BOOK: ELEMENTARY

COLLEGE GEOMETRY
(AFRICK)

Henry Africk
CUNY New York City College of
Technology
Preface
This text is intended for a brief introductory course in plane geometry, It covers the topics from elementary geometry that are
most likely to be required for more advanced mathematics courses, The only prerequisite is a semester of algebra.
The emphasis is on applying basic geometric principles to the numerical solution of problems. For this purpose the number of
theorems and definitions is kept small, Proofs are short and intuitive, mostly in the style of those found in a typical
trigonometry or precalculus text. There is little attempt to teach theorem-proving or formal methods of reasoning, However the
topics are ordered so that they may be taught deductively.
The problems are arranged in pairs so that just the odd-numbered or just the even-numbered can be assigned, For assistance,
the student may refer to a large number of completely worked-out examples, Most problems are presented in diagram form so
that the difficulty of translating words into pictures is avoided, Many problems require the solution of algebraic equations in a
geometric context, These are included to reinforce the student's algebraic and numerical skills, A few of the exercises involve
the application of geometry to simple practical problems, These serve primarily to convince the student that what he or she is
studying is useful, Historical notes are added where appropriate to give the student a greater appreciation of the subject, This
book is suitable for a course of about 45 semester hours, A shorter course may be devised by skipping proofs, avoiding the
more complicated problems and omitting less crucial topics.
I would like to thank my colleagues at New York City Technical College who have contributed, directly or indirectly, to the
development o: this work. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the influence of L. Chosid, M. Graber, S, Katoni, F. Parisi
and E. Stern.
Henry Africk
New York City Technical College
City University of New York

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 CUNY New York City College of
Technology
Book: Elementary College Geometry
(Africk)

Henry Africk
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
This text is intended for a brief introductory course in plane geometry. It covers the topics from elementary geometry that are most
likely to be required for more advanced mathematics courses. The only prerequisite is a semester of algebra. The emphasis is on
applying basic geometric principles to the numerical solution of problems.

PREFACE
ABOUT THIS BOOK
1: LINES, ANGLES, AND TRIANGLES
1.1: LINES
1.2: ANGLES
1.3: ANGLE CLASSIFICATIONS
1.4: PARALLEL LINES
1.5: TRIANGIES
1.6: TRIANGLE CIASSIFICATIONS

2: CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
2.1: THE CONGRUENCE STATEMENT
2.2: THE SAS THEOREM
2.3: THE ASA AND AAS THEOREMS
2.4: PROVING LINES AND ANGLES EQUAL
2.5: ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
2.6: THE SSS THEOREM
2.7: THE HYP-LEG THEOREM AND OTHER CASES

3: QUADRILATERALS
3.1: PARALLELOGRAMS
3.2: OTHER QUADRILATERALS

4: SIMILAR TRIANGLES
4.1: PROPORTIONS
4.2: SIMILAR TRIANGLES
4.3: TRANSVERSALS TO THREE PARALLEL LINES
4.4: PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
4.5: SPECIAL RIGHT TRIANGLES
4.6: DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A LINE

5: TRIGONOMETRY AND RIGHT TRIANGLES

5.1: THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
5.2: SOLUTION OF RIGHT TRIANGLES
5.3: APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY

6: AREA AND PERIMETER

6.1: THE AREA OF A RECTANGLE AND SQUARE
6.2: THE AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM
6.3: THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
6.4: THE AREA OF A RHOMBUS
6.5: THE AREA OF A TRAPEZOID

1 7/22/2020
7: REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES
A polygon is traditionally a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a closed
chain. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the polygon's vertices or corners.

7.1: REGULAR POLYGONS

7.2: CIRCLES
7.3: TANGENTS TO THE CIRCLE
7.4: DEGREES IN AN ARC
7.5: CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE
7.6: AREA OF A CIRCLE

BACK MATTER
APPENDIX - PROOF OF THE Z THEOREM
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VALUES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
ANSWERS TO ODD NUMBERED PROBLEMS
LIST OF SYMBOLS
INDEX

BACK MATTER
INDEX

2 7/22/2020
About this Book
This text is intended for a brief introductory course in plane geometry. It covers the topics from elementary geometry that are
most likely to be required for more advanced mathematics courses. The only prerequisite is a semester of algebra.
The emphasis is on applying basic geometric principles to the numerical solution of problems. For this purpose the number of
theorems and definitions is kept small. Proofs are short and intuitive, mostly in the style of those found in a typical
trigonometry or precalculus text. There is little attempt to teach theorem-proving or formal methods of reasoning. However the
topics are ordered so that they may be taught deductively.
The problems are arranged in pairs so that just the odd-numbered or just the even-numbered can be assigned. For assistance,
the student may refer to a large number of completely worked-out examples. Most problems are presented in diagram form so
that the difficulty of translating words into pictures is avoided. Many problems require the solution of algebraic equations in a
geometric context. These are included to reinforce the student's algebraic and numerical skills, A few of the exercises involve
the application of geometry to simple practical problems. These serve primarily to convince the student that what he or she is
studying is useful. Historical notes are added where appropriate to give the student a greater appreciation of the subject.
This book is suitable for a course of about 45 semester hours. A shorter course may be devised by skipping proofs, avoiding
the more complicated problems and omitting less crucial topics.

Henry Africk 7/13/2020 1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/35312

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1: LINES, ANGLES, AND TRIANGLES

1.1: LINES
Geometry (from Greek words meaning earth-measure) originally developed as a means of
surveying land areas, In its simplest form, it is a study of figures that can be drawn on a perfectly
smooth flat surface, or plane. It is this plane geometry which we will study in this bock and which
serves as a foundation for trigonometry, solid and analytic geometry, and calculus.

1.2: ANGLES
An angle is the figure formed by two rays with a common end point, The two rays are called the
sides of the angle and the common end point is called the vertex of the angle.

1.3: ANGLE CLASSIFICATIONS

1.4: PARALLEL LINES
Two lines are parallel if they do not meet, no matter how far they are extended.

1.5: TRIANGIES
1.6: TRIANGLE CIASSIFICATIONS

1 7/22/2020
1.1: Lines
Geometry (from Greek words meaning earth-measure) originally developed as a means of surveying land areas, In its simplest
form, it is a study of figures that can be drawn on a perfectly smooth flat surface, or plane. It is this plane geometry which we
will study in this bock and which serves as a foundation for trigonometry, solid and analytic geometry, and calculus.
The simplest figures that can be drawn on a plane are the point and the line. By a line we will always mean a straight line.
Through two distinct points one and only one (straight) line can be drawn. The line through points A and B will be denoted by
AB (Figure 1). The arrows indicate that the line extends indefinitely in each direction, The line segment from A to B consists

of A, Band that part of AB between A and B, It is denoted by AB.* The ray AB is the part of AB which begins at A and
extends indefinitely in the direction of B.
< > A B B 8 ~ line AB line segment AB ray AB r-7 ........,..
Figure 1, Line AB, line segment AB, and ray AB,
We assume everyone is familiar with the notion of length of a line segment and how it can be measured L~ inches, or feet, or
meters, etc, The distance between two points A and Bis the same as the length of AB, *Some textbooks use the notation AB
for line segment, ,. 2 Two line segments are ~ equal if they have t he same length, In Figure 2, AB= CD,
3 ihc.he::.s 3 A B C
Figure 2, AB = CD, D
We often indicate two line segments are equal by marking them in the same way, In Figure 3, AB= CD and EF = GH, 1, A C D
E F G H Figure 3. AB = CD and EF = GH,

Example 1.1.1
Find x if f_3 3X- ~ X A B C D Sol u-t ::..on: i\B = C:8 6 6 2x 6 X = ~' .. Check: A-o '-' = CD 3 Jx - 0 / J(J) - 6 q - 6 ') - )
X ".1_, AI1swe:-:- : X = 3.
Solution
Add text here.

Notice that in Example 1.1.1 we have not indicated the unit of measurement. Strictly speaking, we should specify that AB= Jx
- 6 inches (or feet or meters) and that BC= x inches. However since the answer would still be x = 3 we will usually omit this
information to save space, We say that B is the midpoint of AC if B is A point on AC and ·~ AB= BC (see Figure 4).
33ABC
Figure 4, Bis the midpoint of AC, ~XAMPLE B.
Find x and AC if Bis the midpoint of AC and AB= 5(x - 3) and BC = 9 - x,
Solution
We first draw a picture to help visualize the given information:
5(X-3) 9-x B 4 Since 3 is~ midpoL~t, A3 S(x - J) 5x - 1 _,, c; Sx + X 6:x: -"" - Check: AB S(x - 3) .Jr:: (lJ,. - J) 5(1) :> " = BC
= 9 - X = Q / - X = <" 9 .L] ,...,,, = .:,-,, = 4 = BC 9 - X 9 - 4 c; ./ ·.,/e obtain ~ ('t c; c; ~'1. 1... ,1 = A3 + BC = J + _,, = 10 ,
Answer:
X 4 AC 10 , ' ,.., . ,, . u~ ffil Q"'DOl:..-1. ~ ~X.AM?L3; u,
Find AB if B is i., ti'"'"' of ,.:;.c: ;'.). r X - "-' Sx A B C
Solution:

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 AB = C D

3x − 6 = x

3x − x = 6

2x = 6

x =3

AB= 3C c: .. :C ? 6 = ..,/ .i\. X 2 - ):: - 6 '.J (X - 61( :x: T 1) = 0 X i- 1 = J 5 2 62 If x = 6 then AB= x - 6 = - 6 = 36 - 6 = JO. If
x = -1 then AB= (-1)2 - 6 = 1 - 6 ~ -5. We reject the answer x = -1 and AB= -5 because the length of a line segment is always
positive, Therefore X = 6 and AB= JO.
Check: AB .. BC 2 X - 6 5x 62 - 6 5(6) 36 - 6 30 30
Answer:
AB= 30, Three points are collinear if they lie on the same line. 8 5 3 A B C
Figure 5. A, B, and Care collinear Figure 6, A, B, and Care not AB= 5, BC= J, and AC= 8 collinear, AB= 5, BC= 3, AC= 6 A,
B, and Care collinear if and only if AB+ BC= AC,

