Artificial Intelligence CTEVT

Artificial Intelligence
Chapter-1: Goals in Problem Solving

Intelligent behaviors
• Everyday tasks: recognize a friend, recognize who is calling, translate from one
language to another, interpret a photograph, talk, cook a dinner
• Formal tasks: prove a logic theorem, geometry, calculus, play chess, checkers, or
Go
• Expert tasks: engineering design, medical designers, financial analysis
Intelligence is:
• The ability to reason
• The ability to understand
• The ability to create. . .

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Artificial Intelligence:
“The art of creating machines that perform functions that require intelligence
when performed by people” – Kurzwell,1990
“The science of making computers, do things that require intelligence like
humans”- Minskey
“AI is the study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment,
people are better”- Elaine Rich

Artificial intelligence is the study of how to make computers do things

which at the moment, people do better. Ai is area of computer science focusing
on creating machines that can be engaged in behavior that human consider
intelligence. Intelligence is the ability to learn, understand, solve problem and to
make decisions. AI systems are categorized as:
-system that thinks like human.
-system that think rationally.
-system that act like human.
-system that act rationally.
Acting humanly
• Machine is required to act as humans do.
• Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950). Turing’s definition of intelligent
behavior as the ability to achieve human-level performance in all cognitive tasks.
• The test involves an interrogator who interacts with one human and one
machine. Within a given time the interrogator has to find out which of the two
the human is, and which one the machine.
• Issue to solve in order to pass the test using a terminal: natural language
processing, knowledge representation automated reasoning, machine learning.
• Additional requirements for the “total Turing test”: computer vision, speech
recognition, speech synthesis, robotics.

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Critics of Turing test

• Test is not reproducible, amenable or constructive to mathematical
analysis as it is more important to study the underlined principles of
intelligence than to duplicate example
• Trying to evaluate machine intelligence in terms of human intelligence is
fundamental mistake. It focuses too much on the behavior of conversation.

Factors required to pass Turing Test

Natural Language Processing: To communicate easily.
Knowledge Representation: To store facts and rules.
Automated Reasoning: To draw conclusion from stored knowledge.
Machine Learning: To adopt new circumstances and detect pattern.

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Thinking humanly
• It is the action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
thought, experience or the sense. Machine needs to understand how
humans think.
• It is mainly concerned with the investigation, development of human
behavior and the working of human mind in the computer.
• Example: General Problem Solver (GPS) developed by Newell & Simon
in 1961 attempted to synthesize the human solving process. Compares
the steps of the problem with the reasoning of human subjects solving
the same problem.
• Critics: Lacks scientific theories of internal activities of brain. Level of
abstraction of the approach is vague too.

Thinking rationally
• Aristotle made first attempt to harness “right thinking”. Famous
example: “Socrates is a man; all men are mortal; therefore
Socrates is mortal.”
• Formal logic (late nineteenth, early twentieth century’s)
provides a precise notation of statements of all kinds of things
and relations between them.
• Programs that can find the solution to a logical problem if one
exists have been around since 1965. Given enough memory and
time, they should be able to solve everything.
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• Critics: It is not easy to take informal knowledge and state in the

formal terms required by logical notation specially when
knowledge is less than 100% certain
• There is big difference between being able to solve a problem in
principle and doing so in practice
Acting rationally (Rational agent approach)
• Rational agent: acts to achieve the best outcome on when there
is uncertainty of the best expected outcome
• Rational agent does not necessarily involve thinking. Example,
reflex action
Advantages
• More general than laws of thought approach
• More amenable to scientific development then approach based
on human behaviors.

Applications of AI
• Game playing: AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker,
tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible positions
based on heuristic knowledge.

• Autonomous control: The Alvinn computer vision system was trained to

steer a car to keep it following a lane. It was placed in CMU's NavLab computer-
controlled minivan and used to navigate across the United States—for 2850 miles
it was in control of steering the vehicle 98% of the time. A human took over the
other 2%, mostly at exit ramps. NavLab has video cameras that transmit road
images to Alvinn, which then computes the best direction to steer, based on
experience from previous training runs.

