (to convert
the km to m) and divide by 3600 (to convert the hour−1 to s−1):

103
1 km hour −1 = m s −1 = 0.278 m s −1 to three significant figuress
3600

Worked example 4.4

Convert the average speed of separation of the tectonic plates discussed in
Worked example 4.3 (35 km Ma−1) to a value in mm year−1.
Answer
1 km = 103 m and 1 m = 103 mm, so 1 km = 103 × 103 mm = 106 mm
1 Ma = 106 year
To convert from km Ma−1 to mm year−1, you need to multiply by 106 (to
convert the km to mm) and divide by 106 (to convert the Ma−1 to year−1).

106
1 km Ma −1 = mm year −1 = 1 mm year −1
106
Thus a speed given in km Ma−1 is numerically equal to one given in
mm year−1. The plates are moving apart at a rate of 35 mm year−1. This is
similar to the rate at which human fingernails grow and is easier to imagine
than is 35 km Ma−1.

Question 4.5

Convert each of the following to values in m s−1 and then compare them.
(a) A stalactite growth rate of 0.1 mm year−1.
(b) The average speed of the Saskatchewan Glacier (12 cm day−1).
(c) The speed of separation of the tectonic plates discussed in Worked
examples 4.3 and 4.4 (35 km Ma−1).

(Note: for the purposes of this question, consider 1 year to be 365 days

long.)

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 4 Unit conversions

4.4 Converting units of concentration and density

Methods for converting units of other physical quantities, for example,
concentration (Box 4.2) and density, follow directly from the discussion in the
previous sections. The important general rules to remember are as follows:

When converting a unit that is squared or cubed, you need to square or

cube the conversion factor.
When converting a unit that is divided (recognised by ‘per’, ‘/’ or a
negative exponent), you need to divide by the conversion factor.

Box 4.2 Concentration

The concentration of a solution is a term used as a measure of how much
of a certain substance the solution contains, relative to the solution’s total
volume. For example, you may want to know how much sugar has been
dissolved in water to give one litre of syrup.
The amount of the substance can be measured in moles, in which case
the concentration will have units of mol l−1 or mol dm−3. Alternatively,
the amount of the substance can be measured by mass, leading to units
for concentration of kg dm−3, g m−3, or mg l−1, and so on.
The World Health Organization (WHO) sets limits for safe concentrations
of various impurities in drinking water, for example, the limit for the
concentration of nitrate in drinking water is currently 50 mg l−1. This
means that there should be no more than 50 mg of nitrate in each litre
(dm3) of drinking water.

To convert a concentration from, say, mg l−1 to μg ml−1 you need to follow a

very similar procedure to the one introduced in Section 4.3, with the negative
exponent in l−1 and ml−1 reminding you that the mass (in mg or μg) is divided
by litres or millilitres (the units could be written as mg/l and μg/ml) so you
need to divide by the conversion factor that you would use to convert from
l to ml.

Worked example 4.5

Convert 50 mg l−1 (the World Health Organization’s limit for the
concentration of nitrate in drinking water) to a value in μg ml−1.
Answer
1 μg = 10−6 g so
1
1g = μg = 106 μg
10−6

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Maths for Science

1 mg = 10−3 g
Therefore 1 mg = 10−3 × 106 μg = 103 μg
1 l = 103 ml
To convert from mg l−1 to μg ml−1, you need to multiply by 103 (to convert
the mg to μg) and as discussed above you need to divide by 103 (to convert
the l−1 to ml−1).

103

1 mg l−1 = μg ml−1 = 1 μg ml−1

103
Thus a concentration given in mg l−1 is numerically equal to one given in
μg ml−1, in particular 50 mg l−1 = 50 μg ml−1.

Worked example 4.6 is a conversion of units of density, in this case g cm−3 to

kg m−3, using a method which combines the techniques developed in
Section 4.2 and Section 4.3. You need to remember to cube the cm to m
conversion factor (because you are considering units involving cm3 and m3),
then you need to remember to divide by the result, with the negative exponent
in cm−3 and m−3 reminding you that the mass (in g or kg) is divided by cm3
or m3.

Worked example 4.6

Convert a density of 19.3 g cm−3 (the density of gold) into a value in the SI
units of kg m−3.
Answer
1 kg = 103 g, so
1
1g = kg = 10−3 kg
103
1 cm = 10−2 m, so 1 cm3 = (10−2 m)3 = (10−2)3 m3 = 10−6 m3
To convert from g cm−3 to kg m−3 you need to multiply by 10−3 (to convert
the g into kg) and divide by 10−6 (to convert the cm−3 into m−3).

10−3
1 g cm −3 = kg m −3 = 10−3−(−6) kg m −3 = 103 kg m −3
10−6
Thus

19.3 g cm −3 = 19.3 ×103 kg m −3

= 1.93 ×104 kg m −3 in scientific notation
n

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 4 Unit conversions

Note that the density in units of kg m−3 has worked out to be 1000 times the
value in units of g cm−3. You can always convert from g cm−3 to kg m−3 by
multiplying by 1000 and similarly, you can always convert from kg m−3 to
g cm−3 by dividing by 1000. However, as was the case with the unit
conversions for area and volume, it is better to consider general principles
rather than trying to memorise conversion factors.

Question 4.6

The World Health Organization reduced its maximum recommended

concentration for arsenic in drinking water from 50 μg l−1 to 10 μg l−1
in 1993. Convert 10 μg l−1 into a value in:
(a) μg ml−1 (b) mg dm−3 (c) g m−3

4.5 More unit conversions

The principles of unit conversion, developed so far in this chapter, can be
used in even more complicated situations, although you are unlikely to have
to do this. Alongside the SI unit system (with base units of metres, kilograms
and seconds, etc.), an older system known as the CGS system (with base units
of centimetres, grams and seconds, etc.) continues to be used in some
scientific communities. As you know, the SI unit of energy is the joule,
where 1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2. The CGS unit of energy is the erg, where
1 erg = 1 g cm2 s−2, so to convert from ergs to joules you need to convert
from g cm2 s−2 to kg m2 s−2.
1 kg = 103 g, so
1
1g = kg = 10−3 kg
103
1 cm = 10−2 m, so 1 cm2 = (10−2 m)2 = (10−2)2 m2 = 10−4 m2
To convert from g cm2 s−2 to kg m2 s−2 you need to multiply by 10−3 (to
convert the g into kg) and then multiply by 10−4 (to convert the cm2 into m2).
The s−2 is unchanged. Thus

1 g cm 2 s −2 = (10−3 ) × (10−4 ) kg m 2 s −2
= 10(−3) + (−4) kg m 2 s −2
1 −7 kg m 2 s −2
= 10
1 erg = 10−7 J
Box 4.3 discusses another unit of energy, the kilowatt-hour (kW h). You have
probably encountered this unit before, because it is the unit used in payment
for electricity in many countries (Figure 4.8), but you may not have realised
that the kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy, especially since the watt is the SI
unit of power and the hour is a unit of time.

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Maths for Science

Figure 4.8 An electricity meter in the UK, showing energy consumption

measured in kW h.

Box 4.3 Kilowatt-hours

Energy, E, power, p, and time, t, are linked by the equation

E = pt (4.1)
The SI units of energy, power and time are related by

1J=1W×1s
Equation 4.1 also provides a means of calculating the amount of energy
(in joules) in a kilowatt-hour. A kilowatt-hour is defined to be the energy
delivered when 1 kilowatt of power is expended for 1 hour, i.e.
p = 1 kW = 103 W
t = 1 hour = 60 × 60 s = 3600 s = 3.6 × 103 s
Substituting these values in Equation 4.1 gives
E = pt
= 103 W × 3.6 × 103 s
= 3.6 × 106 J s −1 s (since 1 W = 1 J s −1)
1
= 3.6 × 106 J (since s −1 = and the ‘s’s then cancel)
s
So one kilowatt-hour is equal to 3.6 × 106 J.

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 4 Unit conversions

This section has introduced two commonly used but non-SI units of energy.
Scientists also sometimes measure other quantities in non-SI units, and some
of these, like the kilowatt-hour, have misleading names. For example, the
electronvolt (eV) is also a unit of energy whilst the light-year (ly) is a unit of
distance.
Whatever units values have been quoted in, the safest option is to convert to
SI units at the earliest opportunity. This is an extension of the practice
introduced in Section 4.1, but will sometimes involve converting compound
units, for example, of speed, concentration or density, before carrying out a
calculation.

Question 4.7

Use P = ρgh (Box 3.1 Equation 3.11) to find the pressure at a depth of
1.2 km in seawater of density 1.025 g cm−3. (The magnitude of the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m s−2.)

4.6 Review of Chapter 4

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. convert between various units for quantities such as area, volume, speed,
density and concentration
. demonstrate understanding of the importance of converting into SI units
before commencing a calculation.

Question 4.8

Check your understanding of Chapter 4 by answering the following:

(a) Express a volume of 75 cl (the typical volume of a bottle of wine)
in m3.
(b) Convert a density of 9.1 × 102 kg m−3 (the density of olive oil) to a
value in g cm−3.
(c) Use Ek = 12 mv 2 (Box 3.1 Equation 3.12) to find the kinetic energy of a
bullet of mass 7.5 g travelling at a speed of 1.5 × 103 km hour−1.

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 5 Algebra

Algebra 5
At the end of Chapter 3 you used the following equation

μ
vs = (3.10)
ρ
to calculate the S wave speed, vs , of seismic waves passing through a rock of
density ρ and rigidity modulus μ. But suppose that, instead of knowing ρ and
μ and wanting to find vs , you know vs and ρ and want to find μ. The best
way to proceed is to rearrange Equation 3.10 to make μ the subject of the
equation, where the word ‘subject’ is used to mean the term written by itself,
usually to the left of the equals sign. Rearranging equations is the first topic
considered in Chapter 5. The rest of the chapter introduces methods for
simplifying equations and ways of combining two or more equations together.

5.1 Rearranging equations

There are many different methods taught for rearranging equations, and if you
are happy with a method you have learnt previously it is probably best to
stick with this method, provided it gives correct answers to all the questions
in this section. (However, note that some methods taught for rearranging
equations, in particular the so-called ‘triangle’ method, are not generally
applicable and cannot be used to rearrange all the equations introduced in this
chapter.) If you have not found a way of rearranging equations which suits
you, you might like to try the method highlighted in the blue-toned boxes
throughout this section. This method draws on an analogy between an
equation and an old-fashioned set of kitchen scales (Figure 5.1), and considers
the equation to be ‘balanced’ at the equals sign.

c=a+b
c=a+b c + 50 = a + b + 50 2 2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.1 (a) The analogy between an equation and a set of kitchen scales. The scales remain balanced if (b) 50 g
is added to both sides or if (c) the weight on both sides is halved.

The scales will remain balanced if you add a 50 g mass to one side of the
scales, or halve the mass on one side, provided you do exactly the same thing
to the other side. In a similar way, you can do (almost) anything you like to

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Maths for Science

one side of an equation and, provided you do exactly the same thing to the
other side, the equation will still be valid.
The following rule summarises the discussion above:

Whatever you do mathematically to one side of an equation you must

also do to the other side.

This rule is fundamental when rearranging equations, but it doesn’t tell you
what operation to perform to both sides of an equation in order to rearrange it
in the way you want. The highlighted points below should help with this, as
will plenty of practice. However, two things are worth noting at the outset.
1 Equations are conventionally written with the subject on the left-hand side
of the equals sign. However, when rearranging an equation it can very
often be helpful simply to reverse the order.
So if you derive or are given the equation c = a + b you can rewrite it as
a + b = c; if you derive or are given the equation ab = c you can rewrite it
as c = ab.
2 Even if you choose the ‘wrong’ operation, provided you correctly perform
that operation to both sides of the equation, the equation will still be valid.
Suppose you want to rearrange the equation c = a + b to obtain an
expression for a. You could divide by two, as illustrated by Figure 5.1c,
giving
c a+b
=
2 2
This is a perfectly valid equation; it just doesn’t help much in the quest for
a. The numbered points below give some hints for more helpful ways
forward, and each guideline is followed by an illustration of its use.
In the numbered hints the words expression and term are used to describe the
parts of an equation. An equation must always include an equals sign, but an
expression or a term won’t. A term may be a single variable (such as vx or ux
in the equation vx = u x + axt ), or a combination of several variables (such as
axt); an expression is usually a combination of variables (such as axt or
ux + axt), but the words are often used interchangeably.

Hint 1 If you want to remove an expression that is added to the term

you want, subtract that expression from both sides of the equation.

To rearrange a + b = c to make a the subject, note that you need to remove

the b from the left-hand side of the equation. The b is currently added to a, so
you need to subtract b from both sides.

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 5 Algebra

This gives

a+b−b=c−b
or

a = c − b (since b − b on the left-hand side gives zero)

Hint 2 If you want to remove an expression that is subtracted from the

term you want, add that expression to both sides of the equation.

To rearrange a − b = c to make a the subject, note that you need to remove

the b from the left-hand side of the equation. The b is currently subtracted
from a, so you need to add b to both sides. This gives

a−b+b=c+b
or

a = c + b (since −b + b on the left-hand side gives zero)

Hint 3 If the term you want is multiplied by another expression, divide

both sides of the equation by that expression.

To rearrange ab = c to make a the subject, note that you need to remove the b
from the left-hand side of the equation. The a is currently multiplied by b, so
you need to divide both sides of the equation by b. This gives
ab c
=
b b
The b in the numerator of the fraction on the left-hand side cancels with the b
in the denominator to give
c
a=
b

Hint 4 If the term you want is divided by another expression, multiply

both sides of the equation by that expression.

a
To rearrange = c to make a the subject, note that you need to remove the b
b
from the left-hand side of the equation. The a is currently divided by b, so
you need to multiply both sides of the equation by b.

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Maths for Science

This gives
a×b
= c×b
b
The b in the numerator of the fraction on the left-hand side cancels with the b
in the denominator to give

a = cb

Hint 5 If you are trying to make a term the subject of an equation and
you currently have an equation for the square of that term, take the
square root of both sides of the equation.

To rearrange a2 = b to make a the subject, note that the a is currently squared,

and take the square root of both sides of the equation. This gives

a=± b
Note the presence of the ± sign, indicating that the answer could be either
positive or negative, as discussed in Section 1.1.3. In practice, the reality of
the problem you are solving sometimes allows you to rule out one of the two
values.

Hint 6 If you are trying to make a term the subject of an equation and
you currently have an equation for the square root of that term, square
both sides of the equation.

To rearrange a = b to make a the subject, note that you currently have an

equation for the square root of a, and square both sides of the equation. This
gives

a = b2
Hints 1 to 6 all follow from a general principle:

To ‘undo’ an operation (e.g. +, −, ×, ÷, square, square root) you should

do the opposite, (i.e. −, +, ÷, ×, square root, square).

The following worked examples use the principles introduced in the numbered
hints above, in the context of equations which are frequently encountered in
science. Worked example 5.1 also involves substituting numerical values and
units into the equation once it has been rearranged.

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 5 Algebra

Worked example 5.1

As discussed in Box 2.1, mass and weight are not the same. However, the
magnitude of the weight, W, of an object at the surface of the Earth and its
mass, m, are related by the equation W = mg. The magnitude of the
acceleration due to gravity, g, can be taken to be 9.81 m s−2.
A teenager’s weight is 649 N. What is his mass?
Answer
You need to start by rearranging W = mg to make m the subject of the
equation. It is helpful to start by reversing the order of the equation, i.e. to
write it as

mg = W
To isolate m you need to get rid of g, and m is currently multiplied by g so,
from Hint 3 you need to divide by g. Remember that you must do this to both
sides of the equation, giving
mg W
=
g g
The g in the numerator of the fraction on the left-hand side cancels with the g
in the denominator to give
W
m=
g
Substituting values for W and g gives
649 N
m=
9.81 m s −2
Since 1 N = 1 kg m s−2 (from Box 3.3), the units are

N kg m s −2
= = kg
m s −2 m s −2
You then have

649 kg m s −2
m=
9.
81 m s −2
= 66.157 kg

= 66.2 kg to three signific

cant figures
So the teenager’s mass is 66.2 kg.

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Maths for Science

Worked example 5.2

The time T for one swing of a pendulum is related to its length, L, by the
equation

4π2 L
T2 =
g
where g is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity. Write down an
equation for T.
Answer
T is currently squared, so from Hint 5, you need to take the square root of
both sides of the equation. This gives

4π2 L
T=
g

Since T is a period of time, its value must be positive, so you only need to
write down the positive square root.

Question 5.1

(a) Rearrange v = f λ to make f the subject.

(b) Rearrange Etot = Ek + Ep so that Ek is the subject.

m
(c) Rearrange ρ = to obtain an equation for m.
V
When rearranging more complicated equations, it is often necessary to proceed
in several steps. Each step will use the rules already discussed, but many
people are perplexed when trying to decide which step to take first. Expertise
in this area comes largely with practice, and there are no hard and fast rules
(it is often possible to rearrange an equation by several, equally correct,
routes). However, the following guidelines may help:

Hint 7 Don’t be afraid of using several small steps to rearrange one

equation.
Hint 8 Aim to get the new subject into position on the left-hand side as
soon as you can. (This will not always be possible straight away.)
Simply reversing an equation can sometimes be a helpful initial step.
Hint 9 You can treat an expression within brackets as if it was a single
term. This is true whether the brackets are shown explicitly in the
original equation or whether you have added them (or imagined them)
for clarity. If the quantity required as the subject is itself part of an
expression in brackets in the original equation, it is often best to start by
making the whole bracketed term the subject of the equation.

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 5 Algebra

Hints 7–9 are considered in the context of a series of worked examples,

interspersed with questions for you to try for yourself. Note that although
‘real’ science equations have been used as much as possible in the worked
examples and questions, the symbols have not been explained, and you do not
need to know the meaning of them. This is to allow you to concentrate, for
the time being only, on the algebra rather than getting side-tracked into the
underlying science.
You may be able to rearrange the equations in the following worked examples
in fewer steps than are shown, but if you are in any doubt at all it is best to
write down all the intermediate steps in the process.

Worked example 5.3

Rearrange PV = nRT to give an equation for T.
Answer
This example is perhaps more straightforward than it looks, but it is best to
proceed in steps (Hint 7).
The first step is to reverse the equation so that the T is on the left-hand side
(Hint 8). This gives

nRT = PV
You now need to remove the nR by which the T is multiplied. Dividing both
sides by nR (Hint 3) gives
nRT PV
=
nR nR
The nR in the numerator of the fraction on the left-hand side cancels with the
nR in the denominator to give
PV
T =
nR

Worked example 5.4

Rearrange the following so that V is the subject.
m
ρ=
V
Answer
The first step is to multiply both sides by V (thus getting V into the right
position, as in Hint 8). This gives
mV
ρV =
V

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Maths for Science

i.e.
ρV = m
Then dividing both sides by ρ gives
ρV m
=
ρ ρ
i.e.
m
V =
ρ

Worked example 5.5

Rearrange vx = u x + axt to make ux the subject.
Answer
This equation can be written as
u x + a xt = v x
which has ux on the left-hand side (Hint 8).
You can treat the expression axt as a single term (by considering there to be
brackets around it, as in Hint 9) and subtract it from both sides of the
equation to give
u x + a x t − a x t = v x − a xt
i.e.
u x = v x − a xt

Worked example 5.6

Rearrange h = 12 gt 2 to give an equation for t.
Answer
You can consider there to be brackets around (t2) and start by finding an
expression for t2 (Hint 9). The equation h = 12 gt 2 can be written as
1 2
gt = h
2
which has t2 on the left-hand side (Hint 8). Multiplying both sides by 2 gives
1 2
2× gt = 2h
2
i.e.

gt2 = 2h

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 5 Algebra

Dividing both sides by g gives

gt 2 2h
=
g g
i.e.
2h
t2 =
g
Now you can take the square root of both sides (Hint 5) to give

2h
t=±
g

(t in this case is time, so you only need to consider the positive value.)

Worked example 5.7

Rearrange the following so that μ is the subject.

μ
vs =
ρ
Answer
⎛μ⎞
You can consider there to be brackets around ⎜ ⎟ and start by finding an
⎝ρ⎠
⎛μ⎞
expression for ⎜ ⎟ (Hint 9).
⎝ρ⎠
The equation can be written as

μ
= vs
ρ

which has on the left-hand side (Hint 8).

ρ
Squaring both sides (Hint 6) gives
μ
= vs 2
ρ
Now you can multiply both sides by ρ to give

μ = vs 2 ρ

Box 5.1 Interlude: why bother with algebra?

You may have recognised the equation rearranged in Worked
example 5.7; it was the one discussed at the beginning of the chapter.
Thinking back to the beginning of the chapter serves as a reminder of
the purpose of rearranging equations. The ability to rearrange equations

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Maths for Science

is useful (arguably the most useful skill developed in this book), but it is
not something that you should do just for the sake of doing so, but rather
because you want to work something out, and rearranging an equation is
the means to this end. Suppose you have been told that S waves pass
through rocks of density ρ = 3.9 × 103 kg m−3 with a speed
vs = 3.0 × 103 m s−1, and you want to find the rigidity modulus μ. The
equation in the form

μ
vs =
ρ
is not much use, but the rearranged form immediately tells you that

μ = vs 2 ρ
= (3.0 × 103 m s −1) 2 × (3.9 × 103 kg m −3 )
= (9.0 × 106 m 2 s −2 ) × (3.9 × 103 kg m −3 )
= 3.51 × 1010 m 2 s −2 kg m −3
= 3.5 × 1010 kg m −1 s −2 to two significant figures
So the rigidity modulus is 3.5 × 1010 kg m−1 s−2.
In simple examples you may be able to work out values without first
rearranging the equation. However, it is always best to rearrange the
equation so that the quantity you are trying to find is on the left-hand
side, before substituting numerical values. This approach avoids
arithmetic slips and rounding errors and is discussed further in
Chapter 6.

Question 5.2

(a) Rearrange b = c − d + e so that e is the subject.

(b) Rearrange P = ρgh to give an equation for h.
(c) Rearrange the following equation to make R the subject.
2GM
2 =
vesc
R
(d) Rearrange E = hf − φ so that φ is the subject.
(e) Rearrange the following equation to give an equation for c.
bc 2
a=
d
(f) Rearrange the following equation to make b the subject.
b
a=
c

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 5 Algebra

Question 5.3

The mass, m, speed, v , and kinetic energy, Ek, of an object are linked by
the equation Ek = 12 mv 2 .
(a) Rearrange this equation so that v is the subject.
(b) Use your answer to part (a) to estimate (in m s−1 to one significant

figure) the speed needed in order for:

(i) a tectonic plate of mass 4 × 1021 kg to have a kinetic energy of

2 × 103 J

(ii) an athlete of mass 70 kg to have the same kinetic energy as the tectonic
plate in part (i).

The final group of worked examples in this section involve equations which
may appear rather more complex than the previous ones, but they can all be
rearranged using the rules and guidelines already introduced. Some, like
Worked example 5.8, appear more complex partly because they use symbols
that are rather unwieldy. However, these final worked examples are genuinely
more complicated too, and are best solved by taking a logical stepwise
approach (as the early Arab mathematicians did; see Box 5.2). Rearranging
complicated equations is rather like peeling away layers of an onion,
systematically removing layer by layer in order to get to the part you want.
But that doesn’t mean it should end in tears!

Box 5.2 Al-Khwarizmi and al-jabr

The techniques of algebra have developed over a period of several
thousand years, but the word ‘algebra’ comes from ‘al-jabr’ in the title of
a book written by Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi (Figure 5.2) in
about AD830.

Figure 5.2 A statue of Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khwarizmi in Khiva,

Uzbekistan.

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Maths for Science

The book, whose title Hisab al-jabr w’al muqabela, can be translated as
‘Transposition and reduction’, explained how it was possible to reduce
any problem to one of six standard forms using the two processes, al-jabr
(transferring terms to eliminate negative quantities) and muqabela
(balancing the remaining positive quantities).
Arab mathematicians like al-Khwarizmi did not use symbols in their
work, but rather explained everything in words. Nevertheless, their
stepwise approach was very similar to the one advocated in this book.
Al-Khwarizmi is also remembered for his work on the solution of
quadratic equations, discussed later in this chapter.

A little less working is shown in Worked examples 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10 than
previously, and hints are not explicitly referred to. This has been done so as to
make the working more akin to what you might reasonably write when
working through the questions in this book. You are encouraged to show as
many steps as necessary in your working, and to use words of explanation
wherever they help you.

Worked example 5.8

Rearrange ΔGm˜ = ΔH m˜ − T ΔS m˜ so that ΔS m˜ is the subject.
(Note: ΔGm˜ , ΔH m˜ and ΔS m˜ each represent a single physical entity.)
Answer
Adding T ΔS m˜ to both sides of the equation gives

ΔGm˜ + T ΔS m˜ = ΔH m˜
Subtracting ΔGm˜ from both sides gives

T ΔS m˜ = ΔH m˜ − ΔGm˜
Dividing both sides by T gives

ΔH m˜ − ΔGm˜
ΔS m˜ =
T

Worked example 5.9

Rearrange sx = u xt + 12 axt 2 to make ax the subject.
Answer
The equation can be written as u xt + 12 axt 2 = sx
Subtracting uxt from both sides gives
1
2
a xt 2 = s x − u xt

Multiplying both sides by 2 gives

axt2 = 2(sx − uxt)

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 5 Algebra

Dividing both sides by t2 gives

2(sx − u xt )
ax =

t 2

Worked example 5.10

Rearrange the following equation to give an equation for r.
m1m2
Fg = G
r2
Answer
m1m2 Gm1m2
Note that Fg = G can be written as Fg = (see Section 3.4.3).
r 2 r 2
You can get the r2 into position on the left-hand side by multiplying both
sides by r2.
This gives

Fgr2 = Gm1m2
Dividing both sides by Fg gives
Gm1m2
r2 =
Fg

Taking the square root of both sides gives

Gm1m2
r=±
Fg

Box 5.3 Using algebra in astronomy

The luminosity of a star (the total rate at which it radiates energy into
space, in all directions), L, is related to its radius, R, and the temperature
(measured in kelvin), T, of its outer layer (called the photosphere) by the
equation

L = 4πR 2σ T 4
(5.1)
where σ (the lower case Greek letter sigma) represents a constant known
as Stefan’s constant, with the value σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4.
It is impossible to take direct readings for the luminosity, radius or
temperature of distant stars, but indirect measurements can lead to values
for photospheric temperature and luminosity. Figure 5.3 is a so-called
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, comparing the photospheric temperatures
and luminosity of different stars. Note that different types of stars appear
in distinct groupings on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.

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Maths for Science

If you know a star’s luminosity and photospheric temperature you can

find its radius from Equation 5.1, but first of all you need to rearrange
the equation to make R the subject.
The equation can be reversed to give

4πR 2σ T 4 = L
Dividing both sides by 4πσT4 gives
L
R2 =
4πσ T 4
(Note that the same results would have been achieved by dividing by 4,
π, σ and T4 separately.)
Taking the square root of both sides gives

L
R=±
4πσ T 4
(Since R is the radius of a star, you only need to consider the positive
value.)
high luminosity

supergiants
luminosity in W

Alcyone red
giants
Sirius A
m
ai
n
se
qu Sun
en
ce α Centauri B
Sirius B
low luminosity

white dwarfs

high temperature low temperature

photospheric temperature in K

Figure 5.3 A Hertzsprung–Russell diagram showing the Sun and a number

of other stars.

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 5 Algebra

The star Alcyone (in the constellation Pleiades) has a photospheric

temperature of 1.2 × 104 K and a luminosity of 3.2 × 1029 W. So its
radius is

3.2 × 1029 W
R=
4π × 5.67 × 10−8 W m −2 K −4 × (1.2 × 104 K) 4
3.2 × 1029 W m 2 K 4
=
4π × 5.67 × 10−8 W × (1.2 × 104 ) 4 K 4

3.2 × 1029 m 2 K 4
=
4π × 5.67 × 10−8 × (1.2
2 × 104 ) 4 K 4
= 2.17 × 1019 m 2
= 4.7 × 109 m
The radius of Alcyone is 4.7 × 109 m.
Notice that in this example, the units of watts cancelled without having
to be expressed in SI base units.

Question 5.4

(a) Rearrange vx = u x + axt so that ax is the subject.

(b) Rearrange the following equation to make ρ the subject.
μ
vs =
ρ

(c) Rearrange the following equation to give an equation for d.

L
F=
4πd 2

5.2 Simplifying equations

Sometimes it is possible (and helpful) to write an algebraic expression in a
different form from the one in which it is originally presented. Whenever
possible you should aim to write equations in their simplest form, i.e. to
simplify them. For example, you will see in this section that the equation
a 3a a
c= + can be simplified to c = ; the latter form of the equation is
4b 4b b
rather more useful than the former.
In order to simplify equations it is often necessary to apply the rules for the
manipulation of fractions and brackets that were introduced in Chapter 1.

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Maths for Science

5.2.1 Simplifying algebraic fractions

Algebraic fractions can be multiplied and divided in exactly the same way as
numerical fractions, using the methods introduced in Section 1.2.4 and
Section 1.2.5.
So just as
2 4 2×4 8
× = = (multiplying numerators and denominators toogether)
3 5 3 × 5 15
you can write
a c a × c ac
× = =
b d b × d bd
Similarly, just as

2 5 2 7 5
÷ = × (turning the upside down and multiplying)
3 7 3 5 7
2×7
=
3× 5
14
=
15
you can write

a c a d c
÷ = × (turning the upside down and multiplying)
b d b c d
a×d
=
b×c
ad
=
bc
Worked example 5.11 illustrates a division in which several of the terms
cancel.

Worked example 5.11

2ab 2
Simplify ÷
c c
Answer
2
Turning the upside down and multiplying gives
c

2ab 2 2ab c

÷ = ×
c c c 2
Then the ‘2’s and the ‘c’s cancel to give

2ab 2 2 ab c
÷ = × = ab
c c c 2

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 5 Algebra

The method described in Section 1.2.2 for adding and subtracting numerical
fractions can also be extended to algebraic fractions. It is necessary to start by
finding a common denominator (which may be the product of the
denominators of the separate fractions). So just as
2 4 2 × 5 4 × 3 10 12 10 + 12 22
+ = + = + = =
3 5 3 × 5 5 × 3 15 15 15 15
you can write
a c ad cb ad + cb
+ = + =
b d bd db bd
since multiplication is commutative so db = bd.

Worked example 5.12

Electrical resistors (Figure 5.4) can be combined together in various ways.
You don’t need to know or understand the scientific details, but when three
resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 are combined in a particular way (‘in
parallel’) the effective resistance is given by the term Reff in the equation
1 1 1 1
= + + (5.2)
Reff R1 R2 R3
Rearrange Equation 5.2 to make Reff the subject.
Answer
You need to start by expressing the right-hand side of Equation 5.2 as a single
fraction.
The product of R1, R2 and R3 will be a common denominator, so you can Figure 5.4 Electrical resistors.
write
1 1 1 1
= + +
Reff R1 R2 R3
RR RR RR
= 2 3 + 1 3 + 1 2
R1R2 R3 R1R2 R3 R1R2 R3
R R + R1R3 + R1R2
= 2 3
R1R2 R3
1
In order to make Reff the subject of the equation, rather than , you could
Reff
multiply and divide both sides of the equations by a series of expressions.
However, it is more straightforward simply to turn the equation upside down,
i.e. to take the reciprocal of both sides. This gives
R1R2 R3
Reff =
R2 R3 + R1R3 + R1R2

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Maths for Science

A note of caution when simplifying algebraic expressions

When you simplify an algebraic expression, especially one involving fractions,
the answer you arrive at doesn’t always look very simple. If you are asked to
simplify an expression which is the sum or product of two separate fractions,
your answer should normally be a single fraction, but an expression like
R1R2 R3
Reff =
R2 R3 + R1R3 + R1R2
(the answer to Worked example 5.12) may be the simplest you can give. It
can be very tempting to ‘cancel’ terms incorrectly in an attempt to get to the
sort of simple fraction which is generally achievable when simplifying
numerical fractions, but less likely to be achievable when dealing with
symbols.
■ Express the following as a single fraction of the simplest possible form.

2c a (b + 2)
×
(a + 2) 2c b

□ You can cancel the ‘2c’s to give

2c a (b + 2) a (b + 2) a (b + 2)
× = =
(a + 2) 2c b (a + 2) b b (a + 2)

It can be tempting to ‘cancel’ the square roots and the ‘+2’s too, but this
would be incorrect:

a a (b + 2) b
≠ and ≠
b b (a + 2) a

As discussed in Section 1.2.3, a fraction is unchanged by the

multiplication or the division of both its numerator and denominator by
the same amount. However, all other operations will alter its value.

a (b + 2) 2c a (b + 2)
So is as far as it is possible to simplify × .
b (a + 2) (a + 2) 2c b
a a a (b + 2)
Note however that is equivalent to , so could also
b b b (a + 2)

a (b + 2)
be written as .
b (a + 2)

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 5 Algebra

Question 5.5

Simplify the following expressions, giving each answer as a single fraction.

μ0 i1i2 3a 2b 3c
(a) × (b) 2 (c) +
2π d 2b c b

2ab 2ac 1 1 2b 2 2c 2
(d) ÷ (e) − (f) ÷
c b f f +1 (b + c) (a + c)

Question 5.6

The distance, u, of an object from a lens (such as the lens in the simple
camera illustrated in Figure 5.5) is related to the distance, v , from the lens
to the image of the object and the lens’s focal length, f, by the equation
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
1 1
Add and and hence rearrange the equation to make f the subject.
u v

lens
image
u v of object

object

Figure 5.5 The object and image in a simple camera (for Question 5.6).

5.2.2 Using brackets in algebra

You should be familiar by now with the notion that an operation applied to an
expression in a bracket must be applied to everything within the bracket, so
(2b)2 = 22b2 = 4b2
(a + 2b) − (a + b) = a + 2b − a − b = b
(a + 2b) − (a − b) = a + 2b − a −(−b) = a + 2b − a + b = 3b
2(a + 2b) = (2 × a) + (2 × 2b) = 2a + 4b
2a(a + 2b) = (2a × a) + (2a × 2b) = 2a2 + 4ab
If you are required to multiply two bracketed expressions, such as (a + b) and
(c + d) together, you need to multiply each term in the first bracket by each
term in the second bracket as indicated by the red lines shown below.

(a + b)(c + d)

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Maths for Science

Multiplying the terms in order gives

2
1 1 2 3 4
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
3
4

Worked example 5.13

Expand the following expressions so that the brackets are removed:
(a) (x − 3)(x + 5)
(b) (x + y)(x − y)
(c) (x + y)2
(d) (x − y)2
Answer
(a) Multiplying the terms gives

(x − 3)(x + 5) = x 2 + 5x − 3x − 15
= x 2 + 2x − 15
(b) Multiplying the terms gives

(x + y)(x − y) = x 2 − xy + yx − y 2
= x 2 − y2 since xy = yx , so −xy + yx = 0
(c) Squaring (x + y) and then multiplying the terms gives

(x + y) 2 = (x + y)( x + y)
= x 2 + xy + yx + y
2
= x 2 + 2xy + y 2

(d) Squaring (x − y) and then multiplying the terms gives

(x − y) 2 = (x − y)( x − y)
= x 2 − xy − yx + y
2
= x 2 − 2xy + y 2

An examination of the answers to parts (b), (c) and (d) of Worked

example 5.13 serves as a reminder of the fact that

(x + y)2 ≠ x2 + y2
(x − y)2 ≠ x2 − y2

In other words, remember to watch out for brackets!

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 5 Algebra

Question 5.7

Expand the following expressions so that the brackets are removed:

1 (a − b) − (a − c)
(a) (vx + u x ) t (b) (c) (k − 2)(k − 3) (d) (t − 2)2
2 2

So far, this section has discussed removing brackets from expressions, but it
can very often be useful to do the reverse.
The numbers 6 and 4 are described as factors of 24 and in general, when
speaking mathematically, ‘factors’ are terms which when multiplied together
give the original expression.
Since, for example,

y(y + 3) = y2 + 3y
you can say that y and (y + 3) are factors of y2 + 3y
Similarly, since

(x + 3)( x − 1) = x 2 − x + 3x − 3
= x 2 + 2x − 3
you can say that (x + 3) and (x − 1) are factors of x2 + 2x − 3.
The verb ‘to factorise’ means to find the factors of an expression. If you are
asked to factorise y2 + 3y then you should write

y2 + 3y = y(y + 3)
and if you are asked to factorise x2 + 2x − 3 you should write

x2 + 2x − 3 = (x + 3)(x − 1)
Note, from Worked example 5.13b, that the factors of x2 – y2 are (x + y) and
(x − y), i.e.

x2 – y2 = (x + y)(x − y) (5.3)
The difference of two squared numbers can always be written as the
product of their sum and their difference.

Question 5.8

Factorise the following expressions:

(a) y2 − y
(b) x2 − 25 (Hint: you may find it helpful to compare this expression with
Equation 5.3, remembering that 52 = 25.)

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Maths for Science

Factorising can be useful when rearranging equations, as Worked

example 5.14 illustrates.

Worked example 5.14

Rearrange F = mrω2 + mg so that m is the subject.
Answer
Both terms on the right-hand side of this equation include m, so the equation
can be written as

F = m(rω2 + g)
This can be reversed to give

m(rω2 + g) = F
Then dividing both sides by (rω2 + g) gives
F
m=
rω 2+g

Question 5.9

Rearrange Etot = 12 mv 2 + mg Δh to give an equation for m.

An ability to factorise expressions such as y2 + 3y and x2 + 2x − 3 can also

help you to find the solutions of equations such as y2 + 3y = 0 and
x2 + 2x − 3 = 0. Equations of this form are known as quadratic equations
and they generally have two solutions, i.e. just two values (of x or y, etc.) for
which the left-hand side of the equation works out to be zero.
From above:

y2 + 3y = y(y + 3) (5.4)

So if y2 + 3y = 0, it follows that y(y + 3) = 0 too. Now y(y + 3) = 0 in turn

implies that either y = 0 or y + 3 = 0 (remembering from Section 1.1.4 that
multiplying by zero gives zero).
y + 3 = 0 implies that y = −3, so the solutions of y2 + 3y = 0 are y = 0 and
y = −3.
You can check that y = 0 and y = −3 really are solutions of the equation
y2 + 3y = 0, by substituting each value for y into the left-hand side of the
equation and verifying that it gives 0, as expected.
For y = 0, y2 + 3y = 0 + 0 = 0, as expected.
For y = −3, y2 + 3y = (−3)2 + [3 × (−3)] = 9 + (−9) = 0, as expected.
It is sensible to check your answers in this way whenever possible.

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 5 Algebra

Worked example 5.15

Use the fact that

x2 + 2x − 3 = (x + 3)(x − 1) (5.5)

to find the solutions of the equation x2 + 2x − 3 = 0.

Answer
If x2 + 2x − 3 = 0 then, from Equation 5.5, (x + 3)(x − 1) = 0
Thus either x + 3 = 0 or x − 1 = 0, i.e. x = −3 or x = 1.
Checking for x = −3:

x2 + 2x − 3 = (−3)2 + [2 × (−3)] − 3 = 9 − 6 − 3 = 0, as expected.

Checking for x = 1:

x2 + 2x − 3 = 12 + (2 × 1) − 3 = 1 + 2 − 3 = 0, as expected.
So the solutions of the equation x2 + 2x − 3 = 0 are x = −3 and x = 1.

Using factorisation to solve quadratic equations relies on being able to spot

the factors of an expression; this is quite easy for expressions like y2 + 3y
(see Equation 5.4), but if you had not known or been told that
x2 + 2x − 3 = (x + 3)(x − 1) (Equation 5.5), finding the factors of x2 + 2x − 3
would have been largely a matter of trial and error. An ability to find factors
in this way can be developed with practice, but it remains somewhat tedious
and this method for solving quadratic equations doesn’t work at all unless the
solutions are whole numbers or simple fractions. Fortunately help is at hand in
the form of the quadratic equation formula, described in Box 5.4.

Box 5.4 The quadratic equation formula

Al-Khwarizmi and other early Arab mathematicians developed general

methods for solving quadratic equations.

A quadratic equation of the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0
where a, b and c are numbers, will have solutions given by the quadratic
equation formula

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
If b2 > 4ac (i.e. b2 is greater than 4ac) then b2 − 4ac will be positive,

and the formula will lead to two distinct solutions.

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Maths for Science

−b
If b2 = 4ac then b2 − 4ac = 0 and there is only one solution, x = .
2a
If b2 < 4ac (i.e. b2 is less than 4ac) then b2 − 4ac will be negative. This
means that the solutions will involve the square root of a negative
number and hence will involve imaginary numbers. Such numbers were
mentioned in Chapter 1, but will not be considered further in Maths for
Science.

Worked example 5.16 demonstrates the use of the quadratic equation formula
in solving the equation that was solved by factorisation in Worked
example 5.15.

Worked example 5.16

Use the quadratic equation formula to find the solutions of the equation
x2 + 2x − 3 = 0.
Answer
Comparison of x2 + 2x − 3 = 0 and ax2 + bx + c = 0 shows that a = 1, b = 2
and c = −3 on this occasion, so the solutions are

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
−2 ± 22 − [4 × 1 × (−3)]
=
2 ×1

−2 ± 4 − [−1
2]
=
2
−2 ± 16
=
2
−2 ± 4
=
2
So
−2 + 4 2 −2 − 4 −6
x= = = 1 or x = = = −3
2 2 2 2
The solutions can be checked in exactly the same way as in Worked
example 5.15.
The solutions of the equation x2 + 2x − 3 = 0 have again been found to be
x = −3 and x = 1.

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 5 Algebra

Question 5.10

(a) Use your answers to Question 5.7 parts (c) and (d) to solve the

following quadratic equations by factorisation:

(i) k2 − 5k + 6 = 0 (ii) t2 − 4t + 4 = 0
(b) Use the quadratic equation formula to check your answers to part (a).

5.3 Combining equations

Consider the equation E = hf. This equation, first proposed by Einstein, links
the energy, E, of light to its frequency, f (h is a constant known as Planck’s
constant). Suppose that you know h and are trying to find E, but that you
don’t know f. Instead you know the values of c (speed of light) and λ
(wavelength) in a second equation, c = fλ. It would be possible to calculate a
value for f from the second equation and then substitute this value in the first
equation so as to find E. However, this approach runs the risk of numerical
slips and rounding errors. It is more useful to do the substitution
algebraically, in the way shown in the following example.

Worked example 5.17

Combine the following equations to find an equation for E not involving f:

E = hf (5.6)

c = fλ (5.7)

Answer
Rearranging Equation 5.7 to make f (the variable you are trying to eliminate)
the subject gives
c
f =
λ
Substituting this expression for f into Equation 5.6 gives
c hc
E = h× =
λ λ

This mathematical technique, sometimes referred to as elimination (because a

variable, f on this occasion, is being eliminated), can be used in many
situations, as illustrated in the worked examples throughout this section.

Worked example 5.18

Combine the following equations to give an equation for r not involving Fg.
Mm
Fg = G and Fg = mg
r2

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Maths for Science

Answer
Since both equations are already given with Fg (the variable you are trying to
eliminate) as the subject, you can simply set the two equations for Fg equal to
each other:
Mm
mg = G
r2
You now need to rearrange to give an equation for r. First note that there is an
m on both sides of the equation, and dividing both sides of the equation by m
gives
M
g =G
r2
Multiplying both sides by r2 gives

gr2 = GM
Dividing both sides by g gives
GM
r2 =
g
Taking the square root of both sides gives

GM
r=±
g

Note that in Worked example 5.18, as in many of the other examples and
questions in this section, there are several equally valid ways of proceeding
(you may, for example, have started by rearranging
Mm
Fg = G
r2
to give an equation for r and then have substituted for Fg from Fg = mg).
However the solution should have been the same whichever method you used.

Question 5.11

(a) Combine Ek = 12 mv 2 and p = mv to give an equation for Ek not

involving v .
(b) Combine E = 12 mv 2 and E = mgΔh to give an equation for v not
involving E.
(c) Combine Ek = hf − φ and c = f λ to give an equation for φ not
involving f.

Two (or more) different equations containing the same two (or more)
unknown quantities are called simultaneous equations if the equations must
be satisfied (hold true) simultaneously. It is usually possible to solve two
simultaneous equations by using one equation to eliminate one of the

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 5 Algebra

unknown quantities from the second equation, in an extension of the method

discussed above. This is illustrated in Worked example 5.19.

Worked example 5.19

Find values of x and y which satisfy both of the equations given below:

x+y=7 (5.8)

2x − y = 2 (5.9)

Answer
The approach used here is:

1 Rearrange Equation 5.8 to give an equation for y in terms of x.

2 Substitute this into Equation 5.9 to give an equation for x alone, and so to

find the value of x.

3 Return to the rearranged Equation 5.8 and use the value that has been
found for x to find a value for y.
Subtracting x from both sides of Equation 5.8 gives

y = 7 − x (5.10)

Substituting for y in Equation 5.9 then gives

2x − (7 − x) = 2
i.e.

2x − 7 + x = 2
or

3x − 7 = 2
Adding 7 to both sides gives

3x = 9, i.e. x = 3
Substitution of x = 3 into Equation 5.10 shows that

y=7−x=7−3=4
So the solution (i.e. the values for x and y for which both of the equations
hold true) is x = 3 and y = 4. You can check this by substituting the values

for x and y into the left-hand side of Equations 5.8 and 5.9.

Equation 5.8 gives x + y = 3 + 4 = 7, as expected.

Equation 5.9 gives 2x − y = (2 × 3) − 4 = 6 − 4 = 2, as expected.

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Maths for Science

You could have arrived at the same result by using several other methods.
However there is only one correct pair of values for x and y.

Worked example 5.19 shows that in order to find two unknown quantities, two
different equations relating them are required. This is always true and by
extension:

When you combine equations so as to find unknown quantities, it is

necessary to have at least as many equations as there are unknown
quantities.

Worked example 5.20 shows how four equations can be combined together in
a case where there are four unknown quantities (the total surface area, S, is
required, but the mass, m, and volume, V, of a single particle and the number
of particles, n, are unknown too and so must be eliminated). This worked
example concerns the use of metal particles as catalysts in the chemical
industry (see Box 5.5) and is included for interest only.

Box 5.5 Chemical catalysts

A catalyst is a substance which makes a chemical reaction proceed more
rapidly. The catalyst itself does not undergo permanent chemical change,
and it can be recovered when the chemical reaction is completed. Metal
particles can be used as catalysts. A large number of small particles will
have a greater surface area than a small number of larger particles, and
the total surface area, S, of the particles is of critical importance to the
speed of the reaction. In a typical industrial chemical reactor, S can be
approximately 5000 km2; almost the area of Norfolk (the fifth largest
county in England)!

Worked example 5.20

The total surface area, S, of n metal particles of radius r is given by the
equation

S = 4πnr2 (5.11)

The number of particles n is linked to the mass of one particle, m and the
total mass of metal, M by the equation
M
n= (5.12)
m
The mass m of one particle is linked to its volume V and the density of the
metal ρ by the equation

116
 5 Algebra

m
ρ= (5.13)
V
The volume V of a particle is given by
4 3
V = πr (5.14)
3
where r is the radius.

Find an equation for S in terms of M, ρ and r only.

Answer
Reversing Equation 5.13 gives
m
=ρ
V
Multiplying both sides by V gives
m = Vρ
Substituting for V from Equation 5.14 gives
4 3
m= πr ρ
3
Substituting this expression for m into Equation 5.12 gives
M
n=
m
⎛4 ⎞
= M ÷ ⎜ πr 3ρ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 3 ⎞

= M ×⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ 4πr ρ ⎠
3M
=
4π r 3ρ
Substituting this expression for n into Equation 5.11 gives

S = 4πnr
2
3M

= 4π × × r2
4π r 3ρ

3M

= 4π × × r2
4π r 3ρ

3M

= × r2
r × r2 ρ
3Μ
=
rρ

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Maths for Science

5.4 Review of Chapter 5

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. rearrange an algebraic equation to make a different variable the subject
. simplify an algebraic expression
. add, subtract, multiply and divide algebraic fractions
. re-write an algebraic expression so that the brackets are removed
. factorise a simple algebraic expression
. solve a simple quadratic equation
. eliminate one or more variables so as to combine equations together.

Question 5.12

Check your understanding of Chapter 5 by answering the following:

(a) Rearrange the following equation to make s the subject
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
(b) Simplify the following expression
mv 2 v
÷
2 2
(c) Expand (x + 1)2 so that the brackets are removed
(d) Find solutions of x2 + 2x + 1 = 0, by whatever method you prefer
(e) Combine E = mcΔT and E = 12 mv 2 to give an equation for v that does
not involve E. Simplify your answer as much as possible.

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 6 Putting algebra to work

Putting algebra to work

6
The skills of rearranging, simplifying and combining equations, developed in
Chapter 5, are extremely important ones. However in some senses, what you
did in Chapter 5 was rather artificial – equations were given to you and you
were told to manipulate them in a particular way. In the real scientific world,
you are likely to need to:
1 Choose the correct equation(s) to use, or derive equation(s) for yourself.
2 Combine, rearrange and simplify the equation(s), using the skills
introduced in Chapter 5.
3 Substitute numerical values, taking care over things like significant figures,
scientific notation and units, as you did in Chapters 3 and 4.
4 Check that the answer is reasonable.
5 In all of this, write down your working carefully.
This chapter considers these points, combining skills from Chapters 4 and 5,
but it starts with a more light-hearted look at the uses of algebra.

6.1 Algebra is fun!

Try this:

. Think of a number.

. Double it.

. Add 4.

. Halve your answer.

. Subtract 1.

If you have arrived at an answer of 4, I can tell you that the number you first

thought of was 3; if your answer is 6, the number you first thought of was 5,

if your answer is 11, the number you first thought of was 10, and so on.

Magic? No, a demonstration of the power of algebra! You could perform

exactly the same operations for any number; if you represent the number by

the symbol N then you have:

• Think of a number N
• Double it 2N
• Add 4 2N + 4
• Halve your answer 1
2
(2N + 4) = N + 2
• Subtract 1 (N + 2) − 1 = N + 1

So the final answer will always be one more than the number you first thought
of.

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Maths for Science

Here’s another one for you to try:

. Think of a number.

. Add 5.

. Double the result.

. Subtract 2.

. Divide by 2.

. Take away the number you first thought of.

Whichever number you first thought of, the answer will always be 4.

Question 6.1

Use a symbol of your choice to represent the number in the ‘think of a

number’ example immediately before this question and thus show that the
answer will be 4, whichever number you choose at the beginning.

You may wonder why a book entitled Maths for Science has suddenly started
discussing number tricks. There is a serious point to this, namely to illustrate
how you can get from an initial problem to a solution by using algebra.
Worked example 6.1 illustrates another use of algebra.

Worked example 6.1

Chris and Jo share a birthday (but are different ages). On their birthday this
year Chris will be three times older than Jo. Their combined age on their
birthday last year was 78. How old was Chris when Jo was born?
Answer
Let C represent Chris’s age in years on her birthday this year and J represent
Jo’s age in years on her birthday this year.
Since Chris will be three times older than Jo you can say

C = 3J (6.1)

Last year Chris’s age was (C − 1) and Jo’s age was (J − 1), so you can say

(C − 1) + (J − 1) = 78
i.e.

C + J − 2 = 78

C + J = 80 (6.2)

Substituting for C from Equation 6.1 in Equation 6.2 gives

3J + J = 80

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 6 Putting algebra to work

i.e.

4J = 80

J = 20
Thus, from Equation 6.1, C = 3 × 20 = 60.
Thus Chris will be 60 this year and Jo will be 20. But this wasn’t the question
that was asked! When Jo was born, Chris was 60 − 20, i.e. 40 years old.

You may remember questions like Worked example 6.1 from your school
days. Problems like this can seem intimidating, but they are relatively easy to
solve once you have found the equations that describe the problem. Many
people struggle with this first step – they can’t find the equations to use. Look
at Worked example 6.1 carefully; all that has been done in order to derive
Equation 6.1 and Equation 6.2 has been to study carefully the information
given in the question, and to write it down in terms of symbols. So ‘On their
birthday this year Chris will be three times older than Jo’ has become C = 3J.
In solving problems, it is almost always helpful to start by writing down what
you already know. Drawing a diagram to illustrate the situation can help too;
you may find this helpful in Question 6.2.

Question 6.2

Rupa is 15 cm taller than Helen, and when Helen stands on Rupa’s

shoulders she can just see over a wall 3 m tall. Assume that it is 25 cm
from Rupa’s shoulders to the top of her head and 10 cm from Helen’s eyes
to the top of her head. How tall is Helen?

6.2 Using algebra to solve scientific problems

In much the same way as people struggle when trying to derive equations for
use in problems like Worked example 6.1, they often have difficulty deciding
which formulae to use from those given in a book, by a lecturer, or on a
formula sheet. There are two areas of difficulty. The first problem is knowing
which are the important equations for your subject; this book can’t help a
great deal here, though you are advised to identify the important equations as
you study science courses or read textbooks, and to make a list of these
(including an explanation of the meaning of the symbols), especially if you
are not provided with a formula sheet. The second area of difficulty is
knowing which equations to use from the ones you have in front of you (on a
formula sheet or on your list). As above, it can be helpful to draw a diagram
and it is always helpful to start by writing down what you know and what
you’re trying to find. This often helps you to decide how to proceed.
Worked example 6.2 discusses the choice of appropriate formulae for use in
answering a particular question. It also works through the other steps you are
likely to follow when using algebra to solve scientific problems.

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Maths for Science

Worked example 6.2

A silver sphere (density 10.49 g cm−3) has a radius of 2.5 mm. What is its
mass? Use formulae from Box 3.1.
Answer
Which equations to use
The question gives values for density (ρ) and radius (r) and you are trying to
find mass (m), so you need an equation to link these three variables. Box 3.1
Equation 3.9 links density and mass, but it also includes volume which isn’t
either given or required by the question.
m
ρ= (3.9)
V
Fortunately help is at hand in the form of Equation 3.5, V = 43 πr 3 which
gives the volume V of a sphere of radius r. One way forward is to substitute
for V from Equation 3.5 into Equation 3.9. This will give an equation
involving only ρ, r and m, as required, and you can then rearrange it to make
m the subject. Note that there are other ways of combining Equation 3.9 and
Equation 3.5, for example by rearranging Equation 3.9 to make m the subject
and then substituting for V from Equation 3.5. All methods should give the
same final equation for m in terms of r and ρ.
Combining and rearranging equations
Substituting for V from Equation 3.5 into Equation 3.9 gives
m
ρ= 4
3
πr 3
4 3
Since dividing by 3
is equivalent to multiplying by 4
this can be written
3m
ρ=
4πr 3
Reversing this so that m is on the left-hand side gives
3m
=ρ
4πr 3
Multiplying both sides by 4πr3 gives

3m = 4πr3ρ
Dividing both sides by 3 gives

4πr 3ρ
m=
3
Substituting numerical values
Note that symbols have been used for as long as possible, so as to avoid
numerical slips and rounding errors. However, it is now almost time to

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 6 Putting algebra to work

substitute the values given for r and ρ. First you need to convert the values
given into consistent (preferably SI) units:

r = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10−3 m

Converting units of density from g cm−3 to kg m−3 in the way described in
Section 4.4 gives:

ρ = 10.49 g cm −3
= 10.49 ×103 kg m −3
= 1.049 × 104 kg m −3 in scientiific notation
Then

4πr 3ρ
m=
3
4π × (2.5 ×10−3 m)3 ×1.049 ×104 kg m −3
=
3
4π × (2.5 ×10 ) m3 ×1.049 ×104 kg m −3
−3 3
=
3
= 6.8657 ×10−4 m3 kg m −3
= 6.9 ×10−4 kg to two significant figures
Is the answer reasonable?
It is always worth spending a few minutes checking whether the answer you
have arrived at is reasonable. There are three simple ways of doing this (it is
not normally necessary to use all three methods to check one answer):
Method 1
Check the units of the answer. Units have been given next to all the numerical
values in the calculation, and the units on the right-hand side of the equation
have worked out to be kilograms, as you would expect for mass.
If you had made a mistake in transposing the formula for mass, and had
written it as

4πr 2 ρ
m=
3
by mistake, then the units on the right-hand side would have been

m2 × kg m−3 = kg m−1
These are not units expected for mass by itself, so you would have been
alerted to the fact that something was wrong.
Checking units in this way provides a good way of checking that you have
written down or derived an equation correctly; the units on the left-hand side
of an equation should always be equal to the units on the right-hand side. You
can use this method for checking an equation even if you are not substituting
numerical values into it.

