Module 11 : Plant Knowledge

Summary:
Thus far, you have been given the tools you need to decide
what kind of plants you want, where you will put them and how
you will take care of them. To be able to give your garden the
care it requires, it is useful to know more about the plants
themselves. When you understand how a plant grows, evolves,
reproduces and is classified, it will be easier to understand
why and how you can take care of the garden in the best way
possible.

This module is going to focus on those points and others as a

way to help with your gardening knowledge. Gardening in a
temperate climate will take some work based on very wet
seasons and cold harsh winters that can occur. However, this
is just one of the reasons choosing plants is an extremely
important part of any garden.

Here are some of the highlights this module will provide:

Understand plant reproductive systems: Asexual and

sexual reproduction, plus a little plant physiology.
Receive a brief introduction to plant classification for
a beginning to what plants to use.
Learn what plants work well in different gardens and the
importance of matching certain plants together.
Learn about exotic and tropical plants, the care they
need and how to grow them in temperate climates.
Learn why native plants may be better for the climate
they will grow in.
11.1: Plant Reproduction Systems

Plant reproduction falls into one of two

categories: sexual reproduction or asexual
reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction creates plants that are the genitive
clones of the parent plant. There are two different types of
asexual reproductive process employed by plants.

Asexual reproduction is when new individuals are formed

without genetic fusion of gametes. Simple seeds may be
dispersed and then pollinated in order to create a new set of
growth with sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction produces
a new plant that is an exact copy of the parent plant. Budding
is usually used for this process. A piece of the vegetation
from the original plant is used for budding in order for a new
plant to grow.

Vegetative production is the most common type of reproduction

in woody and herbaceous plants. The process involves a piece
of the original plant (stems, roots or leaves). Vegetative
reproduction allows the plant to act as a perennial, which
means that they survive for several seasons and grow larger
over time.

Apomixis is another type of asexual reproduction process. This

process involves the creation of seeds and dispersing them.
These seeds do not come from embryonic fertilization, like
sexual reproduction does. However, pollen is sometimes
involved in the process; though, the pollen does not contain
any genetic material like it does in sexual reproduction.
Apomixis may take place in one of several forms. In some
cases, plantlets are generated instead of seeds. There might
also be a bulbil instead of a flower, which produces the new
cloned individual plant. Plants that use apomixes include
hawkweed and dandelions. Some citrus also use this type of
asexual reproduction.

Plants Using Asexual Reproduction

Polypody, iris, nettles, and couch grass use rhizome
structures for reproduction where the underground stem is able
to conduct reproduction to provide new growth plants.

Prostrate aerial stems like strawberries create runners. These

runners will produce new roots at certain points, which can be
buried and then grow new plants. This is asexual reproduction
as the plant is effectively growing its own new plants without
any secondary plant.

Adventitious buds form near the roots usually near damaged

stems, which can then be used for budding. Dandelions are a
good example of how this works.

Onions, hyacinth, narcissus and tulips reproduce underground

by dividing bulbs into more bulbs.

Sexual Reproduction
Unlike animals, plants cannot move to be able to seek the
right partners for sexual reproduction. Because of this they
have to rely on wind and water to transport the sperm required
for sexual reproduction. The earliest plants lived in the
water and would release plant sperm directly into the water,
which was then carried along with the current to reach a
partner plant. Even the first land plants, like moss, had
sperm that would swim through water or water droplets that
would splash from the male organs onto female reproduction
organs.
Plants evolved over history and as they became larger and more
complex organisms, the way they undertook sexual reproduction
was modified. New moments in the evolutionary process included
reproducing spores that would be released into the wind to
meet partners. Ferns, cordaites and conifers were some of the
first plants to accomplish this. They would produce spores, or
pollen grains, which contained male gametes, which protected
the sperm, and the spores would blow from the male sex organs
to female sex organs through the wind.

Sexual reproduction requires a fusion of parents to create a

plant. It requires two processes: meiosis and fertilization.
Meiosis is the process by which the plant’s genes are
rearranged. It is also the process by which the plant ensures
the correct number of chromosomes are in the plant.
Fertilization is the process which restores the chromosomes to
ensure that they reach a complete diploid number.

Although these are the two main processes, there are steps
that occur in between these processes which vary depending on
the species or genus of plant. Many plants undergo a process
called the alteration of generations which includes the
generation of gametophytes and sporophytes.

A gametophyte is haploid, which means that each cell contains

a single set of chromosomes. The gametes it produces will
either be male or female; however, they can also be both. This
happens through the division of cells, which is called
mitosis. Fertilization occurs when these gametes are fused and
create a diploid zygote which develops into the sporophyte.
That sporophyte will produce spores.