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• Language understanding and problem solving: It is possible to interact

with the computer that understands natural language spoken by humans.

• Business Intelligence: The finance industry is implementing automation,

chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning into
financial processes.

• Medical Diagnosis: Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better

and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can
inform when patients are worsening so that medical help can reach to the patient
before hospitalization.

• Scientific Analysis
• Weather forecasting
• E-commerce: AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry,
and it is becoming more demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping
shoppers to discover associated products with recommended size, color, or even
brand

Note: Describe the application with few sentences:

AI Today:
 Diagnose Lymph-node diseases
 Monitor space shuttle missions
 Automatic vehicle control
 Automatic design and configuration systems
 First commercial speech understanding systems
 Beat world’s best players in chess, checkers, and backgammon.
 Intelligent agents: siri, alexa, google assistant, google duplex,
Sophia a humanoid robot etc.
 ELIZA: A program that simulated a psychotherapist interacting
with a patient and successfully passed the Turing Test
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 Analyzing and monitoring covid-19 patient’s lung images to find a

cure.
Brief history
• 1943 -- McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
• 1950 -- Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
• 1956 -- Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence" adopted
• 1950s -- Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers program,
Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist, Gelernter's Geometry Engine
• 1965-- Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning
• 1966—73 AI discovers computational complexity, neural network
research almost disappears
• 1969—79 early development of knowledge-based systems
• 1980-- AI becomes an industry
• 1986-- Neural networks return to popularity
• 1987-- AI becomes a science
• 1995-- The emergence of intelligent agents
Goals in problem solving:
Goal schemas: To build a system to solve a particular problem, we
need to do four things:
1. Define the problem precisely. This definition must include precise
specifications of what the initial situations will be as well as what
final situations constitute acceptable solutions to the problem.

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2. Analyze the problem. A few very important features can have an

immense impact on the appropriateness of various possible
techniques for solving the problem.
3. Isolate and represent the task knowledge that is necessary to
solve the problem.
4. Choose the best problem-solving techniques and apply them to
the particular problem.

Search Problem
It is characterized by an initial state and a goal-state description.
The guesses are called the operators where a single operator
transforms a state into another state which is expected to be closer
to a goal state. Here the objective may be to find a goal state or to
find a sequence of operators to a goal state. Additionally, the
problem may require finding just any solution or an optimum
solution.

Problem Solving:
According to computer science, a problem-solving is a part of artificial
intelligence which encompasses a number of techniques such as
algorithms, heuristics to solve a problem.
A problem is solved by using a sequence of action that reduces the
difference between initial situation and goal.

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Four general steps in problem solving:

Goal Formulation
It is the first and simplest step in problem-solving. It organizes the
steps/sequence required to formulate one goal out of multiple goals
as well as actions to achieve that goal. Goal formulation is based on
the current situation and the agent’s performance measure.
Problem Formulation
It is the most important step of problem-solving which decides what
actions should be taken to achieve the formulated goal.
Search
Determine the possible sequence of actions that lead to the states
of known values and then choosing the best sequence.

Execute
It executes the best optimal solution from the searching algorithms
to reach the goal state from the current state.

Problem Representation in AI
Before a solution can be found, the prime condition is that the problem must be
very precisely defined. By defining it properly, one converts the abstract problem
into real workable states that are really understood.