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Maths for Science

Method 2
Estimate the value (in the way described in Section 3.3), and compare it with
the answer found on a calculator. In this case

4 × 3 × (3 × 10−3 m)3 × 1 × 104 kg m −3

m≈
3
4 × 3 × 33 × 10−9 m3 × 1 ×104 kg m −3
≈
3
≈ 4 × 27 ×10−9+ 4 kg
≈ 100 ×10−5 kg
≈ 1 × 10−3 kg
This is the same order of magnitude as the calculated value, so the calculated
value seems reasonable.
Method 3
Look at the answer and see if it is what common sense might lead you to
expect. Obviously this method only works when you are doing a calculation
concerning physical objects with which you are familiar, but it gives a
sensible check for worked examples like this one. It seems reasonable that a
silver sphere with a diameter of 0.5 cm might have a mass of something less
than a gram. If you’d arrived at an answer of 1.1 × 102 kg (by forgetting to
cube the value given for r) you might have thought that this mass (equivalent
to more than 100 bags of sugar!) was rather large for such a small sphere.
Note that checking doesn’t usually tell you that your answer is absolutely
correct – none of the methods described above would have spotted small
arithmetic slips – but it does frequently alert you if the answer is wrong.

Tips for using algebra to solve scientific problems

1 Start by writing down what you know and what you’re trying to find,
and use this information to find appropriate equations to use.
2 Combine, rearrange and simplify the equations, using symbols for as
long as possible so as to avoid numerical slips and rounding errors.
3 When you substitute numerical values, take care with units,
significant figures and rounding.
4 Check that your final answer is reasonable, by asking yourself the
following questions:
(a) Are the units what you would expect?
(b) Is the answer similar to the one you have obtained by
estimating?
(c) Is the answer about what you would expect from
common sense?

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 6 Putting algebra to work

Worked example 6.3 shows the use of these tips in solving a different
problem, concerning the conservation of energy. This worked example uses
formulae given in Box 6.1; you may also find these formulae useful when
answering Question 6.3.

Box 6.1 Energy conversions

Energy can never be destroyed, but it is frequently converted from one
form to another. As a child climbs the steps of a slide, he or she gains in
gravitational potential energy; as he or she slides down the slide
(Figure 6.1a) this energy is converted into kinetic (movement) energy. As
water is heated in an electric kettle (Figure 6.1b), the electrical energy
increases the energy of the water molecules and so raises the temperature
of the water.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.1 Some energy conversions: (a) a child on a slide; (b) water
boiling in an electric kettle.

In both cases some energy is ‘lost’ to other forms (such as heat to the
surroundings and sound) but very often you can assume that all of the
energy initially in one form is converted into just one other form, and so
equate formulae such as those given below for different forms of energy.
Note that some of these are repeated from Box 3.1, for your
convenience. All forms of energy should be quoted using the SI unit of
energy which is the joule (J), where 1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2.

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Maths for Science

The kinetic energy (energy of motion), Ek, of an object with a mass m

moving at speed v is given by

Ek = 12 mv 2
(6.3)
The gravitational potential energy, Eg, of an object of mass m at a height
Δh above a reference level is given by

Eg = mgΔh (6.4)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The heat energy, q, needed to raise the temperature by ΔT for a
substance of mass m and specific heat capacity c is given by

q = mcΔT (6.5)

Worked example 6.3

A lump of putty is dropped from a height of 4.8 m. The putty’s gravitational
potential energy is all converted into kinetic energy as it falls. If, on impact,
all of this kinetic energy is used to raise the temperature of the putty, by how
much does the temperature of the putty rise? Assume that the specific heat
capacity of the putty is 5.0 × 102 J kg−1 K−1 and that the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.81 m s−2.
Answer
Which equations to use
It is tempting to involve Equation 6.3, as the question talks about the putty’s
kinetic energy, but closer inspection of the question reveals that you can
assume that all the gravitational potential energy becomes kinetic energy as
the putty falls, and that all the kinetic energy is transferred to heat energy
in the putty on impact. So you can say that all the gravitational potential
energy is transferred to heat energy; you simply need to set Equations 6.4 and
6.5 equal to each other. You have not been told the mass of the putty, but
since the term m appears in both Equation 6.4 and Equation 6.5 you will be
able to cancel this term, which will leave you with an equation linking g, Δh,
c and ΔT. You know g, Δh and c and are trying to find ΔT.
Combining and rearranging equations
Since you can assume that all the gravitational potential energy, Eg, is
transferred to heat energy, q, you can set Equation 6.4 and Equation 6.5 equal
to each other.

mcΔT = mgΔh
Dividing both sides by m gives

cΔT = gΔh

126
 6 Putting algebra to work

Dividing both sides by c gives

g Δh
ΔT =
c
Substituting numerical values
g = 9.81 m s−2
Δh = 4.8 m
c = 5.0 × 102 J kg−1 K−1
so
g Δh
ΔT =
c
9.81 m s −2 × 4.8 m
=
5.0 ×102 J kg −1 K −1
Since
1 1
1 J = 1 kg m 2 s −2 , −1
= kg and −1 = K
kg K
this can be written as

9.81 × 4.8 m s −2 m kg K
ΔT =
5.0 ×102 kg m 2 s −2
9.81 × 4.8 m s −2 m kg K
=
5.0 ×102 kg m 2 s
−2
= 0.094 K to two significant figures
.
The answer could be stated in scientific notation as 9.4 × 10−2 K.
Is the answer reasonable?
In a real question you probably wouldn’t use all the tips for checking
described in Worked example 6.2 and the blue-toned box, but the answer
seems about the size you might expect (you wouldn’t expect a big temperature
rise) and the units have worked out to be kelvin, as expected for a change in
temperature.
Alternatively you could estimate the answer to be

10 m s −2 × 5 m
ΔT ≈
5 ×102 J kg −1 K −1

≈ 10−
1 K
This is the same order of magnitude as the calculated value, so the calculated
value seems reasonable.

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Maths for Science

Question 6.3

A child climbs to the top of a 1.8 m slide and then slides to the ground.
Assuming that all of her gravitational potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy, find her speed as she reaches the ground. Take
g = 9.81 m s−2 and use appropriate formulae from Box 6.1.

Worked example 6.4 (which is based on the information in Box 6.2) returns to
a discussion of seismic waves travelling through the Earth’s crust. In this
example there are three unknown quantities (the distance, d, from the
earthquake, the time, tp, taken for P waves to reach the seismometer and the
time, ts, taken for S waves to reach the seismometer) so three equations must
be combined in order to find any of the unknown quantities. It is, therefore,
quite a complicated example but it has been included because it summarises
much of what has been discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, and also because it
illustrates the usefulness of algebra in science.

Box 6.2 Locating an earthquake

Earthquakes in the UK are quite rare, but they do occur occasionally.
Figure 6.2 shows a seismogram recorded at the British Geological
Survey in Edinburgh on 12 September 1988. It is possible to see the
points at which P waves and S waves first reached the seismometer. You
can assume that these seismic waves originated in an earthquake
somewhere. But where was the earthquake and when did it occur?
Although the recording was made at 2.23 p.m., this does not tell us the
time at which the earthquake occurred, since the waves will have taken
some time to reach the seismometer from the point of origin or focus of
the earthquake.
Figure 6.2 shows that the P waves reached the seismometer 20 seconds
before the S waves.

P wave arrival S wave arrival

20 seconds time

Figure 6.2 Seismogram recorded at the British Geological Survey in

Edinburgh on 12 September 1988 at 2.23 p.m.

You can assume that the P waves travelled with an average

speed, vp = 5.6 km s−1 and that the S waves travelled with an average
speed vs = 3.4 km s−1 (these values are typical for the rocks of the
Earth’s crust through which the waves will have been travelling).
distance travelled
average speed =
time taken

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 6 Putting algebra to work

so
d
vp = (6.6)
tp

and
d
vs = (6.7)
ts
where d is the distance from the earthquake, tp is the time taken for P
waves to travel to the seismometer and ts is the time taken for S waves
to travel to the seismometer.

Worked example 6.4

Use the information given in Box 6.2 to find the distance (in kilometres) from
Edinburgh to the focus of the earthquake recorded on the seismogram shown
in Figure 6.2.
Answer
Which equations to use
You know that
d
vp = (6.6)
tp

and
d
vs = (6.7)
ts
where vp = 5.6 km s−1 and vs = 3.4 km s−1, but d, tp and ts are all unknown,
so another equation is needed.
Although you don’t know the travel time of the two types of wave, you do
know that the difference in the arrival time of the two waves is 20 seconds, so
you can write

t = t s − tp (6.8)

where t = 20 s.
Equations 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 are three equations containing the three unknowns
d, tp and ts and you need to combine and rearrange them to give an expression
for d.
Combining and rearranging equations
Multiplying both sides of Equation 6.6 by tp gives
tpvp = d

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Maths for Science

Dividing both sides by vp gives

d
tp =

vp

Similarly, from Equation 6.7

d
ts =
vs
Substituting for ts and tp in Equation 6.8 gives
t = ts − tp
d d
= −
vs vp
⎛1 1⎞
= d⎜ − ⎟
⎜ vs vp ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Combining the fractions by making vsvp a common denominator
(Section 5.2.1) gives

⎛ vp v ⎞
t = d⎜ − s
⎜ vsvp vpvs
⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
d(vp − vs )

=
vsvp
Reversing the equation so that d is on the left-hand side gives
d(vp − vs )
=t
vsvp

Multiplying both sides by vsvp gives

d(vp − vs ) = tvsvp
Dividing both sides by (vp − vs ) gives
tvsvp
d=
vp − vs
Substituting numerical values
Substituting t = 20 s, vp = 5.6 km s−1 and vs = 3.4 km s−1 gives

20 s × 3.4 km s −1 × 5.6 km s −1
d=
(5.6 km s −1 − 3.4 km s −1)
20 s × 3..4 km s −1 × 5.6 km s −1
=
2.2 km s −1
= 1.7 ×102 km to two significant figures

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 6 Putting algebra to work

The units work out to be kilometres since the s in the numerator cancels with
one of the s−1 also in the numerator, and one of the km s−1 in the numerator
cancels with the km s−1 in the denominator, i.e.

s × km s −1 × km s −1
= km
km s −1
Is the answer reasonable?
The units have worked out to be kilometres as expected for a distance. If you
had converted the speeds into values in m s−1, you would have obtained a
value for d in metres (d = 1.7 × 105 m).
In this case it is easy to check that the answer is reasonable; many members
of the public reported a small earthquake on that day in Ambleside in the
English Lake District. Ambleside is about 170 km from Edinburgh
(Figure 6.3).

Edinburg
Edinburgh

Am
mb
mblesid
d
Ambleside
st
Belfast

Dublin Mancheste
Manchester

Birmingham

Cardiff London

Figure 6.3 The location of Edinburgh and Ambleside on a map of the British
Isles.

In general, to use this method to uniquely identify the location of an

earthquake you need to repeat the exercise using data received at other
seismometers elsewhere on the Earth’s surface.

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Maths for Science

6.3 Some more uses of algebra

By slight extension of what you have already learnt, algebraic equations can
be used to work out the units of physical quantities and to remind you of
scientific definitions.

6.3.1 Equation to units

You have already been introduced to the use of units to check an equation.
You can also use a known equation to remind you of the units used to
measure a particular quantity. As discussed in Section 3.1.1, the fact that the
SI units of area are m2 follows from the fact the area of a rectangle is found
by multiplying its length (measured in m) by its width (also measured in m).
You could derive the same result from the equation for the area of a circle,
A = πr2 (Equation 3.4). Since the SI units of radius r are m, and π has no
units, the units of πr2 (and thus A) must be m2.
Similarly, the fact that the SI units of volume are m3 follows from
volume = length × width × height or from V = 43 πr 3 . Since density ρ = m/V,
the SI units of density are
kg [units of mass]
= kg m −3
m3 [units of volume]
The idea of working out units from equations can be extended to enable you
to derive the base unit equivalents of units such as newtons and joules.
Box 3.3 told you that 1 N = 1 kg m s−2 and 1 J = 1 kg m2 s−2, but you are
unlikely to remember these relationships. However, you may remember some
frequently used scientific equations, for example F = ma and E = mc2, and
these can be used to work out the base units of F (force) and E (energy)
which are the same as the derived units of newtons and joules, respectively.
Consider F = ma. Mass has SI units of kg and acceleration has SI units of
m s−2. So the units of ma (mass times acceleration) are kg × m s−2. Therefore,
from the equation F = ma

1 N [units of F] = 1 kg m s−2 [units of ma]

Question 6.4

Use the equation E = mc2, and the fact that mass has SI units of kg whilst
speed has SI units of m s−1, to work out the base unit equivalent of the
joule (J).

6.3.2 Equation to definition

Some quantities are essentially defined by their equation, so if you have
access to (or can remember) the equation, then the definition follows straight
away. For example density is usually defined as ‘mass per unit volume’.

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 6 Putting algebra to work

Provided you remember that ‘per’ or ‘per unit’ indicate division, this
definition follows straight from the equation
mass m
density = or ρ =
volume V
The reverse is also true: for quantities which are simply defined, the equation
can be written down straight from the definition. This is essentially the same
as you were doing in Section 6.1. In the same way as ‘on their birthday this
year Chris will be three times older than Jo’ became C = 3J, ‘density is mass
per unit volume’ becomes ρ = m/V. Units can be used to check that the
equation is reasonable.

Question 6.5

In materials science, when a force, F, is applied to an area, A, a property

called stress, usually represented by the symbol σ (the Greek letter sigma),
is defined by the equation
F
σ = (6.9)
A

(a) Use Equation 6.9 to write down a definition of stress in words;

(b) Use Equation 6.9 to find the units of stress, in terms of N and m.

6.4 Writing maths

In Section 3.3, you were encouraged to write out your mathematical
calculations carefully, and as the examples become more complicated it
becomes even more important to do this. You may wonder why it is so
important to write down your working, especially if no-one else is going to
see your answers. There are three main reasons for doing this
. It helps you to think in a clear way, which can enable you to decide how
to tackle a question. Also, if your answer is written down in a methodical
way, you are less likely to make a mistake and so you are more likely to
get the correct answer.
. It makes it easier to remember and understand what you did. This is
particularly important if you want to refer back to a question at a later
stage.
. It makes it easier for others to understand what you have done. This is
particularly important if you want to take the advice of someone else or if
your work counts towards the mark for a course. Even if your answer is
not complete, if your working is written down carefully, a tutor will be
able to see what you have done right and (perhaps!) where you have gone
wrong. Furthermore, most of the marks for questions of this type in
assignments and examinations are likely to be for the intermediate steps of
working, not the final answer.
The tips for writing out mathematical working given below incorporate the
tips given in Section 3.3 and elsewhere in this book and, in combination with

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Maths for Science

the advice given in Section 6.2, ‘Tips for using algebra to solve scientific
problems’, provide a set of guidelines which will be useful in answering all
mathematical questions in your study of science.

Tips for writing out mathematical working

1 Use full-sized sheets of paper, not scraps. Even better, use a dedicated
notebook or file in which you can keep all your answers for future
reference.
2 Write down as many steps of working as you find helpful. Don’t be
tempted to miss out steps or to do working in your head unless you
are absolutely sure of it.
3 Don’t be afraid to use words of explanation – it doesn’t all have to be
symbols.
4 Don’t use the symbol ‘=’ to mean anything other than equals. It can
make a calculation clearer if you align equals signs vertically, to
indicate that the quantity on the left-hand side is equal to each of the
quantities on the right-hand side.
5 Take particular care when writing numbers in scientific notation
(e.g. as 3.0 × 108). Your calculator may not show scientific notation
in this way, so don’t just copy down the answer given on your
calculator.
6 Take care to write letters in the correct case (e.g. kg not Kg) and to
make superscripts clear (x2 not x2; 3.0 × 108 not 3.0 × 108).
7 Word-processing mathematical answers takes some practice and can
be a slow process. Don’t be tempted to miss out working because of
this.
8 Take particular care with superscripts and divisions when using a
word-processor. For example, a/b + c means
a a
+ c not
b b+c
Brackets can help to make your meaning clear, for example by
writing a/(b + c).

Question 6.6

A student has given the answer shown in Figure 6.4 in response to the
following question:
Use the equation V = 43 πr 3 (Equation 3.5) to find the radius of a
planet with volume 6.09 × 1019 m3.

The answer shown is numerically correct, but it includes at least nine errors

or points of poor practice.

(a) Identify the points in the answer that could be improved upon.
(b) Write out a better answer to this question.

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 6 Putting algebra to work

r 3 = 6.09e19/1.33 * 3.14 = r = 2443.123 Km

Figure 6.4 A weak answer to a mathematical question (Question 6.6).

6.5 Review of Chapter 6

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. choose the correct equation(s) to use in solving a problem, or derive the
equation(s) for yourself
. check that your answers are reasonable
. use equations to work out the units of quantities
. use equations to write out the definitions of simple quantities and vice
versa
. write out answers to mathematical calculations so that they are sufficiently
clear for others to understand.

Question 6.7

Check your understanding of Chapter 6 by answering the following:

(a) A ball is thrown into the air with a speed of 5.6 m s−1 from a height of
1.0 m. Assuming that all the kinetic energy is converted into gravitational
potential energy, find the height to which the ball rises. You should use a
value for the acceleration due to gravity, g, of 9.81 m s−2 and use equations
given in Box 6.1. You should also apply the tips given in Chapter 6 for
using algebra to solve scientific problems and for writing out mathematical
working.
(b) When a material is stretched, strain is defined as extension (increase in
length) per original length and strain rate is defined as strain divided by
time. Write equations (in either words or symbols) for strain and strain rate.
What would you expect the units of strain rate to be?

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 7 Graphs and gradient

Graphs and gradient

7
The well-known saying that a picture is worth a thousand words reflects the
fact that a lot of information can be from derived from pictorial
representations. When scientists want to condense data into a visual form that
conveys information at a glance, they most often turn to a graphical
representation. Graphs are essential tools for scientific work: they can
illustrate the nature of the relationship between different quantities, they make
it easy to see variations and trends, and sometimes they can be used to derive
other interesting quantities or even equations.
This chapter is mainly about the use and interpretation of graphs, rather than
techniques for plotting them. However, an understanding of the kind of
information that can be derived from different types of graph will be of
considerable help when you do come to plot graphs of your own.

7.1 Graphical representations

There are a number of different ways in which data may be presented
graphically. Sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 consider some specific examples and the
features they illustrate.

7.1.1 Bar charts and histograms

Bar charts are commonly used to summarise data that can be grouped into
discrete categories, such as human eye colour or blood group. The categories
are listed along a reference line, usually a horizontal one (the so-called
horizontal axis). The number or percentage of things falling into each
category is represented by a bar; the scale for these bars, most commonly
expressed as either a number or a percentage, is given on a second reference
line, at right angles to the first. If the categories are listed along the horizontal
axis, the numbers or percentages will then be given along the vertical axis.
Figure 7.1 in Box 7.1 is an example of how ecological data might be
presented in the form of a bar chart.

Box 7.1 Insects and trees

The feeding preferences of insects are often quite restricted and have
evolved over a very long timescale. Plant species that have been present
for a long time and are widely distributed will therefore often support the
largest variety of insects. Figure 7.1 shows the number of species of
herbivorous insects associated with eight different types of native and
introduced tree in the UK.
■ Roughly how many species of insect are associated with hawthorn?
□ About 220.

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Maths for Science

500

number of insect species supported

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

ash
beech
hawthorn
willows
(5 species)

holly
oaks
(2 species)

sycamore

holm oak
Figure 7.1 Bar chart showing the number of herbivorous insect species
supported by some native and introduced tree species in the UK.

The willows, which are among the commonest tree species in the UK,
can support about 450 insect species. Sycamore, which is just as widely
distributed but came to this country more recently, supports only around
50 species, and the evergreen holm oak, which was introduced a mere
400 years ago, supports fewer than 10 insect species. However, you
should not generalise too much from these examples; there are other
native trees, such as holly, which support very few insect species.

A histogram is similar to a bar chart in that numbers or percentages are again

commonly plotted vertically, but on a histogram the horizontal axis is used to
represent a continuously variable quantity, such as the height of trees in a
wood or the masses of individual children in a class. The purpose of a
histogram is to show how the data are distributed across a continuous range.
Figure 7.2 is a histogram showing the percentage of the Earth’s surface lying
within specified intervals of height and depth, relative to sea level. For
example, it shows that around 23% of the Earth’s surface lies between 4 and
5 km below sea level (the so-called abyssal plains beneath the oceans are at
this depth) whilst only about 0.5% of the Earth’s surface is between 4 and
5 km above sea level.
Comparing Figure 7.2 with Figure 7.1, you will notice that on the bar chart
the bars do not touch (because they refer to different categories), whereas on
the histogram the columns do touch, because all possible altitudes and depths
are represented on the horizontal axis. In Figure 7.2 the intervals are equal;
this is common practice but there are also ways of constructing histograms
using unequal intervals.

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 7 Graphs and gradient

30

25
percentage of Earth’s surface

20

15

10

0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
depth in km altitude in km
sea level

Figure 7.2 Histogram showing the percentage of the Earth’s surface lying within
specified intervals of height and depth, relative to sea level. The percentages of the
Earth’s surface above 5 km altitude and below 7 km depth are too small to show
at the scale of this diagram.

7.1.2 Graphs
Graphs can be used to show the way in which two quantities (one plotted on
the horizontal axis, sometimes referred to as the ‘x-axis’, and the other on the
vertical axis, sometimes referred to as the ‘y-axis’) vary in relationship with
each other. For example, in Figure 7.3, time is plotted along the horizontal
axis, with the years being evenly spaced. This graph shows the large variation
in caterpillar numbers that can occur from year to year, though no overall
trend can be discerned. (In a good year, the caterpillar hatch will be
synchronised with the emergence of new leaves on which the caterpillars can
feed, but variations in weather make the timing of bud burst uncertain. Hence
there are large variations from year to year in the number of caterpillars that
survive.)
It is not necessary to join the data points on a graph of this type; if this is
done, as here, the lines have no significance beyond simply emphasising the
downturn or upturn in the numbers between one year and the next.
The graphs in Figure 7.4 show average monthly temperatures in two locations.
Here the graphs indicate trends in the data; in both locations it is warmer in
July and August than in January and February, and there is a markedly
smaller variation in temperature in Paris (Figure 7.4a) than in Irgiz
(Figure 7.4b). However these graphs could not be used to predict the
temperature on any particular day. Figure 7.4b also illustrates that negative, as
well as positive numbers can be plotted on a graph; in this case the vertical
axis covers temperatures from −20 °C to +25 °C.
Note the labelling of the vertical axes in Figure 7.4. It is important that the
units of temperature are included, but if the units were included next to each

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Maths for Science

600
550

estimated number of caterpillars per

500

square metre of canopy area

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
49 50 51 52 53 54 55 9 5 6 9 5 7 9 5 8 959 960 9 6 1 9 6 2
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
year

Figure 7.3 Annual fluctuations in the population of Winter Moth (Operophtera

brumata) caterpillars feeding on oak trees in Wytham Wood near Oxford.

25

20 20
temperature/°C
average

average temperature/°C

15 15

10 10

5 5

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
month −5 month

−10

−15

−20

(a) (b)

Figure 7.4 Average monthly temperatures for (a) Paris and (b) Irgiz, Kazakhstan.

individual value the labelling would become messy. The vertical axis could be
labelled as ‘average temperature in °C’ or ‘average temperature (°C)’ but the
normal scientific convention is to write ‘average temperature/°C’. The ‘/’
indicates division; the temperature values are divided by their unit (in this

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 7 Graphs and gradient

case °C) to give pure numbers without units that can be plotted on the graph,
for example

2.3 °C
= 2.3
°C

It is conventional to use the form ‘quantity/units’ in labelling the axes of

graphs.

In reading a value from a graph it is important not to forget the units.

■ What is the average temperature for January in Irgiz?
□ −16 °C {An answer of −16, 16 or 16 °C would be incorrect.}

The same convention that is used to label the quantities and units on the axes
of graphs is also used in the column headings of tables, and the convention
can be extended to include powers of ten, as shown in Table 7.1 and in
Figure 7.5. This can be a useful strategy in graph plotting because it allows
manageable numbers to be used in labelling the divisions on the axes.

Table 7.1 Masses of aluminium spheres of different

diameters.

Diameter/10−2 m Mass/10−3 kg
0.4 0.1
0.5 0.2
0.7 0.5
1.0 1.4
1.3 3.1
1.5 4.8
1.8 8.2
2.0 11.3

The first row of data in Table 7.1 (plotted as the lowest point on Figure 7.5)
describes an aluminium sphere with diameter 0.4 × 10−2 m (i.e. 4 × 10−3 m)
and mass 0.1 × 10−3 kg (i.e. 1 × 10−4 kg), where the ‘× 10−2 m’ and
‘× 10−3 kg’ are taken from column headings and axis labels. The quantities in
the table and graph have been divided not only by the units but also by a
power of ten. To obtain the actual value of a quantity you therefore need to
multiply by both the unit and the power of ten. Don’t forget to do this!
■ Use Table 7.1 to give the mass of an aluminium sphere whose diameter is
1.0 × 10−2 m.
□ Reading across from ‘1.0’ in the ‘Diameter/10−2 m’ column gives a value
of 1.4. This must be multiplied by 10−3 kg to give a mass of
1.4 × 10−3 kg.

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Maths for Science

Figure 7.5 is an example of a graph in which the quantity plotted

14.0 on the vertical axis is related to the quantity plotted on the
horizontal axis in a predictable way. In fact, the mass M of a
12.0 sphere of diameter d, made of material of density ρ, is given by
the equation M = 16 πρ d 3 . The data have been calculated and the
graph constructed using this formula, so all the points lie on a
10.0
smooth curve. When the axes of a graph represent quantities that
mass/10−3 kg

are connected by an equation, the data points should never be

8.0
joined in the jagged point-to-point way used in Figures 7.3 and
7.4. Instead, a smooth line should be drawn through them. As you
6.0 will see later in this chapter, a line described as ‘smooth’ may be
straight, or may be curved in any direction, or may have humps
4.0 and dips. Smoothness depends on the absence of abrupt changes
in direction, not on shape.
2.0 You can use the line in Figure 7.5 to find intermediate values.
This graph has been drawn on graph paper to make it easier to
read values from it. You should start by working out the scale
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
diameter/10−2 m
used on each axis. On this occasion tick marks have been drawn
every 0.5 × 10−2 m on the horizontal axis, so each feint grid line
represents 0.05 × 10−2 m; on the vertical axis the tick marks are
Figure 7.5 Graph of the masses of every 2.0 × 10−3 kg so each feint grid line represents
aluminium spheres of different diameters 0.2 × 10−3 kg.
(the data from Table 7.1).
■ What would be the mass of an aluminium sphere of diameter 1.6 cm?
□ To find the mass corresponding to a diameter of 1.6 cm
(i.e. 1.6 × 10−2 m) you need to find the point on the horizontal axis
representing this diameter and draw a line vertically upwards from there
until it meets the curve. You can then draw a line horizontally from that
intersection to meet the vertical axis and read off the corresponding mass.
Draw these lines directly onto Figure 7.5 using the grid lines on the
graph paper to help you. You should find that the mass corresponding to
a diameter of 1.6 cm is 5.8 × 10−3 kg (i.e. 5.8 g).

This process of reading between points plotted on a graph, in order to find

corresponding intermediate values of the plotted quantities, is called
interpolation.
Provided you are sure that the equation connecting the two quantities is valid
even outside the plotted range, you can also extend the line on the graph to
determine corresponding values of the quantities that are larger or smaller than
those plotted.
■ What would be the mass of an aluminium sphere of diameter 2.1 cm?
□ To find the mass corresponding to a diameter of 2.1 cm
(i.e. 2.1 × 10−2 m) you need to find the point on the horizontal axis
representing this diameter and draw a line vertically upwards from there.
Then (and this is the difficult bit!) you have to extend the curve until it
meets this vertical line. Then draw a line horizontally from that
intersection to meet the vertical axis and read off the corresponding mass.
Try this on Figure 7.5. If your drawing skills are good, you should obtain

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 7 Graphs and gradient

a mass of 13.1 × 10−3 kg, but most people find it extremely difficult to
draw smooth curves freehand, so if you obtain a value between
12.8 × 10−3 kg and 13.4 × 10−3 kg you have done well.

This process of extending a graph beyond the highest or lowest data points, in
order to find corresponding values of the plotted quantities outside the original
range, is called extrapolation. Extrapolation is always particularly difficult in
regions where graphs curve, or have very steep or very shallow slopes. The
latter situation applies to Figure 7.5 in the region where the mass becomes
very small. It would be practically impossible to determine by extrapolation
the diameter corresponding to a mass of less than 0.1 × 10−3 kg. However,
when the diameter is zero, the mass will also be zero, so the curve must go
through the point at which the axes meet. On any graph the point at which
both plotted quantities are equal to zero is called the origin.
The fact that the graph in Figure 7.5 is curved makes both interpolation and
extrapolation less reliable than they would be if the graph was a straight line.
In Question 7.1 you can practise these processes using a graph that is easier to
deal with.

Question 7.1

Five measurements have been made to investigate the way in which the
voltage across the terminals of a power supply varies according to the
current flowing in the circuit. The data are plotted on Figure 7.6. (The
SI unit of voltage is the volt, symbol V; the SI unit of electric current is the
ampere, symbol A.)
(a) What is the value of the voltage when the current is (i) 1.5 A, (ii) zero?
(b) What is the value of the current when the voltage is (i) 3.4 V, (ii) zero?

5.0

4.0
voltage/V

3.0

2.0

1.0

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

current/A

Figure 7.6 Measurements of voltage against current for the circuit in

Question 7.1.

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Maths for Science

7.2 Straight-line graphs

As you have seen, it is possible to obtain useful insights and information from
curved graphs such as the one in Figure 7.5, and Section 7.4 will return to the
interpretation of curved graphs. However, if data can be presented in the form
of a straight-line graph, the analysis becomes more straightforward. As you
will have discovered for yourself by doing Question 7.1, if you need to
determine the values of quantities lying between those that were actually
measured, it is slightly easier to perform the interpolation on a straight line
than on a curve. And if you need to estimate values of quantities outside the
original range of measurements, it is considerably easier to extrapolate a
straight line than a curve. Furthermore, it is often possible to use a straight­
line graph to obtain additional quantities, other than those measured.
Box 7.2 gives a brief outline of the phenomenon of sea-floor spreading, the
action of which is to split the Earth’s surface and move sections of the crust
apart. In order to work out the rate at which the separation takes place, Earth
scientists date the rocks and measure the separation of rocks of the same age.
Table 7.2 shows some typical data. (Remember from Section 2.2 that Ma is
the abbreviation for a million years or a million years ago.) As discussed in
relation to Table 7.1, labelling the left-hand column as ‘Age of rock/Ma’, and
the right-hand column as ‘Separation distance/km’, means that pure numbers
can be entered in each row of the table.

Table 7.2 Positions of some dated areas either side

of the mid-Atlantic ridge south-west of Iceland.

Age of rock/Ma Separation distance/km

0.78 17
0.99 18
1.07 21
1.79 32
1.95 39
2.60 48
3.04 58
3.11 59
3.22 62
3.33 65
3.58 66

Box 7.2 Sea-floor spreading

The outer layer of the Earth is made up of a series of ‘plates’ which
move relative to one another. The top layer of these plates is known as
the crust. Ocean crust is about 7 km thick, continental crust up to 80 km
thick. The crust is split at mid-ocean ridges and material is ejected to
form new sea-floor. As eruption at a mid-ocean ridge continues, older
sea-floor crust is moved aside to make way for younger crust and the

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 7 Graphs and gradient

sea-floor ‘spreads’ symmetrically away from the ridge as shown in

Figure 7.7. The creation of new crust is balanced at the opposite end of
the plate by material being forced under an adjacent plate.

ocean

ocean crust material comes out of the ocean crust

moves to the left mid-ocean ridge to form new moves to the right
ocean crust (sea floor)

Figure 7.7 Sea-floor spreading.

Figure 7.8 shows a graphical representation of the data in Table 7.2. The line
has been drawn to go through the origin, the point at which age = 0 Ma and
distance = 0 km. This has been done because it is clear that newly formed
crust will not have moved any distance.

80

70

60
separation distance/km

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4
age/Ma

Figure 7.8 Graph of data in Table 7.2. The black line represents the ‘best-fit’ to
the data.

Although it is obvious just from the table that the separation distance
increases with age, the graph immediately gives more information. First, the

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Maths for Science

graph illustrates the relationship between the quantities plotted. In this case,
the points lie pretty much on a straight line and the relationship between the
age and the distance is thus said to be linear. Secondly, the graph provides a
good test of the reliability of the data. It is clear that there are no ‘rogue
points’ lying well off the straight line. However, the points do not all lie
exactly on a single line. The black line that has been drawn through them is
the best-fit line, i.e. the line that is most representative of the data as a whole.
The best-fit need not go through any of the data points, though it should be as
close as possible to as many of the points as possible, with approximately the
same number of points above and below the line.
Since the best-fit line is the best representation of the data as a whole, care
should be taken to read values from the line rather than from the data points.
■ Use the red lines on Figure 7.8 to give the separation distance of ocean
crust of age 3.4 Ma.
□ The crust of age 3.4 Ma is separated by 65 km.

7.2.1 The gradient of a straight-line graph

The aim of collecting the data in Table 7.2 was to calculate the rate of sea­
floor spreading and this calculation can be made directly from the graph. For
an object moving at a steady rate, the speed v is related to the distance d
travelled in a time t by the equation:
d
v=
t
On Figure 7.8, from the origin to the point on the best-fit line where the red
lines meet, the separation distance has increased by 65 km in a time of
3.4 Ma. Thus, according to the best-fit to the data, the average spreading rate
is:
65 km
vav = = 19 km Ma −1 to two significant figures
3.4 Ma
Now you could of course carry out similar calculations using any of the
individual data pairs in Table 7.2. For example from the first data pair:
17 km
v1 = = 22 km Ma −1
0.78 Ma
and from the fourth pair:
32 km
v4 = = 18 km Ma −1
1.79 Ma
The first pair corresponds to a point that lies above the best-fit line and
therefore gives a value of v that is higher than that calculated from the graph,
while the point corresponding to the fourth data pair lies below the line and
consequently gives a value of v that is lower than that calculated from the
graph. If you wanted to calculate the average spreading rate directly from the
tabulated data, the best you could do would be to calculate values from each

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 7 Graphs and gradient

of the eleven data pairs in the table (i.e. v1 to v11 ) and then average all these
speeds. Plotting a graph therefore saves a tedious amount of calculation: using
the best-fit line allows vav to be calculated in a single step. In other words, a
graph provides a reliable way of averaging results.
■ What can you deduce about the spreading rate from the fact that all the
data points are close to the best-fit straight line, with some points lying
above and others below the line?
□ The rate of spreading has remained roughly constant over time. Again the
graph provides this information at a glance, whereas it would require a
lot of calculation to deduce it from the raw data in Table 7.2.

Another way of describing this process of calculating the spreading rate from
the distance–time graph is to say that you have determined the ‘slope’ or
gradient of the best-fit line. Figure 7.9 shows the analogy with the gradients
used to characterise steep hills, which you may have seen on road signs. The
gradient is defined in this context as the ‘rise’ (the total change in vertical
distance) divided by the ‘run’ (the total change in horizontal distance), so
rise
gradient =
run
100 m
=
300 m

/ / m

100
=
// m
300
1
=
3

= 0.33 or 33% to
two significant figures

‘rise’ =
100 m

‘run’ = 300 m

Figure 7.9 Vertical cross-section through a road.

Note that in this particular case the gradient has no units, because it is
calculated by dividing a length by another length. In general, however,
gradients must, as with the example of Figure 7.8, be given their correct units.
In the case of a road, it is common to quote the gradient in the form of a
percentage (33% in the case of Figure 7.9). With a graph it is more usual to
quote the gradient as a number in decimal notation.
The gradient of a straight line is the same all the way along it, so any two
points on the graph can be used to define the rise and the corresponding run.
If, as is the case in Figure 7.10a where a quantity y is plotted against a
quantity x, the graph goes through the origin, it may be convenient to use that

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fact in calculating the gradient. Here the rise is (y2 − 0) and the run is
(x2 − 0), so

rise
gradient =
run

y − 0

= 2
x2 − 0
y
= 2
x2
This was effectively the technique used in calculating the sea-floor spreading
rate from Figure 7.8, when just one point on the best-fit line was used to
calculate the speed. However, not all graphs go through the origin, so the
method illustrated by Figure 7.10a is not always applicable. Figure 7.10b
shows the most general method of determining the gradient of a straight-line
graph, which can be used whether or not the line goes through the origin.

For a straight-line graph in which the value y2 on the vertical axis

corresponds to a value x2 on the horizontal axis, and a value y1 on the
vertical axis corresponds to a value x1 on the horizontal axis:
rise y2 − y1
gradient = =
run x2 − x1

y y

y2
y2

rise
rise = (y2 − y1)
= (y2 − 0)
y2
run = (x2 − x1)

0 run = (x2 − 0) x 0 x1 x2 x
x2

y2 − 0 y2 y2 − y1
(a) gradient = = (b) gradient =
x2 − 0 x2 x2 − x1

Figure 7.10 Finding the gradient of a straight-line graph: (a) for a straight line
going through the origin; (b) the general case, where the straight line does not
necessarily go through the origin.

Whatever points are chosen for determining the rise and run, it is always a
good idea to choose ones that are easy to read on at least one axis and
preferably on both axes! It is also good practice to choose points as widely

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 7 Graphs and gradient

separated as possible, so that any uncertainties in the measurement of the rise

and the run are small relative to the actual length of the rise and the run.

Worked example 7.1

When light is shone onto certain metals, electrons are emitted from the metal
(Figure 7.11). This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect.

emitted
electrons

metal

Figure 7.11 The photoelectric effect.

Figure 7.12 shows a graph arising from a photoelectric effect experiment. The
energy of the emitted electrons (measured in joules) is plotted on the vertical
axis and the frequency of the light (measured in s−1, or hertz) is plotted on the
horizontal axis. What is the gradient of this graph?
Answer
It is clear that even if the line were to be extrapolated to smaller values of
energy and frequency it would not go through the origin, so the method 10
shown in Figure 7.10b is the appropriate one to use in calculating the
energy/10−19 J

8
gradient.
6
From the lines drawn on Figure 7.12,
4
rise
gradient = 2
run
(9.2 × 10−19 J) − (2.6 × 10−19 J)
= 0 1 2
(2.0 × 1015 s −1) − (1.0 × 1015 s −1) frequency/1015 s−1
(9.2 − 2.6) × 10−19 J
=
(2.0 − 1.0) × 1015 s −1 Figure 7.12 A graph of data
from a photoelectric effect
6.6 × 10−19 J
= experiment on a particular
1..0 × 1015 s −1 metal, relating the energy of the
J ejected electrons to the
= 6.6 × 10−19−15 frequency of the light falling on
s −1 the metal. The red lines indicate
1 rise and run.
= 6.6 × 10−34 J s (remembering that = s)
s −1

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Maths for Science

Question 7.2

The speed of seismic waves (see Box 4.1) can be calculated by measuring
the time for the waves to reach measuring instruments at different distances
from the epicentre of the earthquake. (Note that the focus is the point
within the Earth at which the seismic event takes place, and the epicentre is
the point on the Earth’s surface vertically above the focus.) Some typical
data from such a series of measurements on P waves are plotted in
Figure 7.13. Use the graph to calculate the average speed of the P waves in
km s−1 and to two significant figures.
distance from epicentre/km

200

100

0 10 20 30 40
travel time after earthquake occurred/s

Figure 7.13 Graph showing how long it takes for P waves from a shallow-focus
earthquake to reach three detectors at different distances from the epicentre. A
best-fit line has been drawn.

7.2.2 Dependent and independent variables

In Figure 7.13, the time was deliberately plotted on the horizontal axis and the
travel time after earthquake occurred/s

40 distance travelled on the vertical axis, so that the gradient would be equivalent
to the seismic wave speed. However, for this particular example, plotting the
graph this way round is not standard practice. The convention that scientists
30 follow is to plot on the horizontal axis the variable that is under their control.
Because they can choose the values of this quantity, it is called the
independent variable. In the case of the measurements described in
20 Question 7.2, there is a choice (within reason) of where the seismic wave
detectors are located; therefore distance from the epicentre is the independent
variable. The time taken for the P waves to arrive depends on where the
detectors have been positioned, so this is called the dependent variable.
10
According to the convention, the dependent variable is plotted on the vertical
axis. Figure 7.14 shows the same data as Figure 7.13, but replotted so that the
convention is followed.
0 100 200
distance from epicentre/km
The convention in science is to plot the independent variable on the
horizontal axis and the dependent variable on the vertical axis.
Figure 7.14 Graph showing the
same data as Figure 7.13 plotted
with distance from the epicentre The seismic wave speed can be calculated equally well from Figure 7.14 as
as the independent variable.
from Figure 7.13.

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 7 Graphs and gradient

■ What will be units of the gradient of the graph in Figure 7.14?

□ The gradient will have units of seconds divided by kilometres, which can
be written either as s/km or as s km−1.

■ In Question 7.2, you calculated the speed of the seismic wave in units of
km/s (or km s−1). How are the units s km−1 related to these units of
speed?
□ The units s km−1 and km s−1 are reciprocals, i.e.

1
= km s −1
s km −1

As indicated by this discussion of units, to calculate the speed of the P waves

from the time against distance graph of Figure 7.14, you need to determine
the gradient and then take its reciprocal.

Question 7.3

Use Figure 7.14 to determine the average speed of the seismic waves.
Remember to use the correct units at each stage of your calculation. Does
your final answer agree with the value you obtained in Question 7.2?

7.2.3 Interpreting straight-line graphs and gradients

The graphs considered so far have mostly sloped up from left to right, but
graphs can slope the other way too. Figure 7.15 shows the result of measuring
the depth of snow in a particular location over a period of time, plotted on a
graph of depth against time.

When describing a graph, the convention is to state the dependent

variable first; a graph of ‘depth against time’ therefore plots depth on the
vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis.

25
20
depth/cm

15
10
5

0 1 2 3 4 5
time/hours

Figure 7.15 Depth of snow measured over a five-hour period.

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Maths for Science

For the line drawn in Figure 7.15, gradient is given, as before, by:
rise y2 − y1
gradient = =
run x2 − x1
If x1 is 1 hour and x2 is 4 hours, the corresponding values for y1 and y2 are
y1 = 20 cm and y2 = 5 cm, i.e. x2 is greater than x1 but y1 is greater than y2.
This means that:
(5 − 20) cm −15 cm
gradient = = = −5 cm hour −1
(4 − 1) hours 3 hours
In other words, the gradient is negative.
■ What physical meaning do you attach to the gradient in this context?
□ The graph shows that depth is decreasing with time – in other words the
snow is melting. The negative value of the gradient conveys this same
information. The gradient is constant over the time during which the
measurements have been made, so the snow is melting at a steady rate.

Now look at Figure 7.16, which shows the variation of distance, d, from a
given point with time, t, for objects moving in a variety of situations. A
scientific way to say this is that the graphs all show distance ‘as a function of’
time, or d as a function of t.

In general, it is the dependent variable (which by convention is plotted

along the vertical axis) that is described as being a function of the
independent variable (which is plotted along the horizontal axis).

d So in the situations shown in Figure 7.16, time is the independent variable:

the experimenter has chosen specific times at which to make the
measurements and has recorded the position of the object at those times.
A
As with Figure 7.13, the gradient of each line gives the speed with which that
B particular object is moving.
D ■ Which objects are moving with constant speed? Of these, which is
C travelling the most quickly?
□ The gradients of the distance–time graphs for objects A and C are
constant, so their speed is constant. The gradient of the line for object A
is greater (i.e. the distance–time graph is steeper) than that for object C,
0 t so A is moving at a higher speed than C.
Figure 7.16 Graphs of distance ■ What is happening to object B? What is the gradient of the line for object
travelled, d, as a function of B on the graph?
time, t, for four objects A to D.
□ For object B the distance is not changing with time. The most likely
explanation of this is that the object is stationary. On the graph for this
object, the rise is always zero, so the gradient of the graph is also zero.
This is simply another way of saying that its speed is zero.

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 7 Graphs and gradient

■ What is happening to object D?

□ The gradient for object D gradually decreases (i.e. gets less steep). In
other words the object is slowing down.

Graphs like Figure 7.16, that by their shape show the nature of the
relationship between quantities but do not have scales marked on the axes, are
called ‘sketch graphs’. They can be very useful for illustrating ideas, without
the need for accurate plotting or drawing.

Question 7.4

The lowest level of the Earth’s atmosphere is called the troposphere.

Figure 7.17 shows the variation in temperature of the troposphere from sea

20
level to an altitude of about 2.5 km. Calculate the gradient of this graph,

temperature/˚C
giving your answer to two significant figures and taking care with signs and

units. Describe clearly, in one sentence, what your result means.

10
Question 7.5

At higher levels in the troposphere, the temperature drops still further.

Figure 7.18 shows the variation in temperature for altitudes between 4 km 0 1 2
altitude/km
and 11 km above sea level, where the temperature is below 0 °C. Calculate
the gradient of this graph, again giving your answer to two significant
figures and taking care with signs and units. Does your answer agree with Figure 7.17 A graph of the
that for Question 7.4? temperature variation with
altitude above sea level, near the
bottom of the troposphere. Note
that in this and subsequent
7.3 The equation of a straight line graphs, the data points have
In the preceding sections, you saw how useful information can be derived been omitted for clarity.
from a straight-line graph by interpolation, extrapolation or calculation of the
gradient. But this does not exhaust the potential of a graph as a tool: it
becomes even more useful when it can be matched to an equation. 10
5 10
0
7.3.1 Proportional quantities altitude/km
Two quantities are said to be directly proportional to each other if −10
temperature/˚C

multiplying (or dividing) one by a certain amount automatically results in

−20
the value of the other being multiplied (or divided) by the same amount.
Imagine buying heating oil, with no bulk discount and no delivery charge – −30
when you buy 500 litres of heating oil you pay twice as much as if you
−40
had bought 250 litres, but one-half as much as if you had bought
1000 litres. The cost is directly proportional to the volume. This can be −50
written as:
−60
total cost ∝ volume
where the symbol ∝ stands for ‘proportional to’. Alternatively, the
proportionality relationship can be written as an equation of the form: Figure 7.18 A graph showing the
temperature variation at higher
total cost = (cost per litre) × (volume in litres) altitudes in the troposphere.

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Maths for Science

This assumes that the cost per litre is constant however big the delivery. This
constant factor, which is required to turn the proportionality into an equation,
is called the constant of proportionality.
Now consider how this relationship between cost and volume appears on a
graph, such as that plotted in Figure 7.19. If you don’t buy any oil, the cost is
zero (but your heating won’t work!), so the graph must go through the origin.
If you buy 500 litres it costs £300, and if you buy 1000 litres it costs £600.

600

500
total cost/£

400

300

200

100

0 250 500 750 1000

volume/litres

Figure 7.19 A graph of the total cost of heating oil against the volume delivered.

■ What is the gradient of this graph? What does that value represent?
□ The gradient is

rise £(600 − 0) £600

= = = £0.60/litre
run (1000 − 0) litre 1000 litre

The gradient represents the cost per litre. In this case this is £0.60/litre or
60 pence/litre. The gradient of the graph is the constant of proportionality
between total cost and volume of oil.
Generalising from this example:

y
If y = kx, where y and x are variables and k is a constant,
then y is said to be directly proportional to x, i.e.
gradient = k
y∝x

y = kx A graph of y against x will go through the origin and have gradient k, as

illustrated in Figure 7.20.

0 x

Figure 7.20 A graph of y = kx.

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 7 Graphs and gradient

Question 7.6

Figure 7.21 shows the graphs corresponding to two different relationships v

between a variable v and another variable z. The quantities r and s are
constants. Which is larger, r or s?
v = rz
Question 7.7

Figure 7.22 shows three sketch graphs. Which of them represents a v = sz

relationship between directly proportional quantities?
0 z
f a u
0 z Figure 7.21 Two proportional
relationships: v = rz and
v = sz .

0 g

0 b
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.22 Sketch graphs for use with Question 7.7.

7.3.2 A general equation for a straight line

Returning to the example of the oil delivery, suppose a different company
decided that it would sell at a lower cost per litre, but would impose a fixed
delivery charge in addition to the price of the oil. This situation is represented
by an equation of the form

total cost = (cost per litre × volume in litres) + delivery charge

and this is plotted on the graph in Figure 7.23.
■ From Figure 7.23, estimate both the price per litre and the delivery
charge.
□ The cost per litre is still given by the gradient of the graph, which in this
case is approximately

rise £(600 − 50) £550

= = = £0.55/litre
run (1000 − 0) litre 1000 litre

Thus the cost is £0.55/litre or 55 pence/litre. The fixed charge can be

estimated from the point at which the line crosses the vertical axis: at this
point, there is no charge for oil (since the volume is zero) so the fixed
charge represents the only contribution to the total cost. The delivery
charge is therefore £50.
Note that this company is effectively giving a discount for bulk buying
compared to the arrangement described by the graph of Figure 7.19. For

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Maths for Science

600

500

total cost/£
400

300

200

100

0 250 500 750 1000

volume/litres

Figure 7.23 A graph of the total cost of heating oil against the volume delivered,
for a company charging a delivery charge.

a delivery of 1000 litres, the cost is identical whichever company is used.

For less than 1000 litres, it would be cheaper to buy from the first
company. For volumes larger than 1000 litres the second company offers
the better deal.

The point at which a line on a graph crosses an axis is called the intercept of
the line with that axis.
Generalising from this example, if two quantities y and x are related by an
equation of the form

y = mx + c (7.1)

where m and c are constants, then a graph of y against x will be a straight line
that does not go through the origin. The graph will have gradient m. And
when x = 0, then y = c, so the graph will have intercept c on the vertical axis.
This is illustrated in Figure 7.24.

y
The equation of a straight line is commonly written in the form
y = mx + c gradient of line
intercept of line
gradient = m y = mx + c with vertical axis
c
plotted on plotted on
vertical axis horizontal axis
0 x

Figure 7.24 A straight-line Although the general equation of a straight line is most usually written in the
graph with gradient m and form y = mx + c, it is important to remember that the letters used and their
intercept c on the vertical axis. order are quite arbitrary. For example, if an object has an initial speed ux and

156
 7 Graphs and gradient

accelerates with a constant acceleration ax then the equation vx = u x + axt

(Box 3.1 Equation 3.16), linking time, t, and speed, vx , is the equation of a
straight-line graph.
■ If vx = u x + axt and vx is plotted against t what, in terms of the symbols
in the equation, are the values of the gradient of the graph and the
intercept on the vertical axis?
□ vx = u x + axt can be rearranged as vx = axt + u x .
Comparison with the standard equation of a straight line shows that
gradient intercept

y = m x + c

vx = ax t + ux

The gradient of a plot of vx against t is ax and the intercept on the

vertical axis is ux (Figure 7.25a). If, for example, the initial speed is
ux = 1.5 m s−1 and the acceleration is ax = 9.81 m s−2 (as in Worked
example 3.4), then the gradient of the graph will be 9.81 m s−2 and the
intercept on the vertical axis will be 1.5 m s−1 (Figure 7.25b).

12

10
gradient = 9.81 m s−2
vx
8
vx/m s−1

gradient = ax 4
ux
2

0 t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

t/s
(a) (b)

Figure 7.25 (a) A straight-line graph representing the equation vx = u x + axt .

(b) A graph showing speed against time for an object with initial speed 1.5 m s−1
and acceleration 9.81 m s−2.

Note that, although the equation y = mx + c does not contain any minus signs,
both the gradient m and the constant c might have a negative value.
Examples of how the gradient and intercept of a straight line may be used to
derive quantities of real interest to scientists are given in Box 7.3 and Worked
example 7.2.

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Maths for Science

Box 7.3 Einstein’s photoelectric equation

In the photoelectric effect (Worked example 7.1), the energy, E, of the
emitted electrons is related to the frequency, f, of the incoming light by
an equation known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation:
E = hf − φ
where h represents a constant called the Planck constant and φ (the
Greek letter phi) represents the work function, a positive constant for any
given metal. A typical graph of energy, E, against frequency, f, was
shown in Figure 7.12. Comparison with the standard equation for a
straight line shows how such a graph could be used to determine both h
and φ . (Notice that the photoelectric equation contains a minus sign and
therefore has to be slightly rearranged to allow direct comparison.)

y = m x + c

E = h f + (−φ)

gradient intercept
The gradient calculated in Worked example 7.1 (i.e. 6.6 × 10−34 J s) is
therefore the value of the Planck constant h, and extrapolation of the line
in Figure 7.12 to its intersection with the vertical axis can be used to
determine the work function of the metal. Figure 7.26 shows this
extrapolation. The intercept with the vertical axis is close to
−4 × 10−19 J, thus the work function of the metal is about 4 × 10−19 J in
this case.

10

6
energy/10−19 J

0
1 2
−2

−4
frequency/1015 s−1

Figure 7.26 A graph of E against f for the photoelectric effect (Figure 7.12
with the line extrapolated to the vertical axis).

158
 7 Graphs and gradient

Worked example 7.2

The pressure, P, at a depth, h, beneath the surface of a liquid is given by the
equation P = ρgh (Box 3.1, Equation 3.11), where ρ is the density of the
liquid and g is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity. Assuming the
magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 m s−2, use Figure 7.27
to find the density of the liquid (to three significant figures).

14

13

12

11

10

8
P/105 Pa

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
h/m

Figure 7.27 A graph of pressure, P, against depth, h, beneath the surface of a

liquid.

Answer
Comparison of P = ρgh for a graph of P against h with y = mx + c for a
graph of y against x shows that

y = m x + c

P = ρg h (+ 0)

So the gradient of the graph gives ρg and the intercept on the vertical axis is
at 0, as expected since the line passes through the origin.
You could also have found this by comparing P = ρgh with y = kx.

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Maths for Science

Then, since gradient = ρg,

gradient
ρ=
g
The next step is to find the gradient of the line in Figure 7.27. When
h = 10.0 m, P = 13.2 × 105 Pa, so
rise
gradient =
run
(13.2 − 0) × 105 Pa
=
(10.0 − 0) m
13.2 ×105 kg m −1 s −2
= since 1 Pa = 1 kg m −1 s −2 (Box 3.3)
1 .0 m
10
= 1.32 ×105 kg m −2 s −2
Therefore
gradient
ρ=
g
1.32 ×105 kg m −2 s −2
=
9.81 m s −2
= 1.35 ×104 kg m −3 to three significant figures
The density of the liquid is 1.35 × 104 kg m−3.
{The liquid is mercury.}

Question 7.8
80
Figure 7.28 shows the variation of weight, WM, against mass, m, for various
70 objects on the Moon, a relationship also described by the equation,
WM = mgM, where gM is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity
60 on the Moon. Find the gradient of the graph and hence find the magnitude
50 of the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon, to two significant figures.
WM/N

40

30
7.4 Graphs of different shapes
The previous section showed that it is a relatively straightforward matter to
20
deduce the equation linking two variables when their relationship can be
10 represented by a straight-line graph. But of course not all the quantities of
interest in science are linearly related to one another. Suppose that plotting
0 10 20 30 40 50 one variable against another results not in a straight line but in a curve. How
m/kg could you then determine the relationship between the variables?
Imagine for example that you had taken a set of circular objects with radii
Figure 7.28 A graph of 1, 2, 3, … 6 cm and measured their respective areas. Had you plotted the area
weight, WM, against mass, m,
A as a function of radius r you would have obtained a graph like that in
for objects on the Moon.
Figure 7.29.