Example 1.1.4
EXAMPLED, If A, B, and Care collinear and AC= 7, find x: ~- 'J X )( + I A 8 C
Solution:
Check: AB+ BC= AC AB+ BC = AC 8 - 2x + X + 1 = 7 8 - 2x + X + 1 7 9 - X = 7 8 - 2(2) + 2 + 1 2 = X 8 - 4 + J 4 + 3
Answer: X = .:. " 7 C 6

Historical Note
Geometry originated in the solution of practical problems, The architectural remains of Babylon, Egypt, and other ancient
civilizations show a knowledge of simple geometric relationships, The digging of canals, erection of buildings, and the
laying out of cities required computations of lengths, areas, and volumes, Surveying is said to have developed in Egypt so
that tracts of land could be relocated after the annual overflow of the Nile, Geometry was also utilized by ancient
civilizations in their astronomical observations and the construction of their calendars.
The Greeks transformed the practical geometry of the Babylonians and Egyptians into an organized body of knowledge.
Thales (c, 636 - c. 546 B,C.), one of the "seven wise men" of antiquity, is credited with being the first to obtain geometrical
results by logical reasoning, instead of just by intuition and experiment. Pythagoras (c. 582 - c. 507 B,C.) continued the
work of Thales, He founded the Pythagorean school, a mystical society devoted to the unified study of philosophy,
mathematics, and science, About 300 B,C., Euclid, a Greek teacher of mathematics at the university at Alexandria, wrote a
systematic exposition of elementary geometry called the Elements, In his Elements, Euclid used a few simple principles,
called axioms or postulates, to derive most of the mathematics known at the time, For over 2000 years, Euclid's Elements
has been accepted as the standard textbook of geometry and is the basis for most other elementary texts, including this one.

PROBLEMS
1. Find x if AB= CD: 5x - 1s .:2 }( A B C D
2. Find x if AB= CD: 5x - IG:. 3X A B C D
3. Find X and AC if B is the midpoint of AC and AB= 3(x - 5) and BC = x + 3.
4. Find x and AC if Bis the midpoint of AC and AB~ 2x + 9 and BC= 5(x - 9),
5. Find AB if Bis the midpoint of AC: X 'J. - 10 3X A 8 C
6, Find AB if Bis the midpoint of AC: X-ai-4 5X A 8 C
7. If A, B, and Care collinear and AC= 13 find x: A '.:J. X - I B C.
8. If A, B, and Care collinear and AC= 26 find x: J.(X t5 ) A B C

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1.2: Angles
An angle is the figure formed by two rays with a common end point, The two rays are called the sides of the angle and the
common end point is called the vertex of the angle, Tne symbol for angle is L , A"'------•B----_:~ ~ ~
Figure 1, Angle BAC has vertex A and sides AB and AC, ~ ~
The angle in Figure 1 has vertex A and sides AB and AC, It is denoted by L BAC or L.. CAB or simply L A. When three
letters are used, the middle letter is always the vertex, In Figure 2 we would not use the notation LA as an abbreviation for L
BAC because it could also mean L CAD or L BAD, We could however use the si."llpler name z.. x for L BAC if "x" is marked
in as shown, D C 8 Figure 2, ,L... BAC may also be denoted by L.. x, 9
Angles can be measured with an instrument called a protractor. The unit of measurement is called a degree and the symbol for
degree is . o

To measure an angle, place the center of the protractor (often marked with a cross or a small circle) on the vertex of the angle,
Position the protractor so that one side of the angle cuts across 0, at the beginning of the scale, and so that the other side cuts
across a point further up on the scale, We use either the upper scale or the lower scale, whichever is more convenient, For
example, in Figure 3, one side of ∠BAC crosses 0 on the lower scale and the other side crosses 50 on the lower scale. The
measure of ∠BAC is therefore 50° and we write ∠BAC = 50°.
, C I,' A~--- ------ oo
Figure 3. The protractor shows L BAC = 50°. ~
In Figure 4, side AD of ∠DAC crosses 0 on the upper scale. Therefore we look on the upper scale for the point at which AC
crosses and conclude that ∠DAC = 130 . o

10 A ' ,, D 0 oc: 0 oo - C, •- - -------0- D 1

Figure 4. L DAC = 130°.
EXAMPLE A. Draw an 0 angle of 40 and label it L BAC. ~
Solution:
Draw ray AB using a straight edge: A B --t Place the protractor so that its center coincides with A and AB crosses the scale at
0: A : -o------ ------ 11 0 Mark the place on the protractor corresponding to 40, Label this point C: 9o Cfv ---- 0~ tao B Connect
A with C: c/ / I' • / / / / /' A / / -----------------~ Two angles are said to be eq_ual if they have the same measure in degrees, We
often indicate two angles are equal by marki.>J.g them in the same way, In Figure 5, LA= LB, A 8 ?igcU"e 5, Squal angles, 12
An angle bisector is a ray which divides an angle into two equal angles, In Figure 6, AC is an angle bisector of LBAD, We
also say AC bisects L BAD.
....,,....,,.___ ~
Figure 6. AC bisects L. BAD.
~ ExamplUMPLE
B • Find x if AC bisects L BAD and L BAD= 80°: C X 0 8 A
Solution: x 0 = ½LBAD = ½(80°) = 40°. Answer: x = 40, ~ '
EXAMPLE C
Find x if AC bisects LBAD: C G 13
Solution
4- BAC 1 X 2 ( 2) z x: 2 7x 7x - 6x X Check : L BAG ,.., r 0 2 X = L CAD J x .,.. r::., = ..I = (2) (3x + 5) = 6x + 10 = 10 = 10
= L CAD Jx + 50 1 r::., O (10 ) 0 3(10) + ..I 2 .., 0 JO + ~ 35° ..I 35°
Answer: x = 10, 14

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PROBLl!.7'!.S 1 - 6, For each figure, give another name for L. x: 1, 2, A D C 3. 4, C. A 8 X )( [) 0 7 - 16, Measure each of the
indicated angles: 7. 8, A A --~----,.,---7 c., c.. 5. 6, A A D B 1.5 ,.. 9. 10, (:> A A y c... <- 7 B C 11. 12, C B y D \;.I A B A D
C 13. 14. C A f 13 1.5. 16, D D E ( C B C 13 16 17 - 24, Draw and label each angle: 18. L BAC = 400 • 17, L BAC = 30°. 20,
L EFG = 60°. 19. L ABC= 45°, 22. L TIZ = 90°. 21. L RST = 72°. 24, LJKL = 164°, 23. L PQ.sq = 135°. -? 25 - 28, Find x if
AC bisects .L BAil: 25. 26. C D 0 'f-. 0 X A 0 A 28, 27. D A 17 1

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1.3: Angle Classifications

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1.4: Parallel Lines
Two lines are parallel if they do not meet, no matter how far they are extended. The symbol for parallel is ||. In Figure 1.4.1,
↔ ↔
AB II C D. The arrow marks are used to indicate the lines are parallel.

↔
Figure 1.4.1 : AB and C
ˆ
D are parallel.They do not meet no matter how far they are

extended.

↔ ↔
Figure 1.4.1 : EF and GH are not parallel. They meet at
point P .

We make the following assumption about parallel lines, called the parallel postulate:

Theorem 1.4.1 : parallel postulate

Through a point not on a given liine one and only one line can be drawn parallel to the given line.

←−
−
So in Figure 1.4.3, there is exactly one line that can be drawn through C that is parallel to AB

−
−→
Figure 1.4.3 : There is exactly one line that can be drawn through C parallel to AB.

↔
Figure 1.4.4 :  EF  is a transversal.

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A transversal is a line that intersects two other lines at two distinct points. In Figure 4, R⃗  is a transversal. ∠x and ∠x
′
are
↔ ↔
called alternate intertor angles of lines AB and C D. The word "alternate," here, means that the angles are on different sides
↔ ↔
of the transversal, one angle formed with A and the other formed with C D. The word "interior" means that they are between
the two lines. Notice that they form the Ietter % "Z." (Tigure 5). ∠y and ∠y are also altermate intertor angles. They also form
′

a "Z" though It is stretched out and backwards. Viewed from the side, the letter "Z" may also look like an "N."

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1.5: TriangIes

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1.6: Triangle CIassifications

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
2: CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

2.1: THE CONGRUENCE STATEMENT

2.2: THE SAS THEOREM
2.3: THE ASA AND AAS THEOREMS
2.4: PROVING LINES AND ANGLES EQUAL
2.5: ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
2.6: THE SSS THEOREM
We now consider the case where the side of two triangles are known to be of the same length.

2.7: THE HYP-LEG THEOREM AND OTHER CASES

1 7/22/2020
2.1: The Congruence Statement

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2.2: The SAS Theorem

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2.3: The ASA and AAS Theorems

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2.4: Proving Lines and Angles Equal

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2.5: Isosceles Triangles
In Section 1.6, we defined a triangle to be isosceles if two of its sides are equal. Figure 2.5.1 shows an isosceles triangle
ΔABC with AC = BC . In △ABC we say that ∠A is opposite side BC and ∠B is opposite side AC .

Figure 2.5.1 : △ABC is isosceles with AC = BC.

The most important fact about isosceles triangles is the following:

Theorem 2.5.1
If two sides of a triangle are equal the angles opposite these sides are equal

Theorem 2.5.1 means that if AC = BC in ΔABC then ∠A = ∠B .

Example 2.5.1
Add text here.
Solution
Add text here.

In ΔABC if AC = BC then side AB is called the base of the triangle and ∠A and ∠B are called the base angles. Therefore
Theorem 1 is sometimes stated in the following way: "The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal."
Proof of THEOREN 1. Draw CD, the angle bisector of \angleACB (FIgure 2).
The rest of the proof will be presented in double-colunn form. We have given that AC = BC and ∠ACD = ∠BCD . Ne must
prove ∠A = ∠B .