The most common methods of problem representation in AI are:-

 State Space Representation

 Problem Reduction

State Space Representation: A set of all possible states for a given problem is
known as the state space of the state space of the problem. Suppose you are
asked to make a cup of coffee. What will you do? You will verify whether the

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necessary ingredients like instant coffee powder, milk powder, sugar, kettle,
stove etc. are available.
 If so, you will follow the following steps:
 1.     Boil necessary water in the kettle.
 2.     Take some of the boiled water in a cup add necessary amount of instant
coffee powder to make decoction.
 3.     Add milk powder to the remaining boiling water to make milk.
 4.     Mix decoction and milk.
 5.     Add sufficient quantity of sugar to your taste and the coffee is ready.
 Now think a bit what has exactly happened. You started with the
ingredients (initial state), followed a sequence of steps (called states) and
at last had a cup of coffee (goal state). You added only needed amount of
coffee powder, milk powder and sugar (operators). The following fig. shows
the sequence:

Problem Reduction: In this method a complex problem is broken down or

decomposed into a set of primitive sub problems. Solutions for these primitive
sub-problems are easily obtained. The solutions for all the sub-problems
collectively give the solution for the complex problem.
In fact, the human mind adopts this strategy for finding solutions to majority of
problems it encounters.
For e.g. consider the activities that must be done to set right a punctured tyre.
The following fig. shows the activities. The top level specifies the overall goal
which is combination of tasks given in level 2, level 3 and level 4 indicate primitive
sub-problems.

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The above fig. is actually a pictorial representation of the problem by an AND/OR

tree. An arc connecting different branches is called an AND tree.
Between the complex and the sub-problem, there exist two kinds of relationships,
viz. AND relationship and OR relationship.
In AND relationship, the solution for the problem is obtained by solving all the sub
problems.
In OR relationship, the solution for the problem is obtained by solving any of the
sub problems.

Planning:
The purpose of planning is to find the sequence of action that achieves
required goal when performed starting in a given state.

It includes 3 elements:

a. Starting state or initial state

b. Sequence of actions

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c. Goal

What is a plan? A sequence of operator instances, such that "executing" them in

the initial state will change the world to a state satisfying the goal state
description. Goals are usually specified as a conjunction of goals to be achieved.

Properties of planning algorithm:

Soundness:

 A planning algorithm is sound if all solutions found are of legal plans

o All preconditions and goals are satisfied.

o No constraints are violated (temporal, variable binding)

Completeness:

 A planning algorithm is complete if a solution can be found whenever one

actually exists.

 A planning algorithm is strictly complete if all solutions are included in the

search space.

Optimality:

 A planning algorithm is optimal if the order in which solution are found is

consistent with some measure of plan quality.

Linear planning/goal stack planning:

Basic Idea is to work on one goal until completely solved before moving on
to the next goal. The planning algorithm maintains a stack of goals so that only
one goal is focused at once. A plan generated by this method contains a sequence
of operators for attaining the first goal, followed by a complete sequence for the
second goal, etc.

• Advantages

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- Reduced search space, since goals are solved one at a time

- Advantageous if goals are (mainly) independent

- Linear planning is sound

• Disadvantages

– Linear planning may produce suboptimal solutions (based on the number

of operators in the plan)

- Linear planning is incomplete.

Concept of Non-Linear Planning/partial order planning:

 Basic Idea is to use ‘goal set’ instead of ‘goal stack’. Most of the problems
require a plan in which multiple sub-problems are worked on
simultaneously. Such a plan is called a nonlinear plan because it is not
composed of a linear sequence of complete sub-plans.

Advantages

– Non-linear planning may be optimal with respect to plan length (depending on

search strategy employed)

- Non-linear planning is sound.

- Non-linear planning is complete.

Disadvantages

– Larger search space, since all possible goal orderings may have to be considered
– Somewhat more complex algorithm; More bookkeeping.

Production system:-
A production system (or production rule system) is a computer program
typically used to provide some form of artificial intelligence, which consists
primarily of a set of rules about behavior. These rules, termed productions, are a
basic representation found useful in automated planning, expert systems and

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action selection. A production system provides the mechanism necessary to

execute productions in order to achieve some goal for the system.
Productions consists of two parts: a sensory precondition (or “IF” statement) and
an action (or “THEN”). If a production’s precondition matches the current state of
the world, then the production is said to be triggered. If a production’s action is
executed, it is said to have fired. A production system also contains a database,
sometimes called working memory, which maintains data about current state or
knowledge, and a rule interpreter. The rule interpreter must provide a
mechanism for prioritizing productions when more than one is triggered.
The underlying idea of production systems is to represent knowledge in the form
of condition-action pairs called production rules.

