COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK

7.0 Introduction
Communication has extended the uses of microcomputer enormously. The mobile telephone and
other wireless technologies are revolutionizing how we use computer today. You can connect
your microcomputer to other people’s microcomputers, to the internet, and to other larger
computers located throughout the world. Communication systems are the electronic systems that
transmit data over communication lines from one location to another.
Computer communication is the process of sharing data, programs, and information between two
or more computers.

7.1 DATA COMMUNICATION

We all are acquainted with some sorts of communication in our day to day life. For
communication of information and messages, we use telephone and postal communication
systems. Similarly data and information from one computer system can be transmitted to other
systems across geographical areas. Thus, data transmission is the movement of information using
some standard methods. These methods include electrical signals carried along a conductor,
optical signals along an optical fibers and electromagnetic devices.

7.1.1 Basic Elements of a Communication System

The following are the basic elements of a communication system.
1. A sender (source) which creates the message to be transmitted.
2. A medium that carries the message. It is also called communication channel e.g. wired
medium such as twisted pair cable, optical fibers, coaxial cables etc and wireless medium
such as microwave, satellite, Bluetooth, infra-red etc
3. A receiver (sink) which receives the message.

7.1.2 Data Transmission Methods

Data transmission methods are classified based on direction, type and speed of communication
 signals. There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another based on direction
1. Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication can take place in one direction. The receiver
receives the signal from the transmitting device. In this mode the flow of information is Uni-
directional. Hence it is rarely used for data communication e.g. radio transmission
2. Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, the communication channel is used in both directions, but
only in one direction at a time. Thus a half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data
e.g. walkie-talkie, hubs etc
3. Full-duplex: In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions at the same
time. Use of full-duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turn-around time required in
half-duplex arrangement is eliminated. Example of this mode of transmission is the telephone
line e.g. mobile phones, switch, routers etc

7.1.3 Data Transmission Types: Digital and Analog Transmission

Data is transmitted from one point to another point by means of electrical signals that may be in
digital and analog form. In analog signal, the transmission power varies over a continuous range
with respect to sound, light and radio waves. On the other hand, a digital signal may assume only
discrete set of values within a given range. Analog signal is measured in Volts and its frequency
in Hertz (Hz). A digital signal is a sequence of voltage represented in binary form. When digital
data are to be sent over an analog form the digital signal must be converted to analog form. The
technique by which a digital signal is converted to analog form is known as modulation. The
reverse process, that is the conversion of analog signal to its digital form, is known as
demodulation. The device, which converts digital signal into analog, and the reverse, is known as
modem.
 Time
Analog Signal

7.1.4 Data Transmission Mode: Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Data transmission through a medium can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In
asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted character by character as you go on typing on a
keyboard. Hence, there are irregular gaps between characters. However, it is cheaper to
implement, as you do not have to save the data before sending. On the other hand, in the
synchronous mode, the saved data is transmitted block by block. Each block can contain many
characters. Synchronous transmission is well suited for remote communication between a
computer and related devices like card reader and printers.

7.2 BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth is one of the factors that affect how data is transmitted. Bandwidth is a measurement
of the width or capacity of the communication channel. Effectively, it means how much
information can move across the communication channel in a given amount of time. There are
three categories of bandwidth
1. Voiceband: this is also known as voice grade or low bandwidth and it is used for
standard telephone communication. Voiceband can be effectively used for transmitting texts.
However, it is too slow for many types of transmission including high-quality audio and video.
Typical speeds are 56 to 96 kbps.
2. Medium band: this is the bandwidth used in special leased lines to connect
minicomputers and mainframes as well as to transmit data over long distances.
3. Broadband: this is the bandwidth used for high-capacity transmissions. Microcomputer
with digital subscriber lines, cable and satellite connections as well as other more specialized
high-speed devices uses this bandwidth. It is capable of effectively meeting most of today’s
communication needs including transmitting high-quality audio and video. Speeds are typically
1.5 mbps, although much higher speeds are possible
7.3 COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different
places. In computer network, two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or
infrared light beams

7.3.1 The Benefit of Computer Networks

Sharing of Peripheral Devices
Peripherals device such as laser printers, disk and scanners can be expensive. As a result, to
justify their purchase, management wants to maximize their use. Usually the best way to do this
is to connect the peripheral to a network serving several computer users.

Sharing of Programs and Data

In most organizations, people use the same software and need access to the same information.
It is less expensive for a company or institution to buy one word processing program that serves
many employees than to buy a separate processing program for each employee.
In addition, if all employees have access to the same data on a shared storage devices, the
organization can save money and avoid serious problems. If each employee has a separate
computer, some employees may update customer address while others remain ignorant of the
changes. Updating information on a shared server is much easier than updating every user’s
individual system.