 Statements   Reasons 

AC = 3C  .  1.  Given, ΔABC  is isosceles. 

2. ∠ACD = ∠BCD
2. Given, CD is the angle bisector of LACB.
3. CD = CD
3. Identity.
4. ΔACD ≅ΔBCD
4. SAS = SAS : AC , ∠C , CD of △AC D = 3C, ∠C CD of ΔBCD.
5. ∠A = ∠B
5. Corresponding angles of congruent triangles are equal.

Example 2.5.2
Add text here.
Solution
Add text here.

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In THEOREM 1 we assumed AC = BC and proved ∠A = ∠B . Ne will now assume ∠A = ∠B and prove AC = BC .
When the assumption and conclusion of a statement are interchanged the result is called the converse of the original statement.
THEOREN 2 (the converse of THEOREN 1 ). If two angles of a triangle are equal the sides opposite these angles are equal. In
Figure 2.5.1, if ∠A = ∠B then AC = BC .

Figure 2.5.4 : ∠A = ∠B

Example 2.5.3
Find x :

Solution
∠A = ∠B so x = AC = BC = 9 by THEOREN 2
Answer
x =9 .

Proof of THEOREM 2 : Draw CD the angle bisector of LACB (Figure 2.5.5). We have ∠ACD = ∠BCD and ∠A = ∠B . We
must prove AC = BC

The following two theorems are corrollaries (immediate consequences) of the two preceding theorems:

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2.6: The SSS Theorem
We now consider the case where the side of two triangles are known to be of the same length.

Theorem 2.6.1 : SSS or Side-Side-Side (SSS) Theorem

Two triangles are congruent if three sides of one are equal respectively to three sides of the other (SSS=SSS).

Theorem 2.6.1 is demonstrated in Figure 2.6.1: if a = d, b = e, and c = f then ΔABC ≅△DEF

Figure 2.6.1 : ΔABC ≅ΔDEF because SSS=SSS.

Example 2.6.1
Find x, y, z :

Solution
AB = 7 = DF . Therefore ∠C, the angle opposite AB must correspond to ∠E, the angle opposite DF. In the same way ∠A
corresponds to ∠F and ∠B corresponds to ∠D. We have ΔABC ≅△FDE by SSS = SSS , so
0 ∘
x = ∠D = ∠B = 44
0 ∘
y = ∠F = ∠A = 57
0 ∘
z = ∠E = ∠C = 79

Answer
x = 44, y = 57, z = 79

proof
In Figure 1, place ΔABC and ΔDEF so that their longest sides coincide, in this case AB and DE. This can be done
because AB = c = r = DE. Now draw C F , forming angles 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Figure 2 ). The rest of the proof will be
presented in double-column form:

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 Figure 2.6.2 : Place ΔABC and ΔDEF so that AB and DE coincide and draw CF.
asiman Reasons
1. L = L1 2

1. The base angles of tsosceles triangle CAF are equal (THEOREN 1, section 2.5 ).
2. ∠3 = ∠4
2. The base angles of isosceles triangle C BF are equal.
3. ∠C = ∠F

3. ∠C = ∠1 + ∠3 = ∠2 + ∠4 = ∠F

4. AC = DF

4. Given, AC = b = e = DF
5. BC = EF
5. Given, BC = a = d = EF
6. ΔABC ≜ △DEF
6. SAS = SAS . AC, ∠C , BC of △ABC = DF

∠F , EF of ΔDEF

Example 2.6.2
Given AB = DE, BC = EF , and AC = DF , Prove ∠C = ∠F

Solution
1, AB = DE

1. Given.
2. BC = EF
2. Given.
3. AC = DF
3. Given.

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 4. ΔABC ≅△DEF
4. sss = sss : AB, BC , AC of ΔABC = DE

EF, DF of \Delta DEF.

5. ∠c =

∠F

5. Corresponding angles of congruent triangles are equal.

Application: Triangular Bracing

The SSS Theorem is the basis of an important principle of construction engineering called triangular bracing. Imagine the
line segments in Figure 2.6.3 to be beans of wood or steel joined at the endpoints by nails or screws. If pressure is applied
to one of the sides, ABC D will collapse and look like A B c D . ′ ′ ′ ′

Figure 2.6.3 : ABC D collapses into A B C D , when pressure is applied.

′ ′ ′ ′

Now suppose points A and C are joined by a new beam, called a brace (Figure 2.6.4). The structure will not collapse as
long as the beans remain unbroken and joined together. It is impossible to deform ABC D into any other shape A B C D ′ ′ ′ ′

because 1f AB = A B , BC = B C , and AC = A C then ΔABC would be congruent to ΔA B C

′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
by SSS=SSS. ′ ′ ′

Figure 2.6.4 : ABCD cannot collapse into A B C ′ ′ ′ ′

D as long as the beams
remain unbroken and Jotned together.
We sometimes say that a triangle is a rigid figure; once the sides of a triangle are fixed the angles cannot be changed. Thus
in Figure 2.6.4, the shape of △ABC cannot be changed as 10ng as the lengths of Its sides remain the same.

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2.7: The Hyp-Leg Theorem and Other Cases
We give one more reason for two triangles to be congruent. Note that the following reason applies to right triangles only:

Theorem 2.7.1 : (Hypotenuse- Leg Theorem).

Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and a leg of one triangle are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and a
leg of the other triangle (Hyp-Leg = Hyp-Leg)

In Figure 1, if AB = DE and BC = BF then △ABC ≅△DEF .

Figure 1: \(\Delta A B C \cong \triangle D E F \text { because Hyp-Leg }=\text { Hyp-Leg. }

Example 2.7.1
Find x and y :

Solution
The hypotenuse of △ABC = AB = hypotenuse of △DBF = DF and a leg of ΔABC = AC = a leg of ΔDEF = DE.
Therefore ΔABC ≅△DFE by Hyp-Leg = Hyp-Leg. So x = ∠A = ∠D = 44 and y = ∠B = ∠F = 46
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘

Answer: x = 44, y = 46

Proof of THEOREN 1: In Figure 1, place △ DEF so that BC and EF coincide (see Figure 2). Then ∠AC D = 180 so AD is ∘

a straight line
segment. △ABD is isosceles with AB = DE. Therefore ∠A = ∠D because they are the base angles of isosceles triangle
ABD (TMEOREM 1, section
2.5). Then △ABC ≅△DEF by AAS = AAS.

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Figure 2. Place △DEF so that BC and BF coincide.

Example 2.7.1
Given AC = BC , C D ⊥ AB . Prove AD = BD .

Solution
 Statenents   Reasons 

1. Given 

1. AC = BC
2. CD = CD
2. Identıty.
3. ∠ADC = ∠BDC = 90 ∘

3. Given CD ⊥ AB .
4. △ACD ≅△BCD .
4. Hyp-Leg = Hyp-Leg: Hyp AC, Leg CD of △ACD = HypBD, Leg CD of △BCD
5. AD = BD
5. Corresponding sides of congruent triangles are equal.

At this point the student might be ready to conclude that two triangles are congruent whenever any three corresponding sides
or angles are equal. However this is not true in the following two cases:
1. There may be two triangles that are not congruent but have two equal sides and an equal unincluded angle (SSA = SSA).
In Figure 3, AC = DF , BC = BF , and ∠A = ∠D but none of the other angles or sides are equal.

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 Figure 3: These two triangles satisfy 5SA = 5SA but are not congruent.
2. There are many triangles that are not congruent but have the same three angles (AAA = AAA)
In Figure 4, the corresponding angles are equal but the corresponding sides are not.

Figure 4. These triangles satisfy AAA = AAA but are not congruent.
If AAA = AAA the triangles are sald to be similar. Similar triangles are discussed in Chapter IV.

Example 2.7.1
Determine if the triangles are congruent. If so write the congruence statement and find x.

Solution
Solution: From the diagram AC = BC , C D = C D, and ∠A = ∠B These are the only pairs of sides and angles which can
be proven equal. ∠A is not included between sides AC and C D and ∠B is not included between sides BC and CD.
Therefore we have only SSA = SSA. We cannot conclude the triangles are congruent and we cannot find x.
Answer: The triangles cannot be proven congruent.

Summary
Valid Reasons for Congruence Invalid Reasons for Congruence SAS = SAS SSA = SSA

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ASA = ASA
AAA = AAA

AAS = AAS
sss = sss
Hyp-Leg = Hyp-Leg (right triangles only)

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
3: QUADRILATERALS

3.1: PARALLELOGRAMS
3.2: OTHER QUADRILATERALS

1 7/22/2020
3.1: Parallelograms
A polygon is a figure formed by line segments which bound a portion of the plane (Figure 3.1.1), The bounding line segments
are called the sides of the polygon, The angles formed by the sides are the angles of the polygon and the vertices of these
angles are the vertices of the polygon, The simplest polygon is the triangle, which has 3 sides, In this chapter we will study the
quadrilateral, the polygon with 4 sides (Figure 3.1.2). Other polygons are the pentagon (5 sides), the hexagon (6 sides), the
octagon (8 sides), and the decagon (10 sides).

Figure 3.1.1 : A polygon Figure 3.1.2 : A quadrilateral Figure 3.1.3 : A parallelogram.

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel (Figure 3.1.3). To discover its properties, we will
draw a diagonal, a line connecting the opposite vertices of the parallelogram. In Figure 4, AC is a diagonal of parallelogram
ABC D . We will now prove ΔABC ≅ΔC DA .

Figure 3.1.4 : Diagonal AC divides parallelogram ABC D into two congruent triangles.
Statements Reasons
1. Li = L2. 1, The alternate interior angles of parallel lines AB and CD are equal,
2. L 3 = L4. 2, The alternate interior angles of :parallel lines BC and AD are equal, J. AC= AC, J. Identity,
4, ~ ABC V\ .i6.CDA, 4, AS.A= ASA, 5. AB= CD, BC= DA,
5. The corresponding sides of congruent triangles are equal, 6, LB= LD.
6, The corresponding angles of congruent triangles are equal,
7. L A = LC. 7, L A = L 1 + L J = L 2 + L 4 = L C ( Add statements 1 and 2),
We have proved the following theorem:

Theorem 3.1.1
The opposite sides and opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.