160
 7 Graphs and gradient

■ What is the equation relating the area A of a circle to its radius r?

120
□ A = πr2 (Box 3.1 Equation 3.4)

A/cm2
80
This equation shows that A is not directly proportional to r, so you should not 40
have been surprised that plotting A against r did not give a straight line. In
fact, the curved shape of Figure 7.29 is characteristic of a relationship 0 2 4 6 8 10
involving the square of one of the quantities plotted. This particular shape is r/cm
called a parabola.
Figure 7.29 Areas A of
7.4.1 Straight-line graphs for non-linear equations circles plotted as a function of
their radii r.
In the case of the equation A = πr2, it is quite easy to see how the curve of
Figure 7.29 can be transformed into a straight-line graph. A is equal to r2
multiplied by a constant π. So although A is not directly proportional to r, it is
directly proportional to r2:

A ∝ r2
Therefore the result of plotting A against r2 is a straight line, as illustrated in
Figure 7.30. 120

A/cm2
■ Without measuring anything on the graph itself, can you state the value 80
of the gradient of the line in Figure 7.30? 40
□ Comparison with the standard equation for a straight line shows that
0 10 20 30 40 50
r 2 /cm2
y = m x + c
Figure 7.30 Areas A of
A = � r2 (+ 0) circles plotted as a function of
the squares of their radii r2.
so the gradient of the line is π.

Worked example 7.3 considers the equation linking the period of a pendulum
(the time for one complete swing) and its length. If you have ever regulated a
long-case (grandfather) clock, you will know that the length of the pendulum
determines the period and hence affects the accuracy with which the clock
keeps time.

Worked example 7.3

For a simple pendulum of length L, the period T is given by

L
T = 2π
g

where g is a constant (the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity). If

you had measured T for various values of L, how would you use a graph to
determine the value of g from your data?

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Maths for Science

Answer
There are at least two equally valid ways to plot the data here. Since

L
T = 2π
g

squaring both sides gives

4π2 L
T2 =
g
which can also be written as

4π2
T2 = L
g
L is the independent variable, which according to convention should be
plotted on the horizontal axis.
Comparison with y = mx + c or y = kx shows that a graph of T2 against L has

4π2
gradient =
g
so

4π2
g=
gradient
Alternatively, you could have chosen to plot T against L .

L
T = 2π
g

can also be written as

2π
T = L
g
Therefore the gradient of a graph of T against L would have
2π
gradient =
g
So for this graph
2π
g =
gradient

4π2

g=
(gradient) 2

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 7 Graphs and gradient

Question 7.9

The mass M of a sphere of diameter d, made of material of density ρ, is

given by the equation
M = 16 πρ d 3

Table 7.1 (Section 7.1.2) showed the mass of a number of aluminium

spheres as a function of their diameters. When mass was plotted as a
function of diameter, a curved graph (Figure 7.5) was obtained. What
quantities would you plot in order to obtain a straight-line graph from the
data in Table 7.1? What expression would be given by the gradient of the
line?

The trick of plotting quantities in such a way as to obtain a straight line is

very useful when you want to discover the relationship between
experimentally measured quantities. With practice, it is possible to recognise
curved graphs of various shapes, and this helps considerably in deciding how
to transform the original data so as to obtain a straight-line plot. For example,
if the result of plotting one quantity against another is a parabolic curve, this
is an immediate indication that one of those quantities is proportional to the
square of the other. The rest of this chapter will simply introduce you to a few
curves of different shapes and the equations to which they correspond. (An
explanation of the techniques by which you can most easily take scientific
data and discover what powers of the variables should be used in order to get
a linear plot will come in Chapter 10.)

7.4.2 Inverse proportionality

A completely different sort of curve is generated from experiments using the
pressure P
apparatus in Figure 7.31. This piston arrangement is designed for the study of
a sample of gas. A pressure P can be applied to the piston and as the pressure piston
increases so the volume V of the gas in the chamber will decrease. Conversely,
if the pressure is reduced, the gas in the chamber will expand. If you have
ever pumped up a bicycle tyre, you have probably noticed that when a gas is
compressed it heats up, so in order to be sure that pressure and volume are the gas
only variables involved in this particular experiment, it is important to ensure volume V
that each time the pressure is changed the gas is allowed to return to its
original temperature T before the volume is measured. This temperature is heat bath
maintained by the heat bath. temperature T

A sketch graph showing the shape of a plot of V against P resulting from such
an experiment is shown in Figure 7.32. A plot of this shape is called a
hyperbola. A characteristic feature of the hyperbola is that as the variable on Figure 7.31 An apparatus for
one axis approaches zero, the curve approaches more and more closely to the measuring how the volume of a
other axis but never actually touches it. sample of gas varies with the
pressure at constant temperature.
A hyperbola arises from plotting two quantities that are linked by one being
directly proportional to the reciprocal of the other. In this case,
1
V ∝
P

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Maths for Science

V This could also be expressed in words by saying that ‘V is directly

proportional to one over P’ but it is more usual to say that V is inversely
proportional to P. In order to obtain a straight-line plot, you would therefore
have to plot V against 1/P, as illustrated by the sketch graph in Figure 7.33. In
practice, the volume of a gas can never be zero, but if the line were
extrapolated it would go through the origin.
■ If you wanted to plot a graph using measured values of P and V, but with
0 P
P as the dependent variable, what would you have to plot on the
horizontal axis in order to obtain a straight line?
Figure 7.32 A sketch graph of □ You know that
volume as a function of pressure
for a fixed amount of gas at 1 k
V ∝ , i.e. that V =
constant temperature. P P
where k is a constant
V Rearrangement gives

k 1
P= , i.e. P ∝
V V
So a graph of P against 1/V would also be a straight line, as illustrated in
Figure 7.34.

0 Note that graphs of 1/V against P and 1/P against V would also be
1/P
straight lines.

Figure 7.33 At constant Figures 7.32 to 7.34 correspond to a situation in which the temperature has
temperature, the volume of a been held constant. However, it would be equally possible to use the
fixed amount of gas is inversely apparatus illustrated in Figure 7.31 to measure the volume of the gas sample
proportional to the pressure. as a function of temperature. Such measurements are the basis of the SI
(kelvin) scale of temperature, which is discussed in Box 7.4.
P
Box 7.4 The absolute zero of temperature
Figure 7.34 shows that the pressure and volume of a fixed amount of gas
at constant temperature are related by an equation of the form
k
P=
V
0 1/V where k is a constant, i.e.

Figure 7.34 At constant PV = k (at constant temperature)

temperature, the pressure of a This equation is a particular case of a more general equation:

fixed amount of gas is inversely

proportional to the volume. PV = nRT (7.2)
where n is the number of moles of gas, R is the so-called gas constant,
and T is the temperature (measured in kelvin).

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 7 Graphs and gradient

Equation 7.2 can be rearranged to give

nR
V = T
P
i.e. volume = C × temperature, where
nR
C=
P
If the pressure P is held constant then C will also be a constant. The
value of C will depend on the value of P chosen, so if the volume of the
sample of gas is measured as a function of temperature in three separate
experiments, each one at a different constant pressure, three separate
straight-line plots will be obtained, each with a different gradient. The
larger the value of P chosen, the smaller the gradient will be.
Figure 7.35a shows how the volume of the sample of gas measured at
three different pressures varies over the temperature range 0 °C to
100 °C (note that the temperatures here are given in degrees Celsius).
The really interesting aspect of the graph is that if the lines are extended
to lower and lower temperatures, as shown in Figure 7.35b, they all meet
at the same point on the horizontal axis, corresponding to a temperature
of −273.15 °C, and to a volume of zero. Extrapolation beyond this point
would imply a negative volume, which is impossible, so −273.15 °C is
the lowest possible temperature. It is therefore known as the absolute
zero of temperature.
volume

P1
volume

P1
P2 P2
P3 P3

0 100 −273.15 0 100

temperature/°C temperature/°C
(a) (b)

Figure 7.35 (a) At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed amount of gas
is clearly related to the temperature. Here P1 < P2 < P3. (b) Extrapolation
shows that when the volume is zero then the temperature is −273.15 °C.

The SI (kelvin) scale of temperature sets this lowest possible temperature

at 0 K. Temperatures may be converted from degrees Celsius to kelvin
and vice versa using the word equation:

⎛ temperature ⎞ ⎛ temperature ⎞
⎜ in ⎟ = ⎜ in degrees ⎟ + 273.15
⎜ kelvin ⎟ ⎜ Celsius ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

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Maths for Science

When T is expressed in kelvin, V is directly proportional to T, so the

lines in Figure 7.36 go through the origin.

P1
P2
P3

0
T/K

Figure 7.36 If T is measured on the kelvin scale, then V ∝ T .

7.4.3 Exponential growth and decay

Yet another type of curved graph is obtained when the activity of a radioactive
sample is monitored over time. The atoms of radioactive elements ‘decay’ by
emitting small particles from their nuclei, thereby transforming themselves
into atoms of quite different elements. These other elements may themselves
be radioactive, or they may be stable. Radioactive decay is a random process,
in that, although the total activity of a sample is predictable, you can never
predict which individual nuclei are going to decay at any particular time. One
form of polonium, the element named after the Polish homeland of Marie
Curie, decays to leave stable atoms of lead. The activity of a sample of
polonium is plotted as a function of time in Figure 7.37; the unit of activity is
the becquerel (Bq), which is equal to 1 disintegration per second. Because
disintegration of a polonium nucleus produces a stable lead nucleus, the
number of unstable nuclei in the sample – and hence the activity – falls as
time goes on.
■ How long does it take for the activity of the polonium sample in
Figure 7.37 to drop to
(a) 40 kBq (b) 20 kBq (c) 10 kBq?
□ Reading from Figure 7.37,
(a) the activity has dropped to 40 kBq after 140 days
(b) the activity has dropped to 20 kBq after 280 days
(c) the activity has dropped to 10 kBq after 420 days.

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 7 Graphs and gradient

80

70

60

50
activity/kBq

40

30

20

10

0 100 200 300 400 500

time/days

Figure 7.37 The activity of a sample of polonium as a function of time.

A little further analysis shows that the time taken for the activity to drop:
. from 80 kBq to 40 kBq = 140 days
. from 40 kBq to 20 kBq = (280 − 140) days = 140 days
. from 20 kBq to 10 kBq = (420 − 280) days = 140 days.
This result demonstrates a very important property of the curve plotted in
Figure 7.37; whatever value of the quantity plotted on the vertical axis is
chosen, the time taken for the quantity to fall to exactly one-half that value is
a constant. This constant interval of time is known as the half-life, and curves
that display this property are called exponential decay curves. To the
precision to which it is possible to read Figure 7.37, the half-life of the
polonium sample is 140 days.
In radioactive decay, the activity is dependent on the number of radioactive
nuclei present, which is usually denoted by the letter N. During each half-life
(denoted by the symbol t1/2 on Figure 7.38) the number of radioactive nuclei
halves, thus if N0 radioactive nuclei are present when timing starts (i.e. at time
t = 0), then
. after one half-life N = N 0 × 12
. after two half-lives N = N 0 × 12 × 12 = N 0 ( 12 ) 2
. after three half-lives N = N 0 ( 12 ) 2 × 12 = N 0 ( 12 )3
so
. after n half-lives N = N 0 ( 12 ) n
After many half-lives, N will approach, though never reach, zero.

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N0

t1/2 = half-life

1
N1 = N0 × 2

1
N2 = N1 × 2

1
N3 = N2 × 2

0 t1/2 2t1/2 3t1/2 time t

Figure 7.38 Graph of radioactive decay.

The equation describing the exponential decay shown in Figure 7.38 involves
a special number, e. Like π and 2 , e is an irrational number and to four
significant figures its value is 2.718. The equation describing Figure 7.38 is

N = N0e−λt (7.3)

where λ is a positive constant. In Chapter 10, you will discover the

relationship between λ and half-life t1/2. Before that, in Chapter 8, you will
find that exponentials have another characteristic and defining property.

Question 7.10

Radium has a half-life of 1600 years. How long will it be before the
number of radioactive atoms in a sample is reduced to 161 of the number
there are today?

Box 7.5 Dating meteorites

The age of many different natural materials can be determined from their
radioactivity. Potassium is one element that is used to date rocks;
potassium-40 has a half-life of 1.3 × 109 years, and decays to leave
argon, an inert gas that does not combine with other elements. When
rocks first form, they are molten, so any argon they might contain would
simply escape into space. However, once the rocks solidify, any argon

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 7 Graphs and gradient

resulting from the radioactive decay of potassium-40 remains trapped.

Geochemists can analyse the composition of a rock to determine the ratio
of potassium to argon, and hence estimate a rock’s age.
Dating using potassium and other radioactive elements has shown that
almost all known meteorites have an age of around 4.6 × 103 Ma and it
is believed that their formation was contemporaneous with the formation
of the Solar System.

It is sometimes reported in the media that something is exhibiting exponential

growth. True exponential growth, in which the quantity being measured is
multiplied by a constant factor over a given period of time, is a rather unusual
phenomenon although it does occur. A general equation for exponential
growth, analogous to Equation 7.3 for exponential decay, is

n = n0e at (7.4)

where n0 is the starting value of the quantity, n is its value after time t and a
is a positive constant.
Exponential growth is sometimes used as a model by biologists interested in
the populations of organisms. Figure 7.39 illustrates the theoretical increase of
yeast cells according to such a model, in which the population consists of just
two cells at t = 0 and then once in every four-hour period each cell divides
into two. In practice, the death of organisms, as well as the influence of
factors relating to overcrowding, will also affect the population, so that the
increase in the number of organisms will not lie on a true exponential growth
curve.

7.5 Review of Chapter 7 60

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
50
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
number of cells

. interpret bar charts, histograms and line graphs of various shapes 40

. correctly interpret conventional labelling on graph axes or table columns,
30
so as to deduce the power of ten and the units associated with a plotted or
tabulated quantity 20
. use the processes of interpolation and extrapolation to read values from a
graph 10
. calculate the gradient of a straight-line graph
0
. deduce the gradient and intercept of a straight-line graph from the equation 10 20
of the line, and vice versa time/hours
. given an equation involving quantities raised to a power, decide what
variable should be plotted in order to obtain a straight-line graph. Figure 7.39 Model for the
growth of yeast cells.

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Question 7.11

Check your understanding of Chapter 7 by answering the following:

(a) When masses are suspended from the bottom of a spring, the length of
the spring increases. Figure 7.40 shows how the overall length, L, of a
spring varies with the added mass, m.
Use the graph to determine what mass would result in an overall length of
13.0 cm.

14

12

10

8
L/10−2 m

0 20 40 60 80 100
m/10−3 kg

Figure 7.40 A graph of the overall length of a spring against the added mass.

(b) Find the gradient of the line shown in Figure 7.40, giving your answer
to two significant figures.
(c) The graph plotted in Figure 7.40 can be represented by the equation

L = L0 + Sm
Give the values of the constants L0 and S. What property of the spring does
L0 represent?

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 7 Graphs and gradient

(d) The relationship between the distance d travelled by an object which

has been dropped from a height and the time t for which it has been falling
is
d = 12 gt 2

where g is a constant (the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity). If

you had measured the time as the object passed various points as it fell,
how would you use a graph to determine the value of g from your data?

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

Rate of change and differentiation

8
In science, and in everyday life, it is often useful to know how one quantity
varies with respect to another. You may be interested in the actual value of
one quantity for a particular value of the other quantity, but it is often the rate
at which one quantity varies with respect to another that is of more
importance. Consider, for example, a small plant. The height of the plant on a
given date is of some interest, but you also want to know whether the plant is
growing, and if so, how fast. Also, is the plant growing at an ever increasing
rate or is its rate of growth slowing down? If the growth is slowing down the
plant may fit in the space you’ve made for it on the windowsill; if the rate of
growth is increasing you may need to think again!
Chapter 7 introduced the concept of the gradient of a graph as a way of
finding rate of change, whether that is positive (as in Figure 7.8), negative
(Figure 7.15) or zero (Figure 7.16 for Object B). However, Chapter 7
considered the gradient of straight-line graphs only; this chapter extends the
concept of gradient to include graphs of different shapes.
Section 8.1 discusses a method for finding the gradient of a curve graphically,
by drawing a tangent to the curve at a particular point. Section 8.2 introduces
a method for deriving an equation for the gradient from the equation of the
curve itself; this method is known as differentiation. Differentiation is one of
the branches of calculus (integration, the other major branch of calculus, is
beyond the scope of this book), where the word calculus comes from the Latin
for ‘a stone’ and relates to the use of stones for counting, or calculating. This
chapter is about calculating rate of change.

8.1 Drawing tangents to curves

For a straight line, the gradient is the same at all points. However, the
gradient of a curve varies from point to point. If you look at Figure 8.1a from
left to right, you will see that the slope of the curve is initially gentle; then it
gets steeper; then it reduces again. If this graph represents the way in which
the height of a plant varies with time, this means that growth is initially slow,
before increasing to a more rapid rate and then slowing again.
The straight lines drawn in red at various points on Figure 8.1a each have a
slope that exactly matches the slope of the curve at the point at which it is
drawn. These lines are called tangents, and the gradient of a curve at a point
is defined to be the gradient of a tangent drawn at that point. The word
tangent comes from the Latin tangere which means ‘to touch’, and a tangent
to a curve is generally a line which touches the curve but doesn’t cross it.
Figure 8.1b illustrates the fact that, at each point, there is only one line that
touches a smooth curve without crossing it. Line 1 on Figure 8.1b, with a
gradient slightly greater than that of the tangent, and line 2, with a gradient
slightly smaller than that of the tangent, both cross the curve. Each point on
the curve has a unique tangent and thus a unique gradient. This result is true
for all points on all smooth curves.

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Maths for Science

tangent to
line 1

height of plant
point P

P line 2

time
(a) (b)

Figure 8.1 (a) A curve, representing the growth of a hypothetical plant. (b) The
tangent to a curve at a point P.

A tangent is a straight line, so its gradient can be found using the method
introduced in Section 7.2.1. Figure 8.2 is a graph of y = x2 and tangents have
been drawn at x = 1 and at x = 3.

y
18

16

14

12

10 tangent
at x = 3
8

4
tangent
2 at x = 1

1 2 3 4 5 x

Figure 8.2 A graph of y = x2.

Using the triangle drawn on the graph, the gradient of the tangent at x = 3 is
rise (15.0 − 9.0) 6.0
gradient = = = = 6.0
run (4.0 − 3.0) 1.0
Note that, because on this occasion x and y are variables without units, the
gradient also has no units.

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

The gradient of the curve at a point is the same as that of the tangent touching
the curve at that point, so you can say that the gradient of the curve at x = 3
is 6.0 to two significant figures.

Question 8.1

(a) Find the gradient of y = x2 at x = 1 by finding the gradient of the

tangent which has been drawn to the curve in Figure 8.2 at x = 1.

(b) Find the gradient of y = x2 at x = 2 by drawing an additional tangent to

the curve in Figure 8.2.

Box 8.1 Rate of change of concentration in chemical

reactions
As a chemical reaction involving substances in solution proceeds, the
concentrations of the substances (called ‘reactants’ and ‘products’) vary
with time.
Figure 8.3 shows the way in which the concentration of one of the
products of a particular reaction increases with time. The product in this
case is called a hypobromite ion.
concentration of hypobromite ions/mol dm−3

2.0 × 10−3

1.0 × 10−3

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

time/s

Figure 8.3 A graph to show the increasing concentration of hypobromite

ions in a particular chemical reaction, at 25 °C.

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Maths for Science

To find the rate of change of concentration of hypobromite ions with

time at any instant, you can draw a tangent to the curve and find its
gradient. A tangent has been drawn to the curve in Figure 8.3 at the
point at which time = 1500 s.

2.40 × 10−3 mol dm −3 − 1.16 × 10−3 mol dm −3

the gradient to the tangent =
3000 s − 0 s
= 4.13 × 10 mol dm −3 s −1
−7

So the rate of change of concentration with time at 1500 s is

4.13 × 10−7 mol dm−3 s−1.
Note that the rate of change at times less than 1500 s is greater than
4.13 × 10−7 mol dm−3 s−1 (if you were to draw a tangent to the curve it
would have a steeper gradient than the tangent at time = 1500 s) whereas
the rate of change at times greater than 1500 s is less than
4.17 × 10−7 mol dm−3 s−1 (if you were to draw a tangent to the curve it
would have a shallower gradient than the tangent at time = 1500 s).
Although the concentration of the hypobromite ions increases as the time
increases, the rate of change of concentration decreases as time increases.

8.2 An introduction to differentiation

In answering Question 8.1 you probably realised that drawing tangents to
curves is not a very accurate way of finding gradients. Using this method, the
gradient of y = x2 at x = 2 could reasonably be anything between 3.5 and 4.5,
although the correct answer is exactly 4 (as you will discover in
Section 8.2.1). Fortunately, when the equation of the curve is known (as it is
in this case), differentiation provides an exact method for finding the gradient,
without even having to draw a graph.

8.2.1 The principles of differentiation

The reason why drawing a tangent to a curve is tricky is that, by definition, a
tangent only touches one point on the curve and this makes it difficult to draw
a line with the correct gradient. Drawing a chord (a line between two points
on the curve) and finding its gradient is very much easier.
The chord shown joining point P and point Q in Figure 8.4 has
rise Δy
gradient = =
run Δx
where Δy is the difference between the y values of P and Q and Δx is the
corresponding difference between x values (Δ, the Greek upper case delta, is
used to indicate the change in a quantity, as discussed in Chapter 3).
As point Q moves along the curve towards P, passing through Q1, Q2 and Q3,
two things happen.

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

Q1

Δy
Q2
tangent to
point P
Q3
P
Δx

Figure 8.4 Finding the gradient of a curve at a point P.

1 The values of Δx and Δy get smaller and smaller.

2 The gradient of the chord gets closer and closer in value to the gradient of

the tangent at P.
Δy
As Δx approaches zero, the approximation approaches ever closer to the
Δx
exact gradient of the curve at the specified point. This situation is described as
Δy dy dy
a ‘limit’. In this limit, is written as where (said as ‘dee y by
Δx dx dx
dee x’) is called the derivative (or, strictly, the first derivative) of y with
respect to x.
dy
Note that should be regarded as a single symbol. It does not mean a
dx
quantity dy divided by another quantity dx, and the ‘d’s are not separate
quantities so they cannot be cancelled.
Differentiation is simply the process of finding a derivative. Box 8.2 shows
how this can be done from first principles for the example of y = x2. This box
is included for interest only; you do not need to be able to differentiate from
first principles. All you need to be able to do is to apply some very simple
general rules (the first of which is discussed in Section 8.2.2) that enable you
to find the derivative directly from the original equation. It turns out that, if
y = x2,
dy
= 2x
dx

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Maths for Science

Therefore the gradient of y = x2 at x = 1 is (2 × 1) = 2, the gradient at x = 2

is (2 × 2) = 4, and the gradient at x = 3 is (2 × 3) = 6; reassuringly these are
the same results as obtained earlier by drawing tangents to the curve, but now
the answers are exact and they have been found without having to draw a
graph.

Box 8.2 Differentiating y = x2 from first principles

Consider the chord drawn between points P and Q on Figure 8.5.

Δy

P
Δx

Figure 8.5 Points P and Q on the curve y = x2.

P could be any point on the curve and since it lies on the curve its x and

y values are related by the equation y = x2.

The x value at Q is (x + Δx) and the y value is (y + Δy). Since point Q
lies on the curve too

(y + Δy) = (x + Δx)2
Multiplying out the bracket on the right-hand side, in the way discussed
in Section 5.2.2, gives
y + Δy = (x + Δx)(x + Δx)
= x 2 + xΔx + xΔx + (Δx) 2
= x 2 + 2xΔx + (Δx) 2
Since y = x2, you can subtract y from the left-hand side and x2 from the
right-hand side to give

Δy = 2xΔx + (Δx)2
Dividing both sides by Δx gives

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

Δy 2 xΔx + (Δx) 2
=
Δx Δx
= 2 x + Δx
In the limit as Δx approaches zero, the second term on the right-hand
Δy dy
side will disappear, and will become equal to so
Δx dx
dy
= 2x
dx

8.2.2 Differentiation by rule

It was shown, in Box 8.2, that the derivative of y = x2 with respect to x is
dy
=
2 x
dx
By similar methods, it can be shown that:
. the derivative of y = 2x2 with respect to x is
dy
=
4 x
dx
. the derivative of y = 3x2 with respect to x is
dy
=
6 x
dx
. the derivative of y = 4x2 with respect to x is
dy
=
8 x
dx
Following this pattern, more generally, the derivative of y = Cx2 with respect
to x, where C is a constant, is
dy
= C × 2x
dx
Similarly, it can be shown that:
. the derivative of y = Cx3 with respect to x is
dy
= C × 3x 2
dx
. the derivative of y = Cx4 with respect to x is
dy
= C × 4x3
dx
. the derivative of y = Cx5 with respect to x is
dy
= C × 5x 4
d
x

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Maths for Science

All of these results can be summarised in the general rule:

The derivative of y = Cxn with respect to x is

dy
= Cnx n −1
dx
where C and n are constants.

Worked examples 8.1 to 8.6 show the application of this rule to find
derivatives and thus the gradients of graphs (at specific points or more
generally).

Worked example 8.1

dy
If y = x5, what is and what is the gradient of a graph of y = x5 at x = 2?
dx
Answer
In this case C = 1 and n = 5, so
dy
= 1 × 5x 4 = 5x 4
dx
When x = 2,
dy
= 5 × 24 = 5 × 16 = 80
dx
So at x = 2 the gradient of the graph is 80.

Worked example 8.2

dy
If y = 4x3, what is and what is the gradient of a graph of y = 4x3 at
x = 3? dx

Answer
In this case C = 4 and n = 3, so
dy
= 4 × 3x 2 = 12 x 2
dx
When x = 3,
dy
= 12 × 32 = 12 × 9 = 108
dx
So at x = 3 the gradient of the graph is 108.

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

Worked example 8.3 considers the application of the rule for differentiation in
the special case when n = 1, and Worked example 8.4 considers what happens
when n = 0; you may like to think about what you expect the results to be.

Worked example 8.3

dy
If y = 4x, what is ?
dx
Answer
In this case C = 4 and n = 1, so
dy
= 4 × 1x1−1 = 4x 0 = 4
dx
(since x0 = 1 for all values of x, as discussed in Section 1.3.1).

Note that y = 4x is the equation of a straight line through the origin, so the
result of Worked example 8.3 should not have surprised you; differentiating
an equation of the form y = kx will always result in a derivative which is a
constant. This constant is equal to the gradient, k, of a graph of y against x (as
discussed in Section 7.3.1).

Worked example 8.4

dy
If y = 3, what is ?
dx
Answer
y = 3 can be written as y = 3x0 (since x0 = 1), so C = 3 and n = 0. Thus
dy
= 3 × 0 × x −1 = 0
dx
(since multiplying anything by 0 gives 0).

Differentiating a constant always gives zero. This should not surprise you
either, since the graph of y = 3 is a horizontal line and the gradient of a
horizontal line is always zero.
Note that the instruction ‘to differentiate’ in the following question and
worked example simply means that you should find the derivative.

Question 8.2

Differentiate the following with respect to x and in each case find the
gradient of the graph of y against x at x = 4.
(a) y = x4 (b) y = 5x (c) y = 3x2 (d) y = 5

The rule for differentiation used in Worked examples 8.1 to 8.4 applies for
negative and fractional values of n too, as illustrated in Worked examples 8.5
and 8.6.

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Worked example 8.5

3
Differentiate y = with respect to x.
x
Answer
3
y= can be written as y = 3x−1 (see Section 1.3.1 for a reminder of the use
x
of negative exponents), so C = 3 and n = −1. Thus
dy 3
= 3 × (−1) x −1−1 = −3x −2 = − 2
dx x

Worked example 8.6

Differentiate y = x with respect to x.
Answer
1/2 1
y= x can be written as y = x (see Section 1.3.4), so C = 1 and n = 2
.
Thus
dy 1 12 −1 1 −1 / 2 1 1
= x = x = 1/ 2 =
dx 2 2 2x 2 x

Question 8.3

Differentiate the following with respect to x and in each case find the

gradient of the graph of y against x at x = 4.

1 2
(a) y = (b) y =
x x2

8.2.3 Using different symbols and different notation

So far, this chapter has only considered derivatives of y with respect to x. For
example differentiating y = x2 gave
dy
= 2x
dx

dy dy

Note that y and are both functions of x, i.e. the values of y and
dx dx
depend on the value of x. A derivative is sometimes called a derived function
because it is a function that has been derived from another function.
Functions in science are often expressed in terms of variables other than x and
y. For example, you may know that as time, t, changes, the distance, s, of an
object from a certain position varies according to the equation s = 5t2. The
graph of this function is illustrated in Figure 8.6.

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

The speed at which the object is moving is given by the rate of change s
of distance with time, so to find the object’s speed you need to find the
gradient of the graph shown in Figure 8.6, i.e. to differentiate s with 120
respect to t.
ds 100
= 5 × 2t 2−1 = 10t1 = 10t
dt
80
Similarly, you know from Chapter 7 that the volume, V, of a gas at
constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure, P, i.e.
60
1 k
V ∝ or V = = kP −1
P P 40
where k is a constant.

20
Differentiating V with respect to P gives

dV k
= k × (−1)P −1−1 = −kP −2 = − 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
dP P
This expression gives the gradient of the graph shown in Figure 7.32.
Figure 8.6 A graph of s = 5t2.

Question 8.4

(a) Differentiate x = t7 with respect to t.

C dE
(b) If E = where C is constant, what is ?
r dr
An entirely different notation, called function or prime notation, is sometimes
used for derivatives. This notation makes it very clear that both the expression
being differentiated and its derivative are functions, and it identifies the
variable on which the functions depend. In this notation, the function shown
in Figure 8.6 would be written as f(t) = 5t2 and its first derivative would be
written as f ′(t) = 10t. The term f(t), usually said as ‘f of t’, does not mean f
times t, but simply implies that f is a function of t. The term f ′(t) (said as
‘f prime of t’) is the first derivative of f with respect to t.
dy
Unfortunately both f ′(x) and notation are in common use, as is a variation
of the latter which writes dx

d
(5t 2 ) = 10t
dt
for the derivative of 5t2 with respect to time.
dy
This book uses only notation as discussed in the preceding sections, but
dx
you should be aware that other notations are also widely used.
dy
The notation was invented by Gottfried Leibniz, one of the founders of
dx
calculus, and is known as Leibniz notation. Yet another notation, less
commonly used in modern times, writes sj = 10t for the first derivative of

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Maths for Science

s = 5t2 with respect to t. This notation was first used by Newton, and the fact
that there is such a plethora of notations for differentiation is a lasting
reminder of the bitter dispute between Newton and Leibniz over which of
them invented calculus (see Box 8.3).

Box 8.3 Newton and Leibniz: a story of reluctant

publishers and letters ‘lost in the post’
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and the German mathematician and
philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (sometimes spelt Leibnitz)
(1646–1716) both claimed to have invented calculus. It is probable that
they developed the ideas independently; they certainly described their
work in very different ways. Newton thought in terms of ‘fluxions’
whilst Leibniz used ‘differences’ (hence the word ‘differentiation’).
Leibniz published a paper about differentiation in 1684 and another
about integration in 1686. Newton had problems getting his mathematical
work into print; the publisher of his colleague Isaac Barrow’s work had
gone bankrupt and publishers were wary of mathematical works after
this. Works written by Newton in 1669 and 1671 were not published
until 1711 and 1736, respectively.
Another source of the controversy seems to have been the length of time
it took for a letter to get from Newton in Cambridge to Leibniz in Paris.
Newton’s letter listed many of his results, and when Leibniz’s reply took
a long time to arrive, Newton assumed that Leibniz had spent six weeks
refining his own work in the light of Newton’s before replying.
According to Leibniz the original letter had spent these six weeks on its
way from Cambridge to Paris, and he had replied immediately he had
received it.

Figure 8.7 Newton or Leibniz; who invented calculus?

It is beyond doubt that Newton accused Leibniz of plagiarism and that,

despite the fact that both men were well respected within their lifetimes
and famous afterwards (see Figure 8.7), they ended their lives in
acrimonious dispute with each other.

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

8.2.4 Differentiating sums

Suppose you need to differentiate y = x2 − 4x + 3, the function shown in
Figure 8.8, with respect to x.

0
1 2 3 4 x

−1

Figure 8.8 A graph of y = x2 − 4x + 3.

It would be possible to do this differentiation from first principles, using a

similar method to that followed in Box 8.2. However, it turns out that this
function, and ones like it, can be differentiated much more simply by the
application of the rule already introduced and one other simple rule, namely
that the derivative of the function is the sum of the derivatives of the
individual terms (in this case x2, −4x and 3).
It turns out that if

y = x2 − 4x + 3 (8.1)

then differentiating from first principles gives

dy
= 2x − 4 (8.2)
dx

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Maths for Science

To show how this follows from the sum of the derivatives of the individual
terms, write y = x2 − 4x + 3 as y = u + v + w
where u = x2, v = −4
x and w = 3.

Then (from the rule introduced in Section 8.2.2) since u = x2,

d
u
= 2x (8.3)

d
x

Since v = −4 x ,

d
v
= −4 (8.4)

d
x

and since w = 3,

d
w
= 0 (8.5)

d
x

Comparing Equation 8.2 with Equations 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5 shows that

dy
d
u
d
v
d
w

=
+
+

dx
d
x
d
x
d
x

This rule is a general one, in other words:

The derivative of the sum of a number of functions is equal to the sum

of the derivatives of these functions.
If y = u + v + w then
dy du dv dw
= + +
dx dx dx dx

■ What is the gradient of y = x2 − 4x + 3 at x = 2?

□ The expression for the gradient is given by Equation 8.2

dy

= 2x −
4

dx

When x = 2,

dy
=
(
2 ×
2) − 4 =
0
d
x
So the gradient of y = x2 − 4x + 3 at x =
2 is 0. This is consistent with

what you can see from Figure 8.8. At x = 2, a tangent drawn to the curve
would be a horizontal line.

186
 8 Rate of change and differentiation

Worked example 8.7

Use the rule for differentiating sums to find the first derivative of x = t5 + 6t3
with respect to t.
Answer
Differentiating each of the terms separately gives
dx
= (1 × 5t 5−1) + (6 × 3t 3−1)
dt

= 5t 4 +18t 2

Question 8.5

Differentiate z = 4y2 + 2y with respect to y and so find the gradient of the

graph of z against y at y = 0.

8.2.5 Second derivatives

dy
gives the gradient of a graph of y against x. It is often also useful to know
dx
the rate of change of the gradient with respect to x, i.e. to differentiate again
with respect to x to find the derivative of the derivative. Such a quantity is
referred to as the second derivative of y with respect to x and it is written
d2 y
(said as ‘dee-2-y by dee-x-squared’).
dx 2

In function notation, a second derivative is written f ″(x) (said as ‘f double

prime of x’).
Consider again the example used in Section 8.2.4.

y = x2 − 4x + 3
and
dy
= 2x − 4
dx
dy
is itself a function of x and differentiating again gives
dx
d2 y
=2
dx 2
dy d2 y
The graphs of y against x, against x and against x for this example
dx dx 2
are shown in Figure 8.9.
dy
The graph of against x shows how the gradient of the graph of y against x

dx

varies with x.

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Maths for Science

d2 y dy
The graph of against x shows how the gradient of the graph of
dx 2 dx
against x varies with x.
For y = x2 − 4x + 3, the graph of y against x (Figure 8.9a) is a parabola (as
discussed in Section 7.4).
dy
The graph of against x (Figure 8.9b) is a straight line of gradient 2.
dx d2 y
It should not surprise you then that has a constant value of 2, as shown
in Figure 8.9c. dx 2

dy
y dx
dy
y = x2 − 4x + 3 4 = 2x − 4
3 dx

3
2

2
1

x 1
0
1 2 3 4
x
0
−1 1 2 3 4

−1
(a)
−2
d 2y
dx2 d2 y
=2 −3
dx2
2
−4
1
(b)
x
0
1 2 3 4

(c)

Figure 8.9 (a) A graph of y = x2 − 4x + 3 and (b) its first derivative and (c) its
second derivative.

Equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants will

always have graphs in the form of a parabola. The first derivative of such an
equation will always give the equation of a straight line:
dy
= 2ax + b
dx

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

The second derivative will always give a constant:

d2 y
= 2a
dx 2

Question 8.6

Find the first and second derivatives of:

(a) x = 2t3 + 4t2 − 2t + 3 with respect to t
2
(b) z = with respect to y.
y
Box 8.4 considers an application of differentiation to science, in this case
investigating the links between distance, speed and acceleration for an object
under the action of gravity. Note that the variables are now real physical
quantities, so they have units attached to them.

Box 8.4 Throwing a ball into the air

Imagine a ball being thrown straight up into the air (Figure 8.10a). You
may like to think about its subsequent motion, before using
differentiation to check whether the theoretical description of the ball’s
motion agrees with your predictions. The ball will rise upwards, but its
speed will decrease and eventually it will stop rising and fall back
towards Earth, with an increasing speed. The reason for this is that the
force of gravity is acting downwards, i.e. in the opposite direction to the
direction in which the ball is thrown.
The motion of the ball is described by the equation

sx = u xt + 12 axt 2
(Box 3.1 Equation 3.17)
where sx, ux and ax are respectively distance, initial speed and
acceleration, all in the direction of the x-axis (which in this case is taken
as pointing upwards from the point at which the ball was thrown) and t
is time.
On this occasion, ax = −9.81 m s−2. The acceleration is due to gravity,
and the negative sign indicates that the acceleration due to gravity acts
downwards whilst the x-axis points upwards.
Suppose the ball is thrown upwards with an initial speed of
ux = 6.0 m s−1. Box 3.1 Equation 3.17 then becomes

sx = (6.0 m s −1)t − 12 (9.81 m s −2 )t 2

(8.6)
The graph of sx against t for Equation 8.6 is shown in Figure 8.10b – it
is an inverted parabola. As predicted, the distance initially increases as
time progresses, then the object falls back to Earth.

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Maths for Science

sx /m
1

0
0.5 1.0 1.5
t/s
(a) (b)

6.0

ax /m s−2
vx /m s−1

0 0
0.5 1.0 1.5 t/s
t/s

−9.81

(c) (d)

Figure 8.10 (a) A ball being thrown into the air. Graphs to show the
variation of (b) distance, (c) speed and (d) acceleration with time for a ball
thrown into the air.

Differentiating Equation 8.6 gives an equation for speed vx after time t

dsx
vx =
dt
= (6.0 m s −1 × 1t1−1) − ( 12
× 9.81 m s −2 × 2t 2−1)
= (6.0 m s −11 × t 0 ) − (9.81 m s −2
× t)
= 6.0 m s −1 − (9.81 m s −2 )t
As shown in Figure 8.10c, the graph of vx after time t is a straight line
with an intercept on the vertical axis at 6.0 m s−1 and a gradient of
−9.81 m s−2. Again as predicted, the speed decreases from its initial
value of 6.0 m s−1, becoming negative as the ball falls back to Earth.
Differentiating Equation 8.6 for a second time gives the rate at which the
object’s speed is changing. This is the object’s acceleration, ax

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

dvx
ax =
dt
d 2sx
= 2
dt
= 0 − 9.81 m s −2
= −9.81 m s −2
The acceleration has a constant value of −9.81 m s−2, again as expected.
The fact that the final answer is what you would expect provides a useful
check of Box 3.1 Equation 3.17 (which was assumed to be the correct
equation from which to start).
Figure 8.10 shows the variation of the ball’s distance sx, speed vx and
acceleration ax, in the upwards direction and with increasing time. Note
that the gradient of the first graph (sx against t) leads to the second graph
( vx against t) and that the gradient of the second graph ( vx against t)
leads to the final graph (ax against t).

8.3 Differentiating exponential functions

Section 7.4.3 introduced graphs of exponential growth, such as n = n0eat (see
Figure 7.39) and graphs of exponential decay, such as N = N0e−λt (see
Figure 7.38), where e is the number whose value is 2.718 to four significant
figures. In general, a function of the type y = Cekx, where x and y are
variables and C and k are constants, is called an exponential function.
Finding the gradient of exponential functions reveals another reason why e is
such a special number.
Figure 8.11 is a graph of the simplest imaginable exponential function; in this
case C = 1 and k = 1, so y = ex. Tangents have been drawn to the curve in
Figure 8.11 at y = 1, y = 5 and y = 10.
■ Use the tangents that have been drawn in Figure 8.11 to find the gradient
of the graph of y = ex at y = 1, y = 5 and y = 10. You should work to
two significant figures in each case.
□ The gradient of the tangent drawn at y = 1 is

(2.0 − 0.0) 2.0

gradient = = = 1.0
(1.0 − (−1.0)) 2.0

The gradient of the tangent drawn at y = 5 is

(9.2 − 4.2) 5.0

gradient = = = 5.0
(2.5 − 1.5) 1.0

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Maths for Science

y
20

18

16 tangent

14

12

10

4
tangent

2
tangent

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x

Figure 8.11 A graph of y = ex.

The gradient of the tangent drawn at y = 10 is

(17.0 − 7.0) 10.0

gradient = = = 10
(3.0 − 2.0) 1.0

In each case the gradient of the tangent (and thus of the graph itself) is
equal to the value of y at the point where the tangent was drawn.

■ Predict the gradient of a tangent drawn to the curve in Figure 8.11 at

y = 2.
□ It seems likely that a tangent drawn at y = 2 will have a gradient of 2
too. It turns out that this is indeed the case.

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

The rule that has emerged from this sequence is generally true; the gradient of
a graph of y = ex at a particular point is equal to the value of y at that point,
i.e. for y = ex, the derivative of y with respect to x is equal to y itself:
If y = ex, then
dy
= ex = y
dx
dy
is only equal to y for certain specific exponential functions. However, in
dx
similar fashion to that followed in Section 8.2.2, it is possible to draw out a
more general rule. It can be shown that
. if y = 2ex, then
dy
= 2e x = y
dx
. if y = 3ex, then
dy
= 3e x = y
dx
and so on. So, in general, the derivative of y = Cex with respect to x, where C
is a constant, is
dy
= Ce x = y
dx
Similarly, it can be shown that:
. if y = Ce2x, then
dy
= C × 2e 2 x = 2y
dx
. if y = Ce3x, then
dy
= C × 3e3x = 3y
dx
and so on. So the general rule for all exponential functions is:

If y = Cekx, where C and k are constants, then

dy
= Cke kx
dx
Since y = Cekx this means that
dy
= ky
dx
dy
i.e. is proportional to y.
dx

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Maths for Science

This rule is the final rule for differentiation given in this chapter, and its use is
illustrated in Worked examples 8.8 and 8.9.
dy
The fact that is proportional to y for all functions of the form y = Cekx
dx
explains the shape of graphs of exponential growth and decay.

Worked example 8.8

dy
If y = e4x what is ? Express your answer (a) in terms of x, and (b) in terms
of y. dx

Answer
(a) In this case C = 1 and k = 4, so
dy
= 1 × 4e 4x = 4e 4x
dx
(b) Alternatively, since y = e4x, you could write
dy
= 4e 4x = 4y
dx

Worked example 8.9

Find the first and second derivatives of z = 3e−2t with respect to t.
Answer
In this case C = 3 and k = −2, so
dz
= 3 × (−2)e −2t = −6e −2t
dt
Since z = 3e−2t, you could also write
dz
= −2z
dt
Differentiating again gives

d2z
= −6 × (−2)e −2t = 12e −2t
dt 2
Since z = 3e−2t, this could also be written as

d2z
= 4z
dt 2

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 8 Rate of change and differentiation

Question 8.7

(a) Differentiate y = 5e2x with respect to x. Express your answer in terms of

x and then in terms of y.
(b) Differentiate z = et/2 with respect to t. Express your answer in terms of t
and then in terms of z.

dy
Since is proportional to y for all exponential functions, exponential
dx
functions can be used to describe situations in which the rate of change
of some quantity at an instant is proportional to the actual value of that
quantity at the same instant.

Radioactive decay, which was first described in Chapter 7 and further

discussed in Box 8.5, is an example of a situation like this and this is why it
can be described by an exponential function.

Box 8.5 Radioactive decay revisited

As previously discussed, radioactive decay is an inherently random
process; it is impossible to know when a particular nucleus is going to
decay. However, if the sample contains a large number of radioactive
nuclei, the average rate at which the nuclei decay will be proportional to
the number of radioactive nuclei remaining. It is this proportionality
which leads to the process being an exponential one, in this case an
exponential decay.
As discussed in Chapter 7, radioactive decay can be described by the

equation N = N0e−λt where λ is a positive constant called the decay

constant, N0 is the initial number of radioactive nuclei and N is the

number remaining after time t (Figure 8.12).

N
N0

Figure 8.12 Radioactive decay can be described by the equation

N = N0e−λt.

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Maths for Science

Differentiating N = N0e−λt with respect to t gives

dN
= − N 0λ e − λ t
dt
Since N = N0e−λt this can be written
dN
= −λ N (8.7)
dt
In this case the gradient is negative as you would expect, since the
number of radioactive nuclei remaining is reducing with increasing time.
The larger the value of N, the faster the rate of decay, as shown in
Figure 8.12. Tangents to the curve are shown in red.

8.4 Review of Chapter 8

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. find the gradient of a curve at a particular point by means of drawing a
tangent to the curve at that point
. demonstrate understanding of the fact that the derivative of a function
gives the gradient of the corresponding graph
. demonstrate understanding of the fact that the second derivative of a
function is obtained by differentiating twice
. differentiate functions of the form y = Cxn
. differentiate simple sums of functions
. differentiate exponential functions of the form y = Cekx
.
dy
demonstrate understanding of the fact that, for exponential functions,
is proportional to y. dx

Question 8.8

Check your understanding of Chapter 8 by answering the following:

(a) Differentiate x = 3t2 + 2t + 5 with respect to t and so find the gradient
of a graph of x against t at t = 2.
(b) Find the first and second derivatives with respect to x of the following
equation.
2
y=
x2
(c) Find the first and second derivatives of y = 4e3x with respect to x. In
each case express your answer in terms of x and then in terms of y.

196
 9 Angles and trigonometry

Angles and trigonometry

9
It is relatively easy to measure the distance along the ground from an observer
to an object such as a tree, but measuring the height of the tree is rather less
straightforward. Similarly, it is possible to find the distance from the Earth to
the Moon by measuring the time taken for a laser beam to travel to the Moon
and back, but this method cannot be used to find the Moon’s diameter.
Fortunately help is at hand in both cases; angles can be measured and used to
calculate the required values. In the case of the tree, the angle used is the
angle between the ground (assumed to be horizontal) and a straight line drawn
to the top of the tree; this angle is labelled θ (the Greek letter theta) in
Figure 9.1a. In the case of the Moon the angle is the one subtended
(i.e. swept out) as a straight line drawn from an observer on the Earth moves
from one side of the Moon to the other; this angle is labelled φ (the Greek
letter phi) in Figure 9.1b.

(a)

Earth Moon

(b)

Figure 9.1 Chapter 9 will show how to use angles to find (a) the height of a tree,
and (b) the diameter of the Moon (not to scale).

Section 9.1 describes two different systems used for measuring angles and,
after a brief look at some of the properties of triangles, the rest of the chapter
shows how angles can be used in scientific calculation to determine things
such as the height of a tree and the diameter of the Moon.

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Maths for Science

9.1 Measuring angles: degrees and radians

You are probably familiar with the use of a protractor to measure angles
shown on diagrams; this gives a result in degrees (represented by the
symbol °, and sometimes known as ‘degrees of arc’ to make it clear that the
degrees used to measure angles have nothing whatsoever to do with the
degrees used when measuring temperature on the Celsius scale). Figure 9.2
shows that angle θ in Figure 9.1a is about 36.5°.

90
80
100

70
110

60
0
12

50
0
13

0 40
14
0 30
15
20
160
10
170
0

Figure 9.2 Measuring an angle with a protractor (not to scale).

If you stand facing in a particular direction then turn through a complete

revolution, you will have gone through 360°. The use of 360° to represent a
complete turn is believed to date back to the ancient Babylonian civilisation;
360 subdivisions were used because 360 is close to 365, the number of days
in a year. Figure 9.3 illustrates various angles encountered in turning through
a circle. Note in particular that a right angle (the angle between two
directions that are perpendicular to each other) measures 90°.

direction
135° of rotation
90°
180°
45° starting
position
225°

360°

Figure 9.3 Angles encountered in turning through a circle.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

Box 9.1 describes the use of angles to define lines of longitude and latitude
on the Earth’s surface, and hence to specify positions on the surface of the
Earth.

Box 9.1 Lines of longitude and latitude

The surface of the Earth is conventionally marked with two sets of
imaginary lines, as shown in Figure 9.4a. The blue lines running from
left to right are lines of latitude, the Equator being one such line, and the
red lines running from one pole to the other are lines of longitude.
Figure 9.4b shows how angles can be used to label lines of latitude.

North Pole
North 90° N
lines of Pole lines of
latitude longitude 60° N
latitude
90° 30° N north
60°
Equator
30°
Equator
30°
60°
30° S
90°
South latitude
Pole south
60° S
90° S
(a) (b) South Pole

Figure 9.4 (a) A model of the Earth viewed from above the Equator.
(b) Using angles to label lines of latitude.

180°
150° W 150° E

120° W 120° E

90° W 90° E

60° W 60° E
North
30° W 30° E Pole
Greenwich 0°
Meridian
longitude west longitude east

Figure 9.5 A model of the Earth viewed from above the North Pole,
showing lines of latitude and longitude.

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Maths for Science

In Figure 9.5, which is the view from above the North Pole, the circles
are the lines of latitude and the lines radiating out from the pole are lines
of longitude. It is easy to see, from Figure 9.5, how angles of longitude
can be labelled using degrees. A line running through Greenwich in
London, and known as the Greenwich Meridian, is defined to be
0° longitude, and other lines are labelled by measuring the angles to the
east or west of the Greenwich Meridian.

Figures 9.4 and 9.5 show lines of longitude and latitude at 15° intervals only,
but in reality the lines can be drawn as close together as required, and so can
be used to specify a location very precisely. In order to specify a precise
location, degrees of longitude and latitude need to be subdivided in some way.
Historically this was done by dividing each degree into 60 minutes (or
‘minutes of arc’) in the same way as each hour is divided into 60 minutes (of
time). The symbol ‘′’ is used to represent minutes of arc. The longitude of
Heathrow Airport (approximately 30 km west of Greenwich) is 0°27′ W and
both Greenwich and Heathrow have a latitude of about 51°28′ N.
Minutes of arc are rarely used in modern science; small angles are usually
expressed in decimal notation. Since 28′ is 28 sixtieths of a degree and
28
60
= 0.47 to two significant figures, 51°28′ can be written as 51.47°.
However, astronomers continue to use a further extension of the ‘degrees and
minutes’ notation, simply because the angles they are measuring are
frequently very small (since the objects they are measuring are such a long
way from Earth). In order to measure such small angles, minutes of arc are
further divided into 60 seconds of arc, or arcsecs (in the same way as minutes
of time are subdivided into 60 seconds). So
1 1 1 1
1 arcsec = minute of arc = × degree = degree
60 60 60 3600
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the next nearest star, Proxima Centauri, appears
to move through an angle of 0.772 arcsecs across the sky. This is
0.772
degree = 2.14 ×10−4 degree
3600
Angles in science are frequently measured in radians rather than in degrees
and subdivisions of degrees. Consider the circle shown in Figure 9.6. A part
X
of the circumference, such as that between point X and point Y, is known as
r an arc, and in this case the arc subtends an angle θ. The length of the arc
between X and Y is s and the radius of the circle is r. The radian is defined
θ s
with reference to arc length and radius.
r

Y The size in radians of the angle, θ, subtended by an arc is defined to be

arc length, s, divided by radius, r, thus

Figure 9.6 An arc of length s s

θ (in radians) = (9.1)
subtended by the angle θ in a r
circle of radius r.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

■ What is the size in radians of the angle subtended by an arc of length

3.0 cm in a circle of radius 2.0 cm?
□ From Equation 9.1 the angle is given by:

s
θ (in radians) =
r
3.0 cm
=
2.0 cm

= 1.
5
So the size of the angle is 1.5 radians.

Note that since a length in centimetres has been divided by another length in
centimetres, it could be argued that the answer should have no units.
However, this book will adopt the common practice of writing the word
‘radians’ next to angles given in this measuring system, to distinguish them
from angles measured in degrees or in any other system of angular measure.
An angle subtended by a longer arc in a circle of the same radius will be
larger, as expected. In the above example, an arc of length 5.0 cm would
subtend an angle of
5.0 cm
= 2.5 radians
2.0 cm
However, it is the ratio of arc length to radius that is important in the
definition of a radian. This is illustrated in Figure 9.7, which shows two
concentric circles (i.e. two circles with their centres at the same point). The
smaller circle has radius r, and an arc of length s is shown, subtending an
r
angle θ. The larger circle has radius r′, and the same angle θ is subtended by
an arc of length s′. The superscript ‘′’ is used to indicate that the lengths r′ θ s s′
and s′ (said as ‘r-prime and s-prime’, or ‘r-dash and s-dash’) both relate to the
same circle. (Note: this convention of using primes has nothing to do with the r′
use of primes to indicate minutes of arc and neither of these uses has anything
to do with the f ′(x) notation used for the first derivative of a function.)
The lengths s′ and r′ are bigger than the values of s and r, as you would
expect, but the ratios s/r and s′/r′ are equal, and the angle subtended in
Figure 9.7 Two concentric
radians is
circles.
s s′
θ = =
r r′
Now consider two special cases. In the first, the arc length is exactly equal to
the radius, as shown in Figure 9.8a, i.e. s = r. This means that
s r
θ (in radians) = = =1
r r
i.e. the angle subtended is one radian.

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Maths for Science

r
θ r r θ s
r

(a) (b)

Figure 9.8 The angle subtended when (a) arc length is equal to radius, and (b)
arc length is equal to circumference.

In the second special case, illustrated in Figure 9.8b, the arc length is a
complete circumference. For all circles, the circumference, C, is linked to the
radius, r, by the formula C = 2πr. This formula, given in Box 3.1, follows
directly from the definition of π, given in Section 1.1.1 as circumference
divided by diameter. So when the arc length, s, is equal to the whole
circumference 2πr
2πr
θ (in radians) = = 2π
r

Thus the angle subtended by a complete revolution is 2π radians,

i.e. 2π radians = 360°.

This gives an easy way of converting between degrees and radians.

