ENS226A

ENERGY SYSTEMS III

UNIT 2

Instructor: Dr. SP Koko

2020
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Buy the prescribed text book for this semester:

Electrical Technology - 5th EDITION by

SJ van Zyl
Learning Unit 2.1: Transmission – Active
and Reactive Power
3

Learning Area Outcome

 To understand the reason for interconnecting
 Control of active and reactive power using tap-
changing transformer, synchronous modifier,
values sending end voltage, automatic load
dispatching and power transfer.
 Power computation in interconnector.
Transmission System
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Transmission
▪ The electric power can be transmitted either by means of DC or AC.
▪ However, DC has some disadvantages such as:
i. It cannot be stepped up for the transmission of power as high voltages.
ii. Electric power cannot be generated at high DC voltages due to
commutation problem.
▪ The transmission of high voltage has the following advantages:
i. such as reduced volume of the conductor,
ii. increased transmission efficiency and
iii. reduced percentage voltage drop.
▪ However, transmitting power from one generation station is not a reliable
solution.
▪ The connection of several generating s in a network of a particular
transmission voltage, in order to allow them to share the load, increases
the reliability of the power system significantly.
2.1.1 Inter-connected Systems
5

What is inter-connector
▪ Inter-connector is usually referred to as the connection between two or
more alternators, power stations or supply networks.
▪ Inter-connection increases the amount of current which flows when a
short-circuit occurs on a system. It therefore requires the installation to be
able to interrupt this large short-circuit current.
▪ The disturbance caused by a short-circuit on one system may spread to
inter-connected system unless a proper relays and circuit breakers are
provided at the point of inter-connection.
2.1.1 Inter-connected Systems
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▪ The interconnected system must meet the following condition:

a) Both systems must have the same nominal frequency.
b) The synchronous generator of one system must remain in step with the
synchronous machines of the other inter-connected systems.
▪ The figure below shows the line diagram of two power stations joined by
an inter-connector.
▪ The inter-connector is connected to
the bus-bars of each power station
through transformers.
▪ Each power station also has a
feeder-load connected through a
transformer to its bus-bars.
▪ The power sent across the inter-
connector will depend on the steam
supplied to the turbines of each
power station.
2.1.1 Inter-connected Systems
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▪ For example, if the feeder load on the bus-bars of power station A and B
are 50 MW each and the output of the generator on the bus-bars of
power station A is 30MW, the output of the generators in the bus-bars of
power station B must then be 70 MW.
▪ Therefore, 20MW must therefore be transmitted across the inter-
connector from power station B to power station A.
Capacity =30MW Capacity =100MW

30MW 70MW

50MW 50MW
2.1.1 Inter-connected Systems
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Reason for Interconnection

▪ It is more economical to allow the power stations to operate at their full

capacity for 24 hours a day for increased efficiency.
▪ Therefore, the main base load met by these large power stations, must be
inter-connected so that they feed into the general system and not into
particular load.
2.1.1 Inter-connected Systems
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▪ The reactive power devices such as reactors, capacitors and

synchronous machines are used to control the bus-bar voltage for
improved power transfer and stability.
▪ The supply network is mainly inductive and when power is transmitted
across the inter-connector, there will normally be a large reactive voltage
drop in the interconnector.
▪ The magnitude of the overall voltage drop (I.Z) will depend on the
impedance (Z) of the inter-connector and on the power factor at which the
power is transmitted.
2.1.1 Inter-connected Systems
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▪ The magnitude of the resistive voltage drop (I.R) is larger than that of the
reactive voltage drop (I.X) when the power factor is larger than 0.98.
▪ Capacitor banks, synchronous machines, shunt reactors and tap-
changing transformers are typical voltage control devices to be used.
2.1.2 Power Transfer
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▪ For the power to be transferred from one point to another, there must be a
difference in voltage between those two points.
▪ The potential difference causes active (P) and reactive power (Q) to flow
between the two points.
▪ It can happen that P flows from power station A to power station B, and Q
flows from power station B to power station A.
▪ However, it can also happen that P flows from power station B to A, and Q
flows from power station A to B.
▪ This depends on the potential
difference between two points as a
result of magnitudes being different.
▪ This depends also on the phase
difference between the voltages.
▪ Z is the synchronous impedance of
the two power stations or the
impedance of the transmission line.
2.1.2 Power Transfer
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▪ This depends also on the phase difference between the voltages.

▪ The angle δ is know as the load angle.

▪ The power will flow from the leading to the lagging machine or supply.
▪ If the sign of the leading machine is positive (+) it means it is transferring
power, and if the sign is negative (-) it means that it is receiving power.
▪ For the lagging machine, if the sign is positive (+) it means it is receiving
power, and if the sign is negative (-) it means that it is transferring power.
▪ To determine the power, the current must be known as well as the
direction of the current must be considered.
▪ If current Iab is considered, then voltage drop Vab is used. If current Iba is
considered, then voltage drop Vba is used.
2.1.2 Power Transfer
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If current Iab is considered: If current Iba is considered:

Phasor diagram for voltage drop Vab Phasor diagram for voltage drop Vab

Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Vab = Ea − Eb Ea > Eb Vba = Eb − Ea Eb > Ea

