Revision of Class 2

Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

Rutherford nuclear model of an atom is like a small scale solar system with the nucleus playing the role of the massive sun and the
electrons being similar to the lighter planets.

Summary: 1. Rutherford model cannot explain the stability of an atom.

2. Cannot explain distribution of electrons around nucleus.
3. Cannot determine energy of electrons.

DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

Neils Bohr utilized these results to improve upon the model proposed by Rutherford.

Two developments played a major role in the formulation of Bohr’s model of atom.

(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that radiations possess both wave like and particle like properties, and
(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra which can be explained only by assuming quantized electronic energy levels in atoms.

Summary:
1. Radiations possess both wave like and particle like properties
2. ν = c Wave nature , explain diffraction and Interference
3. E = h ν particle nature,
4. atoms and molecules could emit (or absorb) energy only in discrete quantities and not in a continuous manner.
5. Quantum is the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
In case of light radiation quantum is called as Photon , Total energy = n h ν
6. Particle nature can explain nature of radiation emitted from hot body and photo electric effect
7. Photo Electric effect : Electrons are ejected from metal surface when metal surface is irradiated by radiations having
suitable frequency
8. For photoelectric effect ν(incident radiation) > ν˚(Threshold frequency of metal) E = W˚ + KE
9. There are many types of electromagnetic radiations which differ in wavelength or frequency. Study of these
wavelength and frequency is called as Spectrum
10. Spectrum of Visible light radiation is continuous spectrum i.e. having radiations of all frequencies
11. Spectrum of radiations emitted by an object is called as Emission spectrum
12. Spectrum of radiations absorbed by an object is called as Absorption spectrum
13. Atomic Spectra is spectra of radiations emitted or absorbed by an atom
14. Atomic spectra indicate quantized electronic energy levels i.e. only certain values of energy of electron are
possible( Electron can emit or absorb radiations of only certain frequency not of all frequency)
15. Many series of spectral lines in Atomic spectra of Hydrogen atom , Lymer,balmer,Paschen,Brackett Pfund etc
16. Spectral lines of Lymen series belongs to UV region , Balmer (Visible) other (IR)

17.

18.

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DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

Results observed from the studies of interactions of radiations with matter have provided immense information regarding the
structure of atoms and molecules.

Neils Bohr utilized these results to improve upon the model proposed by Rutherford.

Two developments played a major role in the formulation of Bohr’s model of atom.

(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that radiations possess both wave like and particle like properties, and
(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra which can be explained only by assuming quantized electronic energy levels in atoms.

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 Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

When electrically charged particle moves under acceleration, alternating electrical and magnetic fields are produced and transmitted.
These fields are transmitted in the forms of waves called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation.

Unlike sound waves or water waves,

electromagnetic waves do not require
medium and can move in vacuum.

In vacuum all types of electromagnetic radiations,

regardless of wavelength, travel at the same speed,
i.e., 3.0 × 108 m/s.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum

There are many types of electromagnetic radiations, which differ from one another in wavelength or frequency.
These constitute electromagnetic spectrum.

Spectrum:
1. Continuous Spectrum
2. Emission spectrum(Line Spectrum)
3. Absorption spectrum (Line Spectrum)

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Question Question

Question

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 Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation: Planck’s Quantum Theory

Some of the experimental phenomenon such as diffraction and interference can be explained by the wave nature of the
electromagnetic radiation.
However, following are some of the observations which could not be explained with the help of even the electromagnetic
theory of 19th century physics (known as classical physics):
(i) the nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies (black -body radiation)
(ii) ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it (photoelectric effect)
(iii) variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature
(iv) line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen.

Question 1.

Question 2.

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 Black Body Radiation

At higher temperature, there is more energy at

all wavelengths and peak of the spectrum shifts
to smaller wavelengths (towards the blue side)

Intensity is like brightness, and is measured as energy per

unit time per unit area. OR
Intensity of light as the number of photons emitted per unit
area per second.

These experimental results cannot be explained satisfactorily on the basis of the wave theory of light.
Planck suggested that atoms and molecules could emit
(or absorb) energy only in discrete quantities and not in a continuous manner, a belief popular at that
time.

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Planck gave the name quantum to the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
The energy (E ) of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency (ν ) and is expressed by equation,
E = hν
With this theory, Planck was able to explain the distribution of intensity in the radiation from black body as a function of
frequency or wavelength at different temperatures.

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Photoelectric effect

In this experiment electrons (or electric current) were ejected when certain metals (for
example potassium, rubidium, caesium etc.) were exposed to a beam of light as shown
in Fig. The phenomenon is called Photoelectric effect.
The results observed in this experiment were:

(i) The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the surface, i.e., there is no
time lag between the striking of light beam and the ejection of electrons from the metal surface.
(ii) The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
(iii) For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency,ν˚ (also known as threshold frequency) below which
photoelectric effect is not observed. At a frequency ν > ν˚, the ejected electrons come out with certain kinetic energy.
The kinetic energies of these electrons increase with the increase of frequency of the light used.

All the above results could not be explained on the basis of laws of classical physics

According to laws of classical physics, the energy content of the beam of light depends upon the brightness of the light.
In other words, number of electrons ejected and kinetic energy associated with them should depend on the brightness of
light. It has been observed that though the number of electrons ejected does depend upon the brightness of light, the
kinetic energy of the ejected electrons does not.
For example, red light [ν = (4.3 to 4.6) × 1014 Hz] of any brightness (intensity) may shine on a piece of potassium metal
for hours but no photoelectrons are ejected.
But, as soon as even a very weak yellow light (ν = 5.1–5.2 × 1014 Hz) shines on the potassium metal, the photoelectric
effectis observed.
The threshold frequency (ν ˚) for potassium metal is 5.0×1014 Hz.