Since 2π radians = 360°, then

360°
1 radian =
2π

180°

=
π

≈ 57.3°

where the symbol ‘≈’ means ‘is approximately equal to’, as in Chapter 3.
Similarly, since 360° = 2π radians, then

2π
1° =
360
π
=
180

≈ 0.0175 radians

Note that the numerical conversion factors between radians and degrees are
only approximate (they have been given to three significant figures), so when
converting from radians to degrees or vice versa it is best to go back to first

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

principles in each case, remembering that a complete revolution can be

represented by either 2π radians or 360°. It is also worth remembering that
angles in radians are frequently expressed as multiples or fractions of π so, for
example,
2π
45° = 45 × radians
360
π
= radians
4
π
An angle of exactly 45° is equal to exactly radians.
4

Worked example 9.1

π
Express radians in degrees.
6
Answer
2π radians = 360° so π radians = 180°
π 180°
radians = = 30°
6 6

Worked example 9.2

The angle subtended as a straight line drawn from an observer on the Earth
moves from one side of the Moon to the other is 0.519°. (This is angle φ in
Figure 9.1b, but remember that the figure is not drawn to scale.) Express this
angle in radians.
Answer
2π
360° = 2π radians so 1° = radians
360
2π
0.519° = 0.519 × radians
360
= 9.06 ×10−3 radians to three signifiicant figures

Question 9.1

Convert the following from radians to degrees:

2π 3π
(a) 0.123 radians (b) radians (c) radians
3 2
Question 9.2

Convert the following from degrees to radians:

(a) 36.5° (angle θ in Figure 9.1a) (b) 90° (c) 210°

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Maths for Science

9.2 A quick look at triangles

Note the labelling system used for angles in Figure 9.9. Angle α could also be
identified as angle BAC, ∠ BAC or Â, but in this book angles will be
labelled on the inside in the way angles α, β and γ have been labelled in
Figure 9.9.
A If you measure the size of the angles inside the triangle shown in Figure 9.9
α with a protractor, you will find that α = 80°, β = 60° and γ = 40°. Thus

α + β + γ = 80° + 60°+ 40° = 180°

This result is true for all triangles, i.e.
β γ
B C
For all triangles, the internal angles add up to 180°.
Figure 9.9 The angles inside a
triangle.
If you wish, you can check that this result holds for all of the triangles shown
in Figure 9.10, irrespective of the shape of the triangle. Figure 9.10e and
Figure 9.10f illustrate two triangles of a particular type; each has one internal
angle equal to 90°, i.e. a right angle, so they are known as right-angled
triangles. Note that the right angles have been labelled in the conventional
way, with a square corner. In a right-angled triangle, since the internal angles
must total 180° and one of the three angles is 90°, it follows that the other
two angles must add up to a total of 90° too. This result means that if you
know that a triangle is right-angled, and you know one of the other angles,
you can find the remaining angle without needing to measure it. For example,
in Figure 9.10e, α = 30°, so β = 90° − 30° = 60°.

α
α
α

β γ β γ β γ
(a) (b) (c)

β γ β α β
(d) (e) (f)

Figure 9.10 Triangles of various shapes.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

Pythagoras’ Theorem provides a way of calculating the length of a third side

of a right-angled triangle from a knowledge of the lengths of the other two
sides. The side opposite the right angle in a right-angled triangle is known as
the hypotenuse, and Pythagoras’ Theorem is commonly stated as

The square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the

sum of the squares of the other two sides.

Pythagoras’ Theorem is accredited to the Greek philosopher Pythagoras of

Samos (Figure 9.11) about 2500 years ago, but it was probably known even
earlier. Pythagoras founded a philosophical and religious school which
attracted many followers and they were responsible for important
developments in astronomy and music as well as in mathematics.
In the triangle shown in Figure 9.12, the hypotenuse has a length h and the
other two sides have lengths a and b. Thus

h2 = a2 + b2 (9.2) Figure 9.11 Pythagoras of

Samos. Pythagoras was born
around 580 BC and died around
You only need to consider the positive square root, so 500 BC.
h = a 2 + b2

b h

Figure 9.12 A right-angled triangle.

If a = 3 cm and b = 4 cm in a right-angled triangle, then

h = a 2 + b2
= (3 cm) 2 + (4 cm)
2
= 9 cm 2 + 16 cm 2

= 25 cm
2

= 5 cm

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Maths for Science

If h = 9.1 m and a = 5.1 m in a different right-angled triangle, then

h2 = a2 + b2 can be rearranged to give b2 = h2 − a2 so

b = h2 − a 2
= (9.1 m) 2 − (5.1 m) 2
= 82.81 m 2 − 26.01 m 2
= 56.80 m 2
= 7.5 m to
t two significant figures

Question 9.3

The base of a ladder of length 4.50 m is placed on level ground at a

distance of 1.15 m from a vertical wall, and the top of the ladder leans
against the wall. The angle between the ground and the ladder is found to
be 75.2°. Calculate
(a) the height that the ladder reaches up the wall
(b) the angle between the wall and the top of the ladder.

Hint: you may find it helpful to start by drawing a diagram of the situation.

Pythagoras’ Theorem provides you with a way of finding unknown lengths

from known lengths; the fact that the internal angles in any triangle add up to
180° provides you with a way of finding unknown angles from known angles.
Trigonometry, discussed in Section 9.3, takes you one stage further by
providing a way of finding unknown lengths from known angles and unknown
angles from known lengths.

9.3 Calculating with angles: trigonometry

Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with the relationships
between the sides and angles of triangles. The Greek astronomer Hipparchus
is credited with its invention, but the principles involved were almost certainly
in use even earlier by the ancient Egyptians surveying the land surrounding
the River Nile. Despite its ancient origins, trigonometry plays an important
part in modern science.
Look at the three right-angled triangles shown in Figure 9.13. These triangles
are similar, i.e. they have the same shape (although their sizes are different);
note in particular that the angle θ is exactly the same in each of the three
triangles. The superscript symbols ‘ ′ ’ and ‘ ″ ’ (‘prime and double-prime’ or
‘dash and double-dash’) indicate lengths relating to the second and third
triangles, respectively.
As you look at Figure 9.13 from left to right, you will see that the triangles
have sides of increasing length; however the ratio of any one side to each of
the other sides remains constant, thus
b b′ b′′
= = (9.3)
a a′ a′′

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

h′′
b′′
h′
b′
h
b
θ θ θ
a a′ a′′

Figure 9.13 Three similar right-angled triangles.

b b′ b′′
= = (9.4)
h h′ h′′
a a′ a′′
= = (9.5)
h h′ h′′

Question 9.4

Verify the results given in Equations 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5 by measuring the
lengths of the sides of the triangles shown in Figure 9.13 and calculating
the following ratios:
b b′ b′′ b b′ b′′ a a′ a′′
, , , , , , , ,
a a′ a′′ h h′ h′′ h h′ h′′

If the angle θ and hence the shape of the triangle had been different, the ratios
would have had different values. Thus each angle θ gives rise to unique
values for b/a, b/h and a/h, and conversely each value for b/a, b/h or a/h in a
triangle leads to a particular value for θ. This result is so important that the
ratios are given the special names tangent, sine and cosine, usually
abbreviated to tan, sin and cos. Tan, sin and cos are known collectively as
trigonometric ratios (or trig. ratios).
Note that the meaning of the word ‘tangent’ here is different from the one
used in Chapter 8 (the tangent to a curve). Here the tangent of angle θ is
defined by

opposite
tan θ = (9.6)
adjacent

This is the ratio previously described as b/a, where b is the side opposite
angle θ and a is the side (other than the hypotenuse) that is adjacent (next to)
angle θ.

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Maths for Science

The sine of angle θ is defined by

opposite
sin θ = (9.7)
hypotenuse

This is the ratio previously described as b/h.

The cosine of angle θ is defined by

adjacent
cos θ = (9.8)
hypotenuse

This is the ratio previously described as a/h.

The sides opposite and adjacent to a particular angle in a right-angled triangle
are usually abbreviated to ‘opp’ and ‘adj’ and the hypotenuse is abbreviated to
‘hyp’, as shown in Figure 9.14.

opp
tan θ =
adj
hyp
opp opp
sin θ =
hyp
θ
adj
adj cos θ =
hyp

Figure 9.14 Definition of sin, cos and tan.

Note that the trigonometric ratios are defined with respect to a particular angle
in a right-angled triangle. If the other non right-angled angle in the triangle in
Figure 9.14 had been considered, the ‘opposite’ and ‘adjacent’ sides would
have been different, and so the sine, cosine and tangent would have been
different too.
The trigonometric ratios were tabulated many years ago and generations of
scientists used tables and slide rules similar to those shown in Figure 9.15 to
calculate lengths from angles and angles from lengths. Nowadays,
trigonometric ratios are available at the press of a calculator button.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

Figure 9.15 A table of trigonometric ratios, a slide rule and a calculator.

9.3.1 Using a calculator for trigonometry

Make sure that you can use your calculator to find trigonometric ratios. The
sine, cosine and tangent functions are likely to be clearly marked as ‘sin’,
‘cos’ and ‘tan’. Remember, from Section 9.1, that angles can be measured in
either degrees or radians. Your calculator should be able to cope with either of
these (and possibly a third angular measure called ‘grad’ too) but you need to
ensure that the calculator is in the correct ‘mode’.
π
Angle θ in Figure 9.14 is 30°, alternatively written as radians, so the sine
6
π π
of angle θ could be expressed as either sin 30° or sin (where is in
6 6
radians, though the word ‘radians’ is usually omitted when finding
π π
trigonometric ratios). Note that sin (which is the sine of the angle and
6 6
⎛π⎞ sin π
could be written as sin ⎜ ⎟ for clarity) is not the same as (which is
⎝6⎠ 6
(sin π)
one-sixth of the sine of the angle π and could be written as for
clarity). 6

Check that you can use your calculator to give:

sin 30° = 0.5, cos 30° = 0.8660, tan 30° = 0.5774

and also to give:
π π π
sin = 0.5, cos = 0.8660, tan = 0.5774
6 6 6
where the answers are either exact or given to four significant figures.

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Maths for Science

Note that when using trigonometric ratios you should always work to at least
four significant figures (although you should round your answer to an
appropriate number of significant figures at the end of a calculation).

Question 9.5

Use your calculator to find:

π π
(a) sin 49° (b) cos (c) tan
8 4
You will also need to be able to use your calculator to find the angle which
has a particular sine, cosine or tangent. For example, if you know that
tan θ = 0.75, then what is θ in degrees? What you are looking for is known as
the inverse tangent or arctangent and you need to use a button on your
calculator labelled as ‘tan−1’ or ‘arctan’. Check that you can use your
calculator to give the correct answer, which is that

tan−1(0.75) = 37° = 0.64 radians to two significant figures

Your calculator should also be able to calculate inverse sine (using a button
labelled as ‘sin−1’ or arcsin) and inverse cosine (‘cos−1’ or arccos). Note that
‘tan−1’, ‘sin−1’ and ‘cos−1’ are properly referred to as the inverse functions of
tan, sin and cos (as they work in the opposite direction) but care needs to be
taken to avoid confusion with reciprocals:
1
tan −1 θ ≠
tan θ
1
sin −1 θ ≠
sin θ
1
cos −1 θ ≠
cos θ
remembering that ≠ means ‘is not equal to’.

Question 9.6

(a) Use your calculator to find the angle α (in degrees) for which

cos α = 0.5253.

(b) Use your calculator to find the angle β (in radians) for which

tan β = 1.5574.

Note that although trigonometric ratios have only been defined for angles in a
right-angled triangle, and most of the angles for which trigonometric ratios are
used in this book are acute (i.e. less than 90°), values of sin, cos and tan can
be found for larger angles too. Use your calculator to check that sin π = 0,
cos π = −1 and tan π = 0 (where π is an angle in radians, equal to 180°). Sine
and cosine functions, of the form y = a sin θ and y = a cos θ (where a is a
constant and the angle θ can take any angle) are extensively used in
describing the motion of waves. The detail is beyond the scope of this book,
but it is another application of maths in science!

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

9.3.2 Using trigonometry in science

You are now in a position to be able to find the height of the tree mentioned
at the beginning of the chapter. This is shown as H in Figure 9.16. You know
that θ = 36.5°. Suppose that D, the distance to the tree from the point at
which the angle θ was measured, is 28.6 m. How tall is the tree?

θ
D

Figure 9.16 Using trigonometry to find the height of a tree. θ = 36.5° and
D = 28.6 m.

From the definition of tangent

opp
tan θ =
adj
H
=
D
This equation can be rearranged using the techniques introduced in Chapter 5.
To make H the subject, reverse the equation and then multiply both sides of
the equation by D. This gives

H = D tan θ
Substituting values for D and θ gives
H = 28.6 m × tan 36.5
°
= 28.6 m × 0.
7400
= 21.2 m to three significant fiigures
It was clearly stated at the beginning of the chapter that θ was the angle
between the ground and a straight line drawn to the top of the tree. But in
reality you are more likely to have taken readings at eye level, perhaps using
an instrument such as a ‘gun clinometer’, whose use is illustrated in
Figure 9.17. The gun clinometer measures the angle shown as α in
Figure 9.17b, and Worked example 9.3 shows how this can be used to find the
height of a tree.

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Maths for Science

(a)

(b)

Figure 9.17 (a) Using a gun clinometer to find the height of a tree; (b) the gun
clinometer gives the angle α.

Worked example 9.3

When used by a man of height 1.8 m and in the way illustrated in
Figure 9.17, a gun clinometer records an angle α of 39.0° at a distance, D, of
18.0 m from a tree. What is the height of the tree?
Answer
You know
H
tan α =
D
In this example α = 39.0° and D = 18.0 m, so

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

H = D tan α
= 18.0 m × tan 39.0°
= 18.0 m × 0.8098
= 14.6 m
On this occasion, however, the reading was taken at eye level, so H is not the
height of the tree. Assuming that it is 1.7 m from the ground to the man’s
eyes and that the ground is horizontal, the height of the tree is 1.7 m more
than H, i.e. the height of the tree is

14.6 m + 1.7 m = 16.3 m

Question 9.8 asks you to use trigonometry in solving another simulated ‘real
world’ problem, but Question 9.7 is given first to enable you to practise the
underlying trigonometric and algebraic skills.

Question 9.7

(a) Find angle θ in Figure 9.18a, giving your answer in degrees.

(b) Find length h in Figure 9.18b.
(c) Find length a in Figure 9.18c.

θ
1.0 m

5.0 m
(a)

10 m
a
h

32°
4.3 m
(b)

π/3

(c)

Figure 9.18 Right-angled triangles for use in Question 9.7 (not drawn to scale).

Question 9.8

A theodolite (a surveying instrument used to measure angles) of height

1.5 m is positioned with its base at sea level somewhere in the
Cambridgeshire Fens, and indicates that the top of Ely Cathedral’s West

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Maths for Science

Tower is at an inclination of 2.27° (see Figure 9.19). The base of Ely

Cathedral is 15 m above sea level and the West Tower is 66 m tall.
Approximately how far is the theodolite from Ely Cathedral?
Hint: start by finding H, the vertical distance between the top of the
theodolite and the top of the West Tower.

66 m
H
theodolite
1.5 m
θθ 15 m

Figure 9.19 Using trigonometry to find distance (not to scale). θ = 2.27°.

In addition to providing a way of finding unknown lengths and angles,

trigonometric ratios appear from time to time in scientific equations. You are
not expected to remember these equations or to understand the background
science; brief explanations are provided in Boxes 9.2–9.5 for interest only.

Box 9.2 Angle of dip and true thickness of strata

Folding and tilting of layers of rocks, caused by forces within the Earth,
have resulted in many layers lying at an angle to the Earth’s surface.
This angle is called the angle of dip and is illustrated in Figure 9.20. The
angle of dip can usually be measured, as can the apparent width of a
stratum (layer) at the Earth’s surface (its outcrop), but it is the true
thickness of the stratum which is of real interest to geologists.

ground ground
W surface W surface
θ θ
angle
of dip T V

(a) (b)

Figure 9.20 (a) The relationship between the angle of dip, θ, width of
outcrop, W, and true thickness, T, for a tilting stratum of rock (shown in
darker brown). (b) The relationship between θ, W, and the vertical thickness,
V, of the stratum.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

The vertical thickness of the stratum (in Figure 9.20b) may also be of
interest, especially when exploring for underground resources (such as
oil) by drilling.
■ Express sin θ in Figure 9.20a in terms of T and W. Hence find an
equation for the true thickness, T, of a stratum in terms of the width,
W, of the outcrop at the Earth’s surface, and the angle of dip, θ.
□ sin θ can be expressed as

T
sin θ =
W
so

T = W sin θ (9.9)

■ Express tan θ in Figure 9.20b in terms of V and W. Hence find an

equation for the vertical thickness, V, of a stratum in terms of the
width, W, of the outcrop at the Earth’s surface, and the angle of
dip, θ.
□ tan θ can be expressed as

V
tan θ =
W
so

V = W tan θ (9.10)

Worked example 9.4

Suppose a stratum of rock, lying at an angle of dip of 28°, has an outcrop of
width 71 m at the Earth’s surface. What is its true thickness?
Answer
Using Equation 9.9

T = W sin θ
where W = 71 m and θ = 28°, the thickness is

T = 71 m × sin 28° = 33 m to two significant figures

The true thickness of the layer is 33 m.

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Maths for Science

Question 9.9

What is the vertical thickness of a stratum of rock which has an outcrop of

width 65 m at the Earth’s surface, and an angle of dip of 36°?

Hint: you should use an appropriate equation from Box 9.2.

Box 9.3 Using trigonometry to determine the radius of

ions
The crystal structure of lithium iodide consists of lithium and iodide ions
(ions are atoms with electric charge due to the loss or gain of electrons),
as shown in Figure 9.21. Both types of ions can be represented by
spheres and, in one model, the spheres can be considered just to touch
each other. Trigonometry can then be used to find the radius of the ions.

r
45°
h

Figure 9.21 Using trigonometry to find the radius of iodide ions (shown in
purple). The small green sphere represents a lithium ion.

If the distance between the centre of a lithium ion and the centre of an
iodide ion is known (this is the so-called internuclear distance, and is
labelled h on Figure 9.21) then
adj r
cos 45° = =
hyp h
where r is the radius of an iodide ion.
Multiplying both sides by h gives

r = h cos 45° (9.11)

Equation 9.11 can be used to find the radius of an iodide ion.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

Question 9.10

The internuclear distance, h, between the ions shown in Figure 9.21 is

measured to be 302 pm (where 1 pm = 10−12 m, as defined in Box 2.2).
Use Equation 9.11 to find the radius of an iodide ion.

Box 9.4 Snell’s Law for seismic waves and light

You may have realised, from the equation for S wave speed, vs = μ /ρ
(used in Chapters 3 and 5), that waves travel at different speeds in
different substances. When a wave moves from one substance into
another in which it travels at a different speed, the change in speed will
cause the wave to change direction. This behaviour is known as
refraction and it is illustrated in Figure 9.22. The wave is passing from a
medium in which its speed is v1 to another medium in which its speed is
v2 (in this case v1 > v2 ). Angle i is called the angle of incidence and
angle r is called the angle of refraction.

v1

boundary v2
r

Figure 9.22 A wave undergoing refraction on passing through a boundary

between two media in which the speeds of propagation, v1 and v2 , are
different.

Snell’s Law of refraction states that

sin i v1
= (9.12)
sin r v2
Refraction occurs for all types of waves, for example, seismic waves
passing from one rock type to another in the Earth, or a beam of light
passing from air to glass, and Snell’s Law is true whatever type of wave
motion is being considered. The law is named after the Dutch scientist
Willebrord Snellius (or Snel van Royen) (1596–1650) but the law was
stated very much earlier, by the mathematician Abu Said al-Ala Ibn Sahl
in his book On the Burning Instruments, written in about AD984.

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Maths for Science

Worked example 9.5

Calculate the angle of refraction of a seismic wave which has an angle of
incidence of 35° on crossing a boundary from rock 1 with
v1 = 6.3 × 103 m s−1 into rock 2 with v2 = 8.2 × 103 m s−1.
Answer
You are trying to find the angle of refraction r and know that
v1 = 6.3 × 103 m s−1, v2 = 8.2 × 103 m s−1 and i = 35°.
Snell’s Law states that
sin i v1
=
sin r v2
Multiplying both sides by sin r gives
v1
sin i = × sin r
v2
Reversing the equation and multiplying both sides by v2 gives
v1 sin r = v2 sin i
Dividing both sides by v1 gives
v2 sin i
sin r =
v1
Substituting gives

8.2 ×103 m s −1 × sin 35°

sin r =
6.3 × 103
m s −1
= 0.
7466
So r = sin−1(0.7466) = 48° to two significant figures.
Note that in this case the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of
incidence. This is because v2 is greater than v1 .

Question 9.11

A beam of light strikes an air–glass interface with an angle of incidence of

45.0° and the angle of refraction (in the glass) is found to be 26.3°. The
speed of light in air is 3.00 × 108 m s−1. Use Snell’s Law to find the speed
of light in glass.

Box 9.5 Using a diffraction grating

A diffraction grating is simply a series of extremely narrow, evenly
spaced slits through which light can pass. When a light beam of a single
colour (i.e. a single wavelength) hits the diffraction grating at an angle of

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

90°, as shown in Figure 9.23, the grating acts in such a way as to split
up the incoming beam, forming what is called a diffraction pattern. Some
light passes straight through the grating; this is called the zero-order
beam. Other beams are produced at angles θ1, θ2, etc. from the straight­
through position and are known as the 1st, 2nd, etc. order diffracted
beams.

diffraction screen
grating second order

first order
θ2
light beam θ1
θ1 zero order

θ2
first order

second order

Figure 9.23 The pattern formed by a diffraction grating.

The angle θn of the nth order beam is given by the equation

nλ
sin θ n = (9.13)
d
where λ is the wavelength of the light and d is the grating spacing
(i.e. the distance between two adjacent slits in the grating).

Worked example 9.6

A beam of light of wavelength 5.89 × 10−7 m passes through a diffraction
grating and the second-order diffracted beam is at θ2 = 45.9°. Find the grating
spacing d.
Answer
In this case, λ = 5.89 × 10−7 m, n = 2, θn = 45.9°
Multiplying both sides of Equation 9.13 by d gives

d sin θn = nλ

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Maths for Science

Dividing both sides by sin θn gives

nλ
d=
sin θ n
2 × 5.89 ×10−7 m
=
sin 45.9°
= 1.64 ×10−6 m
So the grating spacing is 1.64 × 10−6 m.

Question 9.12

Light of a different colour (i.e. a different wavelength) passes through the

same diffraction grating as in Worked example 9.6 (so d = 1.64 × 10−6 m).
The first-order diffracted beam is at θ1 = 24.1°. Find the wavelength, λ, of
this light.

9.4 Using trigonometry and Pythagoras’ Theorem

to help with vectors
This book has used the letter v to represent speed; but why v rather than s?
The letter v is the first letter of ‘velocity’ which, in everyday speech, is used
interchangeably with speed. However, in science the two words have subtly
different meanings. Velocity is an example of a vector, a quantity that has
direction as well as magnitude (size). In contrast, speed is a scalar quantity;
it has magnitude only.
■ In terms of a strict interpretation of vector and scalar quantities, what is
wrong with the statement ‘the car has a velocity of 50 km hour−1’?
□ No direction has been given, so this is a scalar quantity, i.e. the speed of
the car. To turn it into a vector you would need to say, for example, that
‘the car has a velocity of 50 km hour−1 due north’.

Another example of the difference between speed and velocity comes when
considering an object orbiting another object at constant speed. Consider, for
example, the Earth orbiting the Sun at about 30 km s−1 (as discussed in
Box 4.1). The Earth’s speed relative to the Sun is approximately constant, but
its direction of movement is constantly changing, so its velocity is constantly
changing too.
Many of the quantities considered elsewhere in this book (e.g. mass,
v
temperature and energy) are scalars, but velocity is not the only scientific
quantity to be a vector. There are many other vector quantities, including force
(a) (b) and acceleration.
A vector may be represented diagrammatically by an arrow, the length of
Figure 9.24 Representing a which specifies the vector’s magnitude, and the direction of which is the same
vector: (a) in printed text; (b) by as the vector’s. By convention, vectors are printed as bold symbols, for
hand. example v , while the magnitude of the vector is written normally, for

220
 9 Angles and trigonometry

example v . Handwritten vector symbols should be written with a wavy

underline, as shown in Figure 9.24.
To specify a vector fully, both its magnitude (which is always positive) and its
direction must be stated, e.g. ‘F is a force of 10 N acting vertically
downwards’. The magnitude of F may be written as

F = | F | = 10 N
The vertical lines drawn either side of the F provide an alternative way of
indicating the modulus (magnitude) of the vector.
Adding vector quantities together is not as straightforward as adding scalar
b
quantities, since both magnitude and direction need to be taken into account.
Fortunately trigonometry and Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used to help.
a
Imagine an object being acted on by the two forces shown in Figure 9.25.
You want to know the overall effect; what is the total force acting on the
object as a result of a and b? It is not immediately obvious how to proceed
since the two forces have different sizes and are acting in different directions.
One way forward is to resolve each vector into components; any two­
dimensional vector (such as one drawn on the page of a book, as here) can be
characterised by its components along two perpendicular axes. Figure 9.26 Figure 9.25 Two
forces a and b acting
shows the components of the vector a along two axes x and y. The
on an object.
components ax and ay are scalar quantities and trigonometry can be used to
find them.
From the definition of cosine
y
adj
cos θ =
hyp
where on this occasion ‘adj’ = ax and ‘hyp’ = a (the magnitude of the
vector a) so ay a
a
cos θ = x
a
and rearranging gives θ
ax
x
ax = a cos θ
Similarly Figure 9.26 The x- and y­
components of a.
opp
sin θ =
hyp
ay
=
a
and rearranging gives

ay = a sin θ

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Maths for Science

If a has magnitude a = 6.0 N and acts at 60° to the x-axis

ax = 6.0 N × cos 60°

= 3.
0 N

a y = 6.0 N × sin 60°

= 5.2 N

Similarly, if b has magnitude b = 2.8 N and acts at 25° to the x-axis

bx = 2.
8 N × cos 25°
= 2.
5 N

by = 2.8 N × sin 25°

= 1.2 N

To find the x-component of the resultant force c, the x-components of a and b

are simply added:

cx = ax + bx = 3.0 N + 2.5 N = 5.5 N

Similarly, the y-component of c is given by

cy = ay + by = 5.2 N + 1.2 N = 6.4 N

The resultant force c is shown in Figure 9.27.
y
Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used to find the magnitude of c from its
components

c 2 = cx2 + c 2y
c = cx2 + c 2y
cy c
= (5.5 N) 2 + (6.4 N)
2
= 8.4 N

φ
cx x The direction in which c acts is defined by the angle between c and the x-axis
(labelled φ in Figure 9.27).

Figure 9.27 Finding c from its opp

tan φ =
x- and y-components. adj
cy
=
cx
6.4 N
=
5.5 N

= 1.1636

Thus φ = tan−1(1.1636) = 49° to two significant figures. So the resultant force

c has a magnitude of 8.4 N and acts at an angle of 49° to the horizontal axis.
(Note that working has been shown to two significant figures throughout, for
clarity. In general, additional digits should be given in intermediate values, to
avoid rounding errors.)

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

Question 9.13

Find the x- and y-components of the vector v shown in Figure 9.28. The y
vector has a magnitude of 8.6 m s−1 and acts at an angle, α, of 42° to the
x-axis.

Question 9.14

Find the magnitude and direction of the vector F shown in Figure 9.29.
vy v
Fx = 4.0 N and Fy = 3.0 N.

y α
vx x

Figure 9.28 The vector v . For

use in Question 9.13.

Fy F

Fx x

Figure 9.29 The vector F. For use in Question 9.14.

9.5 Small angle approximations

When the angle under consideration is small, some useful approximations can
be employed.
■ Use your calculator to find sin θ, tan θ and cos θ (each to five significant
figures) for θ = 0.5°.
□ sin 0.5° = 8.7265 × 10−3, tan 0.5° = 8.7269 × 10−3 and
cos 0.5° = 0.999 96.

■ Convert 0.5° into radians, again giving your answer to five significant
figures.
□ 360° = 2π, so

2π
1° =
360

2π

0.5° = 0.5 ×
360
= 8.7266 ×10−3 radians

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Maths for Science

Comparing the answers to the above questions shows that sin θ ≈ θ and
tan θ ≈ θ, when θ is measured in radians, and also that cos θ ≈ 1. These
results are true for all small angles, in other words

For all small angles

cos θ ≈ 1
For small angles stated in radians,

sin θ ≈ θ and tan θ ≈ θ

These small angle approximations hold within 0.5% accuracy for angles less
than about 0.1 radians (6°). Remember though that the final two
approximations are only valid for angles measured in radians.

Question 9.15

For θ = 2.5°, use small angle approximations to estimate sin θ, cos θ and
tan θ.

Small angle approximations are useful in astronomy, because objects at a great

distance subtend a very small angle when observed from the Earth. Consider
the situation shown in Figure 9.30 where φ is a small angle. For distant
objects, it turns out that the diameter of the object (the Moon on this
occasion), D, and the distance to the object, L, are related by the
approximation
D
φ (in radians) ≈ (9.14)
L

Earth Moon
r
φ L D
s
r

Figure 9.30 Using small angle approximations to find the Moon’s diameter (not
to scale).

Equation 9.14, which can be used to find the distance to an object of known
diameter or the diameter of an object at a known distance, can be derived in
two ways.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

In Figure 9.30, the tan of half the subtended angle is given exactly by

⎛ φ ⎞ opp
tan ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 2 ⎠ adj
1D
= 2
L
D
=
2L
φ φ ⎛φ ⎞ φ
is a small angle so when is in radians, tan ⎜ ⎟ ≈ . Therefore
2 2 ⎝2⎠ 2
φ D D
≈ i.e. φ ≈
2 2L L
Alternatively, from the definition of a radian (Equation 9.1)
s
φ (in radians) =
r
When the object is distant, φ is small, the arc length s is approximately equal
to the diameter D and the radius of arc r is approximately equal to the
distance to the object L, i.e. s ≈ D and r ≈ L so
D
φ≈
L

Worked example 9.7

The Moon subtends an angle φ of 9.06 × 10−3 radians (from Worked
example 9.2) and the distance to the Moon, L, is 3.84 × 108 m. Calculate the
Moon’s diameter to two significant figures.
Answer
From Equation 9.14
D
φ (in radians) ≈
L
Reversing this equation and multiplying both sides by L gives
D ≈ Lφ
Substituting values for L and φ (remembering that angles measured in radians
can be written without units)

D ≈ 3.84 ×108 m × 9.06 ×10−3

≈ 3.5 ×106 m to two significant figures
The Moon’s diameter is 3.5 × 106 m.

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Maths for Science

Question 9.16

A man standing on a beach observes that a passing car ferry subtends an

angle of 3.5°. The ferry is 86 m long. Use a small angle approximation to
calculate how far it is from the ferry to the man? You should assume that
the ferry is perpendicular to the direction in which it is being observed, as
shown in Figure 9.31, and give your answer to two significant figures.

3.5° car ferry 86 m

observer

Figure 9.31 A car ferry observed from a beach (for Question 9.16) (not to scale).

9.6 Review of Chapter 9

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. use degrees or radians to measure angles, and convert between these two
systems of angular measure
. find an internal angle in a triangle if you have been told the other two
internal angles
. calculate the length of any side of a right-angled triangle if you have been
told the lengths of the other two sides
. use a scientific calculator to find angles from trigonometric ratios (sin, cos
and tan only), and vice versa
. use trigonometry to find unknown angles and sides in right-angled
triangles
. use trigonometry to resolve a vector into its components
. apply small angle approximations when appropriate
. apply knowledge gained in this chapter and earlier in the book to scientific
examples involving angles and trigonometry.

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 9 Angles and trigonometry

Question 9.17

Check your understanding of Chapter 9 by answering the following:

(a) Find side h and angles θ and φ (in degrees) in the right-angled triangle
shown in Figure 9.32a.

h
12 cm

Fy
F

θ θ
Fx
5.0 cm x
(a) (b)

Figure 9.32 (a) A right-angled triangle. For use in Question 9.17a. (b) The
vector F. For use in Question 9.17b.

(b) Find the x- and y-components of the vector F shown in Figure 9.32b.
The vector has a magnitude of 82 N and acts at an angle, θ, of 27° to the
x-axis.
(c) Viewed from Earth, the Sun subtends an angle of approximately 0.50°.
Given that the distance to the Sun is 1.50 × 1011 m, estimate its diameter.

227
 10 Logarithms

Logarithms
10
‘Seeing there is nothing (right well-beloved Students of the Mathematics)
that is so troublesome to mathematical practice, nor that doth more molest
and hinder calculators, than the multiplications, divisions, square and cubical
extractions of great numbers, which besides the tedious expense of time are
for the most part subject to many slippery errors, I began therefore to
consider in my mind by what certain and ready art I might remove those
hindrances.’

Thus wrote John Napier in the preface to his book Mirifici logarithmorum
canonis descripio in 1614 (the quote is from the English translation of 1616).
Napier was a wealthy Scottish landowner and theologian, who claimed to
study mathematics only as a hobby. Despite this, he invented both logarithms
(or ‘logs’ for short) and ‘Napier’s bones’ (see Figure 10.1) with the express
purpose of making it easier to do multiplications and divisions. Logarithms
were in regular use for this purpose well into the second half of the 20th
century.

Figure 10.1 Napier’s bones are four-sided rods inscribed with the multiplication
tables. Their memorable name arose from the fact that some early versions were
made from ivory and so looked like bones.

Nowadays electronic calculators and computers are available to help with

complicated arithmetic, so you may be wondering why this book, written in
the 21st century, still includes a chapter on logarithms. Over the years, in
addition to being an invaluable aid to arithmetic, logarithms have proved to
have many uses and they remain widely used in these applications. For
example, the pH-scale (used to describe acidity) is based on logarithms, and
the curved graph representing the variation of activity with time for a
radioactive source (Chapter 7 Figure 7.37) can be turned into a straight line
by plotting the logarithm of activity against time. This chapter will explain
what logarithms are, and demonstrate some of their uses in modern science.

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Maths for Science

10.1 Logarithms to base 10

Henry Briggs (1561–1630), the first professor of geometry at Gresham
College, London, visited Napier in the summer of 1615 and, with Napier’s
blessing, developed the type of logarithms known as logarithms to base 10,
or common logarithms.
You know, from Section 1.3.1 that, for example,

106 = 1000 000

103 = 1000
100 = 1

10−1 = = 0.1
10

10−5 = 5 = 0.000 01
10
where 10 is known as the base number.
The process of obtaining a logarithm to base 10 (usually described as ‘taking
the log to base 10’) is the inverse of raising the base 10 to a power. In each of
the above examples the logarithm to base 10 of the number on the right-hand
side of the equation is simply the power to which the 10 on the left-hand side
is raised. The logarithm to base 10 is abbreviated log10 in this book (you may
also see the abbreviation log, without a subscript, used to describe a logarithm
to base 10) so, for example,

103 = 1000 so log10 1000 = 3

10 raised to the so the logarithm to

power 3 equals 1000 base 10 of 1000 is 3

100 = 1 so log10 1 = 0

10 raised to the so the logarithm to

power 0 equals 1 base 10 of 1 is 0

10–1 = 0.1 so log10 0.1 = –1

10 raised to the so the logarithm to

power –1 equals 0.1 base 10 of 0.1 is –1

More generally:

The logarithm to base 10 of p is the power to which 10 must be raised in

order to equal p.
i.e. if p = 10n, then log10 p = n.

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 10 Logarithms

The definition of a logarithm to base 10 applies for fractional values of n too.

For example, you know, from Section 1.3.4, that 3 10 can be written as 101/3.
This means that
1
101/3 = 3 10 so log10 ( 3 10 ) = 3

10 raised to the so the logarithm to

1
power 13 equals 3 10 base 10 of 3 10 is 3

In fact, n could be any number; you may like to start by using your calculator
to check the following to four significant figures (use either the ‘xy’ or ‘^’
button or, if your calculator has one, a button marked ‘10x’):

100.1235 = 1.329
103.456 = 2858
10−1.234 = 0.058 34
For the last of these:

10–1.234 = 0.05834 so log10 0.05834 = –1.234

10 raised to the power so the logarithm to base

–1.234 equals 0.05834 10 of 0.05834 is –1.234

Question 10.1

Without further use of your calculator, write down the values of:
(a) log10 100, (b) log10 0.001, (c) log10 10 , (d) log10 1.329.

Since taking a logarithm to base 10 is the inverse of raising 10 to a power, the

‘log10’ or ‘log’ button on a calculator should reverse the operation of the ‘10x’
button. You can use your calculator to check this for an arbitrarily chosen
number, e.g. 4.8; the ‘10x’ button should give 63095.73445 and finding the
logarithm to base ten of the latter number returns the display to 4.8. The fact
that raising 10 to a power is the inverse of taking a logarithm to base 10 is
reflected in fact that 10x is sometimes referred to as an ‘antilog’.

Question 10.2

Use your calculator to find the following to four decimal places:

(a) log10 2, (b) log10 2000.

Question 10.3

(a) Use your calculator to find 101.5 to four significant figures.

(b) If log10 p = 1.5, what is p?

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Maths for Science

It is worth noting that

. It is not possible to obtain the logarithm to base 10 of a negative number,
or of zero: if you try this on your calculator it will produce an error
message.
. It is possible to obtain logarithms of pure numbers only; you cannot obtain
the logarithm of a quantity possessing units. Strictly, if a quantity
possesses units, then it should be divided by those units before taking the
logarithm. You will see how this is done in practice in Box 10.1.

10.2 Logarithmic scales revisited

Logarithmic scales, such as the Richter scale for earthquake magnitude and
the decibel scale for relative loudness of sounds, were discussed in Box 2.3.
The word ‘logarithmic’ is used to describe such scales simply because they
are based on logarithms; both the decibel and the Richter scales are based on
logarithms to base 10. It was stated in Chapter 2 that logarithmic scales are
used when the quantities being measured vary over a wide range (see
Figure 2.4); the answer to Question 10.2 illustrates why logarithms are so
useful in this context. The log to base 10 of 2 is 0.3010, but the log to base
10 of 2000, a number a thousand times bigger than 2, is just 3.3010 and it
turns out that the log to base 10 of 2000 000 is only 6.3010. Thus taking
logarithms provides a way of coping with a scale that covers a huge range of
values.
As a more specific example of this, consider the decibel. This unit was
introduced in Box 2.3, but now it can be defined properly. The loudness of a
sound in decibels, relative to a threshold value (a sound which is just audible)
is given by:

⎛
I
⎞

relative intensity in decibels = 10

×
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝
I 0 ⎠

where I0 is the intensity of the threshold sound and I is the intensity of the
sound in question. So the sound of a pneumatic drill with an intensity 1012
times that of the threshold has:

relative intensity in decibels = 10 × log10(1012) = 10 × 12 = 120

The pH scale, widely used as a measure of acidity, is also based on logarithms
to base 10. The pH scale is discussed further in Box 10.1.

Box 10.1 The pH scale

The pH scale was developed by the Danish biochemist Søren Sørenson
in 1909. ‘pH’ is an abbreviation for pondis hydrogenii or ‘potential of
hydrogen’ and the scale is based on a measurement of the concentration
of hydrogen ions in the solution in question (a hydrogen ion is a
hydrogen atom which has lost an electron and so is positively charged).
Concentration and its units, mol dm−3, were introduced in Box 4.2. The

232
 10 Logarithms

hydrogen ion concentration of pure water at 25 °C is 1 × 10−7 mol dm−3,

whilst that of lemon juice (more acidic than pure water) is about
8 × 10−3 mol dm−3 and that of household bleach (considerably less
acidic than pure water) is about 1 × 10−12 mol dm−3. Note that the range
of values is very wide and also that all of the values are quite small,
which makes them rather tricky to deal with. The definition of pH
(which handles both of these things) is:

⎛ hydrogen ion concentration in mol dm −3 ⎞

pH = −log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ mol dm −3 ⎠
The hydrogen ion concentration is measured in units of mol dm−3 but the
value is divided by mol dm−3 before the logarithm is taken, thus giving
the logarithm of a pure number, as required. From the definition of pH,
the pH of pure water is:

⎛ 1 × 10−7 mol dm −3 ⎞ −7
−log10 ⎜ −3 ⎟ = −log10 (10 ) = −(−7) = 7
⎝ mol dm ⎠
the pH of lemon juice is:

⎛ 8 × 10−3 mol dm −3 ⎞ −3
−log10 ⎜ −3 ⎟ = −log10 (8 × 10 ) = −(−2.1) = 2.1
⎝ mol dm ⎠
and the pH of household bleach is:

⎛ 1 × 10−12 mol dm −3 ⎞ −12

−log10 ⎜ −3 ⎟ = −log10 (10 ) = −(−12) = 12
⎝ mol dm ⎠
This produces a much more manageable scale. The entire range of values
for hydrogen ion concentration, from 1.0 mol dm−3 down to
1.0 × 10−14 mol dm−3, is represented by pH values between 0 and 14. A
pH of 7 (the value for pure water) represents a neutral solution, with
lower numbers being more acidic and higher numbers being less acidic.

Question 10.4

Calculate, to two significant figures, the pH of the following:

(a) human blood, with a hydrogen ion concentration of
4.0 × 10−8 mol dm−3
(b) hair shampoo, with a hydrogen ion concentration of
3.2 × 10−6 mol dm−3.

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Maths for Science

10.3 Rules of logarithms

Much of the usefulness of logarithms follows from several rules which are
summarised below:

log10 10n = n (10.1)

log10(p × q) = log10 p + log10 q (10.2)
⎛ p⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟ = log10 p − log10 q (10.3)
⎝q⎠
log10(pn) = n log10 p (10.4)

Equation 10.1 is a restatement of the definition of a logarithm to base ten. The

other rules can be derived from the rules for manipulating exponents, given in
Chapter 1. The derivations are not given here, but you can verify Equations
10.2, 10.3 and 10.4 by substituting numerical values for p, q and n as shown
below.
■ Verify Equation 10.3 by substituting values of p = 2 and q = 1000. Work
to four decimal places.
□ Substituting p = 2 and q = 1000 into the left-hand side of Equation 10.3
gives

⎛ p⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
log10 ⎜ ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟
q
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠

= log10 0.
002
= −2.6990 to four decimal places

Substituting p = 2 and q = 1000 into the right-hand side of Equation 10.3

gives

log10 p − log10 q = 0.3010 − 3

= −2.6990 to four decimal places

Thus Equation 10.3 seems reasonable.

Worked example 10.1

Use the fact that log10 3 = 0.4771 to obtain a value for log10 3000 without
using a calculator. You should give your answer to four decimal places.

234
 10 Logarithms

Answer
log10 3000 = log10 (3 × 1000)
= log10 3 + log10 1000 (from Equation 10.2)
= 0.4771 + log10 103
= 0.4771 + 3 (from Equation 10.1)
= 3.4771 to four decimal places

Question 10.5

Use the fact that log10 3 = 0.4771, and Equations 10.1 to 10.4, to find the
following without using a calculator. Give your answers to four decimal
places.
(a) log10 300
(b) log10 0.03
(c) log10 9 (Hint: remember that 9 = 32)

These rules for the manipulation of logarithms explain how logarithms were
used to simplify the processes of multiplication and division. Equation 10.2
gives a way of turning multiplication into addition; Equation 10.3 gives a way
of turning division into subtraction; and Equation 10.4 gives a way of
calculating powers and roots.
The rules of logarithms have other uses too, as illustrated in Box 10.2.

Box 10.2 k-value analysis

k-value analysis provides a methodology for studying the different
factors that affect the size of a biological population. Consider, for
example, a population of 24 pairs of owls studied by H. N. Southern in
Wytham Wood, near Oxford, in 1952–1953. In order for a pair of owls
to have young which themselves will breed, various things must happen:
for example, the parents must breed; the eggs must hatch; they must
produce fledglings that survive to be owlets; the owlets must live long
enough to form pairs. Things can go wrong at every stage! The k-value
(which you can think of as the ‘killing factor’) is a measure of the
killing power of each of the things that can go wrong.
At each stage:

⎛N ⎞
k = log10 ⎜ B ⎟
⎝ NA ⎠
where NB is the number of individuals alive before this stage and NA is
the number of individuals alive afterwards.

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Maths for Science

For example, 43 eggs were laid (N2 in Table 10.1) but only 16 eggs
hatched (N3 in Table 10.1) so the k-value for this stage is:

⎛
N
⎞
⎛
43
⎞

k
3 =
log10 ⎜ 2 ⎟ =
log10 ⎜ ⎟ =
log10 (2.6875) =
0.4293
N

⎝
3 ⎠
⎝
16
⎠

Table 10.1 k-values for various stages in the breeding of 24 pairs of owls in
Wytham Wood in 1952–1953.

Stage Number k-value

maximum number N0 = 72 ⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 72 ⎞
k1 = log10 ⎜ 0 ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.1498
of eggs if all pairs N
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 51 ⎠
bred and laid 3 eggs

maximum number N1 = 51 ⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 51 ⎞
k2 = log10 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0741
of eggs from the N
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 43 ⎠
17 pairs that did breed

actual number N2 = 43 ⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 43 ⎞
k3 = log10 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.4293
of eggs laid N
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠

number of eggs N3 = 16 ⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 16 ⎞
k4 = log10 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0280
that hatched ⎝ N4 ⎠ ⎝ 15 ⎠

number of chicks N4 = 15 ⎛N ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
k5 = log10 ⎜ 4 ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟ = ..........

that fledged ⎝ N5 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

number of N5 = 9 ⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 72 ⎞
k tot = log10 ⎜ 0 ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.9031
owlets that survived N
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠
to form pairs

■ Use the data in Table 10.1 to find k5. Enter your result in
Table 10.1.
□ Substituting N4 = 15 and N5 = 9 gives

⎛
N ⎞

k
5 =
log10 ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝
N5 ⎠

⎛
15
⎞

=
log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝
9
⎠

= log10 (1.6667)
=
0.2218

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 10 Logarithms

k-value analysis gives an easy way of comparing the effect of different

killing factors and ktot, the total k-value for all stages is

⎛N ⎞ ⎛ 72 ⎞
k tot = log10 ⎜ 0 ⎟ = log10 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.9031
N
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠
■ Use the data given in Table 10.1 to find k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5
□ k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5 = 0.1498 + 0.0741 + 0.4293 + 0.0280 + 0.2218
= 0.9030
Note that, within rounding errors, this is the same as the value
calculated for ktot from

⎛N ⎞
k tot = log10 ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎝ N5 ⎠

The result ktot = k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5 can also be proved from the rules

of logarithms:

⎛N ⎞
k1 = log10 ⎜ 0 ⎟ = log10 N 0 − log10 N1 (from Equation 10.3)
⎝ N1 ⎠
Similarly

⎛N ⎞
k2 = log10 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = log10 N1 − log10 N 2
⎝ N2 ⎠
and so on, until

⎛N ⎞
k5 = log10 ⎜ 4 ⎟ = log10 N 4 − log10 N 5
⎝ N5 ⎠
So
k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5 = (log10 N 0 − log10 N1) + (log10 N1 − log10 N 2 ) + …
+ (log10 N 4 − log10 N5 )
Apart from log10 N0 and log10 N5, all of the logarithms on the right-hand
side are both added and subtracted, so
k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 + k5 = log10 N 0 − log10 N5
⎛N ⎞
= log10 ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎝ N5 ⎠
= k tot

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Maths for Science

The theory behind log-log and log-linear graphs (described in the next section)
relies on the application of the rules of logarithms to algebraic expressions,
illustrated in Worked example 10.2.

Worked example 10.2

Which of the following expressions are equivalent to log10(3x−2)?
(i) −2 log10 3x (ii) log10 3 − log10 x−2 (iii) log10 3 − 2log10 x

1 1
(iv) log10 3 + log10 x−2 (v) log10 3 + (vi)
log10 x 2 log10 3x 2
Answer
log10 (3x −2 ) = log10 3 + log10 x −2 (from Equation 10.2)
= log10 3 − 2loog10 x (from Equation 10.4)
Thus the expressions that are equivalent to log10(3x−2) are (iii) and (iv).

Question 10.6

Which three of the following expressions are equivalent?

(i) log10 2x3 (ii) log10 2 + 3 log10 x (iii) 3 log10 2x
(iv) 6 log10 x2 (v) 2 log10 x3 (vi) log10 2 + log10 x3

10.4 Using logarithms to make curves straight

You were introduced, in Chapter 7, to various graphs of different shapes. For
example, a graph of the area A of a circle against its radius r is a parabola;
the equation of this graph is A = πr2. Similarly, the graph of the number of
radioactive nuclei N against elapsed time t is an exponential; the equation of
this graph is N = N0e−λt. Logarithms can be used to turn these and other
curved graphs into straight-line graphs, and a knowledge of the rules of
logarithms (from Section 10.3) can be used to interpret the resulting straight­
line graphs and thus to determine physical constants such as N0 and λ.

10.4.1 Log–log graphs

Figure 10.2a shows a graph of A against r for the equation A = πr2. One
method for turning this curve into a straight line was introduced in
Section 7.4.1. Another method is to plot log10 A against log10 r. As shown in
Figure 10.2b this also gives a straight line. A graph of this type is known as a
log–log graph. But why should it be a straight line?
Taking the log to base 10 of both sides of the equation A = πr2 gives:

log10 A = log10 (πr 2 )

= log10 π + log10 r 2 (from Equation 10.2)
= log10 π + 2 log10 r (from Equation 10.4)

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 10 Logarithms

A log10 A

0 r 0 log10 r
(a) (b)

Figure 10.2 Graphs of (a) A against r, and (b) log10 A against log10 r for the
equation A = πr2.

Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives

log10 A = 2 log10 r + log10 π

This can be compared with the general equation of a straight-line graph,
y = mx + c (Chapter 7 Equation 7.1)

log10 A = 2 log10 r +
log10 π
y =
m x + c

gradient intercept on

the vertical axis

This comparison implies that a graph of log10 A against log10 r should be a

straight line of gradient 2 and intercept on the vertical axis of log10 π.
Figure 10.3 is an accurately plotted graph of log10(A/cm2) against log10(r/cm)
for the data in Table 10.2.

Table 10.2 The radius and area of various circles, and corresponding logarithms to
base 10.

r/cm A/cm2 log10(r/cm) log10(A/cm2)

1 π 0 0.497
2 4π 0.301 1.099
3 9π 0.477 1.451
4 16π 0.602 1.701
5 25π 0.699 1.895

Question 10.7

Find the gradient and intercept on the vertical axis of the straight line
shown in Figure 10.3.

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Maths for Science

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8
log10(A/cm2)

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
log10(r/cm)

Figure 10.3 A graph of log10(A/cm2) against log10(r/cm).

Worked example 10.3

If a graph is plotted of log10 y against log10 x for the equation y = 3x−2, what
will be the gradient and the intercept on the vertical axis?
Answer
Taking the log to base 10 of both sides of the equation y = 3x−2 gives (as in
Worked example 10.2)

log10 y = log10 (3x −2 )

= log10 3 + log10 x −2 (from Equation 10.2)

= log10 3 − 2 log10 x (from Equation 10.4)

Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives

log10 y = −2 log10 x + log10 3

Comparison with the general equation of a straight-line graph, y = mx + c,
reveals that m = −2 and c = log10 3, so the gradient of the graph will be −2
and the intercept on the vertical axis will be log10 3.
Figure 10.4 shows graphs of y against x and log10 y against log10 x for the
equation y = 3x−2, but note that it is possible to answer Worked example 10.3
without plotting either of these graphs.

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 10 Logarithms

log10 y
y
0.6
0.4

0.2
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
−0.2 log10 x

−0.4

−0.6
0 x
(a) (b)

Figure 10.4 Graphs of (a) y against x and (b) log10 y against log10 x for the equation y = 3x−2.

Question 10.8

If a graph is plotted of log10 y against log10 x for the equation y = 2x3,

what will be the gradient and the intercept on the vertical axis?

Plotting graphs of the logarithm of one quantity against the logarithm of

another quantity can be used to solve scientific mysteries, as is illustrated in
Box 10.3.

Box 10.3 Kepler’s third law

The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was a meticulous
observer and recorder of data. He developed accurate sighting devices
and kept a detailed record of the positions of the planets at regular
intervals for more than 20 years. Tycho Brahe’s tables provided the data
which enabled Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) to work out mathematical
relationships describing the motion of the planets.
Plotting the time T it takes for a planet to orbit the Sun (known as its
orbital period) against its average distance, a, from the Sun gives a graph
of the shape shown in Figure 10.5. TE and aE are the values of T and a
for the Earth, and the values of T and a for other planets have been
divided by these so as to make the numbers plotted more manageable.
There is clearly a relationship between T and a but what is it? It took
Kepler a long time to work this out, but logarithms can be used to help.
Start by assuming that the relationship is of the form T = kan where k
and n are constants. The problem now is to find the value of n.
Taking the log to base 10 of both sides of the equation T = kan gives

log10 T = log10 (ka n )

= log10 k + log10 a n (from Equation 10.2)
= log10 k + n log10 a (from Equation 10.4)

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Maths for Science

T
TE
30 Saturn
28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12
Jupiter
10

4 Mars
Earth
2 Venus
Mercury
0 2 4 6 8 10 a
aE

Figure 10.5 A graph of T/TE against a/aE.

Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives

log10 T = n log10 a + log10 k

Comparison with the general equation of a straight-line graph,
y = mx + c, shows that a graph of log10 T against log10 a will be a
straight line with gradient n and intercept log10 k.
Figure 10.6 shows the same data as Figure 10.5, but now the logarithms
of the variables have been plotted.
■ What is the gradient of the line in Figure 10.6?
□ 1.5 − 0.0
gradient = = 1.5
1.0 − 0.0

This means that T = ka1.5, i.e. T = ka3/2.

Squaring both sides gives T2 = k2a3, so the square of the time it takes for
a planet to orbit the Sun is proportional to the cube of its average
distance from the Sun, i.e. T2 ∝ a3. This is Kepler’s third law.

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 10 Logarithms

log10 T
TE

1.5
Saturn

1.0 Jupiter

0.5

Mars

− 0.5 Earth 0.5 1.0

log10 a
Venus aE

− 0.5
Mercury

Figure 10.6 A graph of log10(T/TE) against log10(a/aE).

10.4.2 Log–linear graphs

Graphs of exponential functions such as N = N0e−λt (Chapter 7 Equation 7.3)
can be turned into straight-line graphs using a similar methodology to the one
employed in Section 10.4.1, but now the logarithm of one variable should be
plotted against the other variable itself (not its logarithm). The resultant graph
is known as a log–linear graph. Figure 10.7 shows graphs of N against t and
log10 N against t for the equation N = N0e−λt. Note that the graph of N against
t is a curve, but that the log–linear graph of log10 N against t is a straight line.
To show why the graph of log10 N against t is a straight line, start by taking
the log to base 10 of both sides of the equation N = N0e−λt. This gives

log10 N = log10 (N 0e −λt )

= log10 N 0 + log10 e −λt (from Equation 10.2))
= log10 N 0 − λ t log10 e (from Equation 10.4)

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N log10 N

0
0 t t
(a) (b)

Figure 10.7 Graphs of (a) N against t and (b) log10 N against t for the equation
N = N0e−λt.

Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives
log10 N = −λ t log10 e + log10 N
0
= (−λ log10 e)t + log
10 N 0
This can be compared with the general equation of a straight-line graph,
y = mx + c

log10 N = –λlog10e t + log10 N0

y = m x + c

gradient intercept on
the vertical axis
So a graph of log10 N against t will be a straight line with a gradient of
−λ log10 e and an intercept on the vertical axis of log10 N0. Note that the
gradient of Figure 10.7b is negative, as expected.

Question 10.9

If a graph is plotted of log10 n against t for the equation n = n0eat

(Chapter 7 Equation 7.4; note that n0 and a are positive constants), what
will be the gradient and intercept on the vertical axis?

Graphs of log10 y against log10 x and log10 y against x are plotted so

frequently (though perhaps rather less frequently now than they were in the
past, because of computer graph-plotting programs) that special graph paper is
available for the purpose. ‘Log–linear’ (or ‘semi-log’) graph paper has
divisions corresponding to log10 on the vertical axis only, so is useful for
plotting graphs of log10 y against x. Figure 10.8 illustrates the use of
log–linear graph paper in investigating the variation of radioactive decay with
time for real experimental data, in this case in an experiment to find the half­
life of the excited state of barium-137.
‘Log–log graph paper’ has divisions corresponding to log10 on both axes, so
is useful for plotting graphs of log10 y against log10 x.

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 10 Logarithms

1000
disintegrations per minute (on a log scale)

100

10

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
time/minutes

Figure 10.8 A graph of disintegrations per minute (on a log scale) against time
for the radioactive decay of the excited state of barium-137.

10.5 Logarithms to base e

The previous sections of this chapter have considered logarithms based on
powers of 10. It is possible to use numbers other than 10 as the base for
logarithms and the other base which is widely used in science is ‘e’, the
‘special number’ introduced in Chapter 7.
In much the same way as taking the logarithm to base 10 is the inverse of
raising 10 to a power, so taking a logarithm to base e (abbreviated ln or loge)
is the inverse of raising e to a power.