In parallelogram ABC D of Figure 3.1.4, AB = C D , AD = BC , ∠A = ∠C , and ∠B = ∠D.

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 Figure 3.1.4 : The opposite sides and opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
Example 3.1.1
Find x, y, rands: s Jo 0 110 B
Solution
By THEOREM 1, the opposite sides and opposite angles are 0 0 6 0 equal. Hence x = 120° , y = 0, r = 15, ands= 10,
Answer: x = 120, y = 60, r = 15, s = 10,

Example 3.1.2
Find x, y, x and s :

Solution
w = 115 since the opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal, x 0 = 180° - (w0 + 30°) = 180° - (115° + 30°) = 180° -
145° = J 5°, because the sum of the angles of b. ABC is 180°, y 0 = 30° and 0 0 z = x = 35° because they are alternate
interior angles of parallel lines, Answer: w = 115, x = z = 35, y = JO.

Example 3.1.3
Find x, y, and z:
D C /:J.00 XO ,A 13
Solution
x = 120 and y = z because the opposite angles are equal, LA and L D are supplementary J because they are interior angles
on the same side of the transversal of parallel lines (they form the letter "C." THEOREM J, section 1,4),
Answer
x = 120, y = z = 60 , 134

In EXAMPLE C, LA and LB, LB and LC, LC and L D, and LD and LA are called the successive angles of parallelogram
ABC D , EXAMPLE C ---~ suggests the following theorem:

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 Theorem 3.1.2
The successive angles of a parallelogram are supplementary.

In Figure 6,
LA+ LB= LB+ LC= LC+ LD = _lD +LA= 180°, D C r-------;i>-------~· /JOO 60° l:20° /1 6
Figure 6, The successive angles of parallelogram ABCD are supplementary.

Example 3.1.4
EXAMPLE D.
Find x, LA, LB, LC, and LD. D C ::ix+ 3o 0 x~ A 6 135 Solution: LA and L D are supplementary by THEOREM 2, LA+
LD = 180° X + 2x + 30 = 180 3x + 30 = 180 3x = 180 - JO 3x = 150 X = 50 LA = X 0 = 50°. LC = /.. A = 50°. LD = 2x +
30° = 2(50) + 30° = 100 + 30° = 130°. LB = LD = 130°. Check: LA+ L D X + 2X + 30 50 + 2(50) + 30 50 + 130 180
Answer: X = 50, A = 50°, B = 180° = 130°, C = 50°, D = 130°.
Suppose now that both diagonals of parallelogram are drawn (Figure 7): D C.
Figure 7. Parallelogn..m ABCD with diagonals AC and 3D. iiie have L 1 = L 2 and L 3 = L4 (both pairs of angles are
alternate interior angles of parallel lines AB and CD), Also AB= CD from THEOREM 1, Therefore 136 D. ABE ::::, ~
CDE by ASA = ASA,
Since corresponding sides of congruent triangles are equal, AE = CE and DE= BE, We have proven:

Example 3.1.5
THEOREM J, The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other (cut each other in half), In parallelogram ABCD of
Figure 8, AE = CE and BE= DS, D c.. Figure 8, The diagonals of parallelogram ABCD bisect each other,

Example 3.1.6
EXAMPLE E, Find x, y, AC, and BD: i) C A B Solution: By THEOREM 3 the diagonals bisect each other, X = 7 y = 9
AC = 9 + 9 = 18, BD = 1 /.J, 7 + 7 = . '. Answer: X = 7, y = 9, AC = 18 , 3D = 14. 137

Example 3.1.7
EXAMPLE F. Find x, y, AC, and BD: D C A B
Solution
By THEOREM 3 the diagonals bisect each other. AE ... CE BE = DE X = 2y + 1 2x - y = X + 2y X - 2y = 1 2x - y - X -
2y = 0 X - Jy = 0 X - 2y = 1 X - 2y = 1 -1 X - Jy = 0 -x + Jy = 0 y = 1 X = 2y + 1 = 2(1) + 1 = 3
Check: AE = CE BE = DE X 2y + 1 2x - y X + 2y 3 2(1) + 1 2(3) - 1 3 + 2(1) 3 5 5 AC = AE + CE = 3 + 3 = 6. BD =
BE+ DE = 5 + 5 = 10.
Answer: X = 1.., , y -- ~ ..:. ' AC= 6, BD = 10. 138

Example 3.1.8
EXAMPLE G, Find x, y, LA, LB, LC, and LD: D C ISX-5 ° '+y+ra 0 JJy-:i C A B
Solution
By Theorem 3.1.2, LA+ LB = 180° and LC+ LD 4y + 6 + 12y - 2 = 180 6x - 4 + 15x - 5 16y + 4 = 180 21x - 9 16y = 180
- 4 21x 16y = 176 21x y = 11 X Check: LA + LB = 180° LC + L D 4y + 6 + 12y - 2 6x - 4 + 15x - 5 4(11) + 6 + 12(11) -
2 6(9) - 4 + 15(9) - 5 50° + 130° 50° + 130° 180° 180°
Answer

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 · x = 9, y = 11 , L A = LC = 500 , LB = L D = = 180°, = 180 = 180 = 180 + 9 = 189 = 9 = 180° 1300 , 139

Problems
For each of the following state any theorems used in obtaining your answer(s):
1. Find x, Y, r, and s: 2, Find x, Y, r, and s: 0 ~ C D '+ C 'tOO 'f5c I't-0° x" r 4 XO Ye s A s B 'lo 135"' A r 8 J. Find w, x, y, and
z: u, Find w, x, y, and z: D C. D G /JO'° A B 5. Find x, y, and z: 6, Find x, y, and z: D C D r---------r------c /J.O' 1 X A 140
7. Find x, i..A, LB, LC, and LD: 8. Find x, LA, LB, LC, and L D: D C Xf !f-o B 9. Find x, y, AC, and BD·:
10, Find x, y, AC, and BD: D C .,------+--------,, (3 A 8 A 11, Find x, AB, and CD: 12, Find x, AD, and BC: D C 0 C C A 8 A
13 A B 141
13. Find x, y, AB, BC, CD, and AD:
14, Find x, y, AB, BC, CD, and AD: D 4-X- 3 C D d_ x-1 C .----------~ A X+ 3/ 8 A 3'X+~ 8
15. Find x, y, AC, and BD: 16, Find x, y, AC, and BD: () C fl 8
17. :<'ind x, Y, and L D: L A, LB, LC, 18. Find x, Y, and L D: L A, L B, LC, D 7x. 0 3y t IC 0 C () 0 /Oy - 100 y+5 a C A 0 :rx
r, /O y t-4-0 P:, A x-10 0 0 4X- /C /3 142

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3.2: Other Quadrilaterals
In this section we will consider other quadrilaterals with special properties: the rhombus, the rectangle, the square, and the
trapezoid.

The Rhombus

Figure 3.2.1 : A rhombus. Figure 3.2.2 : A rhombus with diagonals.

A rhombus is a parallelogram in which all sides are equal (Figure 3.2.1). It has all the properties of a parallelogram plus some
additional ones as well. Let us draw the diagonals AC and BD (Figure 3.2.2). By Theorem 3 of section 3.1, the diagonals
bisect each other. Hence △ADE ≅△CDE ≅△CBE ≅△ABE by SSS= SSS. The corresponding angles of the congruent
triangles are equal,

∠1 = ∠2 = ∠3 = ∠4

∠5 = ∠6 = ∠7 = ∠8,

and

∠9 = ∠10 = ∠11 = ∠12.

∠9 and ∠10 are supplementary in addition to being equal, hence

∘
∠9 = ∠10 = ∠11 = ∠12 = 90 .

We have proven the following theorem:

Theorem 3.2.1
The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular and bisect the angles. See Figure 3.2.3.

Figure 3.2.3 : The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular and bisect the angles.
Example 3.2.1
Find w, x, y , and z :

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 Solution
ABC D is a rhombus since it is a parallelogram all of whose sides equal 6. According to Theorem 3.2.1, the diagonals
are perpendicular and bisect the angles. Therefore w = 40 since AC bisects ∠BAD. ∠AED = 90 so
∘ ∘ ∘

∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
x = 180 − (90 + 40 ) = 180 − 130 = 50

(i.e., the sum of the angles of SAED is 180 ). Finally y

∘ ∘
=w
∘ ∘
= 40 (conpare with Figure 3.2.3) and z ∘ ∘
=x = 50
∘
.
Answer
w = 40, x = 50, y = 40, z = 50

Figure 3.2.4 shows rhombus ABC D of Example 3.2.1 with all its angles identified.

Figure 3.2.4 : The rhombus of Example 3.2.1 with all angles identified.

The Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram in which all the angles are right angles (Figure 3.2.5). It has all the properties of a parallelogram
plus some additional ones as well. It is not actually necessary to be told that all the angles are right angles:

Figure 3.2.5 : A rectangle.

Figure 3.2.6 : A parallelogram with just one right angle must also be a
rectangle.
h
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 Theorem 3.2.2
A parallelogram with just one right angle must be a rectangle.

In Figure 3.2.6 if ∠A is a right angle then all the other angles must be right angles too.

Proof
In Figure 3.2.6, ∠C = ∠A = 90 because the opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal (Theorem , section 3.1).
∘

∠B = 90 and ∠D = 90 because the successive angles of a parallelogram are supplementary (Theorem 2, section 3.1 ).
∘ ∘

Example 3.2.1
Find x and y :

Solution
Theorem 3.2.2, ABC D is a rectangle. x 0
= 40
∘
because alternate interior angles of parallel lines AB and C D must be
equal. Since the figure is a rectangle:
∘
∠BC D = 90

and
0 ∘ 0 ∘ ∘ ∘
y = 90 −x = 90 − 40 = 50 .

Answer
x = 40, y = 50

Let us draw the diagonals of rectangle ABC D (Figure 3.2.7).