Components of Production System

The major components of Production System in AI are:

 Global Database: The global database is the central data structure used by
the production system in Artificial Intelligence.

 Set of Production Rules: The production rules operate on the global

database. Each rule usually has a precondition that is either satisfied or not
by the global database. If the precondition is satisfied, the rule is usually be
applied. The application of the rule changes the database.

 A Control System: The control system then chooses which applicable rule
should be applied and ceases computation when a termination condition on
the database is satisfied. If multiple rules are to fire at the same time, the
control system resolves the conflicts.

Classes of Production System in Artificial Intelligence

There are four major classes of Production System in Artificial Intelligence:

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 Monotonic Production System: It’s a production system in which the

application of a rule never prevents the later application of another rule, that
could have also been applied at the time the first rule was selected.

 Partially Commutative Production System: It’s a type of production

system in which the application of a sequence of rules transforms state X
into state Y, then any permutation of those rules that is allowable also
transforms state x into state Y. Theorem proving falls under the monotonic
partially communicative system.

 Non-Monotonic Production Systems: These are useful for solving

ignorable problems. These systems are important from an implementation
standpoint because they can be implemented without the ability to backtrack
to previous states when it is discovered that an incorrect path was followed.
This production system increases efficiency since it is not necessary to keep
track of the changes made in the search process.

 Commutative Systems: These are usually useful for problems in which

changes occur but can be reversed and in which the order of operation is not
critical. Production systems that are not usually not partially commutative
are useful for many problems in which irreversible changes occur, such as
chemical analysis. When dealing with such systems, the order in which
operations are performed is very important and hence correct decisions must
be made at the first attempt itself.

Advantages:

 provides excellent tools for structuring AI programs

 The system is highly modular because individual rules can be added,
removed or modified independently
 The system uses pattern directed control which is more flexible than
algorithmic control
 Provides opportunities for heuristic control of the search
 A good way to model the state-driven nature of intelligent machines

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 Quite helpful in a real-time environment and applications.

Disadvantages:

 It is very difficult to analyze the flow of control within a production system

 It describes the operations that can be performed in a search for a solution to

the problem.

 There is an absence of learning due to a rule-based production system that

does not store the result of the problem for future use.

 The rules in the production system should not have any type of conflict
resolution as when a new rule is added to the database it should ensure that it does
not have any conflict with any existing rule.

Example of production system(Water-Jug problem)

Problem Statement:

We have two jugs of capacity 5l and 3l (liter), and a tap with an endless supply of
water. The objective is to obtain 4 liters exactly in the 5-liter jug with the minimum
steps possible.

Production System:

1. Fill the 5 liter jug from tap

2. Empty the 5 liter jug
3. Fill the 3 liter jug from tap
4. Empty the 3 liter jug
5. Then, empty the 3 liter jug to 5 liter
6. Empty the 5 liter jug to 3 liter
7. Pour water from 3 liters to 5 liter
8. Pour water from 5 liters to 3 liters but do not empty

Solution : 1,8,4,6,1,8 or 3,5,3,7,2,5,3,5;

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Expert System:

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve

complex problems in a particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human
intelligence and expertise.

Expert systems have played a large role in many industries including in

financial services, telecommunications, healthcare, customer service,
transportation, video games, manufacturing, aviation and written communication.
Two early expert systems broke ground in the healthcare space for medical
diagnoses: Dendral, which helped chemists identify organic molecules, and
MYCIN, which helped to identify bacteria such as bacteremia and meningitis, and
to recommend antibiotics and dosages.

Typically, an expert system incorporates a knowledge base containing

accumulated experience and an inference or rules engine-- a set of rules for
applying the knowledge base to each particular situation that is described to the
program to achieve required solution. Knowledge is nothing but a collection of
information about a particular subject (domain).

