COMPLEX NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS

I. GEOMETRY AND ARITHMETIC OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

i. Complex Numbers
▪ A complex number is a symbol x + iy, or x + yi, where x and y are real numbers and i2 =
−1. Arithmetic of complex numbers is defined by:
Equality a + ib = c + id exactly when a = c and b = d.
Addition (a + ib) +(c + id) =(a + c) + i(b + d).
Multiplication (a + ib)(c + id) =(ac − bd) + i(ad + bc).
▪ In a+bi, a is the real part denoted by Re(a+bi) and b is the imaginary part denoted my
Im(a+bi). Ex. Re(−4 + 12i) = −4 and Im(−4 + 12i) = 12.
▪ Complex arithmetic obeys many of the rules we are accustomed to from working with real
numbers such as commutative, associative and distributive.

ii. The Complex Plane

▪ Any complex number z=x+iy can be plotted in the complex plane where the horizontal axis
is the real axis and the vertical axis is the imaginary axis.
▪ Figure 1a shows the complex number as a point and figure 1b shows it as a vector since
adding their components is similar to vector.

Figure 1: x+iy as a point, a vector; and

its length

iii. Magnitude and Conjugate

▪ The magnitude of x+iy is the real number

which represents the distance from the origin of figure 1c or from two complex numbers as
shown in figure 1d.
▪ The complex conjugate, or just conjugate of x + iy is the complex number x − iy with the
sign of the imaginary part reversed. Denote the conjugate of z as z .
▪ Figure 2 shows the conjugate as a reflection across the real axis.

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 Figure 2: Complex conjugate
2
▪ Some properties of conjugates are |z|=|z̄| and |z| =z z̄ which can be verified by figure 2
since both points has the same distance from the origin. This properties are used to
compute quotients,

▪ Example I.iii.1. Solve the left most side of the equation below.

iv. Inequalities (Can be skipped)

▪ Property (1) is verifiable by Pythagorean, (2) by figure 2 summation and (3) by solving for z
then reverse property (3). Note that w is a vector.

v. Argument and Polar Form

▪ Converting figure 1a to polar yields figure 3 and letting z=a+ib.

Figure 3: Polar form of z

▪ The θ in figure 3 is called argument of z. Of course, given any argument θ, then θ + 2nπ is
also an argument for any integer n.
▪ Using trigonometry in figure 3 and Euler’s formula,

▪ r ei θ is called the polar form of z.

▪ Example I.v.1. Determine the polar form of z=1+i.

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 Solution: We can identify z with the point (1,1) which has polar coordinates (√2,π/4 +2nπ) for
any integer n. Any number π/4 + 2nπ with n an integer is an argument of 1 +i. The polar form of z is

II. THE COMPLEX LOGARITHM (Preferably with calculator)

◦ From calculus,
y=ln(x) if and only if x=e y
Solving for the complex variable y=u+iv and the polar form with magnitude r and angle θ,
y u iv iθ
x=e =e e =r e (eq II.1)
Observing the last equality, the product and polar form, and the definition of magnitude of
polar form,
e u=r=|x| thus u=ln|x|
From the product and polar form of (eq II.1), e iv=eiθ then dividing
iv
e i(v−θ )
iθ
=e =1
e
By algebra, e i 0=1 and by polar form, all arguments are e 2 π ni =1 for integer n,
i (v−θ )=2 n π i or v =θ + 2n π
From the second equality of (eq II.1) and the definition of logarithm, the variable y is the
solution
ln(x )= y=ln|x|+i(θ +2n π )
where x can be complex, n is an integer and θ is the exponent in polar form.

◦ Example II.1. Determine ln(1+i)

Solution: First, convert the given to polar.
iπ
4
√2 e
From the formula,
ln √ 2+ i( π + 2n π )
4
◦ Example II.2. Determine ln(-3)
Solution: First, convert the given to polar.
iπ
3e
From the formula,
ln 3+i( π +2 n π ) or ln 3+i π (2 n+1)
◦ Exercise II: -4i, 2-2i, -5, 1+5i, -9+2i, 5

III. Powers
i. mth Roots
▪ Using the polar form of a complex number taking all arguments (see the broken-line boxed
equation above),
i(θ +2 n π )
z=r e
▪ where n is an integer. Taking the mth derivative or raise by 1/m,
z 1/ m=r 1 /m e i(θ +2 n π )
▪ When when n=0,1,2,3...

▪ the series repeats at every m times since 0=2π=4π in cyclic sense. Thus then mth root of a
complex number z is

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 (θ +2 k π )
i
1 /m m
r e for k=0 ,1 , ..., m−1 (ln formula)
▪ or in trigonometric form by Euler’s formula,

[ (
r 1 /m cos
θ +2 k π
m
+i sin
θ + 2k π
m ) ( )] for k=0 , 1 ,... , m−1
▪ Example III.1. Find the fourth root of 1+i.
iπ iπ
Solution: Determine the polar form, with positive exponent √ 2e 4 =s1 /2 e 4
. Note that
negative exponent is also possible.
Using the root formula,

or in trigonometric form

▪ Example III.2. The mth root of 1 are called the nth root of unity, This has many
applications such as in fast Fourier transform. Find the fifth root of unity.
Solution: Determine the polar form 1=( 1) e i0 .
Using the root formula,

or in trigonometric form

Plotting the point in the plane produces a regular polygon having one vertex at (1,0) as
shown below.

ii. Rational Powers

▪ These has the exponent of the form m/n such as z m/ n=( z m)1 /n
▪ A simpler way finding the power of complex z is using

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 z w =e w ln z (root formula)
w

which can be quickly verified by logarithm identities e w ln z =e ln(z )=z w

▪ Example III.1. Evaluate (2−2 i)3 /5

Solution 1. Using the direct way
The given can be written as ((2−2i)3)1 /5 where the term raised to 3 is determined by
multiplication
1/ 5
(−16−16i)
Using the mth root concept above, the polar form with positive exponent (ie. negative
exponent also yields to the correct answer) is √ 512 e 5 π i/ 4 and the roots are

Solution 2. Using the formula

The logarithm of z=2-2i with the polar form with positive exponent is √ 8 e7 π i / 4 . The
7π
logarithm is ln √ 8+i ( +2 n π ) . Using the formula,
4
7π 3 7π 3π
3/ 5(ln √ 8+i ( +2 n π )) i( +2 n π ) i(7+2 n)
3/ 5 4 3/ 10 1/ 10
z =e =8 e5 4
=512 e 20
21 π i
1/ 10 20
When n=0, this yields 512 e which is not the lowest positive exponent. Using n=-
1 and -2 completes the 5 roots,

▪ Example III.2. Evaluate (1−i)1 +i

Solution: There are no direct way in solving this since the exponent is imaginary. We can
use the root formula immediately thus,
w (1+i )ln(1−i)
z =e
Using the ln formula for the exponent with polar form with positive exponent (ie. negative
7π
i
4
is also possible)of √ 2e
7 7 7
(1+i )(ln √ 2+i ( π +2 π n)) ln √ 2+i ( π +2 π n) i ln √ 2−( π +2 π n)
w 4 4 4
z =e =e e
7π −7 π
i( +2 π n+ln √ 2) n−2 π n
4 4
=√ 2 e e
or in trigonometric form i\using Euler’s formula

i1+i, (1+i)2i ii, (1+i)2-i, (-1+i)-3i,

▪ Exercise III.
(1-i) , i1/4, 161/4, (-4)2-i
1/3

iii. end