Figure 3.2.4 : Rectangle wIth diagonals drawn.

We will show ΔABC ≅ΔBAD . AB = BA because of identity. ∠A = ∠B = 90 . BC = AD because the opposite sides
∘

of a parallelogram are equal. Then △ABC ≅△BAD by SAS = SAS . Therefore diagonal AC = diagonal BD because
they are corresponding sides of congruent triangles. We have proven:

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 Example 3.2.3
Find w, x, y , z , AC and BD:

Solution
x =3 because the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. So AC = 3 + 3 = 6 . BD = AC = 6 since the
diagonals of a rectangle are equal (THEOREN 3). Therefore y = z = 3 since diagonal BD is bisected by diagonal AC .
Answer
x =y =z =3 and AC = BD = 6 .

Example 3.2.4
Find w, x, y , and z :

Solution
x
0 ∘
= 35 ,because alternate interior angles of parallel lines are equal. y = x = 35 because they are base angles of
∘ ∘ ∘

isosceles triangle ABE so (AE= BE\) because the diagonals of a rectangle are equal and bisect each other).
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
z = 180 − (x + y ) = 180 − (35 + 35 ) = 180 − 70 = 110 .

Figure 3.2.8 shows rectangle ABC D with all the angles identified.
Answer
x = y = z = 3, AC = BD = 6 .

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 Figure 3.2.8 : The rectangle of Example 3.2.4 with all the angles identified.

The Square
A square is a rectangle with all its sides equal. It is therefore also a rhombus. So it has all the properties of the rectangle and
all the properties of the rhombus.

Figure 3.2.9 : A square. Figure 3.2.10 : A trapezoid.

The Trapezoid
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with two and only two sides parallel. The parallel sides are called bases and the other two
sides are called legs. In Figure 3.2.8 AB and C D are the bases and AD and BC are the legs. ∠A and ∠B are a pair of base
angles. ∠C and ∠D are another pair of base angles.
An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid in which the legs are equal. In Figure ,
3.2.8 ABC D is an isosceles trapezoid with
AD = 3C . An isosceles trapezoid has the following property:

Theorem 3.2.4
The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are equal. In Figure 3.2.11, ∠A = ∠B and ∠C = ∠D

Figure 3.2.11 : An isosceles trapezoid

Example 3.2.5
Find x, y, and z :

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 Solution
x
0
= 55
∘
because ∠A and ∠B, the base angles of isosceles trapezoid ABC D, are equal. Now the interior angles of
parallel lines on the same side of the transversal are supplementary (THEOREN 3 section 1.4). Therefore
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
y = 180 −x = 180 − 55 = 125

and
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
z = 180 − 55 = 125

Answer
x = 55 and y = z = 125

Proof of Theorem 3.2.4

Draw DE parallel to C B as in Figure 3.2.12. ∠1 = ∠B because corresponding angles of parallel lines are equal.
DE = BC because they are the opposite sides of parallelogram 3CDE Therefore AD = DE . So △ADE is isosceles
and Its base angles, ∠A and ∠1, are equal. We have proven A = ∠1 = ∠B . To prove ∠C = ∠D, observe that they are
both supplements of ∠A = ∠B (THEDREN 3 , section 1.4)

Figure 3.2.12 : Draw DE parallel to C B.

The isosceles trapezoid has one additional property:

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
4: SIMILAR TRIANGLES

4.1: PROPORTIONS
In our discussion of similar triangles the idea of a proportion will play an important role. In this
section we will review the important properties of proportions.

4.2: SIMILAR TRIANGLES

4.3: TRANSVERSALS TO THREE PARALLEL LINES
4.4: PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
4.5: SPECIAL RIGHT TRIANGLES
4.6: DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A LINE

1 7/22/2020
4.1: Proportions
In our discussion of similar triangles the idea of a proportion will play an important role. In this section we will review the
important properties of proportions.
A proportion is an equation which states that two fractions are equal. For example, = 2

6
is a proportion. We sometimes
4

12

say "2 is to 6 as 4 is to 12." This is also written 2 : 6 = 4, 12 . The extremes of this proportion are the numbers 2 and 12 and
the means are the numbers 6 and 4. Notice that the product of the means 6 × 4 = 24 is the same as the product of the
extremes 2 × 12 = 24 .

Theorem 4.1.1
If
a c
=
b d

then ad = be . Conversely, if ad = bc then

a c
= .
b d

(The product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes).

EXAMPLES:
2

6
=
4

12
and 2 × 12 = 6 × 4 are both true.
2

3
=
6

9
and 2 × 9 = 3 × 6 are both true.
1

4
=
4

12
and 1 × 12 = 4 × 4 are both false.

Proof
If a

b
=
c

d
, multiply both stdes of the equation by bd:
a c
( b d) = (b d )
b d

We obtain

ad = be.

Conversely, if ad = bc , divide both stides of the equation by ba:

ax xc
=
by yd

The result is a

b
=
c

The following theorem shows that we can interchange the means or the extremes or both of them simultaneously and still have
a valid proportion:

Theorem 4.1.2
If one of the following is true then they are all true:
1. a

b
=
c

2. a

c
=
b

3. d

b
=
c

4. d

c
=
b

EXAMPLES:

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 2

6
=
4

12
and 2 × 12 = 6 × 4 are both true.
2

3
=
6

9
and 2 × 9 = 3 × 6 are both true.
1

4
=
4

12
and 1 × 12 = 4 × 4 are both false.

Proof
If any one of these proportions is true then ad = bc by Theorem 4.1.1 . The remaining proportions can then be obtained
from ad = be by division, as in Theorem 4.1.1.

EXAMPLE: =
2

6
,
4

12
2

4
=
6

12
,
12

6
=
4

2
,
12

4
=
6

2
are all
true because 2 × 12 = 6 × 4 .
The process of converting a proportion = to the equivalent equation
2

6
4

12
2 × 12 = 6x4 is sometimes called cross
multiplication. The idea is conveyed by the following notation:

Example 4.1.1
Find x : 3

x
=
4

20

Solution
By "cross multiplication,"
3(20) = x(4)

60 = 4x

15 = x

Check
3 3 1
= = (4.1.1)
x 15 5

4 1
= (4.1.2)
20 5

Answer
x = 15 (4.1.3)

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4.2: Similar Triangles
Two triangles are said to be similar if they have equal sets of angles. In Figure 1, △ABC is similar to △DEF . The angles
which are equal are called corresponding angles. In Figure 1, ∠A corresponds to ∠D, ∠B corresponds to ∠E, and ∠C
corresponds to ∠F. The sides joining corresponding vertices are called corresponding sides. In Figure 1, AB corresponds to
DE, BC corresponds to EF, and AC corresponds to DF. The symbol for similar is ⌣. The similarity statement
△ABC ∼ △DEF will always be written so that corresponding vertices appear in the same order.

For the triangles in Figure 1 , we could also write △BAC ⌣ △BDF or △ACB ∼ ΔDFE but never ΔABC ∼ ΔEDF nor
△ACB ∼ △DEF

Figure 1. △ABC is similar to △DEF .

We can tell which sides correspond from the similarity statement. For example, if ΔABC ∼ ΔDEF , then side AB
corresponds to side DE because both are the first two letters. BC corresponds to EF because both are the last two letters, AC
corresponds to DF because both consist of the first and last letters.

Example 4.2.1
Determine if the triangles are similar, and if so, write the similarity statement:

Solution
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
∠C = 180 − (65 + 45 ) = 180 − 110 = 70 (4.2.1)

∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
∠D = 180 − (65 + 45 ) = 180 − 110 = 70 (4.2.2)

Therefore both triangles have the same angles and ΔABC ⌣ ΔEFD .
Answer:
△ABC ∼ △EFD (4.2.3)

Example A suggests that to prove similarity it is only necessary to know that two of the corresponding angles are equal:
THEOREM 1 . Two triangles are similar if two angles of one equal two angles of the other (AA = AA)
In Figure 2, ΔABC ∼ △DEF because ∠A = ∠D and ∠B = ∠E
Proof:

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 ∘ ∘
∠C = 180 − (∠A + ∠B) = 180 − (∠D + ∠E) = ∠F

Figure 2: △ABC ⌣ △DEF because AA = AA

Example 4.2.1
Determine which triangles are similar and write a similarity statement:

Solution
∠A = ∠CDE because they are corresponding angles of parallel lines, ∠C = ∠C because of tdentity. Therefore
ΔABC ∼ ΔDEC by AA = AA
Answer
△ABC ∼ △DEC (4.2.4)

Example 4.2.1
Determine which triangles are similar and write a similarity statement:

Solution

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 ∠A = ∠A identity. ∠AC B = ∠ADC = 90
∘
. Therefore

Also ∠B = ∠B , identity, ∠BDC = ∠BC A = 90 .

∘
Therefore

Answer
△ABC ∼ ΔACD ⌢ △CBD

Similar triangIes are important because of the following theorem:

THEOREM 2 . The corresponding stdes of similar triangles are proportional. This means that If ΔABC ∼ ΔDEF then
AB BC AC
= = (4.2.5)
DE EF DF

That is, the first two Ietters of ΔABC are to the first two Ietters of △DEF as the last two Ietters of △ABC are to the Iast
two Ietters of ΔDEF as the first and Iast Ietters of ΔABC are to the first and Iast Ietters of △DEF
Before attempting to prove THECREN 2 , we wIII glve several examples of how it is used:

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4.3: Transversals to Three Parallel Lines

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4.4: Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the sides of the right angle are called the legs of the triangle and the remaining side is called the
hypotenuse. In Figure 4.4.1, side AC and BC are the legs and side AB is the hypotenuse.

Figure 4.4.1: A right triangle.

The following is one of the most famous theorems in mathematics.

Theorem 4.4.1 : Pythagorean Theorem

In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs. That is,
2 2 2
leg + leg =  hypotenuse  (4.4.1)

In Figure 1, a 2
+b
2
=c
2

Before we prove Theorem 4.4.1, we will give several examples.