2.1.2 Power Transfer
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i j
Inter-connector
current
Iij = Ii − Ij

▪ The sketch shows the layout of the two power stations joined by an inter-
connector having a synchronous impedance (Z) at angle β.
▪ The subscript (i) represents the leading voltage and (j) represents the
lagging voltage.
▪ To calculate the power transfer between power station A and B, the
current will flow from (i) to (j). Current Iij is called the inter-connector
current. Therefore the voltage difference between the two power stations
is determined as follows:
Vij = Vi(ph) − Vj(ph) Or Vij = Iij . Z
 β = Beta
2.1.2 Power Transfer ɸ = Phi
δ = Delta
15

▪ Below is the phasor diagram for the voltages and currents in the inter-
connected system.
▪ The current (Ii =Vi/Z) will lag the voltage Vi by an angle β and the current
(Ij =Vj/Z) will lag the voltage Vj by an angle β.
▪ The angle between the voltages Vi and Vj is δ.
▪ This angle δ is know as the load angle.

Inter-connector current is computed as follows:

Iij = Ii − Ij
 β = Beta
2.1.2 Power Transfer ɸ = Phi
δ = Delta
16

▪ It is important to note that the power formulas are derive under the
following assumptions:
1) Vi is leading Vj by angle δ.
2) The current flows from i to j, namely, Iij.
▪ The angle between the voltages Vi and Vj is δ

▪ Different powers within the inter-connector are then

derived as follows:
▪ The real power at i side will be: Pi = Vi .Iij.cos ɸ
▪ ɸ is the angle between Vi and Iij.
▪ Remember that Iij is the difference between Ii and Ij.
▪ Then: Pi = Vi (Ii − Ij)cos ɸ
Pi = Vi.Ii.cos β − Vi.Ij.cos (β + δ)
Vi V Vi2
Pi = Vi [ .cos β − j.cos (β + δ) ] Pi = [ cos β −cos (β + δ) ]
Z Z Z
 β = Beta
2.1.2 Power Transfer ɸ = Phi
δ = Delta
17

▪ The reactive power at i side will be:

Qi = Vi .Iij.sin ɸ

Qi = Vi (Ii − Ij) sin ɸ

Qi = Vi.Ii.sin β − Vi.Ij.sin (β + δ)
V V Vi2
Qi = Vi [ i.sin β − j.sin (β + δ) ] So Qi = [ sin β − sin (β + δ) ]
Z Z Z
▪ The active power at j side will be:

Pj = Vj .Iij.cos ɸ

Pj = Vj (Ii − Ij) cos ɸ

Pj = Vj.Ii.cos (β − δ) − Vj.Ij.cos β
V V Vi2
Pj = Vj [ i.cos (β − δ) − j.cos β ] So Pj = [ cos (β − δ) −cos β ]
Z Z Z
 β = Beta
2.1.2 Power Transfer ɸ = Phi
δ = Delta
18

▪ The reactive power at j side will be:

Qj = Vj .Iij.sin ɸ

Qj = Vj (Ii − Ij) sin ɸ

Qj = Vj.Ii.sin (β − δ) − Vj.Ij.sin β
V V Vi2
Qj = Vj [ i.sin (β − δ) − j.sin β ] So Qj = [ sin (β − δ) − sin β ]
Z Z Z
▪ Now we are able to compute
different powers (Pi, Qi, Pj & Qj)
from one power station to the other.
▪ The alternative way for determining
Pi and Iij is as follows:
Pi = Pa − Pa(load)
Vij
iij =
Z
 β = Beta
2.1.2 Power Transfer ɸ = Phi
δ = Delta
19

▪ Now you have computed different powers (Pi, Qi, Pj & Qj) from one power
station to the other.
▪ These power are within the inter-connector of the system.
▪ Therefore, the same powers can also be computed from the apparent
powers (Si*& Sj*) transferred within the inter-connector since:
Si * = Pi ± jQi Sj * = Pj ± jQj

▪ Si* & Sj* can be determined as follows:

Si * = √3 .Vi.Iij*
Sj * = √3 .Vj.Iij*
▪ The asterisk sign (*) simply means that
the conjugate/mirror image of the
current is used (opposite sign of the
angle) during computation since
complex power method is used.
 β = Beta
2.1.2 Power Transfer ɸ = Phi
δ = Delta
20

▪ How to determine the final loading (in VA) of the two power stations
using Si* & Sj*?
▪ The final loading for each power station can be determined by
considering the apparent powers entering the busbar and the apparent
powers leaving the busbar. This can be determined as follows:

Sa * = S*a(load) + Si* Sb * = S*b(load) − Sj*

▪ How do we determine the power

loss within the transmission line/
inter-connector?
▪ Total power loss for all phases of the
transmission line is calculated as
follows:
Pij = 3. Iij2.R
 β = Beta
Example 1 ɸ = Phi
δ = Delta
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Example 1: Two power stations, A and B, work at 88 kV and deliver power to their
respective consumers as follows:
Power station A: 720 MVA at a power factor of 0.819 lagging.
Power station B: 640 MVA at a power factor of 0.766 lagging.
An inter-connector with an impedance of (1.25 +j5.69) ohms per line is connected
between power station A and B. The voltage at power station A is advance with an
angle of 8˚with respect to the voltage at power station B. The real power loading of
power station A is 600 MW.

▪ 1.1 Determine the active and

reactive power received and
transferred using the complex
power method. Describe which is
received and which is transferred.
▪ 1.2 Calculate the final loadings on
the two power stations.