Modern plants will reproduce sexually by inbreeding or by

outbreeding. When a plant is capable of inbreeding, it is
genetically self-compatible and can even pollinate itself.
These plants can use cross-pollination; however, it needs to
happen between two genetically identical plants for it to
function properly.
Plants that use the outbreeding technique rely on cross-
pollination.

Some modern plants rely on pollination and pollinators to

reproduce. Pollination is the transfer of a plant’s pollen,
which contains genetic material, to the appropriate stigma.
Plants do not only need to rely on wind and water anymore.
They now rely on pollinators, which may be birds, bats or
insects. The plant attracts the pollinator to it with an odor,
which may be fetid, musky or sweet. Once the pollinator has
the pollen, they are given an incentive to travel to another
plant of the same species, thereby distributing the pollen.
Flowering plants are known for their heavy reliance on
pollination.

Plants that Use Sexual Reproduction

Pine trees are one example of a plant that uses sexual
reproduction.

These trees undergo a similar process to humans as far as

mitosis is concerned.

The cellular structure of the plant has single cell

chromosomes donated to another set of single cell chromosomes
to form a new gamete.

The male and female gametes fertilize, ensuring a new spore,

which occurs under meiosis. Mosses and liverworts are also
plants that have pollen and seeds, which develop into new
plants.

The Importance of Bees and Pollination in Gardens

Pollination and bees rely on each other. In fact, one of the
most important things that a bee does is aid the pollination
process. Because pollination is required for the reproduction
of many plants, a large number of plants all rely on bees.

Bees collect pollen and nectar from plant flowers which sticks
to the hair on the bee’s body. When the bee goes to the next
flower, some of the pollen falls off their body and onto
another flower, thereby transferring genetic material from
male sex organs in flowers to female reproductive organs in
flowers.
However, bees are not just important for flowers. They are
also required for many different crops including alfalfa,
apples, beans, beets, berries, Brussels sprouts, buckwheat,
cauliflower, cherries, chestnuts, chives, cucumbers, flax,
garlic, grapes, lettuce, mustard, onions, parsley, plums,
pumpkins, raspberries, rhubarb, squash strawberries, sweet
potatoes, turnips and watermelon.

Bees do not just aid in pollination. They also play a

significant role in the size and quality of the fruit.
Yet, bees are in distress. In fact, the population of
honeybees is decreasing at unprecedented rates. The cost of
the mass use of pesticides combined with diseases and
parasites is playing a significant role in the number of
honeybees on earth. However, if honeybees continue to die at
these rates, the world could be looking at life without many
of the most important vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts that
people rely on for sustenance. Some governments have created
initiatives for the funding of projects aimed at bringing back
the bee population.
Fortunately, doing your part to help bees help people is not
as hard as many people think. Through gardening, you can
create places for bees to thrive and feed.

Bees actually prefer certain colors over others in the garden.

They love blue, violet, purple, yellow and white flowers. When
you plant flowers, consider planting these close together to
help the bees both find the plants and navigate from plant to
plant. You can plant lavender, coneflowers or pumpkin vines to
attract bees.

Another tip for keeping bees is to provide a plate or shallow

bowl with some water and some rocks for the bees to land on.
Keep them in a visible spot so they can be easily spotted and
remember to replace the water daily.
You might also consider keeping bee hives. In the wild, bees
build their own hives but these hives are often destroyed by
developments. Creating a man-made hive is not difficult and
gives you the chance to open your own bee colony. You need a
hive stand, a bottom board and deep hive bodies. You also need
inner and telescoping outer cover, supers, frames and a
foundation.

The best time to set up a new bee hive is in the spring when
the honeybees are reproducing at a fast pace. Consider setting
up the hives in places where they won’t be disturbed by humans
and where they will have open places to fly. If there’s no
water in the area, you’ll need to set up a small body of water
like a pool, tub or bird bath.

Beekeeping involves some expenses and training. However, the

bees do an amazing service for the garden and for the food you
eat. If you’re keen, they also provide honey that you harvest
and use all year.

Before setting up a beekeeping outfit, be sure to check with

your local council. Some councils have rules and regulations
regarding beekeeping, and you want to ensure that you’re
operating within the constraints of local law.

11.2: Plant Classification

There are two primary classes of plants: angiosperms and
gymnosperms. Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers,
while gymnosperms are plants that do not produce flowers.

There are also two subclasses of plants: dicots and monocots.

Dicots are plants that produce two see leaves and monocots
produce only one.

There are also superorders that fit within those subclasses.