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The logarithm to base e of p is the power to which e must be raised in

order to equal p, i.e.

if p = eq then ln p = q

A logarithm to base e is often referred to as a natural logarithm and the ‘n’

in the abbreviation ‘ln’ can be thought of as a reminder of this.
Check that you can use your calculator to raise e to various powers. You are
likely to be using a button labelled ‘ex’ in order to do this; the ‘EXP’ button
has a totally different use. There is a need to take particular care over the
meaning of ‘e’, ‘EXP’ and ‘exp’ since ‘exp’ is sometimes used to mean ‘e to
the power’, so N = N0e−λt is sometimes written as N = N0 exp(−λt) and
n = n0eat is sometimes written as n = n0 exp(at).
Check that you can get the following results (to four significant figures):

e3 = 20.09
e0.6931 = 2.000
e −1 = 0.3679
From these results it follows that:

e3 = 20.09 so ln 20.09 = 3

e raised to the so the logarithm to

power 3 equals 20.09 base e of 20.09 is 3

e0.6931 = 2 so ln 2 = 0.6931

e raised to the so the logarithm to

power 0.6931 equals 2 base e of 2 is 0.6931

e–1 = 0.3679 so ln 0.3679 = –1

e raised to the so the logarithm to

power –1 equals 0.3679 base e of 0.3679 is –1

Since taking a logarithm to base e is the inverse of raising e to a power, the

‘ln’ or ‘loge’ button on a calculator should reverse the operation of the ‘ex’
button. You can use your calculator to check this for an arbitrarily chosen
number, e.g. 1.4; the ‘ex’ button should give 4.055199967 and finding the
logarithm to base e of the latter number returns the display to 1.4.

Question 10.10

Use your calculator to find the following to four significant figures:

(a) ln 5, (b) the number whose natural logarithm is 5.

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 10 Logarithms

Note that the rules of logarithms, discussed in Section 10.3, apply to

logarithms in any base, not just those to base 10. In particular, they apply to
logs to base e too, so:

ln en = n (10.7)
ln(p × q) = ln p + ln q (10.8)
⎛ p⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ = ln p − ln q (10.9)
⎝q⎠
ln(pn) = n ln p (10.10)

You may be wondering why logs to base e are useful; why are they
sometimes used in preference to logs to base 10? One reason stems from the
fact that taking a logarithm to base e is the inverse of raising e to a power.
This means that equations such as N = N0e−λt can be turned into simpler
straight-line equations by taking logarithms to base e than is possible by
taking logarithms to base 10.
Taking the log to base e of both sides of the equation N = N0e−λt gives

ln N = ln(N 0e −λt )
= ln N 0 + ln e −λt (from Equation 10.8)
= ln N 0 − λ t (from
m Equation 10.7)
Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives

ln N = −λt + ln N0
This can be compared with the general equation of a straight-line graph,
y = mx + c

ln N = –λ t + ln N 0
y = m x + c

gradient intercept on

the vertical axis

So a graph of ln N against t (see Figure 10.9) will be a straight line with a

gradient of −λ and an intercept on the vertical axis of ln N0.
■ A graph plotted of ln N against time t for the decay of barium-137 is a
straight line of gradient −4.4 × 10−3 s−1. What is the decay constant (the
constant λ in the equation N = N0e−λt)?
□ The gradient of the graph is −4.4 × 10−3 s−1 so the decay constant
λ is 4.4 × 10−3 s−1.

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Maths for Science

ln N

intercept on the
vertical axis at ln N0

gradient of −λ

0
t

Figure 10.9 A graph of ln N against t for the equation N = N0e−λt.

Box 10.4 investigates the relationship between decay constant λ and half-life,
t1/2. The half-life of a radioactive decay process (first introduced in Chapter 7)
is the time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei, and hence the activity,
to fall by half.

Box 10.4 The relationship between decay constant and

half-life
Since, e−λt = 1/eλt , the equation N = N0e−λt can be written as:
1
N = N0 ×
eλt
Rearranging gives:
N0
eλt =
N
From the definition of half-life in Section 7.4, at t = t1/2
1
N = N0 ×
2
i.e.
N0
=2
N
So

eλt1/ 2 = 2

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 10 Logarithms

Taking the log to base e of both sides of this equation gives:

ln(eλt1 / 2 ) = ln 2
i.e. λt1/2 = ln 2 (from Equation 10.7)
ln 2 ln 2
λ= or t1/ 2 = (10.11)
t1/ 2 λ
Thus a decay constant of 4.4 × 10−3 s−1 (for barium-137) corresponds to
a half-life of
ln 2
= 1.6 × 102 s to two significant figures
4.4 × 10−3 s −1

Question 10.11

If a graph is plotted of ln n against t for the equation n = n0eat, what will

be the gradient and intercept on the vertical axis? (Note that this is the
same equation as used in Question 10.9, but now you are asked to consider
a graph of ln n against t rather than a graph of log10 n against t.)

Box 10.5 considers another application of logarithms to base e.

Box 10.5 The Arrhenius equation

The Arrhenius equation, named after the Swedish chemist Svante
Arrhenius (1859–1927), is one of the most important equations in
chemistry. It links the rate of a chemical reaction to the temperature at
which the reaction takes place. The equation is given by:

kR = Ae(− Ea /RT )
(10.12)
where kR is the ‘rate constant’ at a particular temperature T, A is the
Arrhenius A-factor (or A-factor), Ea is the Arrhenius activation energy (or
activation energy) and R is the ‘gas constant’.
Taking the log to base e of both sides of Equation 10.12 gives

ln kR
= ln(Ae(−Ea /RT ) )
= ln A + ln e(−Ea /RT )
(from Equation 10.8)
E
= ln
n A − a (from Equation 10.7)
RT
Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives
Ea
ln kR = − + ln A
RT
E 1
= − a + ln A
R T

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This can be compared with the general equation of a straight-line graph,

y = mx + c

−Ea 1
ln kR = + ln A
R T
y = m x + c

gradient intercept on
the vertical axis
So if both A and Ea are constants, independent of temperature (a
reasonable assumption for most reactions when studied over a limited
range of temperature), a graph of ln kR against 1/T will be a straight line
of gradient −Ea/R and intercept on the vertical axis ln A. A graph of
ln kR against 1/T (as shown in Figure 10.10) is referred to as an
Arrhenius plot.

ln kR

intercept on the
vertical axis at ln A

gradient of −Ea
R

0
1
T

Figure 10.10 A graph of ln kR against 1/T for the equation

kR = Ae(− Ea /RT ) .

The Arrhenius equation accounts remarkably well for the temperature

behaviour of the vast majority of chemical reactions, including those
which occur in nature. For many living organisms, the temperature of
their environment is hugely important, and biological processes are
frequently temperature dependent. Biological processes generally involve
complex sequences of chemical steps, yet in common with many other
composite reactions, they often exhibit an Arrhenius-type behaviour.
Figure 10.11 shows an Arrhenius plot for the heartbeat (rate) of a
diamond-backed terrapin. At lower temperatures (i.e. higher values of
1/T) the plot departs from linear behaviour, indicating a different control
mechanism.

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 10 Logarithms

5.0

4.0
ln (heart rate)

3.0

2.0

1.0

0
3.3 × 10−3 3.4 × 10−3 3.5 × 10−3
T − 1/K−1

Figure 10.11 An Arrhenius plot of the heartbeat of a diamond-backed

terrapin. At lower temperatures, the plot departs from a straight line.

10.6 Review of Chapter 10

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. use a calculator to find the logarithm (to base 10 or base e) of a positive
number
. demonstrate understanding of the relationship between powers of 10 and
logarithms to base 10
. demonstrate understanding of the relationship between powers of e and
logarithms to base e
. use the rules governing the logarithms of products, fractions and powers
. interpret a graph of log10 y against log10 x for a function of the type
y = axb
. interpret a graph of log10 y against x for a function of the type y = Cekx
. interpret a graph of ln y against x for a function of the type y = Cekx.

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Question 10.12

Check your understanding of Chapter 10 by answering the following:

(a) Use your calculator to find, to four significant figures (i) log10 4;
(ii) ln 4; (iii) the number whose log to base 10 is 4; (iv) the number whose
natural logarithm is 4.
(b) Use your answer to part (a)(i) to find, without further calculator use
(i) log10 4000; (ii) log10 16. Give each of your answers to an appropriate
number of decimal places or significant figures.
(c) If a graph is plotted of ln y against x for the equation y = 3e−2x, what
will be the gradient and intercept on the vertical axis?

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

Probability and descriptive statistics

11
Statistical information is a familiar aspect of modern life, which features
routinely in, for example, news reports, sports commentaries and advertising.
Scientists who have collected large amounts of data by either counting or
measuring quantities also rely on statistical techniques to help them make
sense of these data. Suppose you had information collected from, say, three
thousand patients, all with the same medical condition but undergoing a
variety of treatments. First you would need techniques for organising and
describing the data, so that you could present a summary by giving just a few
numbers. This is the function of ‘descriptive statistics’, covered in this
chapter. Then you might want to analyse the data in some way, perhaps to
decide whether they supported the suggestion that treatment with one
particular drug is more effective than other forms of medication. Chapter 12
will look at some of the statistical tests that may be applied to raw data in
order to come to objective conclusions about what the data really show.
Statistical techniques offer ways of dealing with variability, and natural
variability is something that scientists meet all the time. Each time an
experiment or a measurement is repeated, a slightly different result may be
obtained; in any group of people there will be a variation in height; the count
of background radiation at any individual location fluctuates randomly from
moment to moment. It is therefore very important to be able to decide with
some measure of certainty whether a particular result could have been
obtained simply by chance or whether it has some real significance, and the
mathematics of chance and probability underpin all aspects of statistics.

11.1 Chance and probability

‘Probability is expectation founded upon partial knowledge. A perfect
acquaintance with all the circumstances affecting the occurrence of an event
would change expectation into certainty, and leave neither room nor demand
for a theory of probabilities.’
(George Boole, 1815–1864)

In many branches of science it is not possible to predict with any certainty

what the outcome of a particular event will be. There may be several possible
outcomes and all the scientist can offer in the way of quantitative prediction is
an assessment of the relative likelihood of each of these outcomes. For
example, if a man and a woman both carry the cystic fibrosis gene without
showing symptoms of the disease, the chances are 1 in 4 that their first child
will have the condition. Such assessments of probability are a routine part of
genetics, quantum physics and many other scientific disciplines.
In seeking to understand the nature and rules of probability it is often best to
focus initially on everyday examples that are easily visualised. So Sections
11.1.1 to 11.1.4 feature many examples of tossed coins and rolled dice.
However, you will also get the opportunity to see how these ideas are applied

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to some genuine scientific problems: for example, what is the probability that
two people planning to have a child will both turn out to be carriers of the
cystic fibrosis gene?

11.1.1 Calculating probability

If a process is repeated in an identical fashion a very large number of times,
the probability of a given outcome can be defined as the fraction of the
results corresponding to that particular outcome.

probability of a given outcome

number of times that outcome occurs (11.1)
=
total number of outcomes

The nature of the fraction in Equation 11.1 shows that the probability of any
given outcome cannot be smaller than 0 or larger than 1. A probability of 0
represents impossibility, while a probability of 1 represents inevitability. The
closer the probability of a given outcome is to 1, the more likely that outcome
is to occur. This is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 11.1.

your guess is as
impossible good as mine inevitable
outcome outcome

an extremely long shot virtually a certainty

0 1 1
2
increasingly unlikely increasingly likely

Figure 11.1 The scale of probabilities.

When a coin is tossed fairly, the likelihood of it landing on heads is equal to

the likelihood of it landing on tails. If it is tossed repeatedly a great many
times, it will in theory come up heads half the time: the probability of tossing
heads is 12 . The theoretical probability of tossing tails is, of course, also 12 .
The sum of these two probabilities is 12 + 12 = 1; i.e. it is certain that when the
coin is tossed it will land either on heads or on tails. This is an example of a
general rule:

The sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes is equal to 1.

A probability of 1 represents certainty.

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

Dice games involve rolling six-sided dice (singular ‘die’). Each face of a die
is marked with a different score: one, two, three, four, five or six
(Figure 11.2). If the die is not loaded and the rolling is done fairly, then all
outcomes are equally likely, so the probability of any one of the six possible
outcomes (for example, scoring a three) is 16 . Again, the sum of the
probabilities of all the possible outcomes is
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + =1
6 6 6 6 6 6
So on one roll of the die the probability of scoring a three is 16 and the
probability of not scoring a three is 56 . Another way of expressing this is to
say that on a single roll of the die there is only one way of scoring a three,
but there are five ways of not scoring a three. Clearly, it is more likely than
not that a number other than three will be scored. This is just one illustration
of a more general finding: the most likely outcome is the one that can occur
in the greatest number of ways.
Provided nothing biases the result to make one outcome inherently more likely
than others, the definition given by Equation 11.1 can be rewritten to
encompass the number of ways in which a particular outcome may come Figure 11.2 Two dice.
about:

probability of a given outcome

number of ways to get that particular outcome (11.2)
=
total number of possible outcomes

■ What would be the probability of throwing an odd number on one roll of

a die?
□ There are three possible ways of getting an odd number (1, 3 or 5) and
six possible outcomes in total, so Equation 11.2 shows that the
probability of throwing an odd number is 63 , which can be simplified to
the equivalent fraction 12 . An alternative way of arriving at this
conclusion is to say that as three of the possible outcomes are even and
three are odd, the chances of one throw resulting in an odd number are
the same as of it resulting in an even number. Hence the probability of an
odd number is 12 .

Question 11.1

What is the probability of one card drawn at random from a shuffled pack
of playing cards being: (a) a heart, (b) red, (c) an ace, (d) a picture card?
Note: if you are unfamiliar with playing cards, you need the following
information. There are 52 cards in a pack, divided into four suits: hearts
(red), diamonds (red), spades (black) and clubs (black). Each suit contains
13 cards, made up of one ace, nine ‘number’ cards (from 2 to 10 inclusive)

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and three picture cards (Jack, Queen, King). Figure 11.3 shows the 13 cards
in the suit of clubs.

Figure 11.3 One suit (clubs) of a pack of playing cards.

11.1.2 Probability and common sense

The concept of probability is a purely theoretical one. Strictly speaking, all
that can be measured is the fraction of times a particular outcome occurs in a
finite number of attempts. In the infinitely long run this fraction is expected to
approach the theoretical probability, but in practice this theoretical value may
never be attained. You could easily toss a fair coin four times and get four
heads. You could even toss it 20 times and still get heads on every single toss,
though that would be fairly unlikely. But the more tosses you make the more
likely it is that the fraction
number of heads

total number of tosses

1
will approach its theoretical value of 2
.
A failure to appreciate the fact that the number of attempts needs to be
extremely large before the probability of a particular outcome will reliably
approach the theoretical value is at the root of many popular misconceptions
about probabilities. One commonly held fallacy about coin tossing is that if
the first ten tosses of a coin have produced several more heads than tails, then
the eleventh toss is more likely than not to come up tails. This is not true.
Although in the extremely long run the imbalance between heads and tails is
expected to be negligible, on any one toss heads or tails are equally likely,
irrespective of previous history. Coins have no memory!

Question 11.2

(a) You toss a single coin three times. It comes down heads on the first two
occasions. What is the probability that you will get heads on the third
throw?

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

(b) If you toss two coins simultaneously and they both come down heads,
what is the probability that when you then toss a third coin it will also
come down heads?

11.1.3 Expressing probability

According to Equation 11.1, probability is defined as a fraction. However, as
you know from Chapter 1, a fraction such as 14 may also be expressed as a
decimal number or as a percentage:
1
= 0.25 = 25%
4
The following statements are therefore all equivalent:
. the probability of event A is 14
. the probability of A occurring is 0.25
. there is a 25% probability of the outcome being A.

In addition, particularly in spoken language, it is common to say,

. there is a 1 in 4 probability of the outcome being A

and that too is equivalent to the other three statements.

For the rest of this chapter, probabilities will usually be expressed as fractions,

but you will meet the other notations in Chapter 12.

11.1.4 Combining probabilities

The probabilities described in Sections 11.1.1 and 11.1.2 related to the
outcomes of a single process, such as repeatedly tossing one coin. Now
suppose you were to toss three separate coins simultaneously. What is the
probability that all three will show heads? One way of tackling this problem is
to write all the possible combinations of results. There are in fact eight
possible outcomes, all of which are equally likely:

1 H H H
2 H H T
3 H T H
4 H T T
5 T H H
6 T H T
7 T T H
8 T T T

Of the eight combinations, only one – shown in red – represents the desired
outcome of three heads. On the basis of Equation 11.2, the probability of all
three coins coming up heads is therefore 18 .
The same result can be obtained using the multiplication rule for
probabilities: the probability that the first coin will show heads is 1
2
, and the

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same is true for both the second and the third coins. The probability that all
three will show heads is
1 1 1 1
× × =
2 2 2 8
Notice carefully how this situation differs from the one featured in Question
11.2: both the scenarios described in Question 11.2 correspond to having a
choice only between outcomes 1 and 2 in the list above (because the outcome
of the first two tosses is already known as being two heads).
The multiplication rule is expressed in its most general form by saying that:

If a number of outcomes occur independently of one another, the

probability of them all happening together is found by multiplying their
individual probabilities.

An example of how this rule applies in a common genetic disease is given in

Box 11.1.

Box 11.1 Probability and cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis is the most common genetic disease in white European
and American populations. It results from one of a number of mutations
(errors) in a single gene that codes for a protein involved in the transport
of salts in the cells of the body. A person with cystic fibrosis has
numerous symptoms including sticky mucus in the lungs which makes
them prone to infections, abnormally salty sweat and problems with the
digestion of food.
Every person has two copies of each gene, one from each parent. The
cystic fibrosis (CF) gene is described as recessive, which means that
individuals with only one copy of the faulty gene, so-called ‘carriers’,
show no symptoms of the disease and may be unaware that they carry
the gene. Individuals with two copies of the faulty CF gene will show
the symptoms of the condition.
Among white Europeans, the probability of being a carrier is
1
approximately 25 .
■ Assuming that the gene is equally likely to be carried by men and
women, what is the probability that any two people planning to
have a child together would both be carriers?
□ The probability of both partners being carriers is approximately

1 1 1
× =
25 25 625

For a child whose parents are both carriers, the probability of inheriting a
copy of the CF gene from both parents is 14 . This is therefore the

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

probability that the child of such parents will have symptoms of the
disease.
■ What is the probability of a child born to white European parents
having cystic fibrosis?
□ 1
The probability that both parents are carriers is approximately 625 ,
and the probability that a child whose parents are both carriers will
have the disease is 14 . So the probability of a child born to white
European parents having cystic fibrosis is approximately

1 1 1
× =
625 4 2500

This probability is broadly in line with the number of white European

babies who are born with cystic fibrosis.

Question 11.3

(a) If you toss two coins at the same time, what is the probability of getting
two tails?
(b) If you throw a pair of dice, what is the probability of getting a pair of
sixes?

Question 11.4

Under identical conditions, a seed of each of three different species of plant

A, B, and C, has a germination probability of 12 , 13 and 14 , respectively. If
you have one of each type of seed, what is the probability that:
(a) the seed of A and the seed of B will both germinate?
(b) your three seeds will all germinate?
(c) none of your three seeds will germinate? (Hint: first work out the

probability of non-germination for each type of seed individually.)

Another situation in which you might need to combine probabilities occurs

when outcomes are mutually exclusive (i.e. cannot occur together). For
example, what is the probability of getting either a three or a five on a single
roll of a die? One way of working this out is to say that there are six possible
outcomes altogether and two of them correspond to the desired outcome. So
from Equation 11.2, the probability of the desired outcome is 62 = 13 . The
same result can be obtained using the addition rule for probabilities. The
probability of throwing a three is 16 and the probability of throwing a five is
also 16 , so the probability of throwing either a three or a five is
1 1 2 1
+ = =
6 6 6 3

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Maths for Science

Again, this example illustrates a general rule:

If several possible outcomes are mutually exclusive, the probability of

one or other of these outcomes occurring is found by adding their
individual probabilities.

Worked example 11.1

One card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. What is the
probability of the card being either a heart or a diamond? (For a description of
a standard pack of cards, see the comment with Question 11.1.)
Answer
The card cannot be both a heart and a diamond: these outcomes are mutually
exclusive.
1
The probability of the card being a heart is 4
.
1
The probability of the card being a diamond is 4
.
So the probability of the card being either a heart or a diamond is:
1 1 2 1
+ = =
4 4 4 2
(Note: since both diamonds and hearts are red suits, the question is equivalent
to asking ‘what is the probability of a single card drawn from the pack being
red?’ This was posed as Question 11.1b and answered then by a different
route, though of course the result was the same.)

Question 11.5

If you were to draw one playing card from a pack of 52, what would be the
probability of that card being either the Jack, Queen or King of diamonds?

There are also cases in which both the addition and multiplication rules
operate as shown in Worked example 11.2.

Worked example 11.2

What is the chance that in a family of three children only one will be a boy?
Answer
Assuming that the sex of a child is independent of the sexes of its siblings,
the probability that the first child is a boy is 12 , the probability that the second
is a girl is 12 , and the probability that the third is also a girl is 12 . So the
probability of this particular combination (boy–girl–girl) is
1 1 1 1
× × =
2 2 2 8

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

But in a family with just one boy and two girls, the boy may be the eldest,
the middle or the youngest child, and these possibilities are mutually
exclusive. So the probability of the family consisting of a boy and two girls
(born in any order) is
1 1 1 3
+ + =
8 8 8 8
(Note that in fact the assumption that a baby is just as likely to be a boy as a
girl is not quite true. UK statistics show that for every 100 girls born, 106
boys are born.)
As with the coin-tossing example earlier, you may find that a table of the
possibilities helps in visualising the situation. Of the eight possible
combinations of three children, only three – shown in red – comprise one boy
and two girls.

1st child 2nd child 3rd child

1 B B B
2 B B G
3 B G B
4 B G G
5 G G G
6 G B G
7 G G B
8 G B B

Question 11.6

If you toss two coins simultaneously, what is the probability of getting one
head and one tail?

11.1.5 Probability ratios

Probability calculations are important in many branches of science, but
nowhere more so than in genetics. Box 11.2 describes early work in the field
and provides some illustrative data, based on plant-breeding experiments.
Before working with these data, it is important to understand how the results
have been presented. Raw data from breeding experiments come in terms of
numbers of plants, etc., as with the examples given in Box 11.2, but results
are often reported by expressing the numbers in the form of a ratio. For
example, in the F2-generation, Mendel obtained 705 plants with purple flowers
and 224 with white flowers. Another way of expressing this is to say that
purple- and white-flowered plants appeared in the ratio 705 : 224 (said as ‘705
to 224’).

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Box 11.2 Mendel’s peas

Gregor Mendel (Figure 11.4) was an Austrian monk whose experiments
in breeding the garden pea laid the foundations of the science that is now
called genetics.
Mendel did not know about genes in the way that they are understood
today, still less about chromosomes and DNA. The rules of inheritance
he developed were based on what he observed of the external
characteristics of his plants, and the probabilities of plants with particular
characteristics arising from specific breeding crosses carried out in the
following way:
1 Mendel used pollen from a plant to fertilise the flowers of the same
plant (so-called ‘self-pollination’) for several generations until he was
sure he had ‘pure breeding’ plants, i.e. plants that always produced
offspring identical in appearance to themselves. He called these pure­
breeding plants the P generation (‘P’ for parental).
2 He then took pollen from one P-generation plant and used it to
fertilise another P generation plant with a different characteristic. By
this process of ‘cross-pollination’ a pure-breeding purple-flowered
variety could be crossed with, for example, a pure-breeding white­
flowered one. Mendel called the offspring of this cross the F1 (first
filial) generation.
3 Finally members of the F1 generation were self-pollinated and the
offspring of this process were called the F2 (second filial) generation.

Figure 11.4 Gregor Mendel (1822–1884).

Mendel investigated seven pairs of contrasting characteristics of his pea

plants. His results relating to three of these pairs of characteristics –
flower colour, seed shape and stem length, are shown below. Mendel
found these characteristics to be independent: the fact that a particular

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

plant had white flowers had no bearing on whether its seeds were round
or wrinkled or on what height the plant was.

Flower colour: P (purple) crossed with P (white)

F1 all purple-flowered
F2 705 purple- and 224 white-flowered
Seed shape: P (round) crossed with P (wrinkled)
F1 all seeds round
F2 651 seeds round and 207 seeds wrinkled
Stem length: P (tall) crossed with P (short)
F1 all plants tall
F2 787 tall plants and 277 short plants
Note that in the case of Mendel’s peas, the heights of the plants were not
distributed across a continuous range: there was no difficulty in deciding
whether a particular plant was ‘tall’ or ‘short’.

You can think of ratios as simply another way of writing fractions. If, for
instance, you discovered from a paint chart that a green paint had been mixed
from yellow paint and blue paint in the ratio 3 : 2, you would understand that
the green paint was made up of three parts yellow paint and two parts blue
paint. In other words, 53 of the mixture was yellow and 52 was blue. Adding
both sides of the ratio together has given the denominator of the fractions.
Knowing the denominator, it is then easy to express the ratio in terms of
percentages: 53 = 100
60
so 60% of the mixture is yellow and 40% is blue. A
60 : 40 ratio is exactly the same as a 3 : 2 ratio – it is just a matter of
multiplying or dividing both sides of the ratio by 20. Sometimes it is
convenient to simplify even further, in this case by dividing both sides by two
to express the 3 : 2 ratio in the equivalent form of 1.5 : 1. Note that, like
fractions, ratios do not have units attached to them.
Ratios are quoted in many applications. For example, fertilisers are
characterised on their labelling by the ratio of two or three major ingredients,
each indicated by a letter. These letters are N (for nitrogen, which is required
for leaf growth), P (for phosphorus, which in the form of phosphates is
required for root development) and K (for potassium, which in the form of
potash is required for flowers and fruit). Typical ratios for three common types
of fertiliser are shown in Table 11.1.

Table 11.1 Ratios of ingredients in three common fertilisers expressed as ratios

N : P : K : others.

Fertiliser N P K Others
bone meal 1 5 0 19
lawn tonic 4 1 0 5
tomato food 6 5 9 80

■ What is the fraction of P in bone meal?

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Maths for Science

□ The fraction of P in the whole is

5 5 1
= =
1 + 5 + 19 25 5

■ What is the percentage of N in lawn tonic?

□ The fraction of N in the whole is

4 4 40
= =
4 + 1 + 5 10 100
So lawn tonic contains 40% N.

■ What is the percentage of K in tomato food?

□ The fraction of K in the whole is

9 9
=
6 + 5 + 9 + 80 100
So tomato food contains 9% K.

As already noted for the paint example, it is quite common for ratios to be
expressed in a form such that one of the parts is 1, even if this means that the
other part is a decimal number. Question 11.7 gives an illustration of a ratio
expressed in such a way.

Question 11.7

In the atmosphere, the ratio of the volume of oxygen to the volume of other
gases is 0.26 : 1. What percentage of the atmosphere is oxygen?

The ratio of 705 : 224 that Mendel obtained for purple- to white-flowered
plants (see Box 11.2) can be simplified by dividing both sides of the ratio by
224 to obtain the equivalent ratio of 3.15 : 1. Notice that one side of this ratio
is exact: 224
224
is exactly equal to 1. However, the other side is not exact and a
choice has to be made about how many significant figures to quote; two or
three significant figures are usually sufficient in this context. Mendel’s data
relating to the other independent pairs of characteristics involving seeds and
stem lengths can be simplified in a similar way by dividing the larger number
by the smaller, to obtain:

flowers purple : white = 705 : 224 = 3.15 : 1

seeds round : wrinkled = 651 : 207 = 3.14 : 1
stems tall : short = 787 : 277 = 2.84 : 1

In each case the ratio is close to 3 : 1. In other words, the character from the
P-generation that was present in all members of the F1-generation is present in
only about 34 of the F2-generation. By the same token, the character that
completely vanished in the F1-generation reappears in about 14 of the F2­
generation. In fact, modern understanding of genetics leads to the theoretical

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

prediction of a 3 : 1 ratio; the slight deviations observed in experiments like

Mendel’s are the same as those observed when tossing a coin. The more
tosses of the coin, the more nearly the ratio of heads : tails approaches 1 : 1.
Similarly, the more pea plants included in the experiments, the more nearly
the ratios would be expected to approach 3 : 1.
The examples of Mendel’s experiments on peas concerned the inheritance of
just a single pair of alternative characteristics: flowers were either purple or
they were white; seeds were either round or they were wrinkled; stems were
either tall or they were short. When there are more than two options for
particular characteristics, the calculations become a little more complicated,
but the principles remain exactly the same, as demonstrated by the following
worked example.

Worked example 11.3

On cobs (Figure 11.5) from a particular variety of maize (corn), four types of
grain can be distinguished: dark smooth ones, dark wrinkled ones, pale
smooth ones and pale wrinkled ones.

Figure 11.5 Maize cobs. The cob on the right of the photograph has the four
types of grain described in Worked example 11.3.

The types of grain on 20 cobs from the same plant were counted and the
aggregate results were:

dark smooth dark wrinkled pale smooth pale wrinkled

4791 1578 1617 531

Assuming that the theoretical ratios for these characteristics are whole
numbers, what would be the theoretical probability that a single grain chosen
at random from a large number of cobs would be a pale smooth one?

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Maths for Science

Answer
Dividing through by the smallest number in the sample, which in this case is
531, gives:

dark smooth dark wrinkled pale smooth pale wrinkled

9.02 2.97 3.05 1

If it is assumed that the theoretical ratios are whole numbers, these data
strongly suggest that the ratios would be:

dark smooth dark wrinkled pale smooth pale wrinkled

9 3 3 1

The theoretical fraction of grains that are pale and smooth is therefore
3 3
=
9 + 3 + 3 + 1 16
This is also the probability of one grain selected at random being pale and
smooth. This probability could be expressed as a fraction ( 163 ), a decimal
number (0.1875) or a percentage (18.75%).

11.2 Descriptive statistics

Scientists collect many different types of information, but sets of data may be
very loosely classified into two different types. In the first type, so-called
‘repeated measurement’, an individual quantity is measured a number of
times. An astronomer wanting to determine the light output of a star would
take many measurements on a number of different nights to even out the
effects of the various possible fluctuations in the atmosphere that are a cause
of stars ‘twinkling’. In the second type of investigation, so-called ‘sampling’,
a proportion of the members of a large group are measured or counted. A
biologist interested in the average size of ears of wheat in a field would try to
choose representative samples of plants from different parts of the field and
measure those.

11.2.1 Repeated measurements

Scientists are always concerned with the reliability and precision of their data,
and this is the prime reason for them to repeat measurements many times.
Consider the photograph shown in Figure 11.6, which is the result of X-ray
diffraction (see Box 11.3). To determine the atomic structure of the substance
that produced this pattern, it would be necessary to measure the diameters of
the fuzzy rings. At one time, this would probably have been done with an
instrument called a travelling microscope; nowadays a computer would be
involved. But whatever the method, there will always be a difficulty in being
Figure 11.6 The X-ray sure where to take the measurement within a fuzzy area, so the measurement
diffraction pattern from a sample of the diameter of any one ring would need to be repeated a number of times.
of zirconium oxide.

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

Box 11.3 X-ray diffraction

X-ray diffraction is one of the most widely used techniques for the
determination of the geometrical arrangement of atoms in crystalline
materials, including those of biological origin and those with high
technology credentials such as superconducting ceramics. The X-ray
diffraction pattern in Figure 11.6, which was recorded on a relatively
simple instrument, is for zirconium oxide, a substance which because of
its extremely high melting point (2700 °C) is used in furnaces.

Generally the process of repeating measurements of a particular quantity

would lead to a number of slightly different results being obtained. Measured
values of one quantity that are scattered over a limited range like this are said
to be subject to random uncertainty. Measurements for which the random
uncertainty is small (i.e. for which the range over which the measurements are
scattered is small) are described as precise. The ‘best’ estimate scientists
could make of the diameter of each ring in Figure 11.6 would be some sort of
average of all the measured values.
The scatter inevitably associated with raw data begs various questions. For
instance,
. how close to the ‘true’ value is this calculated average value?
. how close to the ‘true’ value is one typical measurement likely to be?
. conversely, how probable is it that any given measurement will be close to
the average value?
Matters will be further complicated if there is some inherent error or bias in
the measuring instrument, such that all the readings are, say, too large by a
fixed amount. Such measurements are said to have a systematic uncertainty.
Note that unless measuring instruments can be constantly checked against one
another, it is easy for quite large systematic uncertainties to creep unnoticed
into measurements. Measurements for which the systematic uncertainty is
small are described as accurate. Of course to get anywhere near to the ‘true’
value of a quantity, measurements have to be both accurate and precise.

11.2.2 The distribution of repeated measurements

As noted in the previous section, if the same quantity is measured repeatedly,
the results will generally be scattered across a range of values. This is perhaps
best illustrated using a real example. Table 11.2 shows 10 measurements of a
quantity called the ‘unit cell constant’ for an industrial catalyst used in the
refining of petrol; this is an important quantity which determines how well the
catalyst works, and can be measured by X-ray diffraction techniques. Notice
that the cell constant is very small and is measured in nanometres.

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Maths for Science

Table 11.2 Repeated measurements of the unit cell

constant for a batch of industrial catalyst.

Measurement Cell constant/nm

1 2.458
2 2.452
3 2.454
4 2.452
5 2.459
6 2.455
7 2.464
8 2.453
9 2.449
10 2.448

It is always difficult to see patterns in lists or tables of numbers. If the data

are put into the form of a histogram, as has been done in Figure 11.7a, the
task becomes much easier. The histogram provides a visual representation of
the way in which the measurements are distributed across a range of values.
In fact the pattern in Figure 11.7a is not particularly obvious, because the data
set is quite small, consisting of only ten measurements.
When the number of measurements is increased, the variation in the height of
the bars gradually becomes smoother, as illustrated in Figure 11.7b. When
substantially more measurements have been accumulated, the size of the
intervals can be reduced while still having a reasonable number of
measurements within each interval. This again tends to produce a smoother
distribution, as shown in Figure 11.7c. Note the changes of scale on the
vertical axis between (a), (b) and (c). With an extremely large number of
measurements and very small intervals on the horizontal axis, the ‘envelope’
of the distribution will tend to become a smooth bell-shaped curve, like that in
Figure 11.7d.
The distributions in Figure 11.7 all give some impression of the spread of the
measurements, and the way the results cluster at the peak of the distribution in
Figure 11.7c and 11.7d suggests that this peak might represent the average or
‘best estimate’ value. However, a scientist would want a more quantitative and
succinct way to describe such results and to communicate them to other
people working on similar problems. The mean and standard deviation are the
measures most commonly used to summarise large sets of data with just a few
numbers.

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics
number of measurements

0
2.446 2.448 2.450 2.452 2.454 2.456 2.458 2.460 2.462 2.464 2.466
(a) cell constant/nm

25
number of measurements

20

15

10

0
2.446 2.450 2.454 2.458 2.462 2.466
(b) cell constant/nm

300
measurements

250
number of

200
150
100
50
0
2.446 2.450 2.454 2.458 2.462 2.466
(c) cell constant/nm
measurements
number of

(d) cell constant/nm

Figure 11.7 Distributions for repeated measurements of the unit cell constant of a batch of industrial catalyst. The
number of measurements increases in going from (a) to (d).

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11.2.3 Mean and standard deviation for repeated

measurements
In everyday terms, you will be familiar with the meaning of the word
‘average’, but in science and statistics there are actually several different kinds
of average used for different purposes. In the kind of situation exemplified by
Table 11.2, the sort to use is the mean (or more strictly the arithmetic mean).
For a set of measurements, this is defined as the sum of all the measurements
divided by the total number of measurements made.
■ What is the mean of the results in Table 11.2?
□ The sum of all the measurements is 24.544 nm. There are 10 results, so
the mean value is

24.544 nm
or 2.4544 nm to five significant figures
10
(The reason for giving the result to this number of significant figures will
be discussed shortly.)

To turn this description of how to calculate a mean into a formula, each

element is given a symbol. If n measurements have been made of a quantity x,
the individual measurements can be described as x1, x2, x3, … xn (where x1 is
properly said either as ‘x subscript one’ or as ‘x sub one’, but also sometimes
as ‘x one’ provided the meaning remains clear). The mean value of any
quantity is usually denoted by writing a bar over the quantity, so the mean of
x is written as x (and said ‘x bar’). Possible (and correct) formulae are
therefore:
x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn
x=
n
or
1
x= (x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn )
n
However, the sum is tedious to write out, so a special ‘summation’ sign, Σ
(capital Greek letter sigma), is used to denote the adding up process, and the
mean of n measurements can be neatly written as:

1 n
x= ∑ xi
n i =1 (11.3)

The i = 1 below the summation sign indicates that the first value for xi in the
sum is x1, and the n above it indicates that the last value in the sum is xn. In
other words, all integer values of i (x1, x2, x3, etc.) are to be included up to xn.
(The summation sign with the information attached to it is usually said as
‘sum of x sub i from one to n’.)

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

The standard deviation provides a quantitative way of describing the spread

of measurements, i.e. the extent to which the measurements ‘deviate’ from the
mean. There are five steps required in calculating standard deviation, which
are laid out below, and Table 11.3 shows the results of following this ‘recipe’
for the data in Table 11.2.
Step 1
Calculate the deviation of each measurement. The deviation di of any
individual measurement is defined as the difference between that measurement
and the mean of the set of measurements:
d
i =
xi −
x

(11.4)

Notice that the value of di may be positive or negative depending on whether

a particular measurement is larger or smaller than the mean of the set of
measurements.
At this stage the deviations have been expressed as decimal numbers.
Step 2
Calculate the squares of each of the deviations (i.e. di2). These will, of course,
all have positive values.
By this stage the values have become very small so the column has been
headed in such a way that the numbers entered in the column represent the
value of di2 divided by 10−5.
Step 3
n
Add together all the squares of the deviations (i.e.
∑ di 2 ).

i =1
Step 4
Divide by the total number of measurements (i.e. n) to obtain the mean of all
the square deviations. This may be written as:

1
n 2
d
i 2 =
∑ di
n
i =1
(11.5)

Step 5
Take the square root of this mean to obtain the ‘root mean square deviation’
σ. It is this quantity σ that is known as the standard deviation (σ is the lower
case version of the Greek letter sigma). Step 5 may be written as:

σ
=
di 2
or, substituting for di 2 from Equation 11.5, as:

1
n 2
σ
=
∑ di
n
i =1
(11.6)

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Since di was defined in Equation 11.4 as (xi – x ), one final substitution into
Equation 11.6 gives σ in its most easily used format:

The standard deviation σ for n repeated measurements of the same

quantity x is given by

1 n
σ = ∑ ( xi − x )2
n i =1
(11.7)

At the end of this process, all the data in Table 11.2 can be summarised by
saying that the ten measurements had a mean of 2.4544 nm and a standard
deviation of 0.0046 nm. The calculation of standard deviation is given in and
below Table 11.3.

Table 11.3 Calculation of the standard deviation for the set of measurements
originally given in Table 11.2.

xi/nm di/nm di2/10−5 nm2

2.458 0.0036 1.296
2.452 −0.0024 0.576
2.454 −0.0004 0.016
2.452 −0.0024 0.576
2.459 0.0046 2.116
2.455 0.0006 0.036
2.464 0.0096 9.216
2.453 −0.0014 0.196
2.449 −0.0054 2.916
2.448 −0.0064 4.096

∑ xi = 24.544 nm ∑ di = 0 ∑ di 2 = 21.04 ×10−5 nm 2

i i
i
x = 2.4544 nm di 2 = 2.104 × 10−5 nm 2

Since

di 2 = 2.104 × 10−5 nm 2
it follows that

σ = di 2
= 4.587 ×10−3 nm
= 0.0046 nm
There are several things worth noting about this result and the data in
Table 11.3.

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First, all the quantities have units associated with them. The values of xi were
measured in nanometres, so deviations will also be in nanometres and the
squares of the deviations in nm2, as shown in the column headings in the
table.
A second feature to notice is that the sum of all the deviations is equal to
zero, i.e.

∑ di = 0

This is always true and provides a useful check of your arithmetic. At the end
of Step 1 it is well worth adding up all the values you have calculated for the
deviations to ensure that they do indeed total zero. If they don’t, you have
made an arithmetic slip somewhere which needs to be put right before you
proceed to Step 2.
Looking now at the details of the calculation, the original measurements of
length were made to the nearest picometre (i.e. 0.001 nm), represented by
three decimal places. More digits were carried in the calculations to avoid
rounding errors. However, what is the appropriate number of digits to quote in
the final answer? When all the ten results in Table 11.3 were added, the result
was

∑ xi = 24.544 nm (i.e. five digits in total)

i

This was divided by an exact number (10) so it is reasonable to retain five

digits in the result of this division, giving x as 2.4544 nm. It is therefore
valid to retain one more digit in the mean value than there was in each of the
measurements individually. After all, the whole point of repeating the
measurement many times and averaging is to improve our confidence in our
final result! Having quoted the mean as x = 2.4544 nm, it then makes sense
to quote the standard deviation as σ = 0.0046 nm.
The fact that here the standard deviation is quite small in comparison to the
mean shows why, in this context, it is more sensible to think in terms of
decimal places rather than significant figures. Because leading zeros do not
count as significant, the standard deviation is actually only given to two
significant figures, whereas the mean is given to five. In such circumstances it
is easier to think of the mean and the standard deviation as being expressed to
the same number of decimal places (assuming of course that they are given
the same units).
In summary, the easiest procedure is to give the mean to an appropriate
number of significant figures and then to quote the standard deviation to the
same number of decimal places as the mean.

11.2.4 Using a calculator for statistical calculations

Table 11.3 shows all the values for each step in the process of calculating a
standard deviation, so that you can see what the operations encapsulated by
Equation 11.7 actually entail, but you will probably be relieved to hear that it

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is not usually necessary to carry out such detailed calculations. A scientific

calculator or a computer spreadsheet can do most of the drudgery for you.
You will need to consult the instructions for your own calculator or
spreadsheet in order to find out how to do this, but using a calculator to find
mean and standard deviation usually involves the following steps.
Step 1
Put the calculator into statistical mode.
Step 2
You should then be able to input all the data; sometimes these data are stored
via a memory button, in other cases they can be entered and displayed as a
list. Try this out with the following set of numbers:

8, 6, 9, 12, 10
Step 3
Having input the data, you can then get most calculators to tell you the
number of items of data. If your calculator can do this, it should return the
answer ‘5’ here. It doesn’t matter if your calculator doesn’t have this function,
but if it does, it’s well worth using this checking device. If you have to input
a long string of data values, it’s quite easy to miss one out inadvertently.
Step 4
When you know you have the data correctly stored, find out how to display
the mean; you should get the answer ‘9’ here.
Step 5
Now find out how to display the standard deviation. The problem here is that
there is another type of standard deviation (which you will meet in
Section 11.2.7) and the notation used by calculators and spreadsheets can be
extremely confusing. Many calculators use the symbol σ for the standard
deviation that you are looking for now, but you may also come across sn.
Notation such as ‘STDEVP’ is used in spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel.
You are looking for a function that may be described simply as ‘standard
deviation’ or as the ‘standard deviation of the entire population’.
It is essential that you check that you can use your calculator or spreadsheet
to obtain the answer ‘2’ for the data listed in Step 2.
Once you are sure you know how to use your calculator or spreadsheet to
perform calculations of mean and standard deviation, apply this skill to
Question 11.8.

Question 11.8

A sample of a particular manufacturer’s ‘coarse round wire’ was measured

at ten points along its length. The data are given in Table 11.4. Calculate
the mean and standard deviation of these measurements.

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Table 11.4 Repeated measurements of the diameter

of a wire.

Measurement Diameter/mm

1 1.09
2 1.00
3 1.25
4 1.24
5 1.29
6 0.89
7 1.09
8 1.14
9 1.22
10 1.01

11.2.5 How likely are particular results?

In real experiments, as opposed to hypothetical ones, it is very rare that
scientists make a sufficiently large number of measurements to obtain a
smooth continuous distribution like that shown in Figure 11.7d. However, the
so-called normal distribution provides a good theoretical approximation for
many real situations. The normal distribution corresponds to a bell-shaped
curve which is symmetric about its peak, as illustrated in Figure 11.7d.
Repeated independent measurements of the same quantity (such as the breadth
of an object, or its mass) approximate to a normal distribution. The more data
are collected, the closer they will come to describing a normal distribution
curve.
The peak of the normal distribution curve corresponds to the mean value of
the distribution, as shown in Figure 11.8. This figure also illustrates how the
standard deviation of a set of measurements is related to the spread. Although
it is beyond the scope of this book to prove this, the area under a portion of a
distribution curve within a certain range represents the number of
measurements that lie within that range, as a proportion of the whole set. For
a normal distribution, it turns out that 68% of the measurements lie within one
standard deviation (i.e. within ±σ) of the mean value. Conversely, 32% of the
measurements will lie outside this range. If you make a single additional
measurement, it is therefore just over twice as probable that this one
measurement will fall within one standard deviation of the mean than that it
will fall outside this range. For a normal distribution, it also turns out that
95% of measurements are likely to fall within two standard deviations of the
mean and 99.7% within three standard deviations of the mean.
Remembering that precise measurements were defined in Section 11.2.1 as
those for which the scatter was small, you will appreciate that the more
precise a repeated set of the same number of measurements of a particular

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mean value

σ
σ

Figure 11.8 The shaded area under this normal distribution curve represents the
measurements that lie within one standard deviation of the mean. 68% of all
measurements are expected to fall within this range.

quantity, the narrower the peak of the distribution curve and the smaller the
standard deviation will be. A very broad distribution, on the other hand,
corresponds to measurements with considerable scatter and the standard
deviation will be large. These trends are illustrated in Figure 11.9. The
measurements of quantity w are subject to large random uncertainties, while
those of quantity y are more precise and those of z more precise still.

w w y y z z

precision of measurement increasing

(i.e. random uncertainty decreasing);
standard deviation decreasing

Figure 11.9 Normal distribution curves for three independent sets of

measurements, with the same number of measurements in each set.

11.2.6 Different types of ‘average’

Figure 11.8 showed that if the data have a normal distribution the mean value
corresponds to the peak of the distribution. Normal distributions of data are
very common in science, but by no means universal, and of the distributions
shown in Figure 11.10, only Figure 11.10a is normal (with a characteristic
symmetric bell-shaped curve). Figures 11.10b and 11.10d are both symmetric
but they do not represent normal distributions, indeed Figure 11.10d displays
two equal maxima. Figure 11.10c is skewed, i.e. it is not symmetric.

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

mean

mean

(a) (b)

mean
mean

(c) (d)

Figure 11.10 Types of distribution.

In many cases, especially if the distribution is skewed, the mean is not the
best way of representing an average or typical value. Imagine for example a
small company with a single owner who pays himself £1000 000 a year and
10 employees who are each paid £20 000. The statement that the mean annual
income of these 11 workers is more than £100 000 (i.e. £1200 000 divided by
11) – although true – is somewhat misleading. In such cases, two other
quantities, the mode and the median, may represent the data more fairly.
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in the set of data. If the data
are plotted on a histogram or a bar chart, the mode will be the value
corresponding to the tallest bar.
■ What is the mode of the earnings in the company described above?
□ The mode is £20 000. This is certainly more representative of the typical
earnings than the mean would be.

Note that in some cases there may be more than one value for the mode; for
example, the distribution shown in Figure 11.10d is ‘bimodal’, i.e. it has two
modes.
The median is the middle value in a series when the values are arranged in
order of size. This means that half the measurements have values that are
bigger than the median and half have values that are smaller than the median.
If there are an odd number of measurements, the median is the middle
measurement; if there are an even number of measurements it is the mean of
the middle two values.

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To see how this works, consider the following example. Ten plants of a
particular species were chosen at random and the number of flowers on each
plant were counted. The results were:

8, 7, 4, 8, 10, 7, 9, 7, 8, 7
■ What is the mode for these data?
□ The best way of answering this is to compile a table showing the number
of plants with particular numbers of flowers:

number of flowers 4 7 8 9 10
number of plants 1 4 3 1 1

The mode is 7 flowers. There are more plants with 7 flowers than with
any other number of flowers

■ What is the median for these data?

□ To answer this, it is best to order the data. In increasing numbers of
flowers, the results obtained were:

4, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 10

With a sample of 10 plants the median is the mean number of flowers on

the 5th and 6th plants (counted in either ascending or descending order).
In ascending order, the 5th plant has 7 flowers and the 6th has 8, so the
median is

7+8
= 7.5
2

Question 11.9

The heights of nine different specimens of the same type of plant were
measured in centimetres, and the results in descending order were:

8.6, 8.3, 8.2, 7.9, 7.8, 7.8, 7.4, 7.3, 7.1

What is (a) the median and (b) the mean of these data?

Box 11.4 illustrates a case in which the median gives a more representative
summary of the data than the mean.

Box 11.4 Seabird migration

In a study of Storm Petrels (small seabirds, as shown in Figure 11.11),
several thousand birds were fitted with identifying rings when they were
at their nests on a Shetland island. After nesting, the birds dispersed.

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

Twenty-eight of the birds were subsequently reported as having been

recovered in other areas as shown in Table 11.5.

Figure 11.11 A Storm Petrel.

Table 11.5 The recovery location of Storm Petrels ringed at their nests on one
of the Shetland islands.

Recovery place Distance from Number of birds recovered

nest site/km
Shetland (Lerwick) 49 8
Shetland (Foula) 77 5
Fair Isle 114 5
Orkney 157 2
Sule Skerry 248 3
Summer Isles 382 1
St Kilda 529 2
Cape Clear 1114 1
South Africa (Durban) 10 568 1

Taking all 28 observations into account, the mean distance from their
nest site at which the birds have been recovered is 554.5 km. However,
this is not a very useful way in which to summarise the data, because in
fact 13 out of the 28 birds (i.e. nearly half) moved less than 100 km, and
only two moved further than the mean distance.
The median distance is 114 km and this is a more typical value.
This example shows how the mean can be highly dependent on a small
number of measurements that are a long way from the mode. In this
case, the single recovery from South Africa has an enormous influence
on the mean. But the median is ‘resistant’ to extreme values. Even if the
bird recovered in South Africa had flown all the way to New Zealand,
the median value would have remained 114 km.

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11.2.7 Samples and populations

It is no coincidence that the examples used in Sections 11.2.3 and 11.2.4 to
illustrate the statistics for repeated measurements of individual quantities were
drawn from chemistry and physics. Experiments involving repeated
measurements of some quantity are typical of the physical sciences. There are,
however, many other types of scientific work in which a typical procedure is
to collect data by measuring or counting the members of a sub-set of things
which form part of a larger group, and Section 11.2.6 contained several
examples. In this type of work, the sub-set of members that are measured or
counted is called the sample and the larger group is called a population.
Although often employed in the context of biology to describe a group of
organisms that might breed with one another, the term ‘population’ is used
much more widely in statistics to mean an aggregate of things or events.
Examples of statistical populations could include all the sand grains on a
beach, all the leaves on a single tree, all the people in England with blood
group AB, or all the visits made to the Science Museum in March.
It is generally the case that the members of any one population display some
variability; for instance, not all the leaves on an oak tree will be exactly the
same size. Furthermore, different populations often overlap with respect to
whatever is being measured or counted. But despite this variability and
overlap, what scientists often want to know is whether there seem to be
systematic differences between the populations. Indeed, only if there do seem
to be such differences do they accept that they really are dealing with more
than one population. Failure to find evidence of systematic differences
between the leaves of oak trees growing on sandy soil and those of oak trees
growing on clay soils would suggest that the leaves (and trees) were members
of the same population, or in other words that soil conditions have no overall
effect on the leaves of oak trees. The statistical techniques used in looking for
systematic differences between populations are the subject of Chapter 12, but
in order to make use of these techniques it is necessary to be able to
summarise the data that have been collected. You saw in Section 11.2.3 that
for repeated measurements data sets could be summarised by quoting just two
quantities: the mean and the standard deviation. This is also true for samples
drawn from populations, but the mean and the standard deviation take on
slightly different meanings in this context.
It is normally the case that data cannot be collected on all members of a
population. It would indeed be impractical to attempt to measure every leaf on
an oak tree! By the same token, it is usually impossible to know the true
mean of some quantity for a whole population. This true mean (also known
as the population mean) is given the symbol μ (the Greek letter ‘mew’), with
the understanding that this quantity is generally not only unknown but also
unknowable. What can be calculated, however, is the mean of the quantity as
measured for a sample drawn from the population. This is given the symbol
x and calculated using Equation 11.3, exactly as in Section 11.2.3. Provided
the sample is unbiased, the sample mean x gives a fair estimate of the
population mean μ.
As with the mean, the true standard deviation of a population can usually
never be known with certainty. Again, the best estimate that can be obtained

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

must come from the distribution of values in a sample drawn from the
population. However, this time it is not appropriate to use the formula for the
standard deviation of repeated measurements of one quantity which was:

1 n
σ = ∑ (xi − x)2
n i=1
(11.7)

Instead a slightly different formula is used, namely:

1 n
s= ∑ ( xi − x )2
n − 1 i =1
(11.8)

s is often called the sample standard deviation because it is calculated

from data for a sample of the population.

s is also often called the estimated standard deviation of the population

because, provided the sample is chosen without bias, it is the best estimate
that can be made of the true standard deviation of the population.
It will not have escaped your notice that the only difference between the two
formulae is that in using Equation 11.8 you are dividing by (n − 1), whereas
in Equation 11.7 you were dividing by n. This means that s must always be
larger than σ (because you are dividing by a smaller number). This allows for
the possibility that within the whole population there may be a few extremely
high or low values of the measured quantity which will not necessarily be
picked up in a sample drawn from that population.
You should now check that you can use your calculator or a spreadsheet to
determine the sample standard deviation s for a set of data. For this purpose,
try taking the same set of numbers you used in Section 11.2.4 when
calculating σ. These numbers were:

8, 6, 9, 12, 10
The first four steps for calculator use are the same as before, only Step 5 will
be different.
Step 1
Put the machine into statistical mode.
Step 2
Input all the data.
Step 3
If your calculator can tell you the number of items of data, check that it gives
the answer ‘5’ here.

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Step 4
When you know you have the data correctly stored, display the mean; you
should get the answer ‘9’ here.
Step 5
Now find out how to display the sample standard deviation. The appropriate
button will probably be marked s but σn−1 or sn−1 are other possibilities. On a
spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel, the function may confusingly be labelled
STDEV (not STDEVP – the ‘P’ here refers to the fact that this is the function
to use if you are calculating a value for standard deviation based on data for
the entire population). Whatever the case, make sure that you can use your
calculator or spreadsheet to give an answer of ‘2.2’ (to one decimal place) for
the sample standard deviation in this case.
While this example is useful to familiarise yourself with the process, it doesn’t
represent a realistic scenario, not least because the hypothetical data set is so
small. Because the aim is to estimate the mean and standard deviation for a
whole population by carrying out measurements just on a sample, it is
important to ensure that the sample is representative of the population as a
whole and that usually requires it not only to be chosen without bias, but also
to be reasonably large. In Question 11.10, the sample consists of 20 plants.

Question 11.10

Suppose that the number of flowers were counted on a sample of 20 orchid

plants in a colony, and that the results were:

8, 8, 4, 8, 8, 7, 9, 7, 7, 5, 9, 10, 6, 9, 7, 4, 8, 5, 11, 6
From these data, estimate to one decimal place the mean number of flowers
per plant and the standard deviation for the whole colony.

11.3 Review of Chapter 11

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. calculate the probability of a particular outcome from information about
possible outcomes
. calculate the combined probability of several independent outcomes
. calculate the combined probability of several mutually exclusive outcomes
. interpret data expressed as ratios
. calculate the mean, mode and median for a set of data
. calculate the standard deviation σ for a set of repeated measurements of a
particular quantity
. calculate the estimated standard deviation of a population, s, from a set of
measurements made on a sample drawn from the population.