Example 4.4.1
Find x

Solution
2 2 2
leg + leg = ln yp
2 2 2
3 +4 =x
2
9 + 16 = x
2
25 = x

5 =x

Check

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 2 2 2
leg + leg = ln yp

2 2 2
3 +4 x

2
9 + 16 5

25 25

Answer
x =5

Example 4.4.2
Find x

Solution
2 2 2
leg + log = ln y
2 2 2
5 +x = 10
2
25 + x = 100
2
x = 75
−− −− – –
x = √75 = √25√3 = 5 √3

Check
2 2 2
1 eg + 1 eg = hyp

2 2 2
5 +x 10
– 2
25 + (5 √3) 100
–
25 + 25 √9 100 (4.4.2)

25 + 25(3)

25 + 75

100

Answer
–
x = 5 √3

Example 4.4.3
Find x

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 Solution
2 2 2
leg + leg = hyp
2 2 2
5 +5 =x
2
25 + 25 = x
2
50 = x
−− −− – –
x = √50 = √25√2 = 5 √2

Check
2 2 2
leg +1 eg = ln yp

2 2 2
5 +5 x
– 2
25 + 25 (5 √2)
–
50 25 ⋅ √4 (4.4.3)

25(2)

50

Answer
–
x = 5 √2

Example 4.4.4
Find x

Solution
Add text here.

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 2 2 2
 Solution:  1 eg + leg = hyp

2 2 2
x + (x + 1 ) = (x + 2)

2 2 2
x +x + 2x + 1 =x + 4x + 4

2 2 2
x +x +1 −x − 4x − 4 =0
(4.4.4)
2
x − 2x − 3 =0

(x − 3)(x + 1) =0

x−3 = 0 x+1 = 0

x =3 x = −1

Ne reject x = −1 because AC =x cannot be negative.

Check: x = 3
2 2 2
1 eg + 1 eg = hyp

2 2 2
x + (x + 1 ) (x + 2)

2 2 2
3 + (3 + 1 ) (3 + 2)

2 2
9 +4 5

9 + 16 25

25

Answer
x =3

We wIII now restate and prove THEOREN 1 :

THEOREN 1 (Pythagorean Theorem). In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
legs. That is,
2 2 2
leg + leg =  hypotenuse  (4.4.5)

In FIgure 1
2 2 2
a +b =c (4.4.6)

Figure 1 . A right triangle. FIgure 2. Draw CD perpendicular to Aß.

Proof: In Figure 1, draw CD perpendicular to AB. Let x = AD. Then

BD = c − x( Figure 2). As in EXANPLE C, section 4.2, ΔABC ⌢ ΔACD and

ΔABC ∼ ΔCBD . From these two stinilarities we obtain two proportions:

△ABC ⌢ ΔACD

ΔABC ∼ ΔCBD
AB AC AB BC
= =
AC AD CB BD

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1

1
2 2
ex = b c(c − x) = a
2 2
c − cx = a
2 2 2
c −b =a
2 2 2
c =a +b

The converse of the Pythagorean Theorem also holds:

THEORIN 2 (converse of the Pythagorean Theorem). In a triangle, if the square of one side is equal to the sun of the squares
of the other two sides then the triangle is a right triangle.
In Figure 3, if c 2 2
=a +b
2
then ΔABC is a right triangle with ∠C ∘
= 90 .

Figure 3. If c
2
=a
2
+b
2
then ∠C = 90
∘

Proof: Draw a new triangle, Δ DEF, so that ∠F = 90 , d = a, and e = b (Figure 4 ). Δ DEF is a right triangle, so by
∘

THEOREN 1, f = d + e . We have f = d + e = a + b = c and therefore f = c. Therefore

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

ΔABC ≅△DEF because sss = ss. Therefore ∠C = ∠F = 90

∘

Figure 4 . Given ΔABC, draw Δ DET so that ∠ z̄ ∘

= 90 , d = a and e = b

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4.5: Special Right Triangles
There are two kinds of right triangle which deserve special attention:
the 30 ∘ ∘
− 60
∘
− 90 right triangle and
the 45 ∘ ∘
− 45
∘
− 90 right triangle.

The 30°-60°-90° Triangle

A triangle whose angles are 30 , 60 , and
∘ ∘
90
∘
is called a ∘
30 − 60
∘ ∘
− 90 triangle. Δ ABC in Figure 4.5.1 is a
∘ ∘
30 − 60 − 90 triangle with side AC = 1 .
∘

Figure 4.5.1 : A ∘
30 − 60
∘
− 90
∘
Figure 4.5.2 : Draw BD and CD.
triangIe.

To learn more about this triangle let us draw lines BD and CD as in Figure 4.5.2. ΔABC ≅△DBC by ASA = ASA so
AC = DC = 1. \DeltaABD is an equiangular triangle so all the stáes must be equal to 2.. Therefore AB = 2 (Figure 4.5.3).

Figure 4.5.3 : \Delta ABD is equiangular with all sides equal to 2 .

Let x = BC . Let us find x. Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to ΔABC ,
2 2 2
leg + leg = htp
2 2 2
1 +x =2

2
1 +x =4

2
x =3
–
x = √3

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Now suppose we are given another 30 ∘ ∘
− 60
∘
− 90 triangle ΔDEF, with side DF = 8 (Figure 4.5.4). ΔDEF is similar to
ΔABC of Figure 4.5.3 Therefore

DF DE
=
AC AB

8 DE
=
1 2

16 = DE

and
DF EF
\( =
AC BC

8 8 √8
=
1 √3
–
8 √3 = $F

Figure 4.5.4 : Δ DEF is simillar to ΔABC of Figure 3 .

Our conclusions about triangles ABC and DEF suggest the following theorem:
THECREN 1 . In the 30 − 60 − 90 triangle the nypotenuse is always twice as large as the leg opposite the 30 angle (the
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘

–
shorter leg). The leg opposite the 60 angle (the longer leg) is always equal to the shorter leg tines √3.
∘

Figure 4.5.5 : The hypotenuse is twice the shorter leg and the longer leg is equal
–
to the shorter leg times the √3.
In Figure 5, s = shorter leg, L = longer leg, and hyp = hypotenuse. THEOREN 1 says that and 11
 hyp  = 2s
– .
L = s√3

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Note that the longer leg is always the leg opposite (furthest anay from) the 60
∘
angle and the shorter leg is always the leg
opposite (furthest away from) the 30 angle.
∘

Figure 4.5.6 : Δ DEF is simillar to ΔABC of Figure 3 .

stuff

The 45°-45°-90° Triangle

The second special triangle we will consider is the 45 − 45 − 90 " triangle. A triangle whose angles are 45 , 45 , and 90
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘

is called a 45 − 45 − 90 triangle or an isosceles right triangle. ΔAsc in Figure 4.5.6 is a 45 − 45 − 90 " triangle
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘

with.
side AC = 1

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4.6: Distance from a Point to a Line
↔
Suppose we are given a point P and a line AB as in Figure 4.6.1. We would like to find the shortest line segment that can be
drawn from P to AB.

Figure 4.6.1 : Point P and Line AB.

First we will prove a theorem:

Theorem 4.6.1
In a right triangle the hypotenuse is larger than either leg. In Figure ,
4.6.1 c > a and c >b . (The symbol ">" means "is
greater than.")

Figure 4.6.2 : c is larger than either a or b .

Proof: By the Pythagorean Theorem,

−−−−−− −−
2 2 2
c = √a + b > √a = a
−−−−−− −− (4.6.1)
2 2 2
c = √a + b > √b = b

Now we can give the answer to our question:

Theorem 4.6.2
The perpendicular is the shortest line segment that can be drawn from a point to a straight line.

↔
In Figure 4.6.3, the shortest line segment from P to AB is P D. Any other line segment, such as P C, must be longer.

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 ↔
Figure 4.6.3 : PD is the shortest line segment from P to AB.
Proof
PC is the hypotenuse of right triangle PCD. Therefore by THEOREM 1, PC > PD

We define the distance from a point to a line to be the length of the perpendicular.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
5: TRIGONOMETRY AND RIGHT TRIANGLES
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships between side lengths and angles
of triangles. A right triangle or right-angled triangle is a triangle in which one angle is a right angle.
The relation between the sides and angles of a right triangle is the basis for trigonometry.

5.1: THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

5.2: SOLUTION OF RIGHT TRIANGLES
5.3: APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY

1 7/22/2020
5.1: The Trigonometric Functions

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5.2: Solution of Right Triangles
In the preceding section we showed that all 30 angles have the same trigonometric values. If we compute each of these values to four decimal places, we obtain
∘

1
∘
sin 30 = = 0.5000,
2
–
√3 1.73205
∘
cos 30 = = = 0.8660,
2 2
–
√3 1.73205
∘
tan 30 = = = 0.5774.
3 3

These numbers appear in the table of trigonometric values on page 356 in the row corresponding to 30 . ∘

As you can see, this table contains the trigonometric values of angles from 1 to 90
∘ ∘
. It is impractical to compute most of these values directly, so we will use this table when we need them, A
pocket calculator with trigonometric functions may also be used.

Example 5.2.1
Find sin 20 ∘ ∘
, cos 20 , and tan 20
∘
.

Solution
Look for 20 in the angle column of the table on page 356 :
∘

If you are using a pocket calculator, first make sure that it is in degree mode. Then type in 20 , followed by the sin, cos, or tan keys.
Answer
∘
sin 20 = 0.3420,

∘
cos 20 = 0.9397,

∘
tan 20 = 0.3640

Example 5.2.2
Find x to the nearest tenth:

Solution
we wish to find the leg opposite 20 and we know the hypotenuse. We use the sine because it is the only one of the three trigonometric functions which involves both the opposite leg and
∘

the hypotenuse.