Speed
Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring of files, program and
information. The concept of electronic mail and short message service (SMS) which are made
possible through network has revolutionized communication system.

Security of Information
 Files and programs on a network can be well secured. Such files and programs would be backed
up or duplicated on a networked storage device shared by others. Also, authentication is
established for specific sensitive programs to restrict access to authorized users.

Centralized Software Management

One of the greatest benefits of a computer network is the centralized program management. This
eliminates the need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on stand-alone
computers within an organization.

Cost
Since programs and hardware devices are shared over a computer network, this reduces the
financial implication of using information and communication technology. Besides monetary
savings, sharing of programs on a network allow for easier use of programs by multiple users
simultaneously.

7.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Classification of Computer Networks can be based on: How the networks are structured
(computer model), Geographical coverage and Topology

(a) How Networks Are Structured

Two principal ways in which networks are structured are Client/server and peer-to-peer

CLIENT/SERVER NETWORKS
A client/server network consists of clients, which are micro computers that request data and
servers which are computers used to supply data as depicted in figure 7.1.

The server is a powerful microcomputer that manages shared devices such as laser printers. It
runs server software for applications such as email and web browsing. Different servers may be
used to manage different tasks. A file server is a computer that behaves like a disk drive, storing
user programs and data files on a LAN.

Figure 7.1 A client/server network

A database server is a computer in a LAN that stores data but does not store programs.

A print server control one or more printers and stores the print-image output from all the
microcomputer on the system. Web servers contain web pages that can be viewed using a
browser. Mail servers manage mails.

The advantages of this type of network are

1. Resources and security are under centralized control and management
2. Existing networks can be easily expanded, as demand increases
3. It is highly flexible as it integrates new technology with ease.
4. It support interoperability as all hardware and software components work together

It is however expensive and administration can be very tasking and required specialized staff.
Internet, extranet and intranet are examples of client/server network

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
In a peer-to-peer (P2P) network, all microcomputers on the network communicate directly with
one another without relying on a server. Considering figure 7.2, every computer can share files
and peripherals with all other computers on the network, given that all are granted access
privileges. P2P networks slow down under heavy use. P2P networks are less expensive than
client/server networks and works effectively for up to 25 computers.
A workgroup is a collection of computers networked for a common purpose, such as accounting
or marketing functions.
Peer-2-Peer network has advantages of cheaper setup cost and low financial commitment.
However, porous security, low performance, and absence of central control are demerits of this
approach.

Figure 7.2 A peer-to-peer network

(b) Geographical Coverage

Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of geographical area (i.e. distance) to two
broad categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Desktop Area Network (DAN) is a network of computer with other terminals like printer,
scanner, telephone, camera, etc. on a desk or table with a very short distant. This is a subclass of
local area network.
In likewise manner, Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is another class of network that can be
put under WAN. MAN is a network of computers with other intelligent terminals connected
together within a distant of about 10Km (i.e. town or city).

1. Local Area Network

Networks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a building or buildings
on one site are called Local Area Network (LAN). LAN transmits data with a speed of several
megabits per second (106 bits per second). The transmission medium is normally coaxial cables.
LAN links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose of sharing
information. Usually LAN links computers within a limited geographical area because they must
be connected by a cable, which is quite expensive. People working in LAN get more capabilities
in data processing, work processing and other information exchange compared to stand-alone
computers. Because of this information exchange most of the business and government
organizations are using LAN.

Major Characteristics of LAN

 every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network
 high degree of interconnection between computers
 easy physical connection of computers in a network
 inexpensive medium of data transmission
 high data transmission rate

Advantages
 The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does
not effect the functioning for other computers.
 Addition of new computer to network is easy.
 High rate of data transmission is possible.
 Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.
Disadvantages
If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.

Use of LAN
Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used
 File transfers and Access
 Word and text processing
 Electronic message handling
  Remote database access
 Personal computing
 Digital voice transmission and storage

II. Wide Area Network

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to describe a computer network spanning a
regional, national or global area. For example, for a large company the head quarters might be at
Abuja and regional branches at Abeokuta, Ilorin, Owerri and Kadunna. Here regional centers are
connected to head quarters through WAN. The distance between computers connected to WAN
is larger. Therefore, the transmission mediums used are normally telephone lines, microwaves
and satellite links.