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 11 Probability and descriptive statistics

Question 11.11

Check your understanding of Chapter 11 by answering the following:

(a) A box of chocolates includes nine milk chocolates, eight plain
chocolates and three white chocolates. If one chocolate is selected at
random, what is the probability that this will be a milk chocolate?
(b) For the box of 20 chocolates described in part (a), if one chocolate is
selected at random, what is the probability that this will be either a milk
chocolate or a white chocolate?
(c) Two of the milk chocolates and three of the plain chocolates in the box
described in (a) contain nuts. If one milk chocolate and one plain chocolate
are selected, what is the probability that both of these will contain nuts?
(d) A drink is made up of four types of fruit juice in the following ratios:
apple : orange : pineapple : mango = 8 : 7 : 2 : 1
To two significant figures, what percentage of the drink is apple juice?
(e) The number of children in each household in a street is as follows:
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5
What is the (i) mean; (ii) median; (iii) mode of these data?
(f) During the course of an experiment, an angle was measured ten times
and the results are given below:
37.2°, 37.3°, 37.2°, 37.3°, 37.4°, 37.4°, 37.2°, 37.3°, 37.3°, 37.5°
Calculate, to two decimal places, the mean and standard deviation of these
data.
(g) The wing length of a sample of ten female meadow pipits (a type of
bird) was measured and the results are given below:
75 mm, 75 mm, 80 mm, 76 mm, 81 mm, 82 mm, 75 mm, 77 mm,
78 mm, 74 mm
Use these results to estimate, to one decimal place, the mean and standard
deviation of the wing length of all female meadow pipits in the population
from which the sample was taken.

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Statistical hypothesis testing

12
Samples and populations can be described in terms of their actual or estimated
means and standard deviations, as discussed in Chapter 11. However, the
ultimate aim of collecting data is usually not simply to describe, but also to
answer scientific questions as objectively as possible. An extensive collection
of statistical techniques has been developed over many years to provide
answers to some such questions, bearing in mind that most data are
intrinsically variable. In this chapter, you will be introduced to the general
principles that underpin almost all of these techniques and then shown how to
perform three particular statistical tests commonly used to answer different
sorts of question. In order to illustrate these ideas and to provide some of the
data with which you can practise, this chapter is partly based on a small
ecological study. The study is described in Box 12.1.

Box 12.1 Green-winged Orchids and ridge-and-furrow

topography
A conspicuous feature of parts of the English Midlands is ridge-and­
furrow topography, as shown in Figure 12.1.

(a)

(b)

Figure 12.1 Ridge-and-furrow topography at (a) Lutterworth, Leicestershire

and (b) Pilch Field Nature Reserve, Buckinghamshire (the flowering plants
picking out the ridges in this photograph are Cowslips, Primula veris).

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Maths for Science

Some of this is medieval and some is much later in age. It has been
known for some time that Bulbous Buttercup (Ranunculus bulbosus)
tends to occupy the drier ridges and Creeping Buttercup (R. repens) the
wetter furrows. Also found in the same area is Green-winged Orchid
(Orchis morio), a rare plant in England, shown in the inset for
Figure 12.2. A study was undertaken to find out whether the distribution
and/or performance of Green-winged Orchid might also be influenced by
ridge-and-furrow topography. Various measurements were made on a
sample of plants growing in a local nature reserve. Figure 12.2 illustrates
some of the measurements taken. These included the horizontal and
vertical distances of each plant from the nearest ridge crest, the height of
the plant, the number of leaves and the number of flowers. Whether a
plant was growing on the north-west or the south-east slope of the ridge
was also recorded, since the two slopes might differ with respect to mean
temperature, moisture availability, etc.

position of
ridge crest

plant

height

vertical
distance
horizontal distance

Figure 12.2 Measurement of horizontal and vertical distances of a plant

from the nearest ridge crest and plant height. (Inset) Green-winged Orchid
(Orchis morio).

12.1 The principles of hypothesis testing

Many of the questions that arise out of scientific investigations are driven by
hypotheses, tentative explanations of observations that may be tested by
experiment or by making further observations. Taking the study briefly
described in Box 12.1 as an example, it might be proposed that Green-winged
Orchid (like Bulbous Buttercup) occurs more frequently – and/or grows better
– nearer the drier crests of ridges than the wetter furrows. Alternatively, it
might be that Green-winged Orchid (like Creeping Buttercup) ‘prefers’ the
wetter furrows to the drier ridges. Notice that these tentative ideas contain the
unproven assumption that ridges are indeed drier than furrows. Statistical
hypothesis testing provides a universally agreed set of procedures for
answering questions such as ‘Do Green-winged Orchids tend to occur nearer

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

to ridge crests than expected by chance?’, ‘Does the amount of water in soil
increase with distance from the nearest ridge crest?’, ‘Do the Green-winged
Orchids growing nearer ridge crests tend to be taller or have more leaves and/
or flowers than those growing further away?’.
There are two major branches of statistical hypothesis-testing: tests of
association (e.g. ‘Are Green-winged Orchids found in association with ridge
crests significantly more frequently than would be expected by chance?’) and
tests of difference (e.g. ‘Is there a significant difference between the mean
height of plants growing on the north-west rather than the south-east slopes of
ridges?’).
■ Would an investigation into whether there is a significant increase in the
water content of soil with increasing distance from the nearest ridge crest
be a test of association or a test of difference?
□ Since you would be looking to see if there is an association between soil
water content and distance from ridge crest, this would be a test of
association.

Having ascertained which statistical test is appropriate in any particular

circumstance, most scientists look up the details of that test and then use it
almost as if it were a ‘black box’ (a piece of equipment that users trust to
perform a particular task reliably without understanding how it actually
works). Computer programs and spreadsheets can be used to convert the raw
data into a measure of the likelihood of association or difference. Sometimes,
however, it is helpful to stand back from the details of any particular
statistical test and to consider those features that are common to nearly all
such tests. These common features can best be illustrated by considering in
general terms a test of difference between two means.
Suppose that a scientist collected measurements from two samples of plants,
one of which had been exposed to a particular experimental treatment and the
other (the so-called control sample) which had not. Almost certainly, there
would be some variation within each of these two sets of measurements and
this would be reflected in their standard deviations. Moreover, even if the
difference between the means of the experimental and control plants was
relatively large, it would not be surprising if there was some overlap between
the two sets of measurements, as shown in Figure 12.3. In this figure, assume
that the results for the sample exposed to the experimental treatment are
shown with blue shading whilst those for the control are shown with pink
shading. Each x is the mean of a sample (and estimates the mean of the
population, μ) and each s is the sample standard deviation (estimated standard
deviation of the population).
Now it might suit the scientist’s favoured theory to convince others that the
treatment did have a statistically significant effect on the measured character.
On the other hand, it might be in the scientist’s interests to show that the
treatment did not have a statistically significant effect. Either way, the scientist
is required by the procedures of statistical hypothesis testing to put forward a
so-called null hypothesis in the first instance. As the name suggests, a null
hypothesis is one of ‘no difference’. In this case the null hypothesis would be

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experimental

number of measurements
treatment

control

s1 s1 s2 s2

x
x1 x2

Figure 12.3 Diagram summarising a possible result of an experiment in which a

sample exposed to experimental treatment (shown with blue shading) was
compared to a control (pink shading).

that there is no difference between the population mean of the treated plants
(μ1) and the population mean of the control plants (μ2). Expressing this
statement mathematically, the null hypothesis would be that

μ1 = μ2
or, equivalently, that μ1 − μ2 = 0.
At the same time, the scientist has to put forward an alternative hypothesis
that is the logical ‘mirror image’ of the null hypothesis. In this case the
alternative hypothesis would be that there is a difference between the means
of the treated and control plants. Expressing this statement mathematically, the
alternative hypothesis would be that

μ1 ≠ μ2
or μ1 − μ2 ≠ 0.
■ Is it possible for both the null and alternative hypotheses to be true?
□ No. If either is true, then the other must be false.

If the null hypothesis is true, then the alternative hypothesis must be

false and vice versa.

Once statements of the null and alternative hypotheses have been made, a
quantity called the test statistic is calculated. The test statistic is a number, on
the basis of which a decision can be made to accept or reject the null
hypothesis. The value of the test statistic depends on the characteristics of the
samples being compared, and in most cases it is calculated using one or more
equations. Things are often so arranged that the value of the test statistic
comes out to be zero if the null hypothesis is true (for instance, by including

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

the term (x1 − x2 ) in the numerator of the equation, where x1 and x2 , the
means of the two samples, are the best available estimates of the unknowable
values of μ1 and μ2). However, because of the vagaries of sampling, it would
be extremely unlikely for the means of two samples drawn from even the
same population to be identical (for instance, two samples of control plants
are very unlikely to have exactly the same mean). So, the question is ‘How
large does the test statistic have to be before one can be reasonably confident
that the samples were drawn from different populations (and therefore
conclude, in this example, that the experimental treatment probably did have a
significant effect)?’ In fact, it is impossible to give a definitive answer to this
question; it can be answered only in terms of probabilities.
A computer program or spreadsheet can be used to find the probability that
the calculated value of the test statistic could have arisen by chance if the null
hypothesis were true. In a particular instance, this might turn out to be
something like 1 in 63, i.e. 63 1
, which is 0.015 87 to four significant figures.
An alternative approach, used in this book, is to compare the value of the test
statistic with lists of critical values calculated for a few predetermined
significance levels expressed in terms of probabilities. In this context, the
probabilities are usually abbreviated to P and expressed in decimal notation,
e.g. 0.1, 0.05 and 0.01 (as percentages, these values would be 10%, 5% and
1%). For any particular significance level, the critical value is the most
extreme (usually largest) value that the test statistic could be expected to have
if the null hypothesis were true. Of course, if the null hypothesis is true then
any deviation from the test statistic’s expected value (which, as noted above,
is usually zero) must have arisen purely by chance. If the significance level
corresponding to the value of the test statistic turns out to be quite low
(usually because the test statistic is rather high), then it must be accepted that
the null hypothesis is unlikely to be true. If the null hypothesis is false, then
the alternative hypothesis is assumed to be true. Only at this stage can the
scientist conclude:
. either that the treatment did have a significant effect (because the null
hypothesis was probably false and therefore the alternative hypothesis
probably true)
. or that the treatment did not have a significant effect (because the null
hypothesis is likely to have been true).
It is extremely important to realise that the particular significance level at
which a null hypothesis is rejected – and hence the alternative hypothesis is
accepted – is a matter of convention. For most situations in science, the usual
convention is to reject a null hypothesis if the probability P is less than the
0.05 significance level, i.e. if P < 0.05. However, in employing this
convention, it is also important to realise that you could be rejecting a true
null hypothesis or accepting a false one. Indeed, you are explicitly accepting
that on average, if you were to carry out 100 statistical tests, you would reach
the wrong conclusion for 5 of these tests (although you would not know
which ones). If the work you are engaged in really matters, for example,
medical research in which human lives might be at stake, then you would
probably employ more exacting criteria, such as rejecting null hypotheses only
if P < 0.01 or even P < 0.001. On the other hand, insisting on the use of such

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rigorous criteria for routine scientific work would mean that many null
hypotheses that really are false would have to be accepted, and this would
undoubtedly hinder scientific progress.
The important features of statistical hypothesis testing are summarised below:

1 A null hypothesis (e.g. μ1 = μ2) and an alternative hypothesis

(e.g. μ1 ≠ μ2) are proposed.
2 The value of a test statistic is calculated.
3 If the probability of this value arising by chance if the null hypothesis
were true is low – conventionally, less than 0.05 – then the null
hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted.

When null hypotheses are rejected, the results are described as being
statistically significant or sometimes just as ‘significant’. A consequence of
this is often a feeling that ‘non-significant’ results are of less value than
‘significant’ ones. Indeed, there is probably a reporting bias whereby
significant differences are more likely to be published in scientific papers than
non-significant ones. This undervaluing of non-significant differences is
unfortunate because the whole point of the exercise is to try to find out what
is happening in the real world. It may be just as important to know that an
effect is not produced by one experimental treatment as to know that another
treatment does produce the effect.

Question 12.1

Should the null hypothesis be accepted or rejected if the result of a

statistical hypothesis test turned out to be:
(a) P < 0.01, (b) P > 0.05, (c) P > 0.01?

12.2 Deciding which test to use; levels of

measurement
Although the general principles of many statistical tests are similar, it is
nevertheless important to choose a test that is valid for the data that are being
investigated.
The expression ‘levels of measurement’ refers to important distinctions
between different sorts of data that might be collected during the course of a
scientific investigation. An example of data collected at the categorical level
is the sex of animals. In most cases, an animal is unambiguously either ‘male’
or ‘female’. Furthermore, there is no logical way in which the category ‘male’
can be ranked as ‘higher’ or ‘better’ than the category ‘female’ or vice versa.
All that can be said is that these two categories are different. Of course, a data
set may include more than two categories.
It is possible to rank ordinal level data in a sensible way. For instance, plants
may be listed in order of their heights or grouped by the approximate number

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of leaves they possess without knowing the actual heights or the actual
numbers of leaves. If the actual heights or numbers of leaves are known, then
these data are described as being at the interval level.
Data collected at the interval level can, if necessary, be analysed at the ordinal
level. For instance, you might know that Plant A has 8 leaves and that Plant B
has 5 leaves (interval level data). Nevertheless, you could choose to ignore
some of this information and simply treat Plant A as having more leaves than
Plant B (ordinal level data). Of course, if all you knew was that Plant A has
more leaves than Plant B, then you could not convert this information into
interval level data for analysis.
Categorical level data cannot usually be treated as if they were at interval or
ordinal level (although you might argue that, for instance, red-flowered plants
have more of a particular pigment than pink-flowered plants of the same
species). However, by applying arbitrary criteria, interval or ordinal level data
can sometimes be converted into categorical data for analysis. For instance,
one of the seven pairs of contrasting characters used by Mendel in his
pioneering research on the genetics of garden peas (see Box 11.2) was ‘tall’
versus ‘short’. This categorical distinction made sense only because, in this
particular case, there was no overlap between ‘tall’ and ‘short’ plants.
The reason for distinguishing between the different levels of measurement is
that different statistical tests must be used to analyse categorical, ordinal and
interval level data. Sometimes, when analysis of data at the interval level fails
to reveal statistically significant differences, such differences may be shown
up when the data are re-analysed at the ordinal level. However, because some
information about the samples has effectively been ‘thrown away’ in the
process, any statements eventually made about the populations from which the
samples were drawn are necessarily less complete than they might have been.

Question 12.2

In each of the following cases, explain briefly whether the data should be
treated as being at the categorical, the ordinal or the interval level.
(a) A count is made of the number of parasites on each member of a

sample of sheep.

(b) A sample of sheep are counted as either ‘parasitised’ (i.e. carrying one
or more parasites) or ‘unparasitised’ (i.e. carrying no parasites).
(c) A sample of sheep are counted as ‘unparasitised’ (i.e. carrying no
parasites), ‘lightly parasitised’ (i.e. carrying 1–5 parasites), ‘moderately
parasitised’ (i.e. carrying 6–10 parasites) or ‘heavily parasitised
(i.e. carrying more than 10 parasites).

12.3 The chi-squared goodness-of-fit test

The χ2 goodness-of-fit test, where χ is the Greek letter ‘chi’, said to rhyme
with ‘sky’, is often used to compare the numbers of individual organisms
present in different areas with the numbers expected on the basis of an
appropriate null hypothesis. There are other χ2-tests, for example to test for

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possible associations between two categorical variables, but for simplicity the
χ2 goodness-of-fit test will be referred to simply as ‘the χ2-test’ for the rest of
this chapter.
In the Green-winged Orchid study, described in Box 12.1, horizontal distance
from the nearest ridge crest (as shown in Figure 12.2) was recorded for 210
plants growing on several ridges. Because the ridge crest-to-furrow distance
varied slightly between ridges, each of these distances was divided into five
equal categories (category 1 being 0.0–19.9% of the distance from the crest,
category 2 being 20.0–39.9% of the distance, category 3 being 40.0–59.9% of
the distance, etc.) so that the data from different ridges could be pooled for
analysis. This procedure enables interval level data (the horizontal distance of
each plant from the nearest ridge crest) to be treated as categorical level data
(the distance category into which each plant falls). If the 210 plants were
distributed uniformly with respect to the ridge crest, then a fifth of them
(i.e. 42) would be expected to occur within each distance category. A
reasonable null hypothesis would be that, if it were possible to collect data on
the entire population of Green-winged Orchids growing in fields with ridge­
and-furrow topography, then there would be no difference between the number
of plants observed in each distance category and the number that would be
expected on the assumption that the plants were distributed uniformly. The
alternative hypothesis would be that the number of plants observed in each
distance category was not equal to the number of plants expected. Accepting
this alternative hypothesis implies accepting that the plants were distributed
non-uniformly.
In fact, of the sample of 210 plants, 105 occurred in the first distance
category, 74 in the second, 28 in the third, 3 in the fourth and none in the
fifth. It certainly appears that the plants were not uniformly distributed. The
χ2-test allows a definitive statement to be made on the probability that the
population of plants from which the sample was drawn could have been
distributed uniformly despite the apparently non-uniform distribution observed
in the sample. Only if this probability is sufficiently low (conventionally if
P < 0.05) can the null hypothesis be rejected and the alternative hypothesis
(with its implication that the plants were distributed non-uniformly) accepted.
The first stage in performing a χ2-test is usually to draw up a table to compare
observed and expected numbers in different categories. The table for the
sample of 210 orchid plants is given in Table 12.1, and compares the number
of individuals, Oi, that were observed in each distance category, with the
number Ei expected on the basis of the null hypothesis. As a check, the total
number in the Oi column should equal the total number in the Ei column. The
trickiest part of most χ2-tests is deciding the ‘expected’ numbers. In this case,
if the null hypothesis were true, a fifth of the plants (i.e. 42) would be
expected to fall into each distance category.

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Table 12.1 Table comparing the observed distribution of a sample of Green-winged

Orchids across five categories of distance from the nearest ridge crest with the
distribution expected if the plants were distributed uniformly.

Distance category Observed number (Oi) Expected number (Ei)

1 (nearest to ridge) 105 42
2 74 42
3 28 42
4 3 42
5 (furthest from ridge) 0 42
total 210 210

The test statistic is χ2 and this is found in the following way.

Step 1
For each distance category, the ‘expected’ number is subtracted from the
‘observed’ number. This gives (Oi − Ei).
Step 2
Each result from Step 1 is squared. This gives (Oi − Ei)2.
Step 3
Each result from Step 2 is divided by the appropriate ‘expected’ number. This
gives

(Oi − Ei ) 2
Ei
Step 4
The results from Step 3 are totalled. This leads to the test statistic χ2, where χ2
is given by

n
(Oi − Ei ) 2
χ2 = ∑ (12.1)
i =1 Ei

The easiest way to calculate χ2 is to extend Table 12.1 to include columns for

(Oi − Ei ) 2
(Oi − Ei), (Oi − Ei)2 and .
Ei

This has been done in Table 12.2, and χ2 is the total of the values in the right­
hand column. Notice that, as a further check, the total of the (Oi − Ei) column
must be zero, since the total number of individuals observed is equal to the
total number of individuals expected.

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(Oi − Ei ) 2
As an example of the way in which each value of is calculated,
Ei
consider the first distance category. For this distance category, Oi = 105 and
Ei = 42, so

(Oi − Ei )2 (105 − 42)2 632 3969

= = = = 94.500
Ei 42 42 42
This value, and all the other values in the right-hand column of Table 12.2
have been calculated to three decimal places. This is normal practice when
finding χ2 because this is how values are generally stated in tables of critical
values for χ2.

Table 12.2 Extended version of Table 12.1.

Distance Oi Ei (Oi − Ei) (Oi − Ei)2 (Oi − Ei)2/Ei

category
1 105 42 63 3969 94.500
2 74 42 32 1024 24.381
3 28 42 −14 196 4.667
4 3 42 −39 1521 36.214
5 0 42 −42 1764 42.000
total 210 210 0 χ2 = 201.762

The next stage is to compare the value of the test statistic χ2 (which, in this
case, is 201.762) with the critical values listed in Table 12.3. The sizes of the
critical values in such a table depend on both the significance level (P = 0.1,
P = 0.05 and P = 0.01, given across the top of the table) and the number of
degrees of freedom (given down the left-hand side of the table).
The number of degrees of freedom can be found by counting the number of
‘cells’ in the table that contain observed counts (i.e. ignoring expected counts,
totals, etc.) and subtracting one.

For the χ2-test, the number of degrees of freedom is given by

number of cells containing observed counts – 1

In this case, Table 12.1 has five cells that contain observed counts, so
number of degrees of freedom = 5 − 1
=4
Box 12.2 gives a brief explanation of why it is reasonable for the number of
degrees of freedom to be four in this case.

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Table 12.3 Critical values of χ2 for different degrees of freedom and at three
levels of significance.

Degrees of freedom Critical value

P = 0.1 P = 0.05 P = 0.01
1 2.706 3.841 6.635
2 4.605 5.991 9.210
3 6.251 7.815 11.341
4 7.779 9.488 13.277
5 9.236 11.070 15.086
6 10.645 12.592 16.812
7 12.017 14.067 18.475
8 13.362 15.507 20.090
9 14.684 16.919 21.666
10 15.987 18.307 23.209
11 17.275 19.675 24.725
12 18.549 21.026 26.217
13 19.812 22.362 27.688
14 21.064 23.685 29.141
15 22.307 24.996 30.578
16 23.542 26.296 32.000
17 24.769 27.587 33.409
18 25.989 28.869 34.805
19 27.204 30.144 36.191
20 28.412 31.410 37.566
21 29.615 32.671 38.932
22 30.813 33.924 40.289
23 32.007 35.172 41.638
24 33.196 36.415 42.980
25 34.382 37.652 44.314
26 35.563 38.885 45.642
27 36.741 40.113 46.963
28 37.916 41.337 48.278
29 39.087 42.557 49.588
30 40.256 43.773 50.892

Note: The null hypothesis is usually rejected if, for the appropriate number of
degrees of freedom, the calculated value of χ2 is greater than the value tabulated
at the P = 0.05 significance level.

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Box 12.2 Degrees of freedom

Why should the number of degrees of freedom be four for the data given
in Table 12.1? The total numbers of both ‘observed’ and ‘expected’
plants became fixed (in this case, at 210) the moment data collection
ceased. The number of expected plants in each of the distance categories
(42) is fixed by a combination of the null hypothesis being tested
(i.e. that equal numbers of plants would be expected in each distance
category) and the sample size (i.e. 210). In contrast, the number of plants
that could have been observed in each of any four of the distance
categories is completely free to vary, although the number of plants that
could have been observed in the final category is not free to vary in this
way – it must be such that the total of the numbers in the observed
column equals the sample size (i.e. 210). In this case, there are therefore
four degrees of freedom, corresponding to four observed counts.
Similar arguments to the above underpin the concept of degrees of
freedom in other statistical tests.

The part of Table 12.3 that is relevant to this example is reproduced in

Figure 12.4.

Table 12.3 Critical values of χ2 for different degrees of freedom and at three
levels of significance.
Degrees of freedom Critical value
P = 0.1 P = 0.05 P = 0.01
1 2.706 3.841 6.635
2 4.605 5.991 9.210
3 6.251 7.815 11.341
4 7.779 9.488 13.277
5 9.236 11.070 15.086

Figure 12.4 Part of Table 12.3.

Reading across the row for 4 degrees of freedom, it can be seen that the χ2
value of 201.762 is greater than 7.779 (corresponding to a significance level
of 0.1), greater than 9.488 (corresponding to a significance level of 0.05) and
greater than 13.277 (corresponding to a significance level of 0.01). So the
significance level is less than P = 0.01. In fact, the significance level is
considerably less than 0.01 (because 201.762 is much larger than 13.277).
Thus, the probability that the plants in the population from which the sample
was drawn were distributed uniformly is much less than 0.01 (which can be
written as P << 0.01). There can be little doubt that the plants were not
distributed uniformly with respect to distance from the ridge crest. The null
hypothesis can therefore be rejected – and the alternative hypothesis accepted

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– with a great deal of confidence. In reporting such a result, it is often stated

that the null hypothesis is rejected at the P = 0.01 significance level or
(probably more commonly) at the 1% significance level.
Although statistics shows that the plants were distributed non-uniformly, it
does not reveal the nature of the non-uniform distribution. The data should
now be re-inspected to confirm that the plants did indeed occur closer to the
ridge crests than expected by chance – rather than nearer to the furrows or
clustered halfway between the ridges and furrows. The conclusion that can be
drawn from this investigation is that Green-winged Orchids tend to occur
significantly closer to ridge crests than to furrows.

Precautions for the χ2-test

Before performing a χ2-test you should check that:
. the data are at the categorical level
. the ‘observed’ and ‘expected’ numbers are actual counts (not proportions
or percentages)
. none of the ‘expected’ numbers is less than 5 (a design feature of the test).
Worked example 12.1 shows the use of a χ2-test in investigating whether or
not an observed distribution of organisms is consistent with a particular
theoretical ratio. Investigations of this type are quite common, and the first
step is always to work out the number of organisms expected in each category
if the null hypothesis – that the theoretical ratio holds – is true. The worked
example also illustrates that, while observed numbers of organisms must
always be whole numbers, the numbers expected on the basis of theory or
prediction often come out to be fractions.

Worked example 12.1

A biologist makes the prediction that flies of type A, type B and type C will
occur in the ratio 0.16 : 0.48 : 0.36 in a wild population, if this population is
in so-called Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. A representative sample drawn from
a population was found to contain 28 type A flies, 134 type B flies and 78
type C flies. Was this population in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium?
Answer
The total number of flies in the sample was 28 + 134 + 78 = 240. If the ratio
in the sample was 0.16 type A flies : 0.48 type B flies : 0.36 type C flies, then
there would be

0.16 × 240 = 38.4 type A flies

0.48 × 240 = 115.2 type B flies

0.36 × 240 = 86.4 type C flies

These are therefore the ‘expected’ numbers.

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Table 12.4 gives values for Oi, Ei and total sample size and has been extended
(Oi − Ei ) 2
to give (Oi − Ei), (Oi − Ei)2 and .
Ei
Table 12.4 An extended table for Worked example 12.1.

Fly type Oi Ei (Oi − Ei) (Oi − Ei)2 (Oi − Ei)2/Ei

A 28 38.4 −10.4 108.16 2.817
B 134 115.2 18.8 353.44 3.068
C 78 86.4 −8.4 70.56 0.817
total 240 240 0 χ = 6.702
2

The number of degrees of freedom is given by

number of cells containing observed counts − 1 = 3 − 1
=2
Reading across the row for 2 degrees of freedom in Table 12.3, it can be seen
that the χ2 value of 6.702 corresponds to a significance level of less than 0.05
but more than 0.01 (i.e. 0.05 > P > 0.01).
The probability is less than 0.05 that the ratio of different types of fly in the
entire population from which the sample of 240 was drawn is 0.16 type A :
0.48 type B : 0.36 type C. This means that the null hypothesis (that the
population is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium) must be rejected at the 5%
significance level. On the basis of this investigation, it must be concluded that
the population is not in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium.

Question 12.3

The prediction is made on the basis of theory that, if a particular genetic

cross were to be performed, the ratio of plants in the next generation should
be 1 red-flowered : 2 pink-flowered : 1 white-flowered.
The next generation of a sample comprised 185 red-flowered plants,
305 pink-flowered plants and 146 white-flowered plants. Are these data
compatible with the 1 : 2 : 1 ratio predicted?

12.4 The Spearman rank correlation coefficient

In the study described in Box 12.1, soil samples were taken right across a
ridge at different horizontal distances from the crest, in order to test whether
the water content of the soil varies significantly from ridge crests to furrows.
Both the original mass of each sample and its mass after drying in an oven
were measured using a scientific balance. The water content of each sample
was then expressed as a percentage of its dry mass.

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

For example, since the original mass of one sample was 22.85 g and its dry
mass was 11.32 g, its water content was
(22.85 g − 11.32 g)
×100% = 102%
11.32 g
(This percentage is greater than 100% because there was slightly more water
than soil in the sample.)
In fact, several soil samples (known as ‘replicate’ samples) were taken at each
horizontal distance, and their mean water content was calculated and used for
the rest of the investigation. Figure 12.5 shows how the mean water content of
the soil samples taken on the north-west slope of the ridge varied with
horizontal distance from the nearest ridge crest.

140
mean water content / % dry mass

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

horizontal distance from ridge crest/cm

Figure 12.5 Mean water content (as a percentage of dry mass) of soil samples
plotted against horizontal distance from ridge crest.

There certainly seems to be a trend of water content increasing with increasing

horizontal distance from ridge crest. But is this trend, or apparent correlation
between these two variables, statistically significant? The strength of a
possible correlation between two variables is summarised in the value of a
correlation coefficient (r). The value of r can range from +1 (i.e. a perfect
positive correlation, in which the two variables increase or decrease precisely
in step with one another; Figure 12.6a) to −1 (i.e. a perfect negative
correlation, in which one variable increases as the other decreases and vice
versa; Figure 12.6b). Where there is no correlation between two variables, the
value of r is zero (Figure 12.6c). Figure 12.5 suggests that, for mean soil
water content and horizontal distance from nearest ridge crest, r lies
somewhere between 0 and +1. However, it is necessary to determine the
actual value of r and hence determine the probability that – for the population
of all possible soil water contents – the null hypothesis (that there is no
correlation between water content and horizontal distance from ridge crest) is
true.

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variable 2

variable 2

variable 2
(a) variable 1 (b) variable 1 (c) variable 1

Figure 12.6 (a) A perfect positive correlation between two variables (i.e. r = +1). (b) A perfect negative correlation
between two variables (i.e. r = −1). (c) Zero correlation between two variables (i.e. r ≈ 0).

Several different sorts of correlation coefficient have been devised. In this case
it is appropriate to calculate the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rS).
This, as the term ‘rank’ suggests, is based on ordinal level data. The null
hypothesis is that there is no correlation between soil water content and
horizontal distance from ridge crest (i.e. rS = 0) and the alternative hypothesis
is that the two variables are correlated (i.e. rS ≠ 0).
The data on mean soil water content for the north-west slope of the ridge are
summarised in Table 12.5.

Table 12.5 Mean soil water content (as percentage

of dry mass) for samples taken at various horizontal
distances from the nearest ridge crest on the north­
west slope of a ridge.

Horizontal Mean water content/% dry

distance/cm mass
0 76
50 83
100 93
150 80
200 102
250 95
300 120
350 130

Before the test statistic can be calculated, the following steps should be
completed:
Step 1
Work out the rank (order) of each of the eight horizontal distances, (RA)i
(which will range between 1 and 8).
Step 2
Work out the rank of each matching value for mean water content, (RB)i
(which will also range between 1 and 8).

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

Step 3
Calculate each difference, Di = (RA)i − (RB)i.
Step 4
Square each difference, to give Di2.
Step 5
n
Total all the values for Di2 from Step 4 to give ∑ Di 2 .

i =1

As an example of Steps 1 to 4, consider the horizontal distance 150 cm,

which has (RA)i = 4 and (RB)i = 2 (since its distance is fourth from the crest
while its water content is second lowest).
Therefore, Di = (RA)i − (RB)i = 4 − 2 = 2
So Di2 = 22 = 4.
The other values for Di2 are shown in Table 12.6, and the sum of the numbers
n
in the right-hand column of this table gives
∑ Di 2 .

i =1
n
Notice that
∑ Di (the sum of the differences of the ranks) should always be
i =1
zero, which provides a check that the ranks have been worked out correctly.

Table 12.6 Extension of Table 12.5 to include ranks ((RA)i and (RB)i), differences between ranks (Di) and values of Di2.

Horizontal distance/cm Rank (RA)i Mean water content/% Rank (RB)i Di = (RA)i − (RB)i Di2
0 1 76 1 0 0
50 2 83 3 −1 1
100 3 93 4 −1 1
150 4 80 2 2 4
200 5 102 6 −1 1
250 6 95 5 1 1
300 7 120 7 0 0
350 8 130 8 0 0
n n
∑ Di = 0 ∑ Di 2 = 8
i =1 i =1

In the case of the data in Table 12.6, it was possible to assign a unique rank
to each value for horizontal distance and mean water content, but sometimes
quantities ‘tie’ (i.e. have the same rank). Worked example 12.2, at the end of
this section, illustrates what to do when this is the case.

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The test statistic, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient, is rS and this
is calculated using Equation 12.2:
n
6∑ Di 2
rS = 1 − i =1 (12.2)
n(n 2 − 1)
n
where ∑ Di 2 is the sum of the differences of the ranks and n is the
i =1
number of pairs of measurements.

n
Substituting ∑ Di 2 = 8 (from Table 12.6) and n = 8 into Equation 12.2 gives
i=1

6×8
rS = 1 −
8(82 − 1)

= 0.905

The final stage is to compare the value of the test statistic rS (0.905 in this
case) with the critical values listed in Table 12.7. The critical values are again
given to three decimal places and the size of the critical values depends on
both the significance level (P = 0.1, P = 0.05 and P = 0.01, given across the
top of the table) and the number of pairs of measurements (given down the
left-hand side of the table). In this case the number of pairs of measurements
is 8, and looking across the appropriate row it can be seen that the calculated
rS value of 0.905 is greater than 0.881, corresponding to a significance level
of 0.01. Thus the probability, P, that there is no correlation between water
content and horizontal distance from the ridge crest is less than 0.01; the null
hypothesis must be rejected at the 1% significance level, and the alternative
hypothesis accepted. There is a statistically significant (positive) correlation
between mean soil water content and horizontal distance from ridge crest.
It is extremely important to appreciate that even a statistically significant
correlation between two variables does not prove that changes in one variable
cause changes in the other variable.

Correlation does not imply causality.

A time-honoured, but probably apocryphal, example often cited to illustrate

this point is the statistically significant positive correlation reported for the
late 19th century between the number of clergymen in England and the
consumption of alcoholic spirits. Both the increased number of clergymen and
the increased consumption of spirits can presumably be attributed to
population growth (which is therefore regarded as a ‘confounding variable’)
rather than the increase in the number of clergymen being the cause of the
increased consumption of spirits or vice versa!

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

Table 12.7 Critical values for the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rS)
for different numbers of pairs of measurements and at three levels of
significance.

Number of pairs of measurements Critical value

P = 0.1 P = 0.05 P = 0.01
7 0.714 0.786 0.929
8 0.643 0.738 0.881
9 0.600 0.683 0.833
10 0.564 0.648 0.794
12 0.506 0.591 0.777
14 0.456 0.544 0.715
16 0.425 0.506 0.665
18 0.399 0.475 0.625
20 0.377 0.450 0.591
22 0.359 0.428 0.562
24 0.343 0.409 0.537
26 0.329 0.392 0.515
28 0.317 0.377 0.496
30 0.306 0.364 0.478

Note: (i) The null hypothesis is usually rejected if, for the appropriate number of
pairs of measurements, the calculated value of rS is greater than or equal to the
value tabulated at the P = 0.05 significance level.

(ii) The lower part of Table 12.7 does not have entries for odd numbers of pairs
of measurements. Should the data you are analysing comprise (say) 17 pairs of
measurements, it is better to err on the side of caution and compare your value
of the test statistic with the critical values for 16 pairs rather than those for 18
pairs. Because each critical value for 16 pairs of measurements is higher than
the corresponding value for 18 pairs, this makes it less likely that you will
mistakenly reject a true null hypothesis.

Precautions for the Spearman rank correlation test

Before calculating a Spearman rank correlation (rS) you should check that:
. the data were collected at, or can be converted into, ordinal level
(i.e. ranks)
. there are 7 to 30 pairs of measurements (though the test can be performed
with more than 30 pairs if you have access to a more extensive table of
critical values or an appropriate computer program or spreadsheet)
. these measurements are reasonably scattered.

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Worked example 12.2 illustrates how to rank data when two or more
measurements are identical. They must be given the same mean rank, and then
account must be taken of all the identical measurements before the rank of the
next, non-identical, value is decided. So, if two measurements tie for first
place, they are each given a rank of
1+ 2
= 1.5
2
and the next available rank is 3.

Worked example 12.2

Data on the number of Stonefly nymphs (Figure 12.7) counted in standard
samples taken at 13 stations along a stream, together with the water speed
measured at these stations, are presented in Table 12.8. Calculate the
Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rS) for these data and use this to
determine whether there is a statistically significant correlation between water
speed and the number of Stonefly nymphs present.

Table 12.8 Number of Stonefly nymphs in relation

to the speed of water flow at 13 sampling stations in
a stream.

Water speed/m s−1 Number of nymphs

0.8 35
1.1 28
0.5 11
Figure 12.7 A Stonefly nymph. 0.7 12
0.2 7
0.4 5
0.5 6
1.3 21
0.9 23
1.7 43
0.2 10
0.1 6
0.7 19

Answer
Table 12.9 is an extension of Table 12.8, to include values for (RA)i, (RB)i, Di,
n
Di2 and ∑ Di 2 for the data in this worked example.
i=1

Note, for example, that the water speed was measured to be 0.2 m s−1 at two
sampling stations, so these stations ‘tie’ for second place in the ranking of
water speed (after the station with a water speed of 0.1 m s−1).

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

Table 12.9 Extension of Table 12.8 to include ranks ((RA)i and (RB)i), differences between ranks (Di) and values of Di2.

Water speed/m s−1 Rank (RA)i Number of nymphs Rank (RB)i Di = (RA)i − (RB)i Di2
0.8 9 35 12 −3 9
1.1 11 28 11 0 0
0.5 5.5 11 6 −0.5 0.25
0.7 7.5 12 7 0.5 0.25
0.2 2.5 7 4 −1.5 2.25
0.4 4 5 1 3 9
0.5 5.5 6 2.5 3 9
1.3 12 21 9 3 9
0.9 10 23 10 0 0
1.7 13 43 13 0 0
0.2 2.5 10 5 −2.5 6.25
0.1 1 6 2.5 −1.5 2.25
0.7 7.5 19 8 −0.5 0.25
n n
∑ Di = 0 ∑ Di 2 = 47.5
i=1 i =1

Each is given a rank of

2+3
= 2.5
2
The next available rank (for the station with a water speed of 0.4 m s−1) is 4.
n
Substituting ∑ Di 2 = 47.5 (from Table 12.9) and n = 13 into Equation 12.2:
i=1

6 × 47.5
rS = 1 −
13(132 − 1)

= 0.870

Reading across the row for 12 pairs of measurements (in the absence of a row
for 13 pairs) in Table 12.7, it can be seen that P < 0.01. The null hypothesis
must therefore be rejected at the 1% significance level and the alternative
hypothesis accepted. There is a statistically significant positive correlation
between water speed and number of Stonefly nymphs.

Question 12.4

Returning to the study described in Box 12.1, Figure 12.8 shows how the
mean water content of the soil samples taken from the north-west slope of
the ridge varies with vertical distance from ridge crest. Use the data given
in Table 12.10 (an expanded version of Table 12.5) to determine whether
there is a statistically significant correlation between soil water content and
vertical distance from ridge crest. The horizontal distances from the ridge
are not required for this question so this column has been greyed out.

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140

mean water content / % dry mass

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
vertical distance from ridge crest/cm

Figure 12.8 Mean water content (as a percentage of dry mass) of soil samples
plotted against vertical distance from ridge crest.

Table 12.10 Vertical distances from the nearest ridge crest and mean soil water
content (as a percentage of dry mass) for samples taken at various horizontal
distances from the nearest ridge crest on the north-west slope of a ridge.

Horizontal distance/cm Vertical distance/cm Mean water content/

% dry mass
0 0 76
50 4 83
100 7 93
150 9 80
200 7 102
250 11 95
300 10 120
350 13 130

12.5 The t-test for unmatched samples

Several t-tests are widely used to test whether the means of two samples are
sufficiently different to conclude that the samples are likely to have been
drawn from different populations. Such a conclusion might allow an
experimenter to conclude that, for example, an experimental treatment did
produce a statistically significant effect compared to the experimental control
(Section 12.1). t-tests are often referred to as ‘Student’s t-tests’. This is not
because students use them – although this is true! ‘Student’ was the
pseudonym used by W.S. Gosset (Figure 12.9), a statistician at the Guinness
brewery in Dublin, who published the first version of the test in 1907.
Figure 12.9 William Sealy
Gosset (1876–1937).

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

■ State the null and alternative hypotheses that would be appropriate for a
t-test.
□ Since a t-test would be concerned with the difference between the means
of two populations (1 and 2), the appropriate null hypothesis would be
that μ1 = μ2 (or equivalently μ1 − μ2 = 0) and the appropriate alternative
hypothesis that μ1 ≠ μ2 (or μ1 − μ2 ≠ 0).

As indicated by the section heading, the t-test introduced here is specifically

for unmatched samples. It is therefore necessary to discuss what is meant
when samples are said to be either ‘matched’ or ‘unmatched’.
If data were collected from individual patients before and after they were
given either an experimental medicine or a placebo (i.e. a ‘dummy’ medicine),
these data would be matched. Another example of matched samples would be
the test scores achieved by individual employees before and after a training
event.
A typical situation in which a t-test for unmatched samples would be used is
if the heights of two samples of Green-winged Orchids were measured, one
sample growing on the north-west slope of a ridge and the other sample
growing on the south-east slope (Table 12.11). Since there is no logical
connection between any one plant growing on the north-west slope and any
one plant growing on the south-east slope, these two samples are unmatched.

Table 12.11 Mean plant height ( x ), estimated population standard deviation

(sample standard deviation) of plant height (s) and sample size (n) for a sample of
plants growing on the north-west slope of a ridge (Sample 1) and another sample
growing on the south-east slope (Sample 2).

North-west slope (Sample 1) South-east slope (Sample 2)

x /cm 18.6 21.1
s/cm 5.5 3.9
n 14 16

Question 12.5

In each of the following cases, explain whether the samples are matched or
unmatched.
(a) A comparison is made between the heights of a sample of Green-winged
Orchids growing in one nature reserve and those of a sample growing in
another nature reserve.
(b) The numbers of nymphs of two species of Stonefly are counted in each
of 10 samples taken at different positions along a stream.

In order to calculate the test statistic in this particular t-test it is necessary to

evaluate three equations one after another. The test statistic itself is t and this
is calculated using Equation 12.3, in which x1 and x2 are the means of the
two samples, 1 and 2, that may, or may not, have been drawn from different
populations.

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x1 − x2
t= (12.3)
SED

The term SED represents the ‘standard error of the differences in the sample
means’. SED is calculated using Equation 12.4, in which n1 and n2 are the two
sample sizes.

SC 2 SC 2
SED = + (12.4)
n1 n2

The term SC2 (which appears twice in Equation 12.4) represents the ‘common
population variance’. SC2 is calculated using Equation 12.5, in which s1 and s2
are the two estimated population standard deviations (also known as sample
standard deviations, as discussed in Section 11.2.7).

(n1 − 1)s12 + (n2 − 1)s2 2

SC 2 = (12.5)
(n1 − 1) + (n2 − 1)

Inspection of Equation 12.3 shows that, if x1 = x2 (which would mean that

x1 − x2 = 0 ), then t = 0. So, if the null hypothesis were true, then it would be
expected that t = 0. Other things being equal, the greater the difference
between x1 and x2 , the larger the value of t. In addition, if the sample means
are well separated, it seems reasonable to expect that there is likely to be a
statistically significant difference between the true means of the populations
from which the samples were drawn. Similar arguments can be used to link
small values of s1 and s2 and large values of n1 and n2 to both high values of
t and an increased likelihood of a statistically significant difference between
the means from which the samples were drawn. In general, high values of t
are associated with greater statistical significance.
Returning to the data summarised in Table 12.11, notice that the mean height
of Sample 2 (21.1 cm) is greater than that of Sample 1 (18.6 cm). What needs
to be established is whether or not the difference observed (2.5 cm) is
statistically significant.
Substituting the relevant values into Equation 12.5:

(14 − 1)(5.5 cm) 2 + (16 − 1)(3.9 cm) 2

SC 2 =
(14 − 1) + (16 − 1)
(13 × 30.25 cm 2 ) + (15 × 15.21 cm 2 )
=
13 + 15
= 22.193 cm 2

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

Substituting the relevant values into Equation 12.4:

22.193 cm 2 22.193 cm 2
SED = +
14 16

= 1.724 cm

Substituting the relevant values into Equation 12.3:

18.6 cm − 21.1 cm
t=
1.724
cm
= −1.450

What does a value of t = −1.450 mean? Did the populations of plants growing
on the north-west and south-east slopes of this ridge really differ in mean
height or could the observed difference in mean height between the two
samples (i.e. 2.5 cm) have arisen by chance?
The fact that the test statistic t turns out to have a negative value can be
ignored. If it happened that the mean height of the sample of plants growing
on the north-west slope of the ridge had been subtracted from that of the
sample growing on the south-east slope, rather than the other way around,
then t would have been +1.450. Only the absolute value of t (i.e. the number
without its sign, in this case 1.450) is of any consequence.
The critical values of t are given in Table 12.12.

For the t-test for unmatched samples, the number of degrees of freedom
is given by

(n1 − 1) + (n2 − 1)

Since in this case n1 is 14 and n2 is 16, the number of degrees of freedom is

(14 − 1) + (16 − 1) = 13 + 15 = 28
Reading across the row corresponding to 28 degrees of freedom, it can been
seen that the test statistic (i.e. 1.450) is less than all the critical values.
Therefore all that can said is that P > 0.1. Since P is not less than 0.05, the
null hypothesis (that μ1 = μ2) cannot be rejected on the basis of the data
collected. There is therefore no evidence that the samples were taken from
different populations of plants. The plants growing on the north-west and
south-east slopes of this ridge do not differ statistically significantly from one
another in mean height.

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Table 12.12 Critical values of t for the t-test for unmatched samples for
different degrees of freedom and at three levels of significance.

Degrees of freedom Critical value

P = 0.1 P = 0.05 P = 0.01
1 6.314 12.706 63.657
2 2.920 4.303 9.925
3 2.353 3.182 5.841
4 2.132 2.776 4.604
5 2.015 2.571 4.032
6 1.943 2.447 3.707
7 1.895 2.365 3.499
8 1.860 2.306 3.355
9 1.833 2.262 3.250
10 1.812 2.228 3.169
11 1.796 2.201 3.106
12 1.782 2.179 3.055
13 1.771 2.160 3.012
14 1.761 2.145 2.977
15 1.753 2.131 2.947
16 1.746 2.120 2.921
17 1.740 2.110 2.898
18 1.734 2.101 2.878
19 1.729 2.093 2.861
20 1.725 2.086 2.845
21 1.721 2.080 2.831
22 1.717 2.074 2.819
23 1.714 2.069 2.807
24 1.711 2.064 2.797
25 1.708 2.060 2.787
26 1.706 2.056 2.779
27 1.703 2.052 2.771
28 1.701 2.048 2.763
29 1.699 2.043 2.756
30 1.697 2.042 2.750
40 1.684 2.021 2.704
60 1.671 2.000 2.660

Note: The null hypothesis is usually rejected if, for the appropriate number of
degrees of freedom, the calculated value of t is greater than the value tabulated
at the P = 0.05 significance level.

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

Precautions for the t-test for unmatched samples

Before performing a t-test for unmatched samples it is necessary to check that:
. the samples are unmatched (if the samples are matched, then a different
version of the t-test must be used)
. population means are to be compared (different statistical tests must be
used if population modes or medians are to be compared)
. the data are at the interval level (again, different statistical tests must be
used if the data are at either ordinal or categorical level)
. there are fewer than about 25 items of data in each sample (if the samples
are larger than this, then a different – more straightforward! – statistical
test known as a z-test should be used)
. the assumption can be made that the population(s) from which the samples
were drawn have normal distributions and approximately equal standard
deviations.
Question 12.6

Descriptive statistics for the number of flowers per plant for samples of
plants growing on the north-west and south-east slopes of another ridge are
given in Table 12.13. Is there a statistically significant difference between
the slopes in the mean number of flowers per plant?

Table 12.13 Mean number of flowers per plant ( x ), estimated population standard
deviation of number of flowers per plant (s) and sample size (n) for a sample of
plants growing on the north-west slope of a ridge (Sample 1) and another sample
growing on the south-east slope (Sample 2).

North-west slope (Sample 1) South-east slope (Sample 2)

x 7.7 7.2
s 2.7 2.1
n 18 15

12.6 Other statistical tests

You have been introduced to three particular statistical hypothesis tests in
Sections 12.3–12.5. Over the years, many tests have been devised to perform
a wide range of statistical tasks in the context of science. Some of these tests
(for example the t-test for matched samples) are similar to those covered here,
but most are designed to answer different sorts of scientific questions or to be
used in rather different circumstances.
Many excellent books have been written to help you select which particular
statistical test is most appropriate for the task at hand and then guide you
through performing that test. Now you have completed Chapter 12, you
should be able to get to grips quickly and relatively painlessly with unfamiliar
statistical tests when the time comes for you to branch out.

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12.7 Review of Chapter 12

After completing your work on this chapter you should be able to:
. demonstrate understanding of the terms emboldened in the text
. propose null and alternative hypotheses in familiar circumstances
. perform a χ2 goodness-of-fit test and interpret the results
. calculate a Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rS) and then test its
statistical significance
. perform a t-test for unmatched samples and interpret the results.

Question 12.7

Check your understanding of Chapter 12 by answering the following:

(a) In a game involving dice, a single die was rolled 100 times and the
results were as shown in Table 12.14.

Table 12.14 Observed scores for 100 rolls of a die.

Score Number of times observed

1 16
2 13
3 15
4 17
5 15
6 24
total 100

A friend comments that the die must be biased. Carry out a χ2-test to
investigate this possibility. You should start by stating your null hypothesis
and you may need to use Table 12.3 in reaching your conclusion.
(b) The lengths and widths of a sample of beans are given in Table 12.15.
Calculate the Spearman rank correlation coefficient (rS) for these data and
use this to determine whether there is a statistically significant correlation
between length and width. You may need to use Table 12.7 in reaching
your conclusion.

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 12 Statistical hypothesis testing

Table 12.15 Length and width of a sample of

beans.

Length/mm Width/mm

21.4 9.0
17.2 8.5
20.3 8.8
21.2 9.3
25.4 9.6
23.5 9.4
19.9 9.2
21.3 10.9
26.8 13.3
18.6 8.8
20.4 9.1
19.8 9.8

(c) A group of students is tested on their understanding of mathematics,

before and after studying Maths for Science, and each student is given a
score out of 50 on each occasion. (i) Suggest a null and alternative
hypothesis for an investigation into the effectiveness of Maths for Science.
(ii) Comment on whether the data gathered are at the categorical, ordinal or
interval level. (iii) Would a t-test for unmatched samples be an appropriate
test to use?

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 Questions: answers and comments

Questions: answers and comments

Comments on the answers are given in curly brackets { }. You are not
expected to have included them in your answers.

Chapter 1
Question 1.1
(a) (−3) − (−4) = (−3) + 4 = 1
(b) (−10) − (−5) = (−10) + 5 = −5
(c) 6 ÷ (−2) = −3
(d) (−12) ÷ (−6) = 2

Question 1.2
The lowest temperature in the oceans (the freezing point of seawater) is
31.9 °C colder than the highest recorded temperature, which is 30.0 °C.
Therefore, the freezing point of seawater is 30° C − 31.9 °C = −1.9° C.

Question 1.3
(a) 117 − (−38) + (−286) = −131
(b) (−1624) ÷ (−29) = 56
(c) (−123) × (−24) = 2952

Question 1.4
(a) The lowest common denominator is 6, so
2 1 2× 2 1 4 1 3
− = − = − =
3 6 3× 2 6 6 6 6
Dividing top and bottom by 3 gives
3 1
=
6 2
Alternatively,
2 1 2 × 6 1 × 3 12 3 9
− = − = − =
3 6 3 × 6 6 × 3 18 18 18
Dividing top and bottom by 9 gives the same answer as before
9 1
=
18 2

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(b) The lowest common denominator is 30, so

1 1 2 1 × 10 1 × 15 2 × 6
+ − = + −
3 2 5 3 × 10 2 × 15 5 ×
6
10 15 12

= + −
30 30 30

13

=
30
(c) In this case, the lowest common denominator isn’t immediately obvious,
but a common denominator will certainly be given by the product of 3 and
28, so

5 1 5 × 3 1 × 28
− = −
28 3 28 × 3 3 × 28
15 28
= −
84 84

13

=−
84

Question 1.5
The original fraction is
4 1
= = 0.25
16 4
{You may have chosen any fraction. You may have also chosen any integer
for your calculations. In the following answers the number 2 is used, but the
principles hold good whatever choice of (non-zero) number is made.}
(a) Suppose you were to add 2 to the numerator and to the denominator
4+2 6
= = 0.333 to three decimal places
16 + 2 18
This is not the same as the original fraction. {There is just one special case in
which this kind of operation would not change the value of the fraction and
that is adding 0 to top and bottom, which obviously leaves the fraction
unchanged.}
(b) Suppose you were to subtract 2 from the numerator and from the
denominator
4−2 2
= = 0.143 to three decimal places
16 − 2 14
This is not the same as the original fraction. {Again, subtracting 0 from top
and bottom is the only case in which this operation leaves the fraction
unchanged.}

316
 Questions: answers and comments

(c) If you square the numerator and the denominator

4×4 16
= = 0.0625
16 ×16 256
This is not the same as the original fraction.
(d) If you take the square root of the numerator and of the denominator

4 2
= = 0.5
16 4
This is not the same as the original fraction.

Question 1.6
(a)
2 2×3 6
×3 = =
7 7 7
(b)
5 5 1 5 ×1 5
÷7 = × = =
9 9 7 9 × 7 63
(c)
1/ 6 1 1 1 3 3 1
= ÷ = × = =
1/ 3 6 3 6 1 6 2
(d)
3 7 2 3× 7 × 2 42
× × = =
4 8 7 4 × 8 × 7 224
Dividing the top and bottom by 2, and then by 7 gives
21 3
42 42 21 21 3
= = = =
224 224 112 112 112 16 16
Alternatively, the original could have been simplified in the same way before
carrying out any multiplication:

3 7 1 2 1 3 × 1 ×1 3
× × = =
42 8 71 2 × 8 ×1 16

Question 1.7
(a) 70% expressed as a fraction is
70 7
70% = =
100 10
{Dividing the numerator and denominator by 10.}

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(b) 20% expressed as a fraction is

20 2 1

20% = = =
100 10 5

{Dividing the numerator and denominator by 10 and then by 2.}

(c) Converting the fraction into a percentage gives
11 11× 4 44

= =
25 25 × 4 100

Thus
11

= 44%
25

11
Alternatively, = 0.44 {found by dividing 11 by 25 on a calculator}.

25

Then 0.44 × 100% = 44%

1

(d) It is not easy to see what number the numerator and denominator of 8

would have to be multiplied by in order to give a denominator of 100.

However
1

= 0.125 and 0.125 ×100% = 12.5%

Question 1.8
2

(a) 5

of 20 can be written as
4

2 2
20
× 20 = × = 2× 4 = 8

5
5 1
1

(b) 8

of 24 can be written as
3

7 7
24
× 24 = × = 7 × 3 = 21

8
8 1
1

(c) 15% of 120 is

3
6

15 15 12 3
12
×120 = × = × = 3 × 6 = 18

100 10 2
1
2 1
1

(d) 60% of 5 is
1

60
6
5 6

× 5
= × = = 3

100 10 2
1 2

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 Questions: answers and comments

Question 1.9
Increase in length = 69 cm – 60 cm = 9 cm
9
As a fraction of the baby’s original length this is .
60
9
= 0.15 and 0.15 ×100% = 15%
60
The percentage increase in length is 15%.