There are six superorders for dicots: magnoliidae,
hamamelidae, caryophyllidae, dilleniidae, rosidae, and
asteridae. There are also four superorders for monocots:
alismatidae, commelinidae, arecidae, liliidae. All names of
superorders include the suffix -idea.

Those superorders are then divided into several orders. All

order names end with the suffix -ales.

The next step in the classification spectrum is family. Every

order is divided into families. Families include plants that
have several or many features in common with each other and
grouping them by family is the primary way to keep them all
together. Even people without skills in botany are able to
distinguish which plants belong to the same family by their
botanical features.

The botanical classification scale includes a type plant for

every family. This family has all of the characteristics that
are used to separate plants from other families. The family is
typically named after the type plant.

It is unclear how many families there are. There are some

botanists and groups who recognize around 150 families. They
classify the other families as sub-families. However, other
botanists recognize almost 500 groups of plant families.

You can recognize a family name by the suffix -aceae.

Families can be divided into sub-families. Sub-families

further serve to keep similar plants together within the
family, particularly those plants that have different
characteristics. Sub-families end with the suffix -oideae.

The next group of plants is a tribe. Tribes are based on less

significant differences between plants; however, they can
often be made up of many plants. Tribes end with the suffix -
eae.
Subtribes are used to make up tribes, this division is
typically recognizable only to botanists and typically ends in
-inae.
The genus name is the name of the plant that many gardeners
will be most familiar with. Members of a genus are typically
recognizable as belonging to one group. The name of the genus
the plant belongs in is always capitalized.

A species classifies an individual plant. The species name

typically includes an important aspect of the plant. The name
may be based on color, shape or size. It may also be based on
the place where the plant was first discovered or where it
grows. The Genus and species name refer to a single plant and
are used to identify a specific plant. However, the species is
sometimes subdivided again into a sub-species. When you write
the name of a species, you add it after the genus name and
write it with lowercase letters.

Variety is similar to species; however, there are slight

differences. A variety will feature plants that have
differences that are somewhat significant. When you identify a
variety, you write the genus name, followed by the species
name, followed by var., which then includes the individual
name for the variety you are describing.

Form is a plant that features minor differences from other

plants, such as if the color is different or the shape of the
leaves is slightly different. When writing out a form, you
write the genus name, species name and then write f. for form
before writing out the variety.

A cultivar is defined as a cultivated variety. This is a plant

that either came about naturally or was created through
scientific hybridization. It can be reproduced to create more
of the plant.

Classification in Practice
Lamiaceae are important plants to understand in
classification.

They are mints like winter mint, peppermint, thyme, sage, and
rosemary. Mints are natural cures for pest control. Added to
any garden they can ensure some of the insects that eat leaves
and kill plants are not around.

Asteraceae are part of the daisy family. These plants are

going to have sexual reproduction with a stamen, stigma,
ovary, and petal as the floral parts. These are flowering
plants like marigold, chrysanthemum, sunflowers, dahlia, and
lettuce.
Ranunculaceae are buttercups with flowering parts. The
anemone, clematis, and ranunculus are just a few of the
flowers in this classification in which the plant is made up
of sepals, petals, carpels, and stamens.

Araceae are philodendron plants often classified by the heart-

shaped leaves and single larger finger like protrusions that
flower.

Fabaceae are typically legumes; however, they also include

plants like acacia, genista, wisteria, clover, and lotus.

These are just a few of the plant classifications that are

explained by the anatomy of the plant including whether it
flowers or not. It should be mentioned that many of these
large category classifications have more than 1,000 genera
with some like the Asteraceae containing more than 12,000
different flower types.

11.3: Planting Different Gardens

When the space is available more than one type of garden might
be matched.

Even if there is only a limited amount of space, understanding

garden types can help determine which plants to pair together.

Some things to consider include:

 Is the plant low maintenance or high maintenance?
Will the plant type bring in pests to your garden?
What plants can you match together in your garden that
will offer natural pest control without overtaking or
killing the rest of the plant bed?

Putting like flowering plants together can provide a beautiful

range of colors for one flower bed; however, it might lead to
some issues with pests or too much reproduction and thus too
much maintenance.

Take sunflowers as an example. It is very easy to get an

entire field of sunflowers – especially if the seeds are not
harvested for eating. Sunflowers also grow very tall making it
important to choose like plants that will not cause an overrun
garden.

Consider for a moment that chrysanthemum bushes are used in

the garden.
Chrysanthemums are perennial plants that grow 1 to 3 feet in
height. They can come in a variety of colors, but they are
also late bloomers. Having grass around the base of the plant,
with lavender might be an option or a type of mint leaf. You
want something that will grow continually around the plants,
but that also matches the colors of chrysanthemums.