∘
0opp
sin 20 =
hyp
x
0.3420 =
10
x
(10)(0.3420) = (18)
10

3.420 = x

If you are using a pocket calculator, type

Answer
x = 3.4

Example 5.2.3
Find x to the nearest tenth:

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 Solution
We know the hypotenuse and we wish to find the leg adjacent to ∠A. We therefore use the cosine.
∘
adj
cos 20 =
hyp
x
.9397 =
10

9.397 = x

If you are using a pocket calculator, type

Answer
x = 9.4

Example 5.2.1
Find x to the nearest tenth:

Solution
We know the leg opposite ∠A and we wish to find the leg adjacent to ∠A. We therefore use the tangent.

\begin{aligned*} \tan 20^{\circ} &=\frac{0 \mathrm{opp}}{\mathrm{adj} \mathrm{j}} \\ .3640 &=\frac{10}{\mathrm{x}} \\(\mathrm{x})(.3640) &=\left(\frac{10}{x}\right)(x) \\ .3640 \mathrm{x} &=10 \\ \frac

27.47 is obtained by long division:

If you are using a pocket calculator, type

Answer
x = 27.5

There is an easier method to solve EXANPIE D.

∘ ∘ ∘
∠B = 90 − 20 = 70 (5.2.1)

The leg opposite ∠B is x and the leg adjacent to ∠B is 10 .

∘
000
tan 70 =
adj j
x
2.7475 =
10

(2.7475)(10) = x

27.475 = x

27.5 = x

This method is easier because it involves multiplication rather than long division.

Example 5.2.5
Find x to the nearest tenth:

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Solution
000
∘
sin 14 =
hyp

7
0.2419 =
x

0.2419x = 7

7
x = = 28.9
0.2419

In this case there is no way of avoiding long division.

Answer
x = 28.9

∗ It is possible to avoid long division by introducing tables for the secant and cosecant functions. We will not do so in this book.

Example 5.2.6
Find x to the nearest tenth:

Solution
0 000
sin x =
 hyp 

0 2
sin x = = 0.6667
3

In the table we look in the sine column for the value closest to 0.6667 :
 AngIe   SIne 

. .

∘ (5.2.2)
41 .6561
∘
42 .6691

0.6667 is closest to 0.6691 because. 6691 − .6667 = .0024 whereas. 6667. .6561= .0106. Therefore x ∘ ∘
= 42 , to the nearest degree.
If you are using a pocket calculator, you will need to use the
¯
¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
¯
 INV   sin   or  [2ndF]  sin   or   SHIPT 

on the model of calculator. Type 2[÷]3 , then round to the nearest degree.
[ TNV ][sin]

Answer
x = 42

Example 5.2.7
Find x to the nearest tenth:

Solution
cos v
∘
sin 40 =
ln y
x
⋅6428 =
4
x
(4)(.6428) = (4)
4

2.5712 = x

2.6 = x

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Answer
x = 2.6

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5.3: Applications of Trigonometry
Trigonometry has many applications in science and engineering. In this section we will present just a few examples from
survey lng and navigation.
The angle made by the line of sight of an observer on the ground to a point above the horizontal is called the angle of
elevation. In Figure 1 ∠BAC is the angle of elevation.

Figure 1. The angle of elevation.

Example 5.3.1
EXAMPLE A. At a point 50 feet from a tree the angle of elevation of the top of the tree is 43 . Find the height of the tree to
∘

the nearest tenth of a foot.

Solution
Let x = height of tree.
∘ x
tan 43 =
50

x
.9325 = (5.3.1)
50

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 x
(50)(.9325) = (50)
50

46.6250 = x

46.6 = x

Answer
x = 46.6 feet.

The angle made by the line of sight of an observer above to a point on the ground is called the angle of depression. In FIgure
2∠ABD is the angle of depression.

Figure 2. The angle of depression.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
6: AREA AND PERIMETER
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape in the plane. A
perimeter is a path that encompasses/surrounds a two-dimensional shape. The term may be used
either for the path, or its length—in one dimension. It can be thought of as the length of the outline
of a shape. The perimeter of a circle or ellipse is called its circumference.

6.1: THE AREA OF A RECTANGLE AND SQUARE

The measurement of the area of geometric figures is one of the most familiar ways mathematics is
used in our daily lives. The floor space of a building, the stae of a picture, the amount of paper in a
roll of paper towels are all examples of Items often measured in terms of area. In this chapter we
will derive formulas for the areas of the geometric objects which we have studied.

6.2: THE AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM

6.3: THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
6.4: THE AREA OF A RHOMBUS
6.5: THE AREA OF A TRAPEZOID

1 7/22/2020
6.1: The Area of a Rectangle and Square
The measurement of the area of geometric figures is one of the most familitax ways mathematics is used in our daily lives. The
floor space of a building, the stae of a picture, the amount of paper in a roll of paper towels are all examples of Items often
measured in terms of area. In this chapter we will derive formulas for the areas of the geometric objects which we have
studied.
Area is measured in square inches, square feet, square centimeters, etc. The bastc unit of measurement is the unit square, the
square whose stdes are of Iength 1 (Figure 1 ). Its area Is 1 square inch, 1 square foot, 1 square centimeter, etc., depending on
which measurement of Iength is chosen. The area of any closed figure is defined to be the number of unit squares it contains.

Figure 1. The unit square.

EXANPLE A. Find the area of a rectangle with length 5 and width 3
Solution: We see from the diagram that the area is (5)(3) = 15

Answer: 15
This suggests the following theorem:

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6.2: The Area of a Parallelogram
In parallelogram ABC D of Figure 6.2.1, side AB is called the base and the line segment DE is called the height or altitude.
The base may be any side of the parallelogram, though it is usually chosen to be the side on which the parallelogram appears
to be resting. The height is a line drawn perpendicular to the base from the opposite side.

Figure 6.2.1 : Parallelogram ABC D with base b and height h .

Theorem 6.2.1
The area of a parallelogram is equal to its base times its height.
A = bh (6.2.1)

Proof:
Draw BF and CF as shown in Figure 6.2.1. ∠A = ∠CBF , ∠AED = ∠F = 90 ∘
, and AD = BC . Therefore
ΔADE ≅△BCF and the area of △ ADE equals the area of △BC F . We have:

Area of parallelogram ABC D = Area ofΔADE + Area of trapezoidBC DE

= Area ofΔBC F D +  area of trapezoidBC DE

= Area of rectangleC DEF

= bh

Figure 6.2.2 : Draw BF and C F .

Example 6.2.1
Find the area and perimeter of ABC D:

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 Solution
b = AB = CD = 8, h = 3. Area = bh = (8)(3) = 24 AB = C D = 8. BC = AD = 5. Perimeter
= 8 + 8 + 5 + 5 = 26

Answer
Axea = 24, Perimeter = 26

Example 6.2.2
Find the area and perimeter of ABC D:

Solution
Apply the Pythagorean theorem to right triangle ADE :
2 2 2
AE + DE = AD
2 2 2
2 +h =3
2
4 +h =9
2
h =5
–
h = √5

– –
Area = bh = (8)(√5) = 8√5
Perimeter = 8 + 8 + 3 + 3 = 22
Answer
–
A = 8 √5, P = 22

Example 6.2.1
Find the area and perimeter to the nearest tenth

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 Figure 6.2.3: Draw in helght h.

Solution
To find the area we must first find the height h D C (Figure 3), Using trigonometry
∘ h
sin 40 =
4

(4) .6428 = h

4
(4)

2.5712 = h

Area = bh = (10)(2.5712)

= 25.712 = 25.7

Perimeter = 10 + 10 + 4 + 4 = 28
Answer
A = 25.7, P = 28

Example 6.2.4
Find x if the area is 21.

Copy and Paste Caption here

Solution
A = bh
12
21 = (x + 3) ( )
x

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 12
(x)21 = (x + 3) ( ) (x)
x

21x = 12x + 36

9x = 36

x =4

Check
A = bh
12
(x + 3) ( )
x

12
(4 + 3) ( )
| 4

(7)(3)

21

Answer
x =4

Example 6.2.5
The area of parallelogram ABC D is 48 and the perimeter is 34. Find x and y :

Solution
Perimeter = AB + BC + C D + DA

34 = x +5 +x +5

34 = 2x + 10

24 = 2x

12 = x

Area = 12y

48 = 12y

4 =y

Check
12 + 5 + 12 + 5
34|
34

Area = xy
(12)(4)
48 |
48

Answer
x = 12, y = 4

Problems

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6.3: The Area of a Triangle
For each of the triangles in Figure 6.3.1, side AB is called the base and C D is called the height or altitude drawn to this base.
The base can be any state of the triangle though it is usually chosen to be the side on which the triangle appears to be resting.
The height is the line drawn perpendicular to the base from the opposite vertex. Note that the height may fall outside the
triangle, If the triangle is obtuse, and that the height may be one of the legs, if the triangle is a right triangle.

Figure 6.3.1 : Triangles with base b and height h .

Theorem 6.3.1
The area of a triangle is equal to one-half of its base times its height.

Proof:
For each of the triangles illustrated in Figure 6.3.1, draw AE and C E so that ABCE is a parallelogram (Figure Figure 6.3.2) .
/j. ABC ...,._ 6 CEA so area of ~ ABC = area of 6 CEft.. Therefore area of t:,. ABC = 2 1 area of parallelogram
ABC E = ½bh ,

Figure 6.3.2 : Draw AE and C E so that ABC E is a parallelogram.