Question 1.10
(a)
1 1 1
2−2 = = =
2 2 2×2 4
{You might have gone one step further and expressed this in decimal notation
as 0.25.}
(b)
1
= 33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27
3−3
(c)
1 1
= =1
40 1
(d)
1 1 1
= = = 0.0001
104 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 10 000

Question 1.11
(a) 29 = 512
(b) 3–3 = 0.037 to three decimal places
{It doesn’t matter if you quoted more digits in your answer than this. There is
more explanation in Chapter 2 about how and when to round off the values
given on your calculator display.}
(c)
1
= 4−2 = 0.0625
42

Question 1.12
(a) 230 × 22 = 230+2 = 232
(b) 325 × 3−9 = 325+(−9) = 316

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(c)

102 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 102 ÷103 = 102−3 = 10−1 ⎜ or ⎟
103 ⎝ 10 ⎠
(d)

102
= 102 ÷10−3 = 102−(−3) = 102+3 = 105
10−3
or alternatively

102 1
−3
= 102 × −3 = 102 ×103 = 105
10 10
(e) 10−4 ÷ 102 = 10−4−2 = 10−6
(f)

105 ×10−2
= 105+ ( −2) −3 = 100 (or 1)
103

Question 1.13
(a) (416)2 = 416×2 = 432
(b) (5−3)2 = 5(−3)×2 = 5−6
1
This could also be written as
56

(c) (1025)−1 = 1025×(−1) = 10−25

1
This could also be written as
1025
(d)
6
⎛1⎞ 16 1 1
⎜ 3 ⎟ = 3 6 = 3×6 = 18
⎝3 ⎠ (3 ) 3 3
or alternatively
6
⎛1⎞ −3 6 ( −3)×6 = 3−18 ⎛ or 1 ⎞
⎜ 3 ⎟ = (3 ) = 3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 318 ⎠

Question 1.14
(a) 16 = (16)1/ 2 = 4
(b) 3
1000 = (1000)1/ 3 = 10
(c) 251/ 2 = 25 = 5
(d) 491/ 2 = 49 = 7

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 Questions: answers and comments

Question 1.15
(a) Using Equation 1.3
4× 1
(24 )1/ 2 = 2 2 = 22 = 4
(b) Using Equation 1.3
4× 1
104 = (104 )1 / 2 = 10 2 = 102 = 100
(c) Using Equation 1.3

1003/2 = (1001/2)3 = 103 = 1000 (since 1001/2 = 10)

Alternatively 1003/2 = (1003)1/2 = (106)1/2 = 106/2 = 103 = 1000
(d)
1 1
(125) −1/ 3 = = = 0.2
1251/ 3 5
since the cube root of 125 is 5

Question 1.16
(a) Multiplication takes precedence over subtraction, so
35 − 5 × 2 = 35 − (5 × 2)

= 35 − 10

= 25

(b) Here the brackets take precedence, so

(35 − 5) × 2 = 30 × 2

= 60

(c) Again, the brackets take precedence over the (implied) multiplication, so

5(2 − 3) = 5 × (−1) = −5
(d) Here the addition inside the square root sign (which acts as brackets) takes
precedence:

3 × 16 + 9 = 3 × 25 = 3 × 5 = 15
(e) Here the exponent takes precedence:

23 + 3 = 8 + 3 = 11
(f) Here both brackets take precedence over the (implied) multiplication:

(2 + 6)(1 + 2) = 8 × 3 = 24

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Question 1.17

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 1.17 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the Additional
exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) (−5) – (−7) = (−5) + 7 = 2

{See Section 1.1.2 Calculating with negative numbers.}

(b) Expressed as a single fraction:

4 2 4×3 2×5
+ = +
5 3 5× 3 3× 5
12 10
= +
15 15

22

=
15
{See Section 1.2.2 Adding and subtracting fractions.}
(c) Expressed as a single fraction:
4 2 4×2 8
× = =
5 3 5 × 3 15
{See Section 1.2.4 Multiplying fractions.}
(d) Expressed as a single fraction:

4 2 4 3 42 3 2×3 6
÷ = × = × = =
5 3 5 2 5 21 5 × 1 5
{See Section 1.2.5 Dividing fractions.}
(e) Expressed as a percentage:
3 3 × 20 60
= =
5 5 × 20 100

Thus = 60%
5 3
Alternatively, = 0.6 and 0.6 × 100% = 60%
5
{See Section 1.2.6 Percentages.}
(f) 15% of 250 is

15 15 250 375
× 250 = × = = 37.5
100 100 1 10
{See Section 1.2.7 Calculating with fractions and percentages.}
(g) The increase is £56 − £50 = £6

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 Questions: answers and comments

As a fraction of the original price, this is

6 6×2 12
= =
50 50 × 2 100
Thus the percentage increase is 12%

{See Section 1.2.7 Calculating with fractions and percentages.}

(h) 2−3 can be expressed as:

1 1 1
2−3 = = =
23 2×2×2 8
{See Section 1.3.1 Powers.}
(i) 73 ÷ 7−4 = 73–(−4) = 73+4 = 77

{See Section 1.3.2 Multiplying and dividing with powers.}

(j) (73)4 = 73×4 = 712

{See Section 1.3.3 Powers of powers.}

(k) 41/ 2 = 4 = 2
So (41/2)4 = 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
Alternatively,
1 ×4
(41/ 2 ) 4 = 4 2 = 42 = 16
{See Section 1.3.4 Roots and fractional exponents.}
(l) The exponent takes precedence, then the multiplication, so
4 + 3 × 23 = 4 + 3 × 8 = 4 + 24 = 28
{See Section 1.4 Doing calculations in the right order.}

Chapter 2
Question 2.1
(a)

5.4 ×104 = 5.4

×10 000
= 54 000

(b)

1
2.1×10−2 = 2.1×
100

2.1

=
100

= 0.021

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Maths for Science

(c)

1
0.6 ×10−1 = 0.6 ×
10
0.6
=
10

= 0.06

Question 2.2
(a)
215 = 2.15 ×100

= 2.15 ×102

(b)
46.7 = 4.67 ×10

= 4.67 ×101

(c)

152 ×103 = 1.52 ×100 ×103

= 1.52 ×102 ×103
= 1.
52 ×102+3
= 1.52 ×105

(d)
8.76
0.000 0876 =
100 000
8.76
= 5
10
= 8.76 ×10−5

Question 2.3
(a) 1 Gs = 109 s, so 3 Gs = 3 × 109 s
(b) 1 pm = 10−12 m, so 150 pm = 150 × 10−12 m
In scientific notation this is

150 pm = 150 ×10−12 m

= 1.
5 ×102 ×10−12 m

= 1.5 ×102+ (−12) m

= 1.5 ×10−10 m
1
(c) 1 ms = 10−3 s, so 1 s = ms = 103 ms
10−3
So 0.8 s = 0.8 × 103 ms

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 Questions: answers and comments

In scientific notation this is

8
0.8 ×103 ms = × 103 ms
10

= 8 × (103 ×10−
1) ms

= 8 × 103−1 ms

= 8 × 102 ms

(d) 1 μm = 10−6 m
1
1 nm = 10−9 m, so 1 m = nm = 109 nm
10−9
Then

8 μm = 8 ×10−6 m

= 8 × 10−6 ×109 nm

= 8 × 10−6+9 nm

= 8 × 103 nm

Question 2.4
(a) One million = 106, so the distance is

5900 ×106 km = 5.9 ×109 km

~ 1010 km (or 1013 m)
(b) The diameter of a spherical object is given by twice its radius. So for the
Sun,

diameter = 2 × 6.
97 ×107 m
= 13.
94 ×107 m

= 1.394 ×108 m

~ 108 m
(c) 2π can be written as
2π = 2 × 3.
14 (to two decimal places)
= 6.28

This is greater than 5, so can be rounded up to the next power of ten to give
the order of magnitude, i.e. 2π ~ 10 (or 101).
(d) The mass of a carbon dioxide molecule is

7.31 ×10−26 kg ~ 10 ×10−26 kg

~ 10−26+1 kg
~ 10−25 kg

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Maths for Science

Question 2.5
(a) (i) 10−2 m = 0.01 m and 100 m = 1 m
so the difference between them is (1 − 0.01) m = 0.99 m.
(ii) 100 m = 1 m and 102 m = 100 m, so the difference between them is 99 m.
(iii) 102 m = 100 m and 104 m = 10 000 m, so the difference between them is
9900 m.
{Note that as you go up the scale, the interval between each successive pair of
tick marks increases by 100 times.}
(b) (i) The height of a child is about 100 m, i.e. 1 m. The height of Mount
Everest is about 104 m (actually 8800 m, but it is not possible to read that
accurately from the scale in Figure 2.4). So Mount Everest is ~104 times taller
than a child.
(ii) The length of a typical virus is 10−8 m and the thickness of a piece of
paper is 10−4 m, so the number of viruses that when laid end to end would
stretch across the thickness of the paper is:

10−4
∼ = 10−4−(−8) = 10−4+8 = 104
10−8

Question 2.6
Magnitude 7 on the Richter scale represents four points more than magnitude
3, and each point increase corresponds to a 10 times increase in maximum
ground movement. So a magnitude 7 earthquake corresponds to 104
(i.e. 10 000) times more ground movement than a magnitude 3 earthquake.

Question 2.7
(a) 1.274 99 m is 1.3 m to two significant figures.

{The third digit is a 7, so the second digit must be rounded up.}

(b) 1.274 99 m is 1.27 m to three significant figures.

{The fourth digit is a 4, so the third digit is unchanged.}

(c) 1.274 99 m is 1.275 m to four significant figures.

{The fifth digit is a 9, so the fourth digit must be rounded up.}

(d) 1.274 99 m is 1.2750 m to five significant figures.

{The sixth digit is a 9, so the fifth digit must be rounded up. 9 rounds up to
10 so the fourth digit must be rounded up too. However, don’t forget to
include the final zero in your answer as this is necessary to indicate that the
number is rounded to five significant figures.}

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 Questions: answers and comments

Question 2.8
(a) 0.004 123 m is 0.004 12 m to three significant figures, or 4.12 × 10−3 m in
scientific notation.
{The leading zeros are placeholders only, so the first significant digit is the 4.
The fourth significant digit is 3 so the third significant digit is unchanged.}
(b) 50.19 °C is 50.2 °C to three significant figures.
{The zero here counts as any other digit. The fourth digit is a 9, so the third
digit must be rounded up. The answer could also be correctly given as
5.02 × 101 °C in scientific notation.}
(c) To express 700.1 °C unambiguously to three significant figures, you should
start by expressing it in scientific notation:

700.1 °C = (7.001 × 100) °C = 7.001 × 102 °C

This is 7.00 × 102 °C to three significant figures.
{If you gave the answer as 700 °C it would not be clear whether this was to
one, two or three significant figures.}

Question 2.9

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 2.9 you should refer back
to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) The SI base units of length are metres and 1 nm = 10−9 m, so

400 nm = 400 ×10−9 m

= 4.00 ×100 ×10−9 m
= 4.00 ×102 ×10−9 m
= 4.00 ×102−9 m
= 44.00 ×10−7 m
This answer is given to three significant figures.
{See Section 2.2 Units of measurement, Section 2.1 Large quantities and
small quantities and Section 2.4 How precise are the measurements?}
(b) The SI base units of mass are kilograms and
1
1 kg = 103 g, so 1 g = kg = 10−3 kg
103

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Thus

0.0346 g = 0.0346 ×10−3 kg

= 3.46 ×10−2 ×10−3

kg
= 3.46 ×10−2−3 kg

= 3.46 × 10−5 kg

To two significant figures this is 3.5 × 10−5 kg {rounding up}.

{See Section 2.2 Units of measurement, Section 2.1 Large quantities and
small quantities and Section 2.4 How precise are the measurements?}
(c) (i) 9.2499 is 9.2 to two significant figures.
(ii) 9.2499 is 9.25 to two decimal places {rounding up}.
(iii) 9.2499 is 9.250 to four significant figures {rounding up and remembering
to give the final digit}.
(iv) 9.2499 ~ 10 to the nearest order of magnitude.
{See Section 2.3 Scales of measurement and Section 2.4 How precise are the
measurements?}

Chapter 3
Question 3.1
(inch)2, cm2 and square miles all have units of (length)2, so they are all units
of area.
s2 cannot be a unit of area because the unit which has been squared, the
second, is a unit of time not of length.
m−2 cannot be a unit of area because the metre is raised to the power minus 2,
not 2.
km3 cannot be a unit of area because the kilometre is cubed not squared. In
fact, it is a unit of volume.

Question 3.2
(a) (i)
6.732
= 4.458 278146 = 4.46 to three significant figures
1.51
{6.732 is known to four significant figures, and 1.51 is known to three
significant figures. The number of significant figures in the answer is the same
as in the input value with the fewest significant figures, i.e. three.}

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 Questions: answers and comments

(ii) 2.0 × 0.025 = 0.050 to two significant figures.

{2.0 and 0.025 are both given to two significant figures, so the answer is
given to two significant figures too. Note that this means that the answer
should be written as 0.050 not 0.05. See Section 2.4.}
(iii) 37.6 + 1.23 = 38.83 = 38.8 to one decimal place.
{Since 37.6 is given to one decimal place.}
(iv) The first step of the calculation is to express both numbers to the same
power of ten.

3.71×106 + 5.23 ×10 4 = 3.71 ×106 + 0.0523

×106
= 3.7623 ×106

= 3.76 ×106
{Since the 3.71 in 3.71 × 106 is given to two decimal places, the base number
in the answer is given to two decimal places too.}
Alternatively the calculation could be done as follows:

3.71×106 + 5.23 ×10 4 = 371×104 + 5.23

×104
= 376.23 ×104

= 376 ×104
= 3.76 × 106
{Since the 371 in 371 × 104 is to the nearest whole number, the 376 in
376 × 104 is given to the nearest whole number too.}
(b) The total mass = 3 × 1.5 kg = 4.5 kg.
{Note that you have exactly three bags of flour, so it would not be correct to
round the answer to one significant figure.}

Question 3.3
(a) Working to three significant figures and rounding to two significant figures
at the end of the calculation gives:
2
⎛ 4.2 ⎞
⎟ = (1.35) = 1.82 = 1.8 to two significant figures
2
⎜
⎝ 3.1 ⎠
{Squaring is repeated multiplication, so it is reasonable to quote the final
answer to two significant figures. However, working to two significant figures
throughout introduces a sizeable rounding error and gives a final answer of
2.0.}
(b)

(1.2 + 0.355) 1.555

=
9.5 9.5

= 0.
1637
= 0.16 to two significant figu
ures

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Maths for Science

{The addition is done first and since the 1.2 is given to one decimal place, the
outcome of the addition is justified to one decimal place (1.6). In considering
the division, you then need to think in terms of significant figures. Both 1.6
and 9.5 have two significant figures, so the final result should be given to two
significant figures too. However, if you had rounded the intermediate step
from 1.555 to 1.6, a rounding error would have led to a final incorrect answer
of 0.17.}

Question 3.4
(a)

(3.0 ×106 ) × (7.0 ×10−2 ) = (3.0 × 7.0) × (106 ×10−2 )

= (3.0 × 7.0) ×106+ (−22)
= 21 × 104
= 2.1 × 105
{Note that 21 × 104 is a correct numerical answer to the multiplication, but it
is not given in scientific notation.}
(b)

8 × 104 8 104
= ×
4 × 10−1 4 10−1
= 2 × 104−(−1)
= 2 × 105
(c)

(3.00 ×108 ) 2 = (3.00) 2 × (108 ) 2

8×2
= 9.00 ×10
= 9.00 ×1016

Question 3.5
(a) The answer is likely to be given on your calculator as 4 × 1011. To an
appropriate number of significant figures (two) this should be written

(2.4 ×104 ) 2
= 4.0 ×1011
1.44 ×10−3
{If you obtained an answer of 4 × 105, this is probably because you
multiplied by 10−3 instead of dividing. You should use the special scientific
notation key on your calculator to enter 1.44 × 10−3.}
(b) The answer is likely to be given on your calculator as 1 × 1012. Strictly,
since the 104 implies that this value is only known to the nearest order of
magnitude, the answer should be written

104 × (1.25 × 107 )

= 1012
(2.5 × 10−5 ) × (5 × 103 )

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 Questions: answers and comments

{If you obtained an answer of 1 × 1013, this is probably because you entered
10 × 104 instead of 1 × 104 into your calculator. If you obtained an answer of
2.5 × 1019, you probably multiplied by 5 × 103 instead of dividing. If you
obtained an answer of 2.5 × 109, you probably multiplied by 10−5 × (5 × 103).
If you obtained a different incorrect answer, you may have made more than
one of these mistakes!}

Question 3.6
area = (9.78 ×10−3 m) 2
= (9.78 ×10−3 ) 2 m 2
= 9.56 ×10−5 m 2 to three signnificant figures

Question 3.7
To one significant figure,
distance to Proxima Centauri ≈ 4 × 1016 m
distance to the Sun ≈ 2 × 1011 m

distance to Proxima Centauri 4 × 1016 m

≈
distance to the Sun 2 × 1011 m
4 1016 m
≈ ×
2 1011 m
≈ 2 × 1016−11
≈ 2 × 105
Thus Proxima Centauri is approximately 2 × 105 times further away than the
Sun.

Question 3.8
(i) and (iii) are equivalent. Multiplication is commutative, so
x(y + z) = (y + z)x.
(ii) and (v) are equivalent. Both multiplication and addition are commutative,
so xy + z = z + yx.
Note that (i) and (iii) are not equivalent to (ii) and (v). In (i) and (iii) the
whole of (y + z) is multiplied by x.
Substituting x = 3, y = 4 and z = 5 gives
(i) a = x(y + z) = 3 × (4 + 5) = 27
(ii) a = xy + z = (3 × 4) + 5 = 17
(iii) a = (y + z)x = (4 + 5) × 3 = 27
(iv) a = x + yz = 3 + (4 × 5) = 23
(v) a = z + yx = 5 + (4 × 3) = 17

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Maths for Science

Question 3.9
The equivalent equations are (i) and (iii), since

bc 2 abc 2 bac 2
a = =
d d d
b 2c 2 b 2 a 2c 2
Note that only the c is squared, so (ii) m = a and (v) m =
d d
are different. Only the numerator of the fraction is multiplied by a, so
abc 2
(iv) m = is different too.
ad
Question 3.10
(a) length = 8.4 × 10−2 m
width = 5.7 × 10−2 m
height = 4.8 × 10−2 m
Substituting gives
volume = length × width × height
= 8.4 ×10−2 m × 5. 7 ×10−2 m × 4.8 ×10−2 m
= 2.298 × 10−4 m3
= 2.3 ×10−4 m3 to two significant figures
i.e. the volume of the block is 2.3 × 10−4 m3 to two significant figures.
(b) m = 0.620 kg
V = 2.298 × 10−4 m3
Substituting these values into Equation 3.9 gives

m
ρ=
V
0.620 kg
=
2.298 ×10−4 m3
= 2. 7 ×10 3 kg m −3 to two significant figures
i
i.e. the density of the block is 2.7 × 103 kg m−3.
{Since the values for length, width and height are given to two significant
figures, both answers should be given to two significant figures too. However,
to avoid rounding errors, the calculated value for V (from part (a)) is used to a
greater number of significant figures in the calculation in part (b).}

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 Questions: answers and comments

Question 3.11
m = 2.1 kg and a = 4.6 m s−2
Substituting into Equation 3.6 gives
F = ma

= 2.1 kg × 4.6 m s −2

= 9.66 kg m s −2
= 9.7 N since 1 N = 1 kg m s −2 (Box 3..3)
The force is 9.7 N and the units have worked out to be newtons, as expected
for a force.

Question 3.12
μ = 3.0 × 1010 N m−2
The answer obtained to Question 3.10 was ρ = 2.7 × 103 kg m−3 to two
significant figures. Good practice implies that you should work with an
intermediate value with at least one more digit than you will quote in the final
answer, but since the answer to Question 3.10 would have been
ρ = 2.70 × 103 kg m−3 to three significant figures, it doesn’t make a great deal
of difference on this occasion!
Substituting into Equation 3.10 gives

μ
vs =
ρ
3.0 ×1010 N m −2
=
2.70 ×103 kg m −3
and since
1 1
1 N = 1 kg m s −2 , m −2 = 2
and −3 = m3
m m
this can be written as

3.0 × 1010 kg m s −2 m3
vs =
2.70 ×103 kg m 2
3.0 ×1010 kg m s −2 m 2 × m
=
2.70 ×1
103 kg m 2

3.0 ×1010 kg m s −2 m 2 m
=
2.70 ×103 kg m 2

= 1.11×107 m 2 s −2
= 3.3 × 103 m s −1 to two significant figures

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So the S waves travel with a speed of 3.3 × 103 m s−1 through granite. The
units have worked out to be m s−1, as expected for a speed.

Question 3.13

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 3.13 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) (i) 3.77 × 0.053 = 0.199 81 = 0.20 to two significant figures.

{3.77 is known to three significant figures, and 0.053 is known to two
significant figures. The number of significant figures in the answer is the same
as in the input value with the fewest significant figures, i.e. two.}
(ii) Start by expressing both numbers to the same power of ten, for example

1.10 ×106 + 2.07 ×10 5 = 1.10 ×106 + 0.207

×106
= 1.307 ×106

= 1.31 ×106
{Since the 1.10 in 1.10 × 106 is given to two decimal places, the base number
in the answer is given to two decimal places too.}
(iii)
(2.5 + 0.25) × (2.5 − 0. 25) = 2.75 × 2.25

= 6.
1875
= 6.2 to two significaant figures
{The addition and subtraction are done first and since the 2.5 is given to one
decimal place, the outcomes of the addition and subtraction are justified to
one decimal place (2.8 and 2.3). In considering the multiplication, you then
need to think in terms of significant figures. Both 2.8 and 2.3 have two
significant figures, so the final result should be given to two significant figures
too. However, if you had rounded in the intermediate step and calculated
2.8 × 2.3, a rounding error would have led to a final incorrect answer of 6.4.}
{See Section 3.1.2 Significant figures in calculations and Section 3.1.3
Avoiding rounding errors.}
(b) Using a calculator

1.012 ×108
= 1.0 ×106 to two significant figures
9.9 ×104 ×10−7
{This answer, to two significant figures, is the correct answer if you assume
the 10−7 is exactly known. If the 10−7 is only known to the nearest order of
magnitude, the correct answer is 106.
If you obtained an answer of 1.0 × 105, this is probably because you entered
10 × 10−7 instead of 1 × 10−7 into your calculator. If you obtained an answer

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 Questions: answers and comments

of 1.0 × 10−8, you probably multiplied by 10−7 instead of dividing. If you

obtained an answer of 1.0, you probably multiplied by 104 × 10−7. If you
obtained a different incorrect answer, you may have made more than one of
these mistakes!}
{See Section 3.2.2 Using a calculator for scientific notation.}
(c) Estimating, 1.012 × 108 ≈ 1 × 108 and 9.9 × 104 ≈ 10 × 104.
Then

1.012 ×108 1 × 108

≈
9.9 ×104 ×10−7 10 ×104 ×10−7
1 × 108
≈
101+ 4+(−7)
1× (1108 )1/ 2
≈
10−2
1 × 104
≈
10
−2
≈ 1 × 104 ×102

≈ 1 × 104+ 2
≈ 1 × 106
{See Section 3.2.1 Calculating in scientific notation without a calculator and
Section 3.3 Estimating answers.}
(d) m = 1 × 10−3 kg and c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1
Substituting in Equation 3.7 gives

E = mc 2
= 1 ×10−3 kg × (3.00 ×108 m s −1) 2
= 1 ×10−3 kg × (3.00 ×108 ) 2 (m s −1) 2
= 1 ×10−3 kg × 9.00 ×1016 m 2 s −2
= 9 × 1013 kg m 2 s −2
= 9 × 1013 J since 1 J = 1 kg m 2 s −2
So the energy corresponding to a mass deficit of 1 × 10−3 kg (1 g) is
9 × 1013 J, a huge amount.
{See Section 3.4 An introduction to symbols, equations and formulae, in
particular Section 3.4.4 Using equations.}
(e) G = 6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2
m1 = 5.97 × 1024 kg
m2 = 7.35 × 1022 kg
r = 3.84 × 108 m

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Substituting in Equation 3.18 gives

Gm1m2
Fg =
r2
6.673 ×10−11 N m 2 kg −2 × 5.97 ×1024 kg × 7.35 ×1022 kg
=
(3.84 ×108 m) 2
1
and, since kg −2 = 2 , this can be written as
kg
6.673 ×10−11 × 5.97 ×1024 × 7.35 ×1022 N m 2 kg kg
Fg =
(3.84 ×108 ) 2 m 2 kg 2
= 1.99 ×1020 N to three significant figures
{Note there is no need to express the newtons in terms of base units on this
occasion; all the other units cancel to leave N as the units of force, as
expected.}
The magnitude of the gravitational force between the Earth and the Moon is
1.99 × 1020 N.
{See Section 3.4 An introduction to symbols, equations and formulae, in
particular Section 3.4.4 Using equations.}

Chapter 4
Question 4.1
f = 4.83 × 1014 Hz = 4.83 × 1014 s−1, since 1 Hz = 1 s−1 (from Box 3.3)
λ = 621 nm
Converting this value into SI base units (which must be done before the
calculation in order to give a meaningful result) gives
λ = 621 × 10−9 m = 6.21 × 10−7 m, since 1 nm = 10−9 m (Box 2.2)
Substituting into Equation 3.13 gives
v = fλ
= 4.83 ×1014 s −1 × 6.21 ×10−7 m
= 29.99 ×1014−7 m s −1
= 3.00 ×108 m s −1 to three significant figures
{Note that this is the speed of light in a vacuum. Light of this frequency and
wavelength is in the red part of the visible spectrum.}

Question 4.2
(a) 1 m = 100 cm, so 1 m2 = (100 cm)2 = 1002 cm2
Thus 1.04 m2 = 1.04 × 1002 cm2 = 1.04 × 104 cm2
(b) 1 m = 106 μm, so 1 m2 = (106 μm)2 = (106)2 μm2

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 Questions: answers and comments

Thus 1.04 m2 = 1.04 × (106)2 μm2 = 1.04 × 1012 μm2

(c) 1 km = 103 m, so 1 km2 = (103 m)2 = (103)2 m2 = 106 m2
Thus
1
1 m2 = km 2
106
and
1.04
1.04 m 2 = km 2 = 1.04 ×10−6 km 2
106

Question 4.3
(a) 1 km = 103 m, so 1 km3 = (103 m)3 = (103)3 m3 = 109 m3

volume of Mars = 1.
64 ×1011 km3
= 1.
64 ×1011 ×109 m3

= 1.64 ×1020 m3

(b) 1 mm = 10−3 m, so 1 mm3 = (10−3 m)3 = (10−3)3 m3 = 10−9 m3

volume of ball bearing = 16 mm3

= 16 ×10−9 m3
= 1.6 ×10−8 m3 in sciientific notation

Question 4.4
(a) 1 cm = 10−2 m
So 1 cm day−1 = 10−2 m day−1
(applying the same conversion factor as in converting from cm to m).
Therefore

12 cm day −1 = 12 ×10−2 m day −1

= 1.2 ×10−1 m day −1 in scientific notation
o
This answer is more neatly expressed as 0.12 m day−1.

(b) 1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 s = 8.64 × 104 s

(since there are 24 hours in a day, 60 minutes in an hour and 60 seconds in a

minute).

Dividing by the conversion factor from days to seconds gives

1
1 cm day −1 = cm s −1
8.64 ×104

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Maths for Science

Therefore

12
12 cm day −1 = cm s −1
8.64 ×104
= 1.4 ×10−4 cm s −1 to two significaant figures

Question 4.5
(a) 1 mm = 10−3 m
1 year = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s = 3.154 × 107 s
To convert from mm year−1 to m s−1 you need to multiply by 10−3 (to convert
the mm into m) and divide by 3.154 × 107 s (to convert the year−1 into s−1).

10−3
1 mm year −1 = m s −1
3.154 ×107
so

10−3
0.1 mm year −1 = 0.1 × m s −1
3.154 ×107
= 3 × 10−12 m s −1 to one significant figure
Therefore, the stalactite is growing at about 3 × 10−12 m s−1.
(b) 1 cm = 10−2 m
1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 s = 8.64 × 104 s
To convert from cm day−1 to m s−1 you need to multiply by 10−2 (to convert
the cm into m) and divide by 8.64 × 104 (to convert the day−1 into s−1).

10−2
1 cm day −1 = m s −1
8.64 ×104
10−2
12 cm day −1 = 12 × m s −1
8.
64 ×104
= 1.4 ×10−6 m s −1 to two significant
g
figures
So the glacier is moving at about 1.4 × 10−6 m s−1.
(c) 1 km = 103 m
1 Ma = 106 year = 106 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s = 3.154 × 1013 s
To convert from km Ma−1 to m s−1, you need to multiply by 103 (to convert
the km into m) and divide by 3.154 × 1013 (to convert the Ma−1 into s−1).

103
1 km Ma −1 = m s −1
3.154 ×1013

103

35 km Ma −1 = 35 × m s −1
3.154 ×1013

= 1.1×10−9 m s −1
to two signnificant figures

338
 Questions: answers and comments

So the plates are moving apart at an average rate of 1.1 × 10−9 m s−1.
Comparing the answers to parts (a), (b) and (c) shows that the tectonic plates
are moving apart approximately 300 times faster than the stalactite is growing.
The glacier under consideration moves about 1000 times faster still, but
remember that there is considerable variation in the speeds at which all of
these processes take place.

Question 4.6
(a) 1 l = 103 ml
To convert from μg l−1 to μg ml−1 you need to divide by 103 (to convert the
l−1 into ml−1; the μg is unchanged).
1
1 μg l−1 = μg ml−1 = 10−3 μg ml−1
103
10 μg l−1 = 10 ×10−3 μg ml−1
= 1.0 ×10−2 μg ml−1 in scientific notationn
(b) Note that 10 μg l−1 = 10 μg dm−3 (since 1 litre is defined to be equal to
1 dm3) so the problem is one of converting 10 μg dm−3 to mg dm−3.
1 mg = 103 g so
1
1g = mg = 103 mg
10−3
1 μg = 10−6 g
Therefore 1 μg = 10−6 × 103 = 10−3 mg
To convert from μg dm−3 to mg dm−3 you need to multiply by 10−3 (to
convert the μg into mg; the dm−3 is unchanged)
1 μg dm−3 = 10−3 mg dm−3

10 μg dm −3 = 10 ×10−3 mg dm −3

= 1.0 ×10−2 mg dm −3 in scientific notatio

on
So a concentration of 10 μg l−1 is equal to 1.0 × 10−2 mg dm−3.
(c) Note again that 10 μg l−1 = 10 μg dm−3, so the problem is one of
converting 10 μg dm−3 into g m−3.
1 μg = 10−6 g
1 dm = 10−1 m, so 1 dm3 = (10−1 m)3 = (10−1)3 m3 = 10−3 m3
To convert from μg dm−3 to g m−3 you need to multiply by 10−6 (to convert
the μg into g) and divide by 10−3 (to convert the dm−3 into m−3).

10−6
1 μg dm −3 = g m −3
10−3

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Maths for Science

10−6

10 μg dm −3 = 10 × g m −3

10−3
= 10 ×10−6−(−3) g m −3

= 10 ×10−3 g m −3

1 −2 g m −3 in scientific notation
= 1.0 ×10
So a concentration of 10 μg l−1 is equal to 1.0 × 10−2 g m−3.

Question 4.7
g = 9.81 m s−2
The values given for ρ and h need to be converted into SI units:
1 km = 103 m
So

h = 1.2 km = 1.2 × 103 m

1 kg = 103 g, so
1
1g = kg = 10−3 kg
103
1 cm = 10−2 m, so 1 cm3 = (10−2 m)3 = (10−2)3 m3 = 10−6 m3
To convert from g cm−3 to kg m−3 you need to multiply by 10−3 (to convert
from g to kg) and to divide by 10−6 (to convert from cm−3 to m−3).

10−3
1 g cm −3 = kg m −3 = 10−3−(−6) kg m −3 = 103 kg m −3
10−6
So

ρ = 1.025 g cm−3 = 1.025 × 103 kg m−3

{Or you may have remembered that you need to multiply by 1000 in order to

convert from g cm−3 to kg m−3.}

Substituting in Equation 3.11 gives:

P = ρ gh
= 1.025 ×103 kg m −3 × 9.81 m s −2 × 1.
2 ×103 m
kg × m × m 1 1

= 1.2 ×107 (since m −3 = 3 and s −2 = 2 )

m ×s
3 2 m s
kg × m × m
= 1.2 ×107
m × m × m × s 2

2 × 107 kg m −1 s −2

= 1.2
{Note that 1 kg m−1 s−2 is equivalent to 1 pascal (Pa) (Box 3.3) so a good
answer would say that the pressure is 1.2 × 107 Pa.}

340
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 4.8

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 4.8 you should refer back
to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) A centilitre is a hundredth of a litre, i.e. 1 cl = 10−2 l.

1 litre is defined to be 1 dm3, so 1 cl = 10−2 dm3 and 75 cl = 75 × 10−2 dm3.

The problem of converting a volume of 75 cl into m3 is now one of

converting dm3 into m3.

1 dm = 1
10
m = 10−1 m, so 1 dm3 = (10−1 m)3 = 10−3 m3

75 cl = 75 ×10−2 dm3
= 75 ×10−2 ×10−3 m3
= 75 ×10−5 m3
= 7.5 ×10−4 m3 in
n scientific notation
{See Section 4.2 Converting units of area and volume.}
(b) 1 kg = 103 g
1 cm = 10−2 m, so
1
1m = cm = 102 cm
10−2
Therefore 1 m3 = (102 cm)3 = (102)3 cm3 = 106 cm3.
To convert from kg m−3 to g cm−3 you need to multiply by 103 (to convert
from kg to g) and to divide by 106 (to convert from m−3 to cm−3).

103
1 kg m −3 = g cm −3 = 103−6 g cm −3 = 10−3 g cm −3
106
9.1×102 kg m −3 = 9.1 ×102 ×10−3 g cm −3
= 9.1 ×102−3 g cm −3
= 9.1 ×10−1 g cm −3
Thus the density of olive oil is 9.1 × 10−1 g cm−3, which could also be
written as 0.91 g cm−3.
{You may have done this conversion simply by dividing by 1000 to convert
from kg m−3 to g cm−3.}
{See Section 4.4 Converting units of concentration and density.}

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Maths for Science

(c) The values given for m and v need to be converted to SI units:

1 kg = 103 g, so
1
1g = kg = 10−3 kg
103
So m = 7.5 g = 7.5 × 10−3 kg
1 km = 103 m
1 hour = 60 × 60 s = 3.6 × 103 s
To convert from km hour−1 to m s−1 you need to multiply by 103 (to convert
from km into m) and to divide by 3.6 × 103 (to convert from hour−1 into s−1)

v = 1.5 × 103 km hour −1

1.5 ×103 × 103
= m s −1
3.6 × 103
= 416.67 m s −1
Substituting into Equation 3.12 gives

Ek = 12
mv 2
= 12
× 7.5 × 10−3 kg × (416.67 m s −1) 2

= 651 kg (m s −1) 2

= 6.55 × 102 kg m 2 s −2 to two significant figures

= 6.5 ×102 J (sincce 1 J = 1 kg m 2 s −2 )
The bullet has an energy of 6.5 × 102 J.
{Note that the final answer has been given in scientific notation to enable it to
be expressed unambiguously to two significant figures, but the value for v in
m s−1 was used to more than two significant figures to avoid rounding errors.}
{See Section 4.1 Unit conversion and the beginning of a calculation and
Section 4.3 Converting units of speed.}

Chapter 5
Question 5.1
(a) v = f λ can be reversed to give f λ = v .
To isolate f you need to remove λ, and f is currently multiplied by λ so,
according to Hint 3, you need to divide by λ. Remember that you must do this
to both sides of the equation giving
fλ v
=
λ λ

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 Questions: answers and comments

The λ in the numerator of the fraction on the left-hand side cancels with the λ
in the denominator to give
v
f =
λ
(b) Etot = Ek + Ep can be reversed to give Ek + Ep = Etot.
To isolate Ek you need to remove Ep, and Ep is currently added to Ek so,
according to Hint 1, you need to subtract Ep. Remember that you must do this
to both sides of the equation giving

Ek + Ep − Ep = Etot − Ep
So

Ek = Etot − Ep (since Ep − Ep = 0)
m m
(c) ρ = can be reversed to give =ρ
V V
To isolate m you need to remove V, and m is currently divided by V so,
according to Hint 4, you need to multiply by V. Remember that you must do
this to both sides of the equation giving
mV
= ρV
V
The V in the numerator of the fraction on the left-hand side cancels with the V
in the denominator to give

m = ρV

Question 5.2
(a) b = c − d + e can be written as
c − d + e = b (with e on the left-hand side).
Adding d to both sides gives

c−d+e+d=b+d
i.e. c + e = b + d.

Subtracting c from both sides gives

c+e−c=b+d−c
i.e. e = b + d − c
(b) P = ρgh can be written as
ρgh = P (with h on the left-hand side).

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Maths for Science

Dividing both sides by ρ gives

ρ gh P
=
ρ ρ
i.e.
P
gh =
ρ
Dividing both sides by g gives
gh P
=
g ρg
i.e.
P
h=
ρg
(c)
2GM
vesc
2 =
R
Multiplying both sides by R (to get R on the left-hand side) gives
2GMR
v esc
2 R =
R

= 2GM

Dividing both sides by vesc

2 gives

v esc
2
R 2GM
= 2
vesc
2 vesc
i.e.
2GM
R=
vesc
2

(d) E = hf − φ
Adding φ to both sides (to get φ on the left-hand side) gives
E + φ = hf − φ + φ
i.e. E + φ = hf
Subtracting E from both sides gives
E + φ − E = hf − E
i.e. φ = hf − E

344
 Questions: answers and comments

(e) You need to start by finding an equation for c2.

bc 2
a=
d
can be written as

bc 2
=a
d
(with c on the left-hand side). Multiplying both sides by d gives

bc 2d
= ad
d
i.e. bc2 = ad
Dividing both sides by b gives

bc 2 ad
=
b b
i.e.
ad
c2 =
b
Taking the square root of both sides gives

ad
c=±
b
(f)

b
a=
c
can be written as

b
=a
c
(with b on the left-hand side). Squaring both sides gives
b
= a2
c
Multiplying both sides by c gives
bc
= a 2c
c
i.e. b = a2c

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Maths for Science

Question 5.3
(a) Start by finding an equation for v 2 :
Ek = 12
mv 2 can be written as
1
2
mv 2
= Ek (with the v 2 on the left-hand side).
Multiplying both sides by 2 gives

mv 2 = 2Ek
Dividing both sides by m gives
2Ek
v2 =
m
Taking the square root of both sides gives

2Ek
v=±
m
You only need to consider the positive value on this occasion, i.e.

2Ek
v=
m
(b)(i) If Ek = 2 × 103 J and m = 4 × 1021 kg

2 × 2 ×103 J
v=
4 × 1021 kg
4 × 103 kg m 2 s −2
=
4 × 1021 kg

= 1 × 10−18 m 2 s −2
= 1 × 10−9 m s −1
{At this speed, the plate would move about 3 cm in a year.}
(ii) If Ek = 2 × 103 J and m = 70 kg

2 × 2 ×103 J
v=
70 kg
= 57.1 m 2 s −2
= 8 m s −1 to one significant figure
{The athlete, having a smaller mass, has to move a lot faster than the tectonic
plate.}

346
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 5.4
(a) vx = u x + axt can be written as
u x + a xt = v x
Subtracting ux from both sides gives
a xt = v x − u x
Dividing both sides by t gives
vx − u x
ax =

μ
(b) Squaring both sides of vs = gives
ρ

vs 2 =
ρ
Multiplying both sides by ρ gives

ρvs
2 = μ
Dividing both sides by vs 2
gives
μ
ρ=
vs 2
L
(c) Multiplying both sides of F = by d2 gives
4πd 2

Fd 2 =
4π
Dividing both sides by F gives
L
d2 =
4πF
Taking the square root of both sides gives

L
d =±
4πF
{Note that if you consider just the positive value, this is the same as
Equation 3.20 from Box 3.1, albeit written rather differently.}

Question 5.5
(a)
μ0 i1i2 μ0 × i1i2 μ0i1i2
× = =
2π d 2π × d 2πd

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Maths for Science

3a 3a
(b) Note that 2 means divided by 2.
2b 2b

3a 3a 1 3a
2= × =
2b 2b 2 4b
(c) The product c × b will be a common denominator, so you can write

2b 3c 2b × b 3c × c 2b 2 + 3c 2
+ = + =
c b c×b b×c cb
This is the simplest form in which this fraction can be expressed.
(d)
2ab 2ac 2ab b
÷ = ×
c b c 2ac
Cancelling the ‘2a’s gives

2ab 2ac 2a b b b × b b2
÷ = × = =
c b c 2a c c × c c 2
(e) The product f (f + 1) will be a common denominator, so you can write
1 1 ( f + 1) f
− = −
f f + 1 f ( f + 1) ( f + 1) f

f + 1 − f

=
f ( f + 1)

=
f ( f + 1)

This could also be written as 2

f + f
(f)

2b 2 2c 2 2b 2 (a + c)
÷ = ×
(b + c) (a + c) (b + c) 2 c2
b 2 ( a + c)
=
c 2 (b + c)
This could also be written as follows but cannot be simplified further.
2
⎛ b ⎞ (a +
c)
⎜ c ⎟
(b + c)
⎝ ⎠
{Note that, for all parts of Question 5.5 and for many other questions
involving simplification, it is possible to check that the algebraic expression
you end up with is equivalent to the one that you started with by substituting
numerical values for the variables. For example, setting a = 2, b = 3 and
c = 4 in the expression in part (d) gives

348
 Questions: answers and comments

2ab 2ac ⎛ 2 × 2 × 3 ⎞ ⎛ 2 × 2 × 4 ⎞
÷ =⎜ ⎟÷⎜ ⎟
c b ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
16
= 3÷
3

= 3×
16

=
16
In the answer to part (d)

b 2 32 9
= =
c 2 42 16
So the values obtained for the original expression and the simplified version
are the same.}

Question 5.6
The equation can be written as
1 1 1
= +
f u v

v u

= + (taking the product uv as the common denom

minator)
uv vu
v+u
=
uv
Taking the reciprocal of both sides of the equation gives
uv
f =
v+u

Question 5.7
(a)
1 1 1
(vx + u x )t = vxt + u xt
2 2 2
or alternatively
1 vt ut v t + u xt
(vx + u x )t = x + x or x
2 2 2 2
(b)
(a − b) − (a − c) a − b − a + c
=
2 2
−b + c
=
2

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Maths for Science

This can be written more neatly as

(a − b) − (a − c) c − b
=
2 2
(c)

(k − 2)(k − 3) = k 2 − 3k − 2k + 6
= k 2 − 5k + 6
(d)

(t − 2) 2 = (t − 2)(t − 2)
= t 2 − 2t − 2t + 4
= t 2 − 4t + 4

Question 5.8
(a) y2 − y = y(y − 1)
(b) x2 − 25 = (x + 5)(x − 5), by comparison with Equation 5.3.
You can check that the factorisation is correct by multiplying the brackets out.
This gives

(x + 5)( x − 5) = x 2 − 5x + 5x − 25
= x 2 − 25

Question 5.9
Both the terms on the right-hand side of Etot = 12 mv 2 + mg Δh include m, so
you can rewrite the equation as

Etot = m( 12 v 2 + g Δh)

Reversing the order gives

m( 12 v 2 + g Δh) = Etot

Dividing both sides by ( 12 v 2 + g Δh) gives

Etot
m= 1 v2
2
+ g Δh

This is a perfectly acceptable equation for m, but the fraction in the

denominator looks a little untidy. Multiplying the numerator and denominator
by 2 gives
2Etot
m=
v2 + 2g Δh

350
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 5.10
(a)(i) From the answer to Question 5.7(c)

k2 − 5k + 6 = (k − 2)(k − 3)
Thus, if k2 − 5k + 6 = 0, then (k − 2)(k − 3) = 0 too, so
k − 2 = 0 or k − 3 = 0
i.e. k = 2 or k = 3

Checking for k = 2:

k2 − 5k + 6 = 22 − (5 × 2) + 6 = 4 − 10 + 6 = 0, as expected.

Checking for k = 3:

k2 − 5k + 6 = 32 − (5 × 3) + 6 = 9 − 15 + 6 = 0, as expected.

So the solutions of the equation k2 − 5k + 6 = 0 are k = 2 and k = 3.

(ii) From the answer to Question 5.7(d)

t2 − 4t + 4 = (t − 2)2
Thus, if t2 − 4t + 4 = 0, then (t − 2)2 = 0 too, so
t − 2 = 0, i.e. t = 2
Checking your answer:
t = 2 gives t2 − 4t + 4 = 22 − (4 × 2) + 4 = 4 − 8 + 4 = 0, as expected.
So the only solution of the equation t2 − 4t + 4 = 0 is t = 2.
(b)(i) Comparison of k2 − 5k + 6 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 shows that a = 1,
b = −5 and c = 6 on this occasion, so the solutions are

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
k=
2a
−(−5) ± (−5) 2 − ( 4 × 1 × 6 )
=
2 ×1

5 ±
25 − 24
=
2
5 ±1
=
2
so
5 +1 6 5 −1 4
k= = = 3 or k = = =2
2 2 2 2
So the solutions of the equation k2 − 5k + 6 = 0 are k = 2 and k = 3. This is
the same answer as was obtained in part (a) and could be checked in the same
way.

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Maths for Science

(ii) Comparison of t2 − 4t + 4 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 shows that a = 1,

b = −4 and c = 4 on this occasion, so the solutions are

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
t=
2a
−(−4) ± (−4) 2 − (4 × 1 × 4)
=
2 ×1

4 ±
16 − 16
=
2
4±0
=
2

= 2

So there is just one solution to t2 − 4t + 4 = 0; namely t = 2. This is the same

answer as was obtained in part (a) and could be checked in the same way.

Question 5.11
(a) Rearranging p = mv to make v the subject, by dividing both sides by m,
gives
p
v=
m
Substituting in Ek = 12 mv 2 gives
2
1 ⎛ p⎞
Ek = m
2 ⎜⎝ m ⎟⎠
1 p2
= m
2 m2
p2
=
2m
(b) Since both equations are already written with E (the variable you are
trying to eliminate) as the subject, you can simply set the two equations for E
equal to each other:
1
2
mv 2 = mg Δh

There is an m on both sides of the equation; dividing both sides of the

equation by m gives

v
1 2
2
= g Δh

Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2 gives

v 2 = 2g Δh
Taking the square root of both sides of the equation gives

v = ± 2g Δh

352
 Questions: answers and comments

(c) Rearranging c = f λ to make f the subject, by dividing both sides by λ,

gives
c
f=
λ
Substituting in Ek = hf − φ gives
hc
Ek = −φ
λ
Adding φ to both sides of the equation gives
hc
Ek + φ =
λ
Subtracting Ek from both sides gives
hc
φ= − Ek
λ

Question 5.12

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 5.12 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) v 2 = u 2 + 2as can be written as

u 2 + 2as = v 2
Subtracting u2 from both sides gives

2as = v 2 − u 2
Dividing both sides by 2a gives

v2 − u 2
s=
2a
{See Section 5.1 Rearranging Equations.}
(b)

mv 2 v mv 2 2
÷ = ×
2 2 2 v

m×v× v

=
v
= mv
{See Section 5.2.1 Simplifying algebraic fractions.}

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Maths for Science

(c)

(x + 1) 2 = (x + 1)(x + 1)
= x 2 + 1x + 1x +1
= x 2 + 2x + 1
{See Section 5.2.2 Using brackets in algebra.}
(d) You may have spotted (from the answer to part (c)) that

x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2
Therefore, if x2 + 2x + 1 = 0, it follows that (x + 1)2 = 0
i.e. x + 1 = 0, so x = −1 is the only solution.
Alternatively, using the quadratic equation formula, with a = 1, b = 2 and
c = 1 gives

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
−2 ± 22 − (4 × 1 × 1)
=
2 ×1
−2 ± 4 − 4
=
2
−2 ± 0
=
2

= −1

Checking the solution:

x = −1 gives x2 + 2x + 1 = (−1)2 + [2 × (−1)] + 1 = 1 – 2 + 1 = 0, as

expected.

{See Section 5.2.2 Using brackets in algebra.}

(e) Since both equations are already written with E (the variable you are
trying to eliminate) as the subject, you can simply set the two equations for E
equal to each other:
1
2
mv 2 = mcΔT

There is an m on both sides of the equation; dividing both sides of the

equation by m gives

v
1 2
2
= cΔT

Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2 gives

v 2 = 2cΔT
Taking the square root of both sides of the equation gives

354
 Questions: answers and comments

v = ± 2cΔT
{See Section 5.3 Combining equations.}

Chapter 6
Question 6.1
Let the number selected be represented by x
• Adding 5 gives x+5
• Doubling the result gives 2(x + 5) = 2x + 10
• Subtracting 2 gives (2x + 10) − 2 = 2x + 8
2x + 8
• Dividing by 2 gives = x+ 4
2
• Taking away the number you (x + 4) − x = 4
first thought of gives

Question 6.2
Let H represent Helen’s height in cm and R represent Rupa’s height in cm.

The problem is illustrated in Figure 6.5.

Since Rupa is 15 cm taller than Helen you can write

R = H + 15 (i)

The height of the wall is equal to Rupa’s height up to her shoulders (R − 25)
plus Helen’s height up to her eyes (H − 10), thus Helen

(R − 25) + (H − 10) = 300 (ii)

H
Simplifying (ii) gives H−10

R + H − 35 = 300
Adding 35 to both sides gives

R + H = 335 R
R−25
Substituting for R from (i) gives

(H + 15) + H = 335
Rupa
2H + 15 = 335

Figure 6.5 The situation in

Question 6.2.

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Maths for Science

Subtracting 15 from both sides gives

2H = 320
Dividing both sides by 2 gives

H = 160, i.e. Helen is 160 cm tall.

Question 6.3
Following the approach described in Worked example 6.3.

Which equations to use

You know Δh = 1.8 m and g = 9.81 m s−2 and want to find v . If you use the
equations Eg = mgΔh (Equation 6.4) and Ek = 12 mv 2 (Equation 6.3), and
assume that all the child’s gravitational potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy, then Ek = Eg. The resultant equation can be rearranged to give
an equation for v in terms of Δh and g (the m in Equation 6.4 will cancel
with the m in Equation 6.3).

Combining and rearranging equations

Assuming that all the child’s gravitational potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy, then Ek = Eg, i.e.
1
2
mv 2 = mg Δh

Dividing both sides by m gives

v
1 2
2
= g Δh

Multiplying both sides by 2 gives

v 2 = 2g Δh
Taking the square root of both sides gives

v = ± 2g Δh
On this occasion you only need to consider the positive square root,
i.e. v = 2g Δh .

Substituting values
Substituting Δh = 1.8 m and g = 9.81 m s−2 gives

v = 2 × 9.81 m s −2 ×1.8 m
= 5.9 m s −1 to two significant figures
(noting that m 2 s −2 = m s −1 ).

Is the answer reasonable?

The units have worked out to be m s−1, as expected.

356
 Questions: answers and comments

An estimated value is

v ≈ 2 × 10 m s −2 × 2 m
≈ 40 m 2 s −2
≈ 6 m s −1, since 40 ≈ 36
The speed seems quite high; in reality not all of the child’s gravitational
potential energy would be converted into kinetic energy.

Question 6.4
The units of m are kg and the units of c are m s−1, so the units of mc2 are

kg × (m s−1)2 = kg m2 s−2
Therefore, since E = mc2

1 J [units of E] = 1 kg m2 s−2 [units of mc2]

Question 6.5
(a) From Equation 6.9, possible definitions are

. Stress is force divided by area.

. Stress is force per area.

. Stress is force per unit area.

(b) The units of force are newtons (N) and the units of area are m2, so the

units of stress are

N [units of F]
= N m −2
m 2 [units of A]

Question 6.6
(a) The following aspects of the answer could be improved:
. Insufficient working has been shown.
. The values for r3 and r have been linked by an equals sign; these values
are not equal.
. The abbreviation ‘e19’ has been used to indicate scientific notation (and
also, * has been used instead of ×). You are advised to use more
conventional notation, i.e. ‘× 1019’ and ‘×’.
. 4
3
has been expressed as 1.33 and π has been expressed as 3.14; both of
these values are true but only to three significant figures, thus introducing
the potential for rounding errors.
. It is not clear that the division applies to both 1.33 and 3.14 (as an
alternative to the approach shown in part (b), this could be corrected by
using brackets).
. The answer is given to too many significant figures. Since V was given to
three significant figures, the answer should be given to three significant

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Maths for Science

figures. Note that an answer in km would need to be expressed as

2.44 × 103 km, since 2440 km would be ambiguous in the number of
significant figures indicated.
. No units have been shown in the working, so it is not possible to see
whether the units have worked out appropriately.
. The final units of kilometres are perhaps reasonable for the radius of a
planet, but they have appeared from nowhere (the volume was given in
m3), and if the calculated value of r were to be used in a subsequent
calculation, quoting r in metres would a safer option.
. Units of kilometres should be abbreviated as km not as Km.

(b) A better answer would be written as:

V = 4
3
πr 3 can be reversed to give 4
3
πr 3 = V
Multiplying both sides by 3 gives

4πr3 = 3V
Dividing both sides by 4π gives
3V
r3 =
4π
{It would have been perfectly acceptable to divide by 4 and π as two separate
steps.}
Taking the cube root of both sides gives

3V
r= 3
4π
{You might have written this as
1/ 3
⎛ 3V ⎞
r =⎜ ⎟ }
⎝ 4π ⎠
V = 6.09 × 1019 m3 so

3V
r= 3
4π

3 × 6.09 ×1019 m3

= 3
4π

= 3 1.
454 ×1019 m3

= 2.44 ×106 m to thre

e significant figures
{It would have been perfectly acceptable to substitute into the equation for r3
and then to take the cube root of the answer, provided you included units and
found r3 to at least four significant figures – one more digit than given in the
final answer.}

358
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 6.7

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 6.7 you should refer back
to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) Which equations to use

You should find the amount by which the height of the ball increases (Δh) and
then add this to the starting height of 1.0 m. You know that the ball’s initial
speed v = 5.6 m s−1 and g = 9.81 m s−2. If you use the equations Ek = 12 mv 2
(Equation 6.3) and Eg = mgΔh (Equation 6.4), and assume that all the ball’s
kinetic energy is converted into gravitational potential energy, then Eg = Ek.
The resultant equation can be rearranged to give an equation for Δh in terms
of v and g (the m in Equation 6.3 will cancel with the m in Equation 6.4).
Combining and rearranging equations
Assuming that all the ball’s kinetic energy is converted into gravitational
potential energy, Eg = Ek, i.e.

mg Δh = 12 mv 2

Dividing both sides by m gives

g Δh = 12 v 2

Dividing both sides by g gives

v2
Δh =
2g
Substituting values
Substituting v = 5.6 m s−1 and g = 9.81 m s−2 gives

(5.6 m s −1) 2
Δh =
2 × 9.81 m s −2
(5.6) 2 (m s −1) 2
=
2 × 9.81 m s −2
(5.66) 2 m m s −2
=
2 × 9.81 m s −2
(5.6) 2 m m s −2
=
2 × 9.81 m s −2

= 1.6 m to tw
wo significant figure
s
The starting height is 1.0 m, so the ball rises to a total height of

1.0 m + 1.6 m = 2.6 m

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Maths for Science

Is the answer reasonable?

The units have worked out to be m, as expected.
Repeating the calculation with approximate values gives

(5 m s −1) 2
Δh ≈
2 × 10 m
s −2
25

≈ m
20

≈ 1.25 m

which is fairly close to the accurately calculated value (1.6 m) for Δh.

A height of 2.6 m is reasonable for a ball being thrown into the air.