11.4: Exotic and Tropical Plant

Gardens
Based on the location, which can be cold, wet and marginally
sunny many tropical plants have a difficult time being in a
garden unless they are container gardens that can be moved
inside during winter.

Despite these little issues, growing tropical plants can be

fun, particularly if you have the space and ability to move
the plants between indoor and outdoor gardens.

There are plenty of tropical plants to choose from if you

choose them carefully and care for them diligently.

Trachycarpus fortune
Trachycarpus fortune is a palm tree. It is a palm tree that
features a thick and fibrous trunk. It has the fan-shaped
leaves that are characteristic of palm trees which gives it
the tropical look many people desire. Care for it in the
winter by ensuring that you have planted it out of the way of
harsh winds. During the winter, place straw around the base to
keep the tree insulated from the cold.

Trachycarpus fortune
Chamaerops humilis
Chamaerops humilis is another option for tropical gardens. It
is another type of palm but looks more like a cross between a
palm tree and a shrub. It is more commonly referred to as a
dwarf fan palm. These are best kept in sheltered areas with
some shade. Try to water it sparingly during the winter
months.

Chamaerops humilis
Dryopteris filix-mas
Dryopteris filix-mas is more commonly referred to as a male
fern. It is a woodland fern that is very hardy. It may not be
the tropical or exotic plant you are looking for, but its
hardiness will help protect other plants. It is best used when
it is planted around other trees as ground cover.

Dryopteris filix-mas
Cordyline australis
Cordyline australis is a palm plant that features singular
leaves. This palm is more like a woody shrub, but if you cut
the lower leaves away it starts to look more like a tree. When
winter comes around, surround it with horticultural fleece and
straw to protect it from the bitter cold.

Cordyline australis
Hosta
Hosta is a great plant for shady areas. It provides ground
cover and will provide an interesting array of leaf
variations. Keep in mind that this plant requires plenty of
water for survival.

Hosta
Carex comans
Carex comans is a grass. It is very hardy but also colorful.
This plant is a nice addition to a garden because of the
effect it produces when it is moving in the wind. It comes in
different colors which range from greens to reds.

Carex comans
Ghost lady ferns
Ghost lady ferns are shade plants. The soft silver color helps
break up the greens that come with dense planting. Ghost lady
ferns are nice because they can handle being in dry conditions
better than other ferns.

Ghost lady ferns

Dicksonia Antarctica
Dicksonia Antarctica actually comes from Australia. It is a
tree fern that looks tropical and is evergreen. However,
winter can be hard on this plant. You should protect the crown
of the tree during the winter months by putting straw in the
crown and using wire to hold it in place.

Dicksonia Antarctica
Zantedeschia aethiopica
Zantedeschia aethiopica is a flower but has a green, glossy
foliage that makes it distinctive. Also known as the arum
lily, it produces white flowers that stand out amongst the
rest of the garden. This plant is hardy and enjoys the sun but
does not mind partial shade. Add mulch around the area in the
autumn months.

Zantedeschia aethiopica
Phormium
Phormium is another leaved plant. It comes from New Zealand
and can be found in many different colors. You can find
phormium in greens and yellows and even red or black.

Phormium
How to Buy Tropical Plants
It is easy to buy bananas in America; but, where do you find a
banana tree?

Gardeners have two primary options for buying tropical plants.

The first is to look in a nursery, particularly nurseries that
express interest in providing different plants from standard
flowers.

However, some plants are difficult to find in local nurseries.

For those, you can turn to the internet. Many tropical
gardeners rely heavily on mail order services to buy seeds or
plants for hard-to-find species. Before ordering, check the
reputation of the service and do your best to be sure that the
plants you’re bringing in won’t do any ecological damage to
your local area should you plant them.
Overwintering Tropical Plants
The best way to overwinter plants is to use a polytunnel,
greenhouse or conservatory. However, you can have a tropical
garden without investing in any of those structures. You just
need to be willing to treat the lower-priority plants like
annuals and be willing to replant them every year.
You can repot flowers and put them in the garage to keep them
safe from frigid conditions. If you’re moving plants into the
house, be sure to label the different varieties before you put
them into storage so that you remember which plant is which
when spring arrives. You can also use polystyrene boxes, like
those found at the fishmongers, to store the plants frost-
free.

However, not all plants can be moved. Trees and ferns, for
example, need to remain still if you want them to grow. For
these plants, you’ll need to invest in straw or even a
horticultural blanket to keep them warm during the winter.
This is the best way to keep them dry and as warm as possible,
which is the best solution for encouraging growth during the
warmer months.