Characteristics of WAN
Followings are the major characteristics of WAN.
1. Communication Facility: For a big company spanning over different parts of the country
the employees can save long distance phone calls and overcomes the time lag in overseas
communications. Computer conferencing is another use of WAN where users communicate
with each other through their computer system.
2. Remote Data Entry: Remote data entry is possible in WAN. It means sitting at any location
you can enter data, update data and query other information of any computer attached to the
WAN but located in other cities. For example, suppose you are sitting at Abuja and want to
see some data of a computer located at Abeokuta, you can do it through WAN.
3. Centralized Information: In modern computerized environment you will find that big
organizations go for centralized data storage. This means if the organization is spread over
many cities, they keep their important business data in a single place. As the data are
generated at different sites, WAN permits collection of this data from different sites and save
at a single site.

Differences between LAN and WAN

 LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometers. Nevertheless, WAN
covers great distance and operate nationwide or even worldwide.
  In LAN, the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with wires and
coaxial cables. In WAN there is no physical connection. Communication is done through
telephone lines and satellite links.

 Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is owned by a
single organization. In case of WAN the cost of data transmission is very high because
the transmission mediums used are hired, either telephone lines or satellite links.

 The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The transmission
speed in LAN varies from 0.1 to 100 megabits per second. In case of WAN the speed
ranges from 1800 to 9600 bits per second (bps).

 Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because in LAN the
distance covered is negligible.

(c) Network Topology

The term topology in the context of communication network refers to the way the computers or
workstations in the network are linked together. According to the physical arrangements of
workstations and nature of work, there are three major types of network topology. They are star
topology, bus topology, ring topology and mesh topology.

1. Star topology
In star topology a number of workstations (or nodes) are directly linked to a central node (see,
Figure 7.3). Any communication between stations on a star LAN must pass through the central
node. There is bi-directional communication between various nodes. The central node controls
all the activities of the nodes. The advantages of the star topology are:
 It offers flexibility of adding or deleting of workstations from the network.
 Breakdown of one station does not affect any other device on the network.
 Easy to manage and monitor
The major disadvantage of star topology is that failure of the central node disables
communication throughout the whole network.

Figure 7.3: Star Topology

2. Bus Topology
In bus topology, all workstations are connected to a single communication line called bus. In this
type of network topology there is no central node as in star topology. Transmission from any
station travels the length of the bus in both directions and can be received by all workstations
(see, figure 7.4). The advantage of the bus topology is that
 It is quite easy to set up.
 If one station of the topology fails, it does not affect the entire system.
 Cable use is economical
 Layout is simple
The disadvantages of bus topology are:
 Any break in the bus is difficult to identify.
 Slow down under heavy use
Figure 7.4 Bus Topology

3. Ring Topology
In ring topology, each station is attached nearby stations on a point to point basis so that the
entire system is in the form of a ring as shown in figure 7.5. In this topology data is transmitted
in one direction only. Thus, the data packets circulate along the ring in either clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction. The advantage of this topology is that any signal transmitted on the network
passes through all the LAN stations. The disadvantage of ring network is that the breakdown of
any one station on the ring can disable the entire system.

Figure 7.5 Ring Topology

 4. Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, all devices are connected to each other more than once to create fault
tolerance when a system's hardware or software must recover from failure. A single device or
cable failure does not affect the performance because the devices are connected by more than
one means. This is more expensive than other topologies because it requires more hardware and
cabling.

Figure 7.6 Mesh Topology

7.4 NETWORK TERMINOLOGY

Wired And /Or Wireless Connections
Networks use a wired or wireless connection system. Wired connection may be twisted pair
wiring, coaxial cable or fiber-optic cable and wireless connections may be infrared microwave
(such as Bluetooth), broadcast radio (such as W:-Fi) or satellite as we describe shortly.

Hosts & Nodes

A client/server network has a host computer that controls the network. The other devices on the
network are called nodes. A node is any device that is attached to a network.

Server
 A Server is a node that shares resources with other nodes. Dedicated servers specialize in
performing specific tasks. Depending on the specific task, they may be called an application
server, communication server, database server, file server, printer server or web server.

Terminals
A computer system that is directly connected to a server is called a terminal.

Packets
Electronic messages are sent as packets. A Packet is a fixed-length block of data for
transmission. Once the packet arrives at their destination, the receiving computer reassembles
them into proper sequence to complete the message.

Network Operating System

The network operating system (NOS) is the system software that manages and controls the
activities of all computers and other devices on a network. The NOS support access by multiple
users and provides for recognition of users based on passwords and terminal identifications.
Examples of popular NOS software are Novell Netware, Windows NT/98/Me/XP, UNIX and
Linux.

Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules governing the exchange of data between hardware and/or software
components in a computer network. Every device connected, to a network has an Internet
Protocol (IP) address so that other computers on the network can properly route data to that
address. Sending and receiving devices must follow the same set of protocols. Protocols are
built into the hardware or software you are using.
Common examples of protocol that are available for LAN connection are CSMA, Polling and
Token-passing.