Inference engine uses two modes to recommend a solution:

1. Forward Chaining:

Forward chaining is also known as a forward deduction or forward

reasoning method when using an inference engine. Forward chaining is a
form of reasoning which start with atomic sentences in the knowledge base
and applies inference rules (Modus Ponens) in the forward direction to
extract more data until a goal is reached.

The Forward-chaining algorithm starts from known facts, triggers all

rules whose premises are satisfied, and add their conclusion to the known
facts. This process repeats until the problem is solved.

Properties of Forward-Chaining:

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 It is a down-up approach, as it moves from bottom to top.

 It is a process of making a conclusion based on known facts or data, by
starting from the initial state and reaches the goal state.
 Forward-chaining approach is also called as data-driven as we reach to the
goal using available data.
 Forward -chaining approach is commonly used in the expert system, such as
CLIPS, business, and production rule systems.

2. Backward Chaining:

Backward-chaining is also known as a backward deduction or

backward reasoning method when using an inference engine. A backward
chaining algorithm is a form of reasoning, which starts with the goal and
works backward, chaining through rules to find known facts that support the
goal.

Properties of backward chaining:

 It is known as a top-down approach.

 Backward-chaining is based on modus ponens inference rule.
 In backward chaining, the goal is broken into sub-goal or sub-goals to prove
the facts true.
 It is called a goal-driven approach, as a list of goals decides which rules are
selected and used.
 Backward -chaining algorithm is used in game theory, automated theorem
proving tools, inference engines, proof assistants, and various AI
applications.
 The backward-chaining method mostly used a depth-first search strategy
for proof.

Note: modus ponens is the rule of logic which states that if a conditional
statement (‘if p then q ’) is accepted, and the antecedent ( p ) holds, then
the consequent ( q ) may be inferred(concluded).

Example:

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The law says that it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile
nations. The country Nono, an enemy of America, has some missiles, and all
of its missiles were sold to it by Colonel West, who is American.

Prove that Colonel West is a criminal.

Facts Conversion into FOL:

1... it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations:

American(x) ∧ Weapon(y) ∧ Sells(x,y,z) ∧ Hostile(z) ⇒ Criminal(x)

2... Nono ... has some missiles,

i.e., ∃x Owns(Nono,x) ∧ Missile(x): Owns(Nono,M1) and Missile(M1)

3 ... all of its missiles were sold to it by Colonel West

∀ x Missile(x) ∧ Owns(Nono,x) ⇒ Sells(West,x,Nono)

4…Missiles are weapons:

Missile(x) ⇒ Weapon(x)

5…An enemy of America counts as ”hostile'':

Enemy(x,America) ⇒ Hostile(x)

6…West, who is American...

American(West)

7…The country Nono, an enemy of America...

Enemy(Nono,America)

Proof by forward chaining:

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Proof by Backward Chaining:

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Forward chaining vs backward chaining

 If we have clear hypothesis backward chaining is likely to be better.

 Backward is goal driven.
 Backward chaining is used in diagnostic problems or classification
problem.
 Forward chaining is better if we have less clear hypothesis and want
to see what can be concluded from current situation.
 Forward chaining is data driven.
 Forward chaining is used in design of system/configuration of
systems.

Means-Ends Analysis:

The means-ends analysis concentrates around the detection of differences

between the current state and the goal state. Once such difference is isolated, an
operator that can reduce the difference must be found. However, perhaps that
operator cannot be applied to the current state. Hence, we set up a subproblem
of getting to a state in which it can be applied. The kind of backward chaining in
which the operators are selected and then sub goals are setup to establish the
preconditions of the operators is known as operator subgoaling.

It is a problem solving technique, that relies on a set of rules that can transform
one problem state into another. These rules are usually not represented with
complete sate descriptions on each side. Instead they are represented as a left
side that describes the conditions that must be met for the rule to be applicable
(these conditions are called the rule’s preconditions) and a right side that
describes those aspects of the problem state that will be changed by the
application of the rule.