{See Section 6.2 Using algebra to solve scientific problems and Section 6.4

Writing maths.}

(b) Suitable word equations would be

extension
strain =
original length

strain

strain rate =
time
Since extension and original length are both lengths, with SI units of metres,
these would cancel out so strain has no units. Time has SI units of seconds, so
the SI units of strain rate are
1
= s −1
s
{See Section 6.3.2 Equation to definition and Section 6.3.1 Equation to units.}

Chapter 7
Question 7.1
(a) (i) The red lines on Figure 7.41 show that, by interpolation, when
current = 1.5 A then voltage = 2.0 V.
(ii) The line through the data points can be extended at each end, as shown in
Figure 7.41. This process of extrapolation to the vertical axis shows that when
the current is zero the voltage has a value of 5.0 V.
(b) (i) The green lines of Figure 7.41 show that, by interpolation, when
voltage = 3.4 V then current = 0.8 A.
(ii) Extrapolation to the horizontal axis shows that when the voltage is zero
the current has a value of 2.5 A.

360
 Questions: answers and comments

5.0

4.0
voltage/V

3.0

2.0

1.0

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

current/A

Figure 7.41 For use with answer to Question 7.1.

Question 7.2
Using the red lines in Figure 7.42,
rise
gradient =
run

(170 − 10) km

=
(32 − 4) s

160 km

=
28 s
= 5.7 km s −1
Therefore speed = 5.7 km s−1 to two significant figures.
{You are likely to have chosen different points from which to calculate your
gradient, but you should have obtained a similar answer.}

200
distance from
epicentre/km

170

100

10
0 10 20 30 40
4 32
travel time after earthquake occurred/s

Figure 7.42 For use with answer to Question 7.2.

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Maths for Science

Question 7.3

Using the red lines in Figure 7.43,

travel time after earthquake occurred/s

40 rise
gradient =
run

(32 − 2) s

32 =
30 (170 − 0) km

30 s

=
20
170 km
= 0.176 s km −1
Therefore
10
1
speed =
2 0.176 s km −1
0 100 200 = 5.7 km s −1 to two significant figures
170
distance from To the precision to which it is possible to read the graph, this is the same
epicentre/km
value as before.
Figure 7.43 For use with
answer to Question 7.3. Question 7.4
Using the red lines in Figure 7.44,
rise
gradient =
20 run
temperature/°C

(7 − 20) °C
=
(2.0 − 0) km
10 −13 °C
7 =
2.0 km
= −6.5 °C km −1
0 1 2
altitude/km You could equally correctly have written this as −6.5 °C/km. The negative
value of the gradient implies that temperature decreases with increasing height
above sea level and your sentence should reflect this. For example you could
Figure 7.44 For use with write: ‘For each successive kilometre of height gained above sea level, the
answer to Question 7.4.
atmospheric temperature falls by 6.5 °C’.

362
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 7.5
Using the red lines in Figure 7.45,
rise
gradient =
run
[(−50 − (−20)] °C
=
(10 − 5.5) km
−30 °C
=
4.5 km
= −6.77 °C km −1

10
5 10
0
altitude/km
temperature/°C

−10

−20

−30

−40

−50

−60

Figure 7.45 For use with answer to Question 7.5.

This agrees quite well with the value obtained in the answer to Question 7.4.
In fact temperature does decrease with altitude at an almost constant rate
through the troposphere.

Question 7.6
The line corresponding to v = rz has the larger (steeper) gradient. Therefore
r is larger than s.

Question 7.7
If two quantities are directly proportional to each other, a graph in which one
is plotted against the other will be a straight line through the origin.
Therefore, only (c) in Figure 7.22 corresponds to a proportional
relationship: u ∝ z . In this case, the gradient is negative, i.e. the constant of
proportionality is negative.

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Maths for Science

Question 7.8
The line goes through the origin and when m = 50 kg, WM = 80 N. Therefore
rise
gradient =
run

(80 − 0) N

=
(50 − 0) kg
80 kg m s −2
=
50 kg
= 1.6 m s −22
The equation WM = mgM can be written WM = gMm and comparison with
y = mx + c, or y = kx for a graph which goes through the origin, shows that
gradient = gM on this occasion. Thus the magnitude of the acceleration due to
gravity on the Moon is 1.6 m s−2 to two significant figures.

Question 7.9
Since M is directly proportional to d3, these are the quantities to plot. The
spheres are selected and then their masses are measured, so d is the
independent variable, and so according to convention d3 should therefore be
plotted on the horizontal axis. In other words, the convention would be to plot
M against d3. Comparison with y = mx + c, or y = kx for a graph which goes
through the origin, shows that on this occasion
πρ
gradient = 16 πρ or
6
{If you chose to defy convention and plot d3 against M, the gradient would
6
have the reciprocal value, i.e. .}
πρ
Question 7.10
After n half-lives, the number of radioactive atoms is reduced to ( 12 ) n of the
original number. Since 161 = ( 12 ) 4 , four half-lives must elapse before the
number of radioactive atoms will be 161 of the number there are today. So
4 × 1600 years = 6400 years must elapse for this to happen.

Question 7.11

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 7.11 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) Figure 7.46 shows that a length of 13.0 cm (13.0 × 10−2 m) corresponds to
a mass of 100 × 10−3 kg.

364
 Questions: answers and comments

14

12

10

8
L/10−2 m

0 20 40 60 80 100
m/10−3 kg

Figure 7.46 For use with answer to Question 7.11.

{See Section 7.1.2 Graphs. Note that it is important to read the powers of ten
and the units from the axis labels.}
(b) When m = 0 kg, L = 6.8 × 10−2 m and when m = 100 × 10−3 kg,
L = 13.0 × 10−2 m (see Figure 7.46), so
rise
gradient =
run

(13.0 − 6.8) ×10−2 m

=
(100 − 0) × 10−3
kg

6.2 ×10−2
m
=
100 ×10−3 kg

= 0. 62 m kg −1

This could also be written as 6.2 × 10−1 m kg−1.

{See Section 7.2.1 The gradient of a straight line.}

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Maths for Science

(c) The equation L = L0 + Sm can be written as L = Sm + L0 and comparison

with the standard equation of a straight line

y = m x + c

L = S m + L0

shows that the gradient of the graph gives S and the intercept on the vertical
axis gives L0.
Thus L0 = 6.8 × 10−2 m and S = 0.62 m kg−1.
L0 represents the length of the spring when no masses have been added,
i.e. the unextended length.
(d) Since d is directly proportional to t2, these are the variables to plot. The
description of the experiment shows that d is the independent variable, which
according to convention should be plotted on the horizontal axis.
The equation d = 12 gt 2 can be rearranged to give
2d
t2 =
g
which can also be written
2
t2 = d
g
Comparison with y = mx + c, or y = kx for a graph which goes through the
origin, shows that on this occasion
2
gradient =
g
and so
2
g=
gradient
g
{If you chose to plot d against t2, then the gradient would be , in which
case g = 2 × gradient.} 2

{See Section 7.4.1 Straight-line graphs for non-linear equations.}

Chapter 8
Question 8.1
(a) The gradient of the tangent drawn to the graph of y = x2 (Figure 8.2) at
x = 1 is
rise (3.0 − 0.0) 3.0
gradient = = = = 2.0
run (2.0 − 0.5) 1.5

366
 Questions: answers and comments

So the gradient of the curve at x = 1 is 2.0 to two significant figures.

(b) Figure 8.13 is a graph of y = x2 (as Figure 8.2) with a tangent drawn at
x = 2. The gradient of this tangent is
rise (12.0 − 0.0) 12.0
gradient = = = = 4.0
run (4.0 − 1.0) 3.0
So the gradient of the curve at x = 2 is 4.0 to two significant figures.{Note
that drawing accurate tangents is difficult; values for the gradient of
y = x2 at x = 2 found by this method could reasonably be anything between
3.5 and 4.5.
A comparison of the values for gradient at x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3 shows that
the gradient increases as x increases. This is consistent with the observed
increase in the gradient of Figure 8.13 as x increases.}

y
18

16

14

12

10

6
tangent
at x = 2
4

2 tangent
at x = 1

1 2 3 4 5 x

Figure 8.13 For use with the answer to Question 8.1.

Question 8.2
(a) y = x4, so C = 1 and n = 4, and
dy
= 1 × 4x 4−1 = 4x3
dx
When x = 4,
dy
= 4 × 43 = 44 = 256
dx
So at x = 4 the gradient of the graph is 256.

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Maths for Science

(b) y = 5x, so C = 5 and n = 1, and

dy
= 5x1−1 = 5x 0 = 5
dx
The gradient of the graph is 5 for all values of x.
{You may have been able to give this result without differentiating y = 5x,
from your knowledge of the gradient of straight-line graphs.}
(c) y = 3x2, so C = 3 and n = 2, and
dy
= 3 × 2 x 2−1 = 6x1 = 6x
dx
When x = 4,
dy
= 6 × 4 = 24
dx
So at x = 4 the gradient of the graph is 24.
(d) y = 5, so C = 5 and n = 0, and
dy
= 5 × 0 × x −1 = 0
dx
The gradient of the graph is 0 for all values of x.
{You may have been able to give this result without differentiating, by
remembering that y = 5 is a horizontal line, and the gradient of a horizontal
line is always zero.}

Question 8.3
(a)
1 1
y= = 1 / 2 = x −1/2
x x
so C = 1 and n = − 12

dy 1 1 x −3/ 2 1
= − x − 2 −1 = − = − 3/ 2
dx 2 2 2x
Since x3/2 = x1+1/2 = x1 × x1/2, this could also be written as
dy 1
=−
dx 2x x
When x = 4,
dy 1 1 1
=− =− =−
dx 2×4× 4 2×4×2 16
So at x = 4 the gradient of the graph is − 161 or −0.0625.

368
 Questions: answers and comments

(b)

2
y= = 2x −2
x2
so C = 1 and n = −2
dy 4
= 2 × (−2) x −2−1 = −4x −3 = − 3
dx x
When x = 4,
dy 4 1 1
=− 3 =− 2 =−
dx 4 4 16
So at x = 4 the gradient of the graph is − 161 or −0.0625.

Question 8.4
dx
(a) x = t7, so = 7t 7 −1 = 7t 6
dt
(b)
C
E= = Cr −1
r
so
dE C
= C × (−1)r −1−1 = −Cr −2 = − 2
dr r

Question 8.5
z = 4y2 + 2y
Differentiating each of the terms separately gives
dz
= (4 × 2y 2−1) + (2 × 1y1−1)
dy
= 8y1 + 2y 0
= 8y + 2
When y = 0,
dz
= (8 × 0) + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2
dy
So at y = 0 the gradient of the graph is 2.

Question 8.6
(a) x = 2t3 + 4t2 − 2t + 3

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Maths for Science

Differentiating this with respect to t gives

dx
= (2 × 3t 2 ) + (4 × 2t) − 2 = 6t 2 + 8t − 2
dt
Differentiating again gives

d2x
= (6 × 2t) + 8 = 12t + 8
dt 2
(b)
2
z= = 2y −1
y
Differentiating with respect to y gives
dz 2
= 2 × (−1) y −1−1 = −2y −2 = − 2
dy y
Differentiating again gives

d2z 4
= −2 × (−2) y −2−1 = 4y −3 = 3
dy 2 y

Question 8.7
(a) y = 5e2x so C = 5 and k = 2
dy
= 5 × 2e 2x = 10e 2x = 2y (since y = 5e 2x )
dx
(b) z = et/2 so C = 1 and k = 1
2

dz 1 t/2 z
= e = (since z = et/2 )
dt 2 2

Question 8.8

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 8.8 you should refer back
to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) x = 3t2 + 2t + 5
Differentiating the terms separately gives

dx
= (3 × 2t 2−1) + (2 × 1t1−1) + 0
dt
= 6t1 + 2t 0

= 6t +
2

370
 Questions: answers and comments

When t = 2,
dx
= ( 6 × 2) + 2 = 12 + 2 = 14
dt
So the gradient of the graph is 14 at t = 2.
{See Section 8.2.1 The principles of differentiation, Section 8.2.2
Differentiation by rule, Section 8.2.3 Using different symbols and different
notation and Section 8.2.4 Differentiating sums.}
(b)
2
y=
x2
can be written y = 2x−2, so

dy
= 2 × (−2) x −2−1
dx
= −4 x
−3
4

=− 3
x
From
dy
= −4x −3
dx
d2 y
= (−4) × (−3)x −3−1
dx 2
= 12x −4 (since multiplying two negativee numbers gives a positive)
12
= 4
x
Note: multiplying two negative numbers is covered in Section 1.1.2.
{See Section 8.2.2 Differentiation by rule and Section 8.2.5 Second
derivatives.}
(c) y = 4e3x so the first derivative is
dy
= 4 × 3e3x = 12e3x
dx
dy
as y = 4e3x, this could also be written = 3y
dy dx
Since = 12e3x , the second derivative is
dx

d2 y
= 12 × 3e3x = 36e3x
dx 2

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Maths for Science

Then since y = 4e3x

d2 y
= 9y
dx 2
{See Section 8.3 Differentiating exponential functions.}

Chapter 9
Question 9.1
(a) 2π radians = 360°, so
360°
1 radian =
2π
360°
0.123 radians = 0.123 ×
2π
≈ 7.05° to three significant figures
r
(b) 2π radians = 360°, so
2π 360°
radians = = 120°
3 3
(c) 2π radians = 360°, so π radians = 180°,
3π 3 × 180°
radians = = 270°
2 2

Question 9.2
(a) 360° = 2π radians, so
2π
1° = radians
360

2π

36.5° = 36.5 × radians

360
≈ 0.637 radians to three significant figures
(b) 360° = 2π radians, so
2π
1° = radians
360

2π

90° = 90 × radians
360
π
= radians
2

372
 Questions: answers and comments

{This answer could have been written as 1.6 radians (to two significant
figures), but note that π/2 radians is an exact answer which 1.6 radians is
not.}
(c) 360° = 2π radians, so
2π
1° = radians
360

2π

210° = 210 × radians

360
7π
= radians
6
{This answer could have been written as 3.67 radians (to three significant
figures), but note that 7π/6 radians is an exact answer which 3.67 radians is
not.}

Question 9.3
(a) You need to find length a in Figure 9.33. wall
From Pythagoras’ Theorem
θ
a2 + (1.15 m)2 = (4.50 m)2
so
4.50 m
a2 = (4.50 m)2 − (1.15 m)2 a
ladder
a = 20.25 m 2 − 1.3225 m 2
= 18.
9275 m 2
= 4.35 m to three significant figures
g

75.2°
(b) Now you need to find angle θ in Figure 9.33.
ground 1.15 m
The interior angles in a triangle add up to 180°, so
Figure 9.33 For use with
θ + 75.2° + 90° = 180°
answer to Question 9.3.
i.e.
θ = 180° − 75.2
° − 90°
= 14.8°

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Maths for Science

Question 9.4
The lengths of the sides are as follows:
a = 2.0 cm, b = 1.5 cm, h = 2.5 cm
a′ = 4.0 cm, b′ = 3.0 cm, h′ = 5.0 cm
a″ = 6.0 cm, b″ = 4.5 cm, h″ = 7.5 cm
Therefore
b 1.5 cm
= = 0.75
a 2.0 cm
b′ 3.0 cm
= = 0.75
a′ 4.0 cm
b′′ 4.5 cm
= = 0.75
a′′ 6.0 cm
From this you can see that
b b′ b′′
= =
a a′ a′′
b 1.5 cm
= = 0.60
h 2.5 cm
b′ 3.0 cm
= = 0.60
h′ 5.0 cm
b′′ 4.5 cm
= = 0.60
h′′ 7.5 cm
so you can see that
b b′ b′′
= =
h h′ h′′
a 2.0 cm
= = 0.80
h 2.
5 cm
a′ 4.
0 cm
= = 0.80
h′ 5.0 cm
a′′ 6.0 cm
= = 0.80
h′′ 7.5 cm
again you can see that
a a′ a′′
= =
h h′ h′′

374
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 9.5
(a) sin 49° = 0.7547
π
(b) cos = 0.9239
8
π
(c) tan =1
4
{Since the angles in parts (b) and (c) are given in radians, your calculator
needs to be in ‘radians mode’ in order to obtain the correct answers to these
parts.}

Question 9.6
(a) cos−1(0.5253) = 58.31°
(b) tan−1(1.5574) = 1.0000 radians
{Your calculator needs to be in ‘degrees mode’ for part (a) and in ‘radians
mode’ for part (b) in order to obtain the correct answers.}

Question 9.7
(a)
opp
tan θ =
adj

5.0 m

=
1.
0 m
= 5.0

so θ = tan−1(5.0) = 79° to two significant figures.

(b)
adj
cos θ =
hyp
so
4.3 m
cos 32° =
h
Multiplying both sides by h gives

h cos 32° = 4.3 m

Dividing both sides by cos 32° gives

4.3 m
h=
cos 32°

4.3 m

=
0.8480

= 5.1 m to two significant figures

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Maths for Science

(c)
opp
sin θ =
hyp
so
π a
sin =
3 10 m
Multiplying both sides by 10 m gives

π
a = 10 m × sin
3

= 10 m × 0.
8660

= 8.7 m to two significant figures

{Note that ‘opp’ and ‘adj’ must be the sides opposite and adjacent to the
angle you are trying to find.}

Question 9.8
The height H can be found from
H = height of West Tower + height of base of Cathedral

− height of theodolite

= 66 m + 15 m − 1.
5 m

= 79.5 m

You know θ = 2.27°, so you can use the following equation to find D.
H
tan θ =
D
Multiplying both sides by D gives

D tan θ = H
Dividing both sides by tan θ gives
H
D=
tan θ

79.5 m

=
tan 2.27°

= 200
6 m

≈ 2000 m

So you can estimate the distance of the theodolite from Ely Cathedral to be
about 2 km.

376
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 9.9
Using Equation 9.10,

V = W tan θ
where W = 65 m and θ = 36°, the vertical thickness is
V = 65 m × tan 36°

= 47 m to two significant figures

The vertical thickness of the stratum is 47 m.

Question 9.10
From Equation 9.11,

r = h cos 45°
where r is the required radius and h = 302 pm = 302 × 10−12 m or
3.02 × 10−10 m. Thus

r = 3.02 ×10−10 m × cos 45°

= 2.14 × 10−10 m to three significant figurres

The radius of an iodide ion is 2.14 × 10−10 m (i.e. 214 pm).

Question 9.11
You know i = 45.0°, r = 26.3°, v1 = 3.00 × 108 m s−1, and you are trying to
find v2 , the speed of light in glass.
Snell’s Law (Equation 9.12) states that
sin i v1
=
sin r v2
Multiplying both sides by v2 and by sin r gives
v 2 sin i = v1 sin r
Dividing both sides by sin i gives
sin r
v2 = v1
sin i

sin 26.3°

= 3.00 ×108 m s −1 ×
sin 45.0°
0..4431
= 3.00 ×108 m s −1 ×
0.7071
= 1. 88 ×108 m s −1
So the speed of light in glass is 1.88 × 108 m s−1.

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Maths for Science

Question 9.12

From Equation 9.13

nλ
sin θ n =
d
Reversing the equation and multiplying both sides by d gives

nλ = d sin θn
Dividing both sides by n
d sin θ n
λ=
n
Substituting d = 1.64 × 10−6 m, θn = 24.1° and n = 1

1.64 ×10−6 m × sin 24.1°

λ=
1

= 6.70 ×10−7 m to three significant figu

ures
So the wavelength of the light is 6.70 × 10−7 m.

Question 9.13
You know
adj vx
cos α = =
hyp v
so
vx = v cos α
= 8.6 m s −1 × cos 42°
= 6.4 m s −1 to two significant figures

opp v y

sin α = =
hyp v
so
v y = v sin α
= 8.6 m s −1 × sin 42°
= 5.8 m s −1 to two significant figures

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 Questions: answers and comments

Question 9.14

From Pythagoras’ Theorem (Figure 9.34)

y
2 2 2
F = Fx + Fy
so

F = Fx 2 + Fy 2

= (4.0 N) 2 + (3.
0 N) 2
Fy F
= 5.
0 N

β
opp

tan β = Fx x
adj
Fy
=
Fx Figure 9.34 For use with
Question 9.14.
3.0 N
=
4.0 N

= 0.75

So β = tan−1(0.75) = 37° to two significant figures.

So the vector F has a magnitude of 5.0 N and acts at an angle of 37° to the
horizontal axis.

Question 9.15
First of all convert 2.5° into radians.
2π
360° = 2π, so 1° =
360
2π
2.5° = 2.5 ×
360

= 0.043 633 radians

= 0.044 radians to two signif

ficant figures
sin θ ≈ θ for all small angles measured in radians, so sin 2.5° ≈ 0.044
cos θ ≈ 1 for all small angles
tan θ ≈ θ for all small angles measured in radians, so tan 2.5° ≈ 0.044
{Checking on a calculator shows that sin 2.5° = 0.043 62 and
tan 2.5° = 0.043 66 to four significant figures, so the small angle
approximations are good estimates.}

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Maths for Science

Question 9.16
Let the distance to car ferry = L
The length of car ferry = D = 86 m
The angle subtended = φ = 3.5°
Converting φ into radians:
360° = 2π radians, so

2π
1° =
360

2π

3.5° = 3.5 ×
360

= 0.0611 radians

From Equation 9.14

D
φ (in radians) ≈
L
Multiplying both sides by L and dividing both sides by φ
D
L=
φ
so

86 m
L≈
0.
0611
≈ 140
8 m
The ferry is approximately 1.4 km away.

Question 9.17

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 9.17 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) {There are several different ways of tackling this question. The method
given uses Pythagoras’ Theorem to find h and trigonometry to find θ, then
uses the fact that the internal angles in all triangles add up to 180° to find φ .}

380
 Questions: answers and comments

From Pythagoras’ Theorem:

h = (5.0 cm) 2 + (12 cm) 2

= 25 cm 2 + 144 cm 2
= 169 cm
2
= 13 cm

From the definition of tangent:

opp 12 cm
tan θ = = = 2.4
adj 5.0 cm
So θ = tan−1(2.4) = 67° to two significant figures.

Since the internal angles in the triangle must add up to 180°

θ + φ + 90° = 180°
i.e.
φ = 180° − 90° − 67°

= 23°

{See Section 9.2 A quick look at triangles and Section 9.3 Calculating with
angles: trigonometry.}
(b) From the definition of cosine:
adj Fx
cos θ = =
hyp F
so
F x = F cos θ

= 82 N × cos 27°

= 82 N × 0.
891 01

= 73 N to two significant figu

ures
Similarly
opp Fy
sin θ = =
hyp F
so
F y = F sin θ

= 82 N × sin 27°

= 82 N × 0.
453 99

= 37 N to two significant figu

ures
{See Section 9.4 Using trigonometry and Pythagoras’ Theorem to help with
vectors.}

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Maths for Science

(c) From Equation 9.14

D
φ (in radians) ≈
L
where φ = 0.50° and L = 1.50 × 1011 m. You are trying to find D.
Reversing Equation 9.14 and multiplying both sides by L gives
D ≈ Lφ
Converting φ into radians:
360° = 2π radians, so

2π
1° =
360

2π

0.5° = 0.5 ×
360
= 8.7266 ×10−3 radians
Substituting gives

D ≈ 1.50 ×1011 m × 8.7266 ×10−3

≈ 1.3 × 109 m to two significant figuures
The Sun’s diameter is 1.3 × 109 m.
{See Section 9.1 Measuring angles: degrees and radians and Section 9.5 Small
angle approximations.}

Chapter 10
Question 10.1
(a) Since 100 = 102, log10 100 = 2
(b) Since 0.001 = 10−3, log10 0.001 = −3
1
(c) Since 10 = 101/ 2 , log10 10 =
2
(d) Since 1.329 = 100.1235 (from the section of text just above the question)
log10 1.329 = 0.1235

Question 10.2
(a) log10 2 = 0.3010
(b) log10 2000 = 3.3010
{Note that log10 2000 is exactly 3 greater than log10 2. This result will be
discussed further in Sections 10.2 and 10.3.}

382
 Questions: answers and comments

Question 10.3
(a) 101.5 = 31.62
(b) p = 31.62
{Because of the way in which log to base 10 is defined, the answer to (b)
follows straight from the answer to part (a).}

Question 10.4
(a) For human blood the hydrogen ion concentration is 4.0 × 10−8 mol dm−3,
so

⎛ 4.0 × 10−8 mol dm −3 ⎞

pH = − log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ mol dm −3 ⎠

−8

= − log10 (4.0 × 10 )

= −((−7.4)

= 7.
4
(b) For the hair shampoo, the hydrogen ion concentration is
3.2 × 10−6 mol dm−3, so

⎛ 3.2 ×10−6 mol dm −3 ⎞

pH = − log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ mol dm −3 ⎠

−6

= − log10 (3.2 × 10 )

= −((−
5.5)

= 5.
5

Question 10.5
(a)
log10 300 = log10 (3 ×100)
= log10 3 + log10 100 (from Equation 10.2)
= 0.4771 + log10 102
= 0.4771 + 2 (from Equation 10.1)

= 2.4771 to fo
our decimal places

(b)
log10 0.03 = log10 (3 ÷100)
= log10 3 − log10 100 (from Equation 10.3)
= 0.4771 − log10 10
2
= 0.
4771 − 2 (from Equation 10.1)

= −1.5229 to four decimal places

{The same answer can be obtained by using the fact that

log10 0.03 = log10(3 × 10−2).}

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Maths for Science

(c)

log10 9 = log10 (32 )

= 2 log10 3 (from Equation 10.4)

= 2 × 0.
4771

= 0.9542 to four decimal places

Question 10.6
log10 (2x3 ) = log10 2 + log10 x3 (from Equation 10.2)
= log10 2 + 3 log110 x (from Equation 10.4)
Thus the three expressions that are equivalent are (i), (ii) and (vi).

Question 10.7
2.5 − 0.5 2.0
The gradient of the line = = = 2.0
1.0 − 0.0 1.0
This is the result expected.

The intercept of the line on the vertical axis is approximately 0.5.

log10 π = 0.497 to three significant figures, so the result seems reasonable.

Question 10.8
Taking the log to base 10 of both sides of the equation y = 2x3, as in Question
10.6, gives

log10 y = log10 (2x3 )

= log10 2 + log10 x3 (from Equation 10.2)

= log100 2 + 3 log
10 x (from Equation 10.4)
Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives

log10 y = 3 log10 x + log10 2

Comparison with the general equation of a straight-line graph, y = mx + c,
reveals that m = 3 and c = log10 2, so the gradient of the graph will be 3 and
the intercept on the vertical axis will be log10 2.

Question 10.9
n = n0eat
Taking the log to base 10 of both sides of the equation gives

log10 n = log10 (n0

e at )
= log10 n0 + log10 e at (from Equation 10.
2)

og10 n0 + at log10e (from Equation 10.4)

= lo

384
 Questions: answers and comments

Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives
log10 n = at log10 e + log10 n0
= (a log10 e)t + log10 n0
Comparison with the general equation of a straight-line graph, y = mx + c,
shows that a graph of log10 n against t will be a straight line of gradient
a log10 e and intercept on the vertical axis of log10 n0.

Question 10.10
(a) ln 5 = 1.609
(b) The number whose natural logarithm is 5 is e5 = 148.4

Question 10.11
n = n0eat
Taking the log to base e of both sides of the equation gives

ln n = ln(n0e at )
= ln n0 + ln e at (from Equation 10.8)
= ln n0 + at (from Equation 10.7)
Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives

ln n = at + ln n0
Comparison with the general equation of a straight-line graph, y = mx + c,
shows that a graph of ln n against t will be a straight line of gradient a and
intercept on the vertical axis of ln n0.

Question 10.12

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 10.12 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) (i) log10 4 = 0.6021 to four significant figures

(ii) ln 4 = 1.386 to four significant figures
(iii) the number whose log to base 10 is 4 is 104 = 10 000, or 1.000 × 104 to
make it clear that the number is given to four significant figures
(iv) the number whose natural logarithm is 4 is e4 = 54.60 to four significant
figures.
{See Section 10.1 Logarithms to base 10 and Section 10.5 Logarithms to
base e.}

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Maths for Science

(b) (i)
log10 4000 = log10 (4 ×1000)
= log10 4 + log10 1000 (from Equation 10.2)
2
= 0.6021 + log10 10
3
= 0.
6021 + 3 (from Equation 10.1)

= 3.6021 too four decimal places

(ii)

log1016 = log10 (4
2 )
= 2log10 4 ( from Equation 10.
4 )

= 2 × 0.
6021

= 1.204
0 to four significant figures

{See Section 10.3 Rules of logarithms. You may also find it helpful to look
back to Section 3.1.2 to remind yourself of the rules governing significant
figures and decimal places in calculations.}
(c) y = 3e−2x
Taking the log to base e of both sides of the equation gives

ln y = ln(3e −2x )
= ln 3 + ln e −2x (from Equation 10.8)

= ln 3 − 2 x (from Eqquation 10.7)

Reversing the order of the two terms on the right-hand side gives

ln y = −2x + ln 3
Comparison with the general equation of a straight-line graph, y = mx + c,
shows that a graph of ln y against x will be a straight line of gradient −2 and
intercept on the vertical axis of ln 3.
{See Section 10.3 Rules of logarithms and Section 10.5 Logarithms to
base e.}

Chapter 11
Question 11.1
(a) Of the 52 cards in the pack, 13 are hearts. So according to Equation 11.2,
the probability of a card drawn at random being a heart is
13 1
=
52 4
{This result also follows from noting that there are four suits, each with the
same number of cards, so one-quarter will be hearts.}

386
 Questions: answers and comments

(b) Of the 52 cards in the pack, 26 are red (13 hearts and 13 diamonds). So
the probability of a card drawn at random being red is
26 1
=
52 2
{Or two of the four suits are red, so the probability is 2
4
= 12 .}
(c) Of the 52 cards in the pack, four are aces (one for each suit). So the
probability of a card drawn at random being an ace is
4 1
=
52 13
(d) Of the 52 cards in the pack, 12 are picture cards (three for each suit). So
the probability of a card drawn at random being a picture card is
12 3
=
52 13

Question 11.2
(a) For any one toss the probability of heads is always the same: 12 .
(b) For a single toss of the third coin, the probability of getting heads is 12
and that is unaffected by what has gone before. This is no different to tossing
the same coin three times in succession. Only foolish gamblers believe that
because heads have come up twice running the chances of tails coming up the
next time are thereby increased!

Question 11.3
(a) If two coins are tossed simultaneously, there are four possible outcomes,
all of which are equally likely:
outcome 1 H H
outcome 2 H T
outcome 3 T H
outcome 4 T T
The outcome of two tails can occur in only one way, so the probability of
getting two tails is 14 .
This result can also be found from the multiplication rule:
the probability that the first coin will show tails is 1
2
1
the probability that the second coin will show tails is 2

so the probability of getting two tails is 1

2
× 12 = 1
4
.

387
Maths for Science

1
(b) The probability of throwing a six with one die is 6
. So the probability of
getting a pair of sixes when throwing two dice is
1 1 1
× =
6 6 36
{An alternative method would be to list all outcomes, but it is quicker to use
the rule on this occasion.}

Question 11.4
Assuming the germination probabilities to be independent of one another:
(a) the probability of seeds of both A and B germinating is
1 1 1
× =
2 3 6
(b) the probability of the seeds of all three species germinating is
1 1 1 1
× × =
2 3 4 24
1
(c) the probability that a seed of A will not germinate is 2
2
the probability that a seed of B will not germinate is 3
3
the probability that a seed of C will not germinate is 4

so the probability that none will germinate is

1 2 3 1
× × =
2 3 4 4

Question 11.5
1
The probability of drawing any one particular card from the pack is 52 . This
is true for each of the three named cards. So the probability of drawing the
Jack of diamonds or the Queen of diamonds or the King of diamonds is
1 1 1 3
+ + =
52 52 52 52

Question 11.6
The situation is similar to the one described in Question 11.3. If two coins are
tossed simultaneously, there are four possible outcomes, all of which are
equally likely:
outcome 1 H H
outcome 2 H T
outcome 3 T H
outcome 4 T T

388
 Questions: answers and comments

The outcome of a head and a tail can occur in two ways, so the probability of
getting a head and a tail is
2 1
=
4 2
This result can also be found from a combination of the multiplication and
addition rules. For the combination of one head and one tail:
1
the probability that the coin on the left will be a tail is 2
1
the probability that the coin on the right will be a head is 2

So the probability that the combination T H will occur is

1 1 1
× =
2 2 4
By similar reasoning, the probability that the combination H T will occur is
also 14 . These possibilities are mutually exclusive, so the probability of
getting one head and one tail is
1 1 1
+ =
4 4 2

Question 11.7
The fraction of the atmosphere that is oxygen is
0.26 0.26
= = 0.21 to two significant figures
0.26 + 1 1.26
Expressed as a percentage, this fraction is 21%.

Question 11.8
For the ten measurements in Table 11.4,
mean = 1.122 mm to three decimal places
standard deviation σ = 0.123 mm to three decimal places
{If you obtained a value of 0.129 855 mm for the standard deviation, which
rounds to 0.130 mm to three decimal places, you have used the incorrect
function on your calculator or spreadsheet.}

Question 11.9
(a) For nine measurements, the median is the 5th measurement in the list (in
ascending or descending order). This is 7.8 cm.
(b) From Equation 11.3, or by using the statistical function on a calculator or
spreadsheet,
70.4 cm
mean = = 7.82 cm
9

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Maths for Science

Question 11.10
The best estimate that can be made from these data of the mean number, μ, of
flowers per plant in the colony is the mean of the sample, x . In this case,
x = 7.3 flowers to one decimal place
{Note that it is normal practice to quote means and medians in this way, even
for quantities, such as numbers of flowers, which cannot really be fractional!}
The best estimate that can be made of the population standard deviation is the
sample standard deviation s. In this case,
s = 1.9 flowers to one decimal place
{If you obtained a value of 1.8 flowers for sample standard deviation, you
have used the incorrect function on your calculator or spreadsheet.}

Question 11.11

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 11.11 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises on the accompanying website.

(a) There is a total of 9 + 8 + 3 = 20 chocolates in the box, and nine of these

are milk chocolates. Therefore the probability that one chocolate selected at
9
random will be a milk chocolate is 20 .
{See Section 11.1.1 Calculating probability.}
(b) From part (a), the probability that one chocolate selected at random will be
9
a milk chocolate is 20 .
Similarly, of the 20 chocolates in the box, three are white chocolates. So the
probability that one chocolate selected at random will be a white chocolate is
3
20
.
A chocolate cannot (usually!) be both milk and white chocolate, so these two
possibilities are mutually exclusive and the addition rule applies, i.e. the
probability that one chocolate selected at random will be either a milk
chocolate or a white chocolate is
9 3 12 3
+ = =
20 20 20 5
{See Section 11.1.4 Combining probabilities.}
(c) Two of the nine milk chocolates contain nuts, so the probability that the
milk chocolate selected contains nuts is 92 .
Three of the eight plain chocolates contain nuts, so the probability that the
plain chocolate contains nuts is 83 .
The selection of the milk chocolate and the selection of the plain chocolate
are independent events, so the multiplication rule applies, i.e. if one milk

390
 Questions: answers and comments

chocolate and one plain chocolate are selected, the probability that both of
these will contain nuts is
2 3 6 1
× = =
9 8 72 12
{See Section 11.1.4 Combining probabilities.}
(d) The drink is made up of 8 + 7 + 2 + 1 = 18 parts, of which eight are
apple juice.
Thus the fraction of apple juice in the mixture is
8
= 44% to two significant figures
18
{See Section 11.1.5 Probability ratios and Section 1.2.6 Percentages.}
(e) (i) The mean number of children per household is
0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 +1+1+ 2 + 3 + 5
= 1.2
10
(ii) Since there are 10 values (an even number), the median value is the mean
of the 5th and 6th values, i.e. the mean of 0 and 1. Thus the median number
of children per household is 0.5.
(iii) The mode is the most frequently occurring value, so the mode number of
children per household is 0.
{See Section 11.2.6 Different types of ‘average’.}
(f) For the ten measurements given
mean = 37.31° to two decimal places
standard deviation σ = 0.09° to two decimal places
{If you obtained a value of 0.099443° for standard deviation, which rounds to
0.10° to two decimal places, you have used the incorrect function on your
calculator or spreadsheet.}

{See Section 11.2.3 Mean and standard deviation for repeated measurements

and Section 11.2.4 Using a calculator for statistical calculations.}

(g) The best estimate that can be made from these data of the mean wing

length, μ, of all female meadow pipits in the population is the mean of the

sample, x . In this case,

x = 77.3 mm to one decimal place

The best estimate that can be made of the population standard deviation is the
sample standard deviation s. In this case,
s = 2.8 mm to one decimal place
{If you obtained a value of 2.7 mm for sample standard deviation, you have
used the incorrect function on your calculator or spreadsheet.}
{See Section 11.2.7 Samples and populations.}

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Maths for Science

Chapter 12
Question 12.1
(a) The answer to this question depends on which significance level is used.
Employing the usual convention, i.e. rejecting the null hypothesis if P < 0.05,
the null hypothesis should be rejected on this occasion, since P < 0.01 means
that P must be less than 0.05. Therefore the alternative hypothesis should be
accepted. However, if it had been decided only to reject the null hypothesis if
P were less than 0.001, you would not be justified in categorically rejecting
the null hypothesis in this way.
(b) Employing the usual convention, the null hypothesis should be accepted,
since P > 0.05.
(c) This inequality is written in a way that is very unhelpful and ought to be
avoided. You are told that P > 0.01. But how much greater? If P > 0.05 then,
employing the usual convention, the null hypothesis must be accepted.
However, if P lies between 0.05 and 0.01 (i.e. 0.05 > P > 0.01) then,
employing the usual convention, the null hypothesis should be rejected and
the alternative hypothesis accepted. In the former situation, the result ought to
have been given as P > 0.05; in the latter it ought to have been given as
either P < 0.05 or 0.05 > P > 0.01.

Question 12.2
(a) Since the actual number of parasites per sheep is known, these data are at
the interval level.
(b) Since the sheep are classified into just two contrasting categories
(‘parasitised’ and ‘unparasitised’) these data are best treated as being at the
categorical level.
{Since there is an element of ranking here, you might have regarded these
data as being at the ordinal level. However, whether ‘unparasitised’ is ‘good’
or ‘bad’ does depend on whether you take the point of view of the sheep or
the parasites! ‘Parasitised’ and ‘unparasitised’ might correspond to the clear­
cut categories ‘susceptible to parasites’ and ‘resistant to parasites’. In general,
ordinal level data are subdivided into more than two classes.}
(c) Since the degree of parasitisation is recorded, but not precisely how many
parasites there are on each sheep, these data are at the ordinal level.

Question 12.3
The total number of plants in the next generation was 636
(i.e. 185 + 305 + 146). If the ratio in a sample of 636 plants were
1 red-flowered : 2 pink-flowered : 1 white-flowered, then there would be

392
 Questions: answers and comments

636
= 159 red-flowered plants
4

636

= 318 pink-flowered plants

2

63

36
= 159 white-flowered plants
4
These are therefore the ‘expected’ numbers. The calculation of the test statistic
χ2 is shown in Table 12.16.

Table 12.16 For use with answer to Question 12.3.

Flower colour Oi Ei (Oi − Ei) (Oi − Ei)2 (Oi − Ei)2/Ei

red 185 159 26 676 4.252
pink 305 318 −13 169 0.531
white 146 159 −13 169 1.063
total 636 636 0 χ2 = 5.846

The number of degrees of freedom is given by

( number of cells containing observed counts ) − 1 = 3 − 1

=2
Reading across the row for 2 degrees of freedom in Table 12.3, it can be seen
that the χ2 value of 5.846 corresponds to a significance level (P) of less than
0.1 but more than 0.05 (i.e. 0.1 > P > 0.05).
Since the probability that the entire population from which the sample of
636 plants was drawn was in the ratio 1 red-flowered : 2 pink-flowered : 1
white-flowered is greater than 0.05, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at
the 5% significance level. The experimental data are therefore compatible with
the prediction from genetics theory that the ratio of plants in the next
generation should be in the ratio 1 red-flowered : 2 pink-flowered : 1 white­
flowered.

Question 12.4 n
The values of (RA)i, (RB)i, Di, Di2 and ∑ Di 2 are given in Table 12.17.
i=1
{Since there are two vertical distances of 7 cm, both are given the rank
3+ 4
= 3.5
2
The next vertical distance (9 cm) is given the rank 5.}
n
Substituting ∑ Di 2 = 21.5 (from Table 12.17) and n = 8 into Equation 12.2
gives i=1

6 × 21.5
rS = 1 −
8(82 − 1)

= 0.744

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Maths for Science

Table 12.17 For use with answer to Question 12.4.

Vertical distance/cm Rank (RA)i Mean water content/% Rank (RB)i Di = (RA)i − (RB)i Di2
0 1 76 1 0 0
4 2 83 3 −1 1
7 3.5 93 4 −0.5 0.25
9 5 80 2 3 9
7 3.5 102 6 −2.5 6.25
11 7 95 5 2 4
10 6 120 7 −1 1
13 8 130 8 0 0
n n
∑ Di = 0 ∑ Di 2 = 21.5
i=1 i =1

Reading across the row for 8 pairs of measurements in Table 12.7, it can be
seen that 0.05 > P > 0.01. Since P < 0.05, the null hypothesis must be
rejected at the 5% significance level and the alternative hypothesis accepted.
There is a statistically significant positive correlation between mean soil water
content and vertical distance from ridge crest.
{Although mean soil water content was significantly correlated with both
horizontal and vertical distance from the nearest ridge crest, the former
produced a value of rS that was both higher and more significant than the
latter (i.e. rS = 0.905, P < 0.01 compared to rS = 0.744, P < 0.05).}

Question 12.5
(a) These data are unmatched. There is no logical link between any particular
plant growing in one reserve and any particular plant growing in the other
reserve.
(b) These data are matched. For each sampling station along the stream, the
number of nymphs is known for two species of Stonefly.

Question 12.6
In this case x1 = 7.7, x2 = 7.2, s1 = 2.7, s2 = 2.1, n1 = 18 and n2 = 15.
Substituting for s1, s2, n1 and n2 into Equation 12.5 gives

(18 − 1)(2.7) 2 + (15 − 1)(2.1) 2

SC 2 =
(18 − 1) + (15 − 1)

(17 × 7.29) + (14 × 4..41

)
=
17 + 14

= 5.
989
Substituting for SC2, n1 and n2 into Equation 12.4 gives

5.989 5.989
SED = + = 0.856
18 15

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 Questions: answers and comments

Substituting for x1 , x2 and SED into Equation 12.3 gives

7.7 − 7.2
t= = 0.584 to three decimal places
0.856
In this case, the number of degrees of freedom is

(18 − 1) + (15 − 1) = 31
The value of t (i.e. 0.584) is smaller than any of the critical values in the row
for 30 degrees of freedom (the nearest equivalent to 31) in Table 12.12. The
probability of obtaining a value of t as large as this by chance if the null
hypothesis were true is therefore greater than 0.1 (i.e. P > 0.1), probably
much greater. The difference in number of flowers per plant growing on either
side of this ridge is not statistically significant.
{Note: if you worked to a different number of decimal places in this question
you may have obtained a slightly different value for t. However, your
conclusion – that the difference in number of flowers per plant growing on
either side of this ridge is not statistically significant – should have been the
same.}

Question 12.7

If you had difficulty with any part of Question 12.7 you should refer
back to the section of the book indicated, and try the corresponding
Additional exercises.

(a) The null hypothesis is that the die is unbiased (and the alternative
hypothesis is that the die is biased in some way).
The ‘expected’ number of times each score would be obtained is
100
= 16.667 to 3 decimal places
6
The calculation of the test statistic χ2 is shown in Table 12.18.

Table 12.18 For use with answer to Question 12.7a.

Score Oi Ei (Oi − Ei) (Oi − Ei)2 (Oi − Ei)2/Ei

1 16 16.667 −0.667 0.445 0.027
2 13 16.667 −3.667 13.447 0.807
3 15 16.667 −1.667 2.779 0.167
4 17 16.667 0.333 0.111 0.007
5 15 16.667 −1.667 2.779 0.167
6 24 16.667 7.333 53.773 3.226
total 100 100 ~0 χ2 = 4.401

395
Maths for Science

The number of degrees of freedom is given by

(number of cells containing observed counts) − 1 = 6 − 1
=5
Reading across the row for 5 degrees of freedom in Table 12.3, it can be seen
that the χ2 value of 4.401 corresponds to a significance level (P) of more than
0.1 (i.e. P > 0.1). The null hypothesis cannot therefore be rejected. There is
no statistically significant evidence from these data that the die is biased.
{Note: if you worked to a different number of decimal places in this question
you may have obtained a slightly different value for χ2. However, your
conclusion should have been the same.}
{See Section 12.1 The principles of hypothesis testing and Section 12.3 The
chi-squared goodness-of-fit test.}
(b) The null hypothesis is that there is no correlation between length and
width (i.e. rS = 0) and the alternative hypothesis is that the two variables are
correlated (i.e. rS ≠ 0).
n
The values of (RA)i, (RB)i, Di, Di2 and ∑ Di 2 are given in Table 12.19.
i=1
Table 12.19 For use with answer to Question 12.7b.

Length/mm Rank (RA)i Width/mm Rank (RB)i Di = (RA)i − (RB)i Di2

21.4 9 9.0 4 5 25
17.2 1 8.5 1 0 0
20.3 5 8.8 2.5 2.5 6.25
21.2 7 9.3 7 0 0
25.4 11 9.6 9 2 4
23.5 10 9.4 8 2 4
19.9 4 9.2 6 −2 4
21.3 8 10.9 11 −3 9
26.8 12 13.3 12 0 0
18.6 2 8.8 2.5 −0.5 0.25
20.4 6 9.1 5 1 1
19.8 3 9.8 10 −7 49
n n
∑ Di = 0 ∑ Di 2 = 102.5
i=1 i =1

396
 Questions: answers and comments

n
Substituting ∑ Di 2 = 102.5 (from Table 12.19) and n = 12 into Equation 12.2
gives i=1

n
6 ∑ Di
2
rS = 1 − i=1

n(n 2 − 1
)
6 × 102.
5
= 1−
12(122 − 1)

= 0.642

Reading across the row for 12 pairs of measurement in Table 12.7, it can be
seen that 0.05 > P > 0.01. Since P < 0.05, the null hypothesis must be
rejected at the 5% significance level and the alternative hypothesis accepted.
There is a statistically significant correlation between the length and the width
of the beans.
{See Section 12.4 The Spearman rank correlation coefficient.}
(c)(i) An appropriate null hypothesis would be that the mean test score is the
same before and after the students have studied Maths for Science. An
appropriate alternative hypothesis is that the mean test score is different before
and after the students have studied Maths for Science.
(ii) The data are at the interval level.
(iii) The two samples (before and after reading the book) are matched, so a
t-test for unmatched samples would not be appropriate. A different test should
be used.
{See Section 12.1 The principles of hypothesis testing, Section 12.2 Deciding
which test to use; levels of measurement and Section 12.5 The t-test for
unmatched samples.}

397
Maths for Science

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the following people in

the production of Maths for Science and accompanying resources:

Nick Adams, Jenny Barden, Tracy Bartlett, Greg Black, Jonathan Crowe,

Rebecca Graham, Chris Hough, Richard Howes, Jenny Hudson,

Richard Jordan, Stephen Larkin, Lisa Mills, Tina Overton, David Vince and

all those who contributed to the earlier editions of this book.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources:

Figure 1.3: Dr. Wolfgang Beyer, used under the Creative Commons

Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic license; Figure 2.3: Photograph courtesy

of the BIPM; Figure 4.6a: P.R. Deakin and Treak Cliff Cavern; Figure 4.6b:

Richard Jordan; Figure 5.2: © Ivan Vdovin/Alamy; Figure 5.4: Afrank99,

used under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic

license; Figure 6.1a: MistikaS/iStockphoto.com; Figure 6.1b: Vladimir1965/

iStockphoto.com; Figure 8.7: Source Unknown; Figure 8.10a: Varvara

Mikhaleva/iStockphoto.com; Figure 9.11: Science Photo Library; Figure 10.1:

Science and Society Picture Library; Figure 11.2: pixhook/iStockphoto.com;

Figure 11.3: Matthew Scherf/iStockphoto.com; Figure 11.5: Keith Weller/

United States Department of Agriculture; Figure 11.6: Courtesy of Naomi

Williams and Goodfellow; Figure 11.11: David Tipling/Getty Images;

Figure 12.1a: Skyscan Aerial Photography; Figures 12.1b and 12.2 inset: Mike

Dodd; Figure 12.7: John Macgregor/Getty Images.

Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any have been

inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary

arrangements at the first opportunity.

398
 Index

Index
A Celsius degree, 35, 38
density, 65, 84

cancellation, 12
dependent variable, 150

absolute value, 309

centi (prefix), 38
derivative, 177

absolute zero of temperature, 164

CGS units, 85
derived function, 182

accuracy, 267

checking, 123
derived units, 67

acute angle, 210

chi-squared-test, 291, 295

descriptive statistics, 266

addition rule for probabilities, 259

chi-squared-test (critical values),

difference of squares, 109

al-Khwarizmi, 99

295
differentiation, 177

algebra, 58, 89

chord, 176
differentiation from first principles,

algebraic fractions, 104

combining equations, 113

178

alternative hypothesis, 288

combining probabilities, 257

diffraction, 218, 267

angles, 197

common denominator, 12
direct proportionality, 153

angle of dip, 214

common logarithm, 230

dm3, 76

ångström (unit), 38

commutative, 8

antilog, 231

complex number, 4
E
approximately equals, 56

component (of vector), 221

e, 168, 191, 245

arc, 200

concentration, 83
elimination, 113

arccos, 210

confounding variable, 302

energy, 125

arcsec, 200

constant of proportionality, 154

equals signs, 57, 58, 134

arcsin, 210

control (in experiments), 287

equation(s), 58, 59, 62, 132

arctan, 210

conversion factor, 74
equation of straight-line graph, 156

area, 49, 74

correlation, 299
equivalent fraction, 11

arithmetic mean, 270

correlation coefficient, 299

erg (unit), 85

Arrhenius equation, 249

cosine, 207
estimated standard deviation of

atto (prefix), 37

critical value, 289

population, 281

average, 270

critical values (chi-squared-test),

estimating, 56, 124

Avogadro’s number, 36

295
evaluate, 13

axis (of graph), 137

critical values (Spearman rank

exa (prefix), 37

B correlation coefficient), 303

expected numbers, 292

critical values (t-test for unmatched

exponential decay, 167

bar chart, 137

samples), 310
exponential function, 191, 243

base number, 20
cube root, 25
exponential growth, 169

base units, 34
cystic fibrosis, 258
exponent, 20

becquerel (unit), 166

expression, 90

BEDMAS, 26, 62
D extrapolation, 143

bell-shaped curve, 275

decay constant, 248

best-fit line, 146

F
deci (prefix), 38

bimodal, 277

decibel, 42, 232

factorisation, 109

brackets, 7, 27, 63, 107

decimal notation, 4
factors, 109

C decimal places, 4, 44, 52

femto (prefix), 37

definitions (from equations), 132

Fibonacci numbers, 5

calculator use 1, 4, 9, 10, 22, 26,

degree (of arc), 198
first derivative, 177

28, 55, 134, 209, 231, 246, 274,

degree (temperature), 35, 38
formula, 58, 59

281
degree Celsius, 35, 38
fractional exponent, 25

calculus, 173
degrees of freedom, 294
fractions, 4, 11, 18, 104

categorical level, 290

denominator, 11

399
Maths for Science

function, 152, 182

kilo (prefix), 37
newton (unit), 68

function notation, 182

kilogram, 35
normal distribution, 275

kilowatt-hour (unit), 85
null hypothesis, 287

G number line, 3, 34

giga (prefix), 37
L numerator, 11

goodness-of-fit test, 291

latitude, 199

gradient, 147
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 184
O
graphs, 137
levels of measurement, 290
observed numbers, 292

Green-winged Orchids, 285

linear relationship, 146
order of arithmetic operations, 26

gun clinometer, 211

linear scale, 41
order of magnitude, 39

litre, 38, 76
ordinal level, 290

H logarithm, 229
origin (of graph), 143

half-life, 167, 248

logarithm to base e, 245

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 297

logarithm to base 10, 230
P
hecto (prefix), 68
logarithmic scale, 41, 232
parabola, 161

hertz (unit), 68
log–linear graph, 243
pascal (unit), 68

histogram, 138
log–log graph, 238
percentage 17

hyperbola, 163
longitude, 199
peta (prefix), 37

hypotenuse, 205
lowest common denominator, 12
pH scale, 232

hypotheses, 286
photoelectric effect, 149, 158

hypothesis testing, 286

M pi, 4

Ma (million years), 38
pico (prefix), 37

I
magnitude, 220
playing cards, 255

imaginary number, 4, 112

Mandelbrot set, 5
population, 280

improper fraction 13
mass, 35, 93
population mean, 280

independent outcomes (probability),

matched samples, 307
positive correlation, 299

258
mean, 270
powers, 20

independent variable, 150

median, 277
powers of powers, 24

index (plural indices), 20

mega (prefix), 37
powers of ten notation, 21, 39

inheritance, 259
Mendel’s peas, 262
precedence, 26

integer, 3
metre, 35
precise, 267

intercept, 156
micro (prefix), 37
precision, 44, 267, 276

interpolation, 142
milli (prefix), 37
probability, 254

interval level, 291

minute (of arc), 200
problem solving, 124

inverse cosine, 210

mixed number 13
product, 8

inverse proportionality, 164

mode, 277
proportionality, 153

inverse sine, 210

modulus, 221
Pythagoras, 205

inverse tangent, 210

mole, 36
Pythagoras’ Theorem, 205

inverse trigonometric functions,

multiplication rule for

210
probablilities, 257
Q
irrational number, 4
quadratic equations, 110

N quadratic equation formula, 111

J nano (prefix), 37

joule (unit), 68, 85

Napier’s bones, 229
R
natural logarithm, 246
radian, 200

K negative correlation, 299

radioactive dating, 168

k-value analysis, 236

negative exponent, 20, 64
radioactive decay, 166, 195, 244

kelvin (unit), 35, 165

negative numbers, 6
random uncertainty, 267

Kepler’s third law, 241

Newton, Sir Isaac, 184
ranked data, 300

400
 Index

rate of change, 175

standard index form, 31
Z
ratio, 261
statistical hypothesis testing, 286

zero, 10

rational number, 4
statistically significant, 290

real number, 4
statistics, 266, 285

rearranging equations, 89
straight-line graph, 144

reciprocal, 21
Student’s t-test, 306

recurring decimal, 4
Student’s t-test (critical values),

refraction, 217
310

repeated measurements, 266

subject (of equation), 89

replicate samples, 299

substitution, 64, 123

Richter scale, 43
subtend, 197

ridge-and-furrow, 285
sum, 8

right angle, 198

symbols, 59

right-angled triangle, 204

systematic uncertainty, 267

roots, 25

rounding, 44, 52
T
rounding errors, 52
tangent (to a curved graph), 173

tangent (trigonometry), 207

S tera (prefix), 37

sample, 280
term, 90

sample standard deviation, 281

test of association, 287

scalar, 220
test of difference, 287

scientific notation, 31, 39, 54, 134

test statistic, 288

sea-floor spreading, 144

trigonometric ratios, 207

second (of arc), 200

trigonometry, 206

second (time), 35
true mean, 280

second derivative, 187

t-test, 306

semi-log graph paper, 244

t-test (critical values), 310

SI units, 34, 67

significance level, 289

U
significant figures, 44, 50
unit conversions, 73

similar, 206
units, 34, 50, 57, 64, 66, 123, 132

simplifying equations, 103

units (on axes of graphs), 141

simultaneous equations, 115

unmatched samples, 307

sine, 207

sketch graph, 153

V

skewed, 276
variables, 21, 59

skewed distribution, 276

vector, 220

small angle approximation, 224

velocity, 220

Snell’s law, 217

volume, 75

solutions, 59

solving equations, 59
W
Spearman rank correlation

watt (unit), 68

coefficient, 300, 303

weight, 35, 93

square root, 4, 10, 25, 27

word equation, 58

speed, 77

writing maths, 57, 133

standard deviation, 271

standard error, 308

X

standard form, 31

X-ray diffraction, 267

401