7.5 NETWORK LINKING DEVICES

Computers must share common media to communicate successfully. Network media may be a
physical cable or a wireless radio connection. Regardless of type, a network medium's main
function is to carry data from one device to the next. Typical network linking devices are
discussed below:

Hub
A hub is the central part/point for devices in a network – a place of convergence where data
arrives from one or more directions and is forwarded out in one or more other directions. Hubs
are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. A hub is a
half-duplex, meaning it transmits data in both directions but only in one direction at a time.

Switches
A switch is a device that connects computers to a network, figure 7.7. Unlike a hub, it sends
messages only to a computer that is the intended recipients. A switch is a full-duplex, meaning
data is transmitted back and forth at the same time.

Figure 7.7 Switch

Modems
Modem enables digital microcomputers to communicate across analog telephone lines. This
communication includes both voice and data communications. The speed with which modems
transmit data varies and it is measured in bits per second (bps). There are four basic types of
modems: external, internal, PC card and wireless modem.

Bridges
 A bridge is an interface used to connect the same type of networks e.g LAN to LAN

Gateways
A gateway is an interface permitting communication between dissimilar networks e. LAN to
WAN

Routers
A router is a special computer that directs communicating messages when several networks are
connected together. High – speed routers can serve as part of the internet backbone handling the
major data traffic.

Backbones
The backbone consists of the main highway that connects all computer networks in an
organization.

Network Interface Card

A network interface card (NIC) enables the computer to send and receive messages over a cable
network. The card can be inserted into an expansion slot in a microcomputer. New computers
often come with network cards already installed.

7.6 TYPES OF WIRELESS CONNECTIONS TECHNOLOGIES

Wireless connections do not use a solid substance to connect sending and receiving devices.
Rather, they use the air itself. Primary technologies used for wireless connections are infrared,
broadcast radio, microwave and satellite

Infrared:
Infrared uses infrared light waves to communicate over short distances. It is sometimes referred
to as line of sight communication because the light waves can only travel in a straight line. This
requires that sending and receiving devices must be in clear view of one another without any
obstructions blocking that view. Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication standard that
uses microwaves to transmit data over short distances of up to approximately 33 feet. Unlike
 traditional microwaves, Bluetooth does not require line of sight communication. Rather it uses
radio waves that can pass through nearby wall and other nonmetal barriers.

Broadcast radio
Broadcast radio communications uses special sending and receiving towers called transceivers.
These transceivers send and receive radio signals from wireless devices. For examples, cellular
telephones and many web-enabled devices use broadcast radio to place telephone calls and/or to
connect to the internet.

Microwave
Microwave system uses very high frequency radio signals to transmit data through space. The
transmitter and receiver of a microwave system should be in line-of-sight because the radio
signal cannot bend. With microwave very long distance, transmission is not possible. In order to
overcome the problem of line of sight and power amplification of weak signal, repeaters are used
at intervals of 25 to 30 kilometers between the transmitting and receiving end.

Communication Satellite
The problem of line-sight and repeaters are overcome by using satellites that are the most widely
used data transmission media in modern days. A communication satellite is a microwave relay
station placed in outer space. In satellite communication, microwave signal is transmitted from a
transmitter on earth to the satellite at space. The satellite amplifies the weak signal and transmits
it back to the receiver. The main advantage of satellite communication is that it is a single
microwave relay station visible from any point of a very large area. They are mostly used to link
big metropolitan cities.

7.7 NETWORK SECURITY

Network security is often defined as the tools, techniques, and methods used to protect a
company or organization's investments in IT technology. The data and services computers
provide, as well as the equipment that provides them, all require protection. The followings are
the network security that can be employed to protect network infrastructure.

Auditing
Auditing is the process of tracking users and their actions on the network. Auditing of access use
and rights changes should be implemented to prevent unauthorized or unintentional access for a
guest or restricted user account access to sensitive or protected resources.
Some activities that can be audited include users doing the following:
1. Reading, modifying, or deleting files
2. Logging on or off the network
3. Using services, such as remote access or Terminal Services
4. Using devices, such as printers

Employing firewalls
A firewall is a component placed between computers and networks to eliminate undesired access
by the outside world. It can be comprised of hardware, software, or a combination of both. A
firewall is the first line of defense for a network, and should be set up during network
installation. Even though a firewall is an important part of your defense, you should not rely on it
exclusively for network protection. Combine a firewall with all the security solutions outlined in
this section.

Scanning
To reduce security risks, you should regularly use a network scanner to check your network for
rogue access points (unauthorized access points) and other threats.