Algorithm:

 Step 1: Compare CURRENT to GOAL, if there are no differences between

both then return Success and Exit.
 Step 2: Else, select the most significant difference and reduce it by doing the
following steps until the success or failure occurs.

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1. Select a new operator O which is applicable for the current difference, and if
there is no such operator, then signal failure.
2. Attempt to apply operator O to CURRENT. Make a description of two
states.
i) O-Start, a state in which O’s preconditions are satisfied.
ii) O-Result, the state that would result if O were applied In O-start.
3. If
(First-Part <------ MEA (CURRENT, O-START)
And
(LAST-Part <----- MEA (O-Result, GOAL), are successful,

then signal Success and return the result of combining FIRST-PART, O, and
LAST-PART.

Example:

1. if the current state is “I don’t have money” and our goal state is “I
have money” then either “ask from friend” or “visit nearby bank”,
operator is recommended.
2. If our current state is “I am hungry ” and our goal state is “I am not
hungry” then either “visit hotel” or “visit canteen”, operator is
recommended.
3. Problem as follows:

Initial state goal

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Solution:

Step1: Delete black dot step 2: move circle to right using step 3: move cirlcle to up

using delete operator move right operator using move up operator

MyCIN Style probability and its application

In artificial intelligence, MYCIN was an early expert system designed to identify
bacteria causing severe infections, such as bacteremia and meningitis, and to
recommend antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight —
the name derived from the antibiotics themselves, as many antibiotics have
the suffix "-mycin". The Mycin system was also used for the diagnosis of blood
clotting diseases.

MYCIN was developed over five or six years in the early 1970s at Stanford
University in Lisp by Edward Shortliffe. MYCIN was never actually used in
practice but research indicated that it proposed an acceptable therapy in
about 69% of cases, which was better than the performance of infectious
disease experts who were judged using the same criteria. MYCIN operated
using a fairly simple inference engine, and a knowledge base of ~600 rules. It
would query the physician running the program via a long series of simple
yes/no or textual questions. At the end, it provided a list of possible culprit
bacteria ranked from high to low based on the probability of each diagnosis, its
confidence in each diagnosis' probability, the reasoning behind each diagnosis,
and its recommended course of drug treatment.
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MYCIN was based on certainty factors rather than probabilities. These

certainty factors CF are in the range [– 1,+1] where –1 means certainly false
and +1 means certainly true. The system was based on rules of the form:

IF: the patient has signs and symptoms S1 ꓥ S2 ꓥ… ꓥ Sn , and certain

background conditions t1 ꓥ t2 ꓥ… ꓥ tm hold

THEN: conclude that the patient had disease di with certainty CR

The idea was to use production rules of this kind in an attempt to approximate
the calculation of the conditional probabilities p( di | S1 ꓥ S2 ꓥ… ꓥ Sn), and
provide a scheme for accumulating evidence that approximated the reasoning
process of an expert.

Practical use / Application:

MYCIN was never actually used in practice. This wasn't because of any
weakness in its performance. As mentioned, in tests it outperformed members
of the Stanford medical school faculty. Some observers raised ethical and legal
issues related to the use of computers in medicine — if a program gives the
wrong diagnosis or recommends the wrong therapy, who should be held
responsible? However, the greatest problem, and the reason that MYCIN was
not used in routine practice, was the state of technologies for system
integration, especially at the time it was developed. MYCIN was a stand-alone
system that required a user to enter all relevant information about a patient
by typing in response to questions that MYCIN would pose.

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Assignment:

4. What is forward and backward chaining? Explain in

detail.
5. Define Expert System? Explain why MYCIN was called
as an expert system in detail?
6. How Means-Ends Analysis is used in problem solving.
Explain?
7. What is a plan? Discuss the concept of non-linear
planning?
8. Explain how production system can be used in
problem solving with a suitable example?

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