Einstein was able to explain the photoelectric effect using Planck’s

quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation as a starting point,

Shining a beam of light on to a metal surface can, therefore, be viewed as shooting a beam of particles, the photons. When a
photon of sufficient energy strikes an electron in the atom of the metal, it transfers its energy instantaneously to the electron
during the collision and the electron is ejected without any time lag or delay. Greater the energy possessed by the photon,
greater will be transfer of energy to the electron and greater the kinetic energy of the ejected electron. In other words, kinetic
energy of the ejected electron is proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation. Since the striking photon has
energy equal to hν and the minimum energy required to eject the electron is hν˚ (also called work function, W˚ ; Table ), then
the difference in energy (hν– hν˚ ) is transferred as the kinetic energy of the photoelectron. Following the conservation of
energy principle, the kinetic energy of the ejected electron is given by the equation

KE = E - W˚

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Question:

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Evidence for the quantized Electronic Energy Levels: Atomic spectra

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Types of Spectra

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Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the H2 molecules dissociate and the energetically excited hydrogen
atoms produced emit electromagnetic radiation of discrete frequencies.

The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines named after their discoverers.

The Swedish spectroscopist, Johannes Rydberg, noted that all series of lines in the
hydrogen spectrum could be described by the following expression

109,677 cm–1 is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen.

The first five series of lines that correspond to n1 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are known as
Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Bracket and Pfund series, respectively,

The Balmer series of lines are the only lines in the hydrogen
spectrum which appear in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Hydrogen atom has the simplest line spectrum.

Line spectrum becomes more and more complex for heavier atom.
There are however certain features which are common to all line spectra, i.e.,
(i) line spectrum of element is unique and
(ii) there is regularity in the line spectrum of each element.

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BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM

Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom is based on the following postulates:

(i) The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and energy.
These paths are called orbits, stationary states or allowed energy states. These orbits are arranged concentrically
around the nucleus.

(ii) The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time.
However, the electron will move from a lower stationary state to a higher stationary state when required
amount of energy is absorbed by the electron or
energy is emitted when electron moves from higher stationary state to lower stationary state

(iii) The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy by
E, is given by

Where E1 and E2 are the energies of the lower and higher allowed energy states respectively.
This expression is commonly known as Bohr’s frequency rule.

(iv) An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is integral multiple of h/2
The angular momentum of an electron in a given stationary state can be expressed as in equation

that is why only certain fixed orbits are allowed.

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According to Bohr’s theory for hydrogen atom:

a) The stationary states for electron are numbered n = 1,2,3..........

These integral numbers are known as Principal quantum numbers.

b) The radii of the stationary states are expressed as :

rn = n2 a0 where a0 = 529 pm.
The radius of the first stationary state, called the Bohr orbit, is 52.9 pm.
Normally the electron in the hydrogen atom is found in this orbit (that is n=1).
As n increases the value of r will increase. In other words the electron will be present away from the nucleus.

c) The most important property associated with the electron, is the energy of its stationary
state. It is given by the expression.

The energy of the lowest state, also called as the ground state, is

The energy of the stationary state for n = 2, will be :

Fig. given below depicts the energies of different stationary states or energy levels of hydrogen atom.
This representation is called an energy level diagram.

When the electron is free from the influence of nucleus, the energy is taken as zero. The electron in this situation is
associated with the stationary state of Principal Quantum number = n =  and is called as ionized hydrogen atom.
When the electron is attracted by the nucleus and is present in orbit n, the energy is emitted and its energy is lowered.
That is the reason for the presence of negative sign in equation for energy and depicts its stability relative to the reference
state of zero energy and n = .

d) Bohr’s theory can also be applied to the ions containing only one electron, similar to that present in hydrogen atom.
For example, He+ Li2+, Be3+ and so on.
The energies of the stationary states associated with these kinds of ions (also known as hydrogen like species) are given
by the expression.

where Z is the atomic number

It is evident that the value of energy becomes more

negative and that of radius becomes smaller with increase of Z . This means that
electron will be tightly bound to the nucleus.

e) It is also possible to calculate the velocities of electrons moving in these orbits. Qualitatively the
magnitude of velocity of electron increases with increase of positive charge on the nucleus and

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magnitude of velocity of electron increases with increase of positive charge on the nucleus and
decreases with increase of principal quantum number.

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Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

Line spectrum observed in case of hydrogen atom can be explained quantitatively using Bohr’s model.

According to assumption 2, radiation (energy) is absorbed if the electron moves from the orbit of smaller
Principal quantum number to the orbit of higher Principal quantum number, whereas the radiation
(energy) is emitted if the electron moves from higher orbit to lower orbit.
The energy gap between the two orbits is given by equation

The frequency (n ) associated with the absorption and emission of the photon can be evaluated by using equation

In case of absorption spectrum, nf > ni and the term in the parenthesis is positive and energy is absorbed. On the
other hand in case of emission spectrum ni > nf ,  E is negative and energy is released.

The above expression is similar to that used by Rydberg derived empirically using the experimental data available at
that time. Further, each spectral line, whether in absorption or emission spectrum, can be associated to the particular
transition in hydrogen atom.
In case of large number of hydrogen atoms, different possible transitions can be observed and thus leading to large
number of spectral lines.
The brightness or intensity of spectral lines depends upon the number of photons of same wavelength or frequency
absorbed or emitted.

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