You should be sure not to wrap them up too tightly, especially

in plastic. Doing so can actually cause them to rot. Instead,
use canes to create a framework around the plant before
stuffing it full of bracken or straw, depending on your
budget. You might also create a plastic shield or hat or
another device that prevents snow, rain and ice from getting
into the stem.
The extra precautions you take for your tropical plants depend
on where you live. If you live in the southernmost parts of
England, you will have to worry less about some plants, like
Dicksonia antarctica, particularly if they are sheltered by
other structures and are planted in ideal conditions.

One of the other things that many gardeners do every winter is

cut their plants to the ground, particularly if they have
cannas, banana or ginger plants.
Once they’re cut down, you employ measures to protect them
from the frost, depending on what plants you have. However,
depending on the plants you have and the climate you live in,
you do not have to level your garden. Of course, doing so
relays some of the risk that comes with the winter. This risk
is important because even when you study weather patterns and
look at weather predictions, you can never be certain that
conditions won’t change and a devastating storm won’t hit the
US.

11.5: Native Plants for Outdoor

Gardens

When a garden must be outdoors in a

temperate climate, it is important to choose
native plants or plants from similar
climates to grow.

Native plants are hardy and can survive through the tough
winter with a little care.
There are numerous shrubs and trees that can withstand the
temperate climate. It depends on how much of the landscaped
garden will be planted.

The use of some mosses, pine trees, hemlock, or fruit bearing

trees can provide a nice backdrop, with smaller flowering
plants in the front. Roses, rhododendron, and hyacinth are a
couple of suggestions for native plants or similar climate
plants to have in a garden with some taller trees and mosses.

One reason to use shrubs in any garden, particularly as native

plants, is for privacy. For example, dogwood, sea buckthorn,
juniper, dog rose, sweet briar, and harsh down rose are a few
of the plants that make a great privacy shield and add color
to any garden.
Caring for Native Plants
Just because a plant is native to your local area does not
mean that you do not need to care for it. Although they don’t
require as much care as plants that don’t belong in the area,
best practices in gardening are still important for caring for
your plants.

It is important to put the right plants in the right place.

For example, if you plant juniper in a place where it gets the
morning sun, but receives little to no sunlight the rest of
the day, the plant won’t thrive even if it is native to the
area. Being planted in the wrong place can weaken the plant
which can cause a lot of extra work at best and the death of
the plant at worst.
Essentially, if you put a plant in the right conditions, the
plant will grow without extra help. If the conditions are
average, it will grow but it won’t reach its full potential,
though this has its advantages if the plant is aggressive and
you want to prevent it from taking over your garden. If you
plant a native plant in the wrong conditions, your plant will
decline steadily and will require major interventions. To save
yourself time, money and effort, aim for average conditions as
a baseline for all of your plants.

In addition, you will need to perform regular maintenance on

your garden to keep it looking the way you want. Some plants
look fine with their natural growing shape; other plants,
however, require a little extra pruning to keep them looking
the way you want them to. It is a good idea to cut back the
taller plants in the garden in the early summer. Cutting them
will prevent them from taking up more space than you’d look or
making the garden look disproportionate.

More importantly, keeping plants in check helps keep the

ecosystem in check. Pruning creates bushier plants and
prolongs the plants’ season because cutting it will delay the
flowering slightly.
You may also encounter insect damage. However, you do not need
to do anything about this for the most part. There may be some
invaders that you throw out as you encounter them. When you
plant native plants, the native fauna and insects generally
won’t bother them. Of course, they may eat holes in the leaves
or make the appearance less than desirable. However, they
typically wouldn’t do any damage to the plants or trees.

If you’re going for a garden style that is supportive of the

environment, it is often better to avoid putting toxins from
pest control methods in the environment when it is not
absolutely necessary. It is also important to remember that
many bugs serve as food for birds or other insects. Thus,
killing them can cause damage to the wider ecosystem.
Non-native predators, however, should be dealt with. Your
plants won’t have developed defenses against non-native
predators, so if you’re spotting insects that should not be
there it may be in your best interest to get rid of them.

Assignment
Plant Knowledge

Time: 30+ minutes

There is a great deal of interesting information covered in

this eleventh module. You may wish to test your knowledge and
consolidate what you have learned using the worksheet that
follows.

Download the worksheet below, print out and complete.

Download Worksheet
Module Summary

In this module, you learned information that is often reserved

for botanists. Even if the information does not feel relevant
right now, knowing how plants live, grow and reproduce is
important because you’ll have a better understanding of how to
best take care of them.

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