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6.4: The Area of a Rhombus
The area of a rhombus can be found by using the formula for the area of a parallelogram, A = bh, since a rhombus is a special
kind of parallelogram (Figure 6.4.1). However, if the diagonals are known the following formula can be used instead (Figure
6.4.1):

Figure 6.4.1 : The area of Thombus Figure 6.4.1 : The area of rhombus ABCD is
ABCD is bh . 1
d1 d2
2

Theorem 6.4.1
The area of a rhomibus is one-half the product of the diagonals.
1
A = a1 a2 (6.4.1)
2

Find the area of the rhombus:

Solution:
1 1 1
A = a1 d2 = (8)(6) = (48) = 24
2 2 2

Answer:
24
Proof of THEOREM 1: Referring to FIgure 2
Area of ΔABC = 1

2
bh = 1

2
(AC)(BE) =
1

2
d1 (
1

2
d2 ) =
1

4
d1 d2

Area of ΔADC = 1

2
bh =
1

2
(AC)(DE) =
1

2
d1 (
1

2
d2 ) =
1

4
d1 d2

Area of rhombus ABC D = ABC D = A rea of ΔABC + Area of ΔADC =

1

4
d1 d2 +
1

4
d1 d2 =
1

2
d1 d2

EXAMPLE B. Find the area and perimeter of the rhombus:

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Solution
The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular so ΔCDE is a right triangle. Therefore we can apply the Pythagorean theorem.
2 2 2
5 +x = (x + 1)
2 2
25 + x =x + 2x + 1

24 = 2x

12 = x

d1 = 12 + 12 = 24

d2 = 5 + 5 = 10

1 1
A = d1 d2 = (24)(10) = 120 (6.4.2)
2 2

Pertmeter = 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 = 52
Answer
A = 120, P = 52

Find the area of the rhombus:

Solution
–
As in EXAMPLE F of section 4.5, we obtain AC = 4 √3 and BD = 4.
– –
Area = d d = (AC)(BD) = (4√3)(4) = 8√3
1

2
1 2
1

2
1

Answer
–
A = 8 √3

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Problems

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6.5: The Area of a Trapezoid

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW
7: REGULAR POLYGONS AND CIRCLES
A polygon is traditionally a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments
closing in a loop to form a closed chain. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points
where two edges meet are the polygon's vertices or corners.

7.1: REGULAR POLYGONS

7.2: CIRCLES
7.3: TANGENTS TO THE CIRCLE
A tangent to a circle is a line which intersects the circle in exactly one point.

7.4: DEGREES IN AN ARC

7.5: CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE
7.6: AREA OF A CIRCLE

1 7/22/2020
7.1: Regular Polygons

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7.2: Circles

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7.3: Tangents to the Circle
↔
A tangent to a circle is a line which intersects the circle in exactly one point. In Figure 1 line AB is a tangent, intersecting
circle O just at point P.

→
Figure 1. AB is tangent to circle 0 at point P .
A tangent has the following important property:
THEOREM 1. A tangent is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of intersection.
↔
In Flgure 1 tangent AB is perpendicular to radius op at the point of intersection P .

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7.4: Degrees in an Arc
An arc is a part of the circle included between two points. The symbol for the are included between points A and B Is AB. In
Figure 1 there are two arcs determined by A and B. The shorter one is called the minor arc and the longer one is called the
major arc. Unless otherwise indicated, AB
ˆ
will always refer to the minor arc. In Figure 1 we might also write ACB instead
of AB
ˆ to intercept the major arc.

Figure 1: There are two arcs determined by A and B, the minor are and the major arc.
A central angle is an angle vertex is the center of the circle and whose sides are radii. In Figure 1 ∠AOB is a central angle.
∠AOB is said to intercept arc AB
ˆ
.
The number of degrees in an arc is defined to be the number of degrees in the central angle that intercepts the arc. In Figure 1
∘ ∘
minor are AB
ˆ
has 60 because ∠AO3 = 60 , we writte AB
∘ ∘ ˆ
= 60 , where the symbol = means equal in degrees. The plain
∘

= symbol will be reserved for arc length, to be discussed in section 7.5.

ˆ ∘ ˆ ∘
In Figure 2 ∠AOB is a straight angle so ∠AOB = 180 and ∘ ∘
AC B = 180 . Similarly ∘
ADB = 180 . Each of these arcs is
called a semicircle. The complete circle ses 360 .
∘

∘
Figure 2: ∠AOB = 180 and ACB
ˆ ∘
= 180
∘

Example 7.4.1

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 Find the number of degrees in arcs AB
ˆ
and AC
ˆ
B:

Solution
ˆ ∘ ˆ ∘ ˆ ∘
AB = ∠AC B = ∠AC B = 70
∘
and ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
AC B = 360 − AB = 360 − 70 = 290 .

Answer
ˆ ∘ ∘ ˆ ∘ ∘
AB = 70 , AC B = 290

Example 7.4.1
Find x, y and z :

Solution
∘ ∘
x
0 ˆ = 360∘ − 310∘ = 50∘ ,
= AB OA = OB since all radii are equal. Therefore △AOB is isosceles wIth ∘
y
∘
=z .

We have
0 0 0 ∘
x +y +z = 180
∘ 0 0 ∘
50 +y +y = 180
0 ∘
2y = 130
0 ∘
y = 65

Answer
x = 50, y = z = 65

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An inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex is on a circle and whose stáes are chords of the circle. In Figure 3, \angle A B C\)
is an inscribed angle. ∠ABC is said to intercept are AC
ˆ

FIgure 3: ∠ABC is an inscribed angle.

We shall prove the following theorem:
∘
THEOREN 1 . An inscribed angle = 1

2
of its intercepted are.
∘
In Figure 3, ∠ABC =
1

2
ˆ
AC

Example 7.4.3
Find the number of degrees in ÄC:

∘ ∘
Solution: ∠ABC = 70
∘
=
1

2
ˆ
AC. Therefore AC
ˆ
= 140
∘

Answer
\(\widehat{A C} \stackrel{\circ}{=} 140^{\circ}

Before giving the proof of THEOREM 1 Iet us see if we can prove the answer to EXAIPLE C. Draw the diameter from B
through center O (Figure 4). ∠ABC is divided by the diameter into two smaller angles, ∠ABD and ∠DBC , whose sum is
∘ ∘
70  . Suppose ∠ABD = 30  and ∠DBC = 40  (Figure 5) .
∘
AO = BO because all radit are equal. Hence ΔAOB is
isosceles with ∠A = ∠ABD = 30 Similarily ∠C = ∠DBC = 40 , ∠AOD is an exterior angle of ΔAOB and so is
∘ ∘

equal to the sum of the remote interior angles, 30 + 30 = 60 (THEOREN? section 1.5).
∘ ∘ ∘
Similarly
ˆ ∘
∠COD = 40
∘ ∘
+ 40 = 80
∘
. Therefore central angle ∠AOC = 60
∘
+ 80
∘ ∘
= 140 and axc AC = 140
∘
. This agrees with
our answer to EXANPLE C.
We will now give a formal proof of THEOREM 1, which will hold for any inscribed angle:

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Proof of THEORRM 1 : There are three cases according to whether the center is on, instde, or outside the inscribed angle
(Figures 6, 7, and 8).

Figure 4: Draw diameter BD. Figure 5: Suppose ∠ABD = 30

∘
and
∘
∠DBC = 40

Figure 6: The center is on the inscribed angle.

Figure 7: The center is inside the inscribed
angle.

Figure 8: The center is outside the inscribed

angle.
Case I. The center is on the inscribed angIe (Figure 6 ). Draw AO. The radit are equal so AO = BO and ∠A = ∠B = x ∘
.

∘ 0
Therefore ˆ 0 0
AC = ∠AOC = x + x = 2 x
0
and ∠ABC 0
=x =
1

2
ˆ
AC

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 Case II. The center is inside the inscribed angIe (Figure ?). Draw diameter BD from B through 0. From case I we know
∘ ∘
∠ABD = x
0
=
1

2
AD and ∠DBC = y
0
=
1

2
ˆ
DC. Hence

∘ 1 1 1 1
0 0 ˆ ˆ ∘ ˆ ˆ ∘
ˆ
∠ABC = x +y = AD + DC = (A + DC) = AC (7.4.1)
3 2 2 2

Case III. The center is outside the inscribed angle (Figure 8). Draw diameter BD from B through 0. From case I we know
0 ∘
∠ABD = x
0
=
1

3
AD and ∠CBD = y
0
=
1

2
ˆ
C

∘ 1 1 1 ∘ 1
0 0 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
∠ABC = x −y = AD − CD = (AD − CD) = AC (7.4.2)
2 2 2 2

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7.5: Circumference of a circle
The circumference of a circle is the perimeter of the circle, the length of the line obtained by cutting the circle and
"straightening out the curves" (Figure 1)

Figure 1. The circumference of a circle is the length of the kine obtained by cutting the circle and straightenting out the curves.
It is impractical to measure the circumference of most circular objects directly. A circular tape measure would be hard to hold
in place and would become distorted as it would be bent. The object itself would be destroyed if we tried to cut it and
straighten it out for measurement. Fortunately we can calculate the circumference of a circle from its radius or diameter, which
are easy to measure.

Figure 2. Regular hexagon ABCDEF is inscribed in circle 0. Both have radius r and center 0 .
An approximate value for the circumference of a circle of radius x can be obtained by calculating the perimeter of a regular
hexagon of radius r inscribed  in the circle (Figure 2) . We see that the circumference is a little more than the perimeter of
the hexagon, which is 6 times the radius ox 3 times the diameter. To get a better approximation, we increase the number of
sides of the inscribed regular polygon. As the number of sides of a regular polygon increases, the polygon looks more and
more like a circle (Figure 3). In section 7.1 we calculated the perimeter of a 90 -sided regular polygon to be 3.141 times the
diameter or 6.282 times the radius. The perimeter of a 1000 -sided regular polygon turned out to be only slightly larger, 3.1416
times the diameter or 6.283 times the radius. It therefore seems reasonable
to conclude that the circumference of a circle is about 3.14 times its diameter or 6.28 times its radius.

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 Figure 3. A regular polygon of 15 sides looks almost like a circle.

Theorem 7.5.1
The circumference of a circle is π times its diameter or 2π times its radius, where π is approxinately 3.14.
C = πd

or
C = 2πr

The symbol π (Greek letter p–i ) is standard notation for the number by which the diameter of a circle must be multiplied to get
–
–
the circumference. Its value is usually taken to be 3.14 , though 3.1416 and 22

7
are other commonly used approximations.
–
These numbers are not exact, for like 2, it can be shown that π is an irrational number (infinite nonrepeating decimal). Its
√

value to 50 decimal places is

3. 14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937511

Example 7.5.1
Add text here.
Solution
Add text here.

We define the length of an arc in the same manner as we defined circumference. We calculate it by multiplying the
circumference by the appropriate fraction.

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7.6: Area